Suchergebnisse

The Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs (MFA) has funded non-governmental organizations' projects for development communication and development education for over 30 years. The research topic of this thesis is founded on the idiosyncrasies of promoting and funding global education through the MFA. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs supports global education projects as a part of its development policy, with funds from development appropriations. The argument is, that for citizens to contribute to and monitor the discussion on development and development cooperation, skills and opportunities to learn about development cooperation are required. This rationale is aligned with international policies, for example, on the global partnership goal of United Nations' Millennium Development Goals. The theoretical investigation of this thesis is founded on development policy and global education policy. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the possible issues of promoting and funding global education projects as a part of development policy. Finnish global education projects funded by the MFA are under pressure of both development policy and global education policy. This thesis investigates the two policies and constructs a framework in which to analyse the development communication and global education instrument. The non-governmental organizations applying for funding need to articulate the aims of their global education project in alignment with Finnish development policy. The intention of the thesis is to find how global education and development policy are compatible, and what kind of issues this might involve. By researching project applications through a relevant framework, these questions can be made explicit. To answer these questions, this thesis consists of a qualitative, abductive content analysis of 17 global education projects from 15 different Finnish non-governmental organizations. Content analysis of this thesis is based on an interpretative, abductive process between the data and theory, from which new meaning can be extrapolated. The applications were approved for two-year funding by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, for the years 2012–2013 and 2013–2014. In relation to document research, this thesis utilizes Prior's (2008) framework on understanding documents both as a resource and as a topic. In this research, the applications are positioned within the theoretical framework of global education and development policy, which is established in the beginning of the thesis in a scholarly manner. A qualitative content analysis is then conducted, with approaching the documents through relevant categories for analysis. Converging themes, and justification for funding global education within the MFA, are present in the conceptualization of education for global responsibility. The idea of an imperative for global justice conjoins development policy together with global education, as presented in the project applications. Similarly, the idea of a shared partnership in development provides linkages to global education. However, the practice of development communication is more close to development policy. It is debatable whether development policy of the MFA is more suitable for projects of development awareness and campaigning. In this sense, promoting global education as a part of development policy fosters a certain kind of global education, which might lack a critical perspective. The findings of this thesis indicate that the Ministry for Foreign Affairs is a justifiable administrator of the development communication and education instrument. However, coining global education with development policy can influence approaches to global education. The funding instrument is based on MFA's development policy which focuses but also limits approaches to global education. Global education has been topical for the past decade in Finnish educational policy. It has also increased its foothold according to the 2016 national core curriculum draft and UNESCO suggestions for post-2015 education agenda on development. This thesis adds to the debate whether global education projects should be administrated through the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and what kind of issues this involves. ; Suomen ulkoasiainministeriö (UM) on rahoittanut kansalaisjärjestöjen viestintä- ja globaalikasvatusprojekteja jo yli 30 vuoden ajan. Tämän tutkielman aihe perustuu viestintä- ja globaalikasvatuksen tukemiseen ulkoministeriöstä käsin ja siihen liittyviin erikoispiirteisiin. Suomen ulkoasiainministeriö tukee globaalikasvatusprojekteja kehitysyhteistyövaroin osana UM:n kehityspolitiikkaa. Perusteluna tälle pidetään sitä, että kansalaisten tulee tietää kehitysyhteistyöstä voidakseen osallistua kehityspoliittiseen keskusteluun. Tämä vaatii taitoja ja mahdollisuuksia oppia kehitysyhteistyöstä, jotta kansalaiset voivat seurata ja valvoa kehitysyhteistyökeskustelua. Kyseinen päättely on myös linjassa kansainvälisesti hyväksyttyjen Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien vuosituhattavoitteiden kanssa. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on tarkastella mahdollisia kysymyksiä joita liittyy globaalikasvatusprojektien tukemiseen kehityspolitiikan osana. Suomalaiset globaalikasvatusprojektit joutuvat vastaamaan sekä kehityspolitiikan että globaalikasvatuksen haasteisiin. Tämä tutkielma hyödyntää kehityspolitiikan ja globaalikasvatuksen politiikkalinjauksia sekä käsitteitä, joista rakennetaan viitekehys viestintä- ja globaalikasvatustuen tarkasteluun. Kansalaisjärjestöt jotka hakevat rahoitusta globaalikasvatusprojekteihinsa, joutuvat seuraamaan Suomen kehityspolitiikan linjauksia. Tämä tutkielma ottaa selvää siitä miten globaalikasvatus ja kehityspolitiikka voivat olla yhteensopivia ja millaisia kysymyksiä niiden kohtaamiseen liittyy. Tutkimalla projektihakemuksia merkityksellisessä viitekehyksessä nämä kysymyksen voidaan tuoda näkyville. Vastatakseen näihin kysymyksiin, tämä Pro gradu -tutkielma sisältää kvalitatiivisen, abduktiivisen sisällönanalyysiin 17:stä globaalikasvatusprojektista 15:ltä eri kansalaisjärjestöltä. Tämän tutkielman sisällönanalyysi perustuu tulkinnalliseen, abduktiiviseen prosessiin tutkimusaineiston ja teorian välillä. Sisältöanalyysin avulla nostetaan esille uusia näkökulmia ja merkityksiä. Kaikki tutkielmassa käytetyt hankehakemukset hyväksyttiin kaksivuotiseen rahoitukseen vuosille 2012–2013 ja 2013–2014. Dokumenttien tutkimukseen (document research) liittyen tämä tutkielma hyödyntää Priorin (2008) viitekehystä, jossa dokumentit ymmärretään yhtäältä aineistoksi (resource) sekä toisaalta itse aiheeksi (topic). Tutkielmassa hankehakemukset on sijoitettu globaalikasvatuksesta ja kehityspolitiikasta muotoutuvaan teoreettiseen viitekehykseen. Tämä viitekehys on esitelty tutkielman alkupäässä. Aineisto on analysoitu kvalitatiivisella sisällönanalyysillä luokittelukategorioita apuna käyttäen. "Kasvatus globaaliin vastuuseen" on yksi merkittävä käsitteellistäminen, jossa yhteisiä teemoja ja oikeutuksia globaalikasvatuksen tukemiseen UM:n kehitysyhteistyövaroista esiintyy. Globaalin oikeudenmukaisuuden imperatiivi liittää kehityspolitiikan yhteen globaalikasvatuksen kanssa, tavalla joka esiintyy myös globaalikasvatusprojektien hankehakemuksissa. Samoin idea jaetusta kumppanuudesta kehitysyhteistyössä luo yhteyksiä globaalikasvatukseen. Toisin kuin globaalikasvatuksen kohdalla, kehitysviestintä on osa-alue joka liittyy lähemmin suoraan kehityspolitiikkaan. On aiheellista kysyä josko UM:n kehityspolitiikka soveltuu paremmin kehitystietouteen ja kampanjointiin liittyvien projektien tukemiseen, kuin globaalikasvatuksen tukemiseen. Globaalikasvatuksen tukeminen kehityspolitiikan osana mahdollistaa tietynlaisen globaalikasvatuksen tukemisen, josta saattaa puuttua kriittinen näkökulma. Tutkielman tulokset osoittavat että ulkoasiainministeriö on aiheellinen taho hallinnoimaa viestintä- ja globaalikasvatustukea. Kuitenkin, globaalikasvatuksen ja kehityspolitiikan liittäminen saattaa vaikuttaa tuettavien globaalikasvatusprojektien lähestymistapoihin. Tuki-instrumentti perustuu UM:n kehityspolitiikkaan, joka ohjaa sekä myös rajoittaa lähestymistä globaalikasvatukseen. Globaalikasvatus on ollut ajankohtainen aihe viime vuosikymmenellä suomalaisessa koulutuspolitiikassa. Globaalikasvatus on myös tullut näkyvästi esille uudessa 2016 opetussuunnitelman luonnoksessa ja UNESCO:n suosituksissa post-2015 agendalle. Tämä tutkielma osallistuu keskusteluun siitä, pitäisikö globaalikasvatusprojektien hallinnointi olla osana UM:n toimintaa ja siihen millaisia kysymyksiä tähän liittyy.

El control de residuos de sustancias antimicrobianas en productos de origen animal como la carne bovina, es de gran importancia porque los residuos pueden generar en las personas que los consumen problemas de salud como alergias, cambios en la flora intestinal y resistencia antimicrobiana en bacterias. En Colombia, la vigilancia del cumplimiento de los Límites Máximos de Residuos LMRs de antimicrobianos veterinarios en carne bovina es limitada, debido a que la capacidad analítica es insuficiente para monitorear un gran número de muestras y un amplio rango de antibióticos. Uno de los métodos de elección para la detección de residuos, es el bioensayo microbiológico descrito en la Guía de Laboratorio de Microbiología MLG 34.02, desarrollado por la agencia de salud pública FSIS del Departamento de Agricultura de Estados Unidos USDA, para la detección, identificación y semi-cuantificación de residuos antimicrobianos. Éste documento presenta la evaluación preliminar que se realizó del bioensayo por primera vez en Colombia, para la determinación de residuos de cuatro antimicrobianos en músculo diafragmático de bovinos machos y hembras de varias edades y procedencias, sacrificados en la planta de beneficio ubicada en Bogotá D.C. "Frigorífico Guadalupe EFEGE", como contribución al sistema de gestión de inocuidad en el marco del Acuerdo sobre la aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias. El protocolo de estandarización del bioensayo usó tejidos provenientes de animales no tratados con medicamentos veterinarios, las matrices se fortificaron con diferentes concentraciones de penicilina G potásica, oxitetraciclina, eritromicina y estreptomicina, como representantes de cuatro familias de antimicrobianos de uso veterinario, y se establecieron preliminarmente criterios de funcionamiento del método bajo algunos lineamientos de la guía de la Decisión Europea 2002/657/CE. El bioensayo mostró excelente especificidad (ningún falso-positivo); los límites de detección se determinaron para los cuatro antibióticos en relación con sus respectivos límites máximos de residuos: Betalactámicos (penicilina G =LMR), tetraciclinas (oxitetraciclina=LMR), macrólidos (eritromicina =LMR) y aminoglucósidos (estreptomicina 4 LMR); sin embargo, la sensibilidad del bioensayo para este último no fue satisfactoria. La exactitud relativa calculada para los límites de detección de los cuatro antimicrobianos fue satisfactoria; la estabilidad de los analitos en la matriz fortificada al límite de detección, resultó adecuada durante el período de tiempo evaluado. Una vez estandarizado el bioensayo, se evaluaron ciento cuatro muestras de músculo bovino tomadas en la planta de beneficio, no detectando residuos que violaran los límites permitidos por el Codex Alimentarius. De manera paralela, las muestras fueron procesadas y analizadas mediante los métodos microbiológicos del hisopo y la prueba comercial Premi® Test, determinando resultados concordantes en todas las pruebas. Adicionalmente, se analizaron tejidos de un bovino dosificado con un antibiótico compuesto de penicilina y estreptomicina. Los tejidos probados presentaron residuos violatorios de penicilina, pero resultaron negativos para el caso de estreptomicina, corroborando la baja sensibilidad del método para la detección del aminoglucósido. La evaluación preliminar del bioensayo, mejoró la capacidad analítica del laboratorio oficial (Laboratorio Nacional de Insumos Pecuarios-LANIP) en su calidad de autoridad sanitaria responsable de la inocuidad de los alimentos en Colombia, contribuyendo a la implementación del "Programa de Control de Residuos de Medicamentos Veterinarios" para el país, orientado a garantizar la inocuidad alimentaria para mejorar las condiciones de competitividad y cumplir los requisitos del comercio internacional de alimentos de origen animal. ; Abstract. The control of antimicrobial residues in cattle meat is important, since these residues can generate in people who consume health problems like allergies, changes in the intestinal flora and antimicrobial resistance. In Colombia, the vigilance of the Maximum Residue Limits MRLs of veterinary antimicrobials in cattle meat is limited, because the analytical capacity is insufficient to monitor a large number of samples and a wide range of antibiotics. One of the methods of choice for the detection of residues microbiological bioassay is described in the Microbiology Laboratory Guide MLG 34.02 that is a microbiological method developed by the health public agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for the detection, identification and semi-quantification of antimicrobial residues. This paper shows the preliminary evaluation of bioassay was performed for the first time in Colombia, for the detection of four antimicrobials in diaphragm muscle of bovine males and females of various ages and backgrounds, slaughtered in the processing plant located in Bogota DC "Frigorífico Guadalupe EFEGE", as contribution to the safety management system under the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. The standardization protocol of bioassay used tissues from animals not treated with veterinary drugs, the matrix were fortified with varying concentrations of penicillin G potassium, oxytetracycline, erythromycin and streptomycin, as representatives of the four most important families of antibiotics used in veterinary, and it was preliminarily established the method performance criteria under some guidelines of the European Decision 2002/657/. The test showed excellent specificity (no false positive); detection limits were determined for the four antibiotics in relation to their respective Maximum Residue Limit MRLs: Beta-lactams (penicillin G =MRL), tetracyclines (oxytetracycline =MRL) and macrolides (erythromycin =LMR), the detection limits meet with the LMRs in bovine muscle according to national legislation. However, the sensitivity of the bioassay aminoglycosides (streptomycin 4 MRL); however, the sensitivity of bioassay for the last one was unsatisfactory. The relative accuracy for limits of detection of antimicrobial four was satisfactory. Stability of the analytes in the matrix was adequate during the period evaluated. With the standardized bioassay method, it were evaluated one hundred four bovine muscle samples taken at the processing plant, not detecting residues breaking out the permit limits allowed by the Codex Alimentarius. In parallel, samples were processed and analyzed by swab microbiological methods and the commercial test Premi ® Test, determining concordant results among all tests. Additionally, incurred tissues with a product containing penicillin and streptomycin were evaluated. Muscle samples analyzed by bioassay showed penicillin violated residues, but were negative for streptomycin, which confirms the low sensitivity of the method for detection of aminoclycoside. The preliminary assessment of the microbiological bioassay analytical method made, improved analytical capability official laboratory (Laboratorio Nacional de Insumos Pecuarios-LANIP) in his capacity as health authority responsible for food safety in Colombia, will support the implementation of the "Programme for Control of Veterinary Drugs" in our country, contributing to ensure food safety to enhance the competitiveness and meet the requirements of international trade in food of animal origin. ; Maestría

Real estate management consists of making decisions and performing actions to maintain a real estate property in an unimpaired condition according to its designation and at reasonable investment in this real property. These activities cover diverse aspects of real estate acquisition and use and are oriented, among others, towards increasing the capital of real estate owners. Value-based management is both a management philosophy and a practice requiring full coordination of all actions carried out in this complex process. It should be noted that a special role is played in the process by real estate appraisal, whose methodology has a centuries-old history. It is rooted in discussions devoted to the category of value and the principles of its measurement. It turns out that historically-formed appraisal methodologies do not stand the test of time. They undergo continuous evolution, with the trends of changes of both an exogenous and endogenous character. Moreover, there are many unsolved problems related to real estate value determination, which can be an inspiration for both theoreticians and practitioners to seek new solutions, taking into account both proper market imitation and the requirements of real estate owners and users. The appropriate real estate property appraisal method is selected by a real estate appraiser, taking into account, among others, the purpose of the appraisal, the type, function and location of the real estate property, its condition and the available market information. The profit method is used in many cases for real estate appraisal, especially for untypical real estate properties, which are rarely the object of transactions in the market. To illustrate the problems which occur during the application of this method, the study presents two examples of appraisals, which concern a gas station and a real estate property developed with a building in which a hotel and a restaurant operate. The process of value-based real estate management should take into account the specificity of the real estate property related to its function, its utility or intangible values. The thesis can be proposed that efficient real estate property management, especially for a historic real estate property, requires the knowledge of the market value expressed as a value range. This requires the indication of such a method for historic real estate value determination which takes into account both the strengths and weaknesses resulting from the possession and use of this specific national treasure because it is economically necessary today to treat a historic building also as an object of investment and a business venture. This approach will help to save cultural and historical values and may allow a satisfactory rate of return on the capital invested to be obtained by the investor. The theoretical analyses presented in this study were verified based on a palace and castle complex currently in use and under development. The residual method was first applied to determine the value and a sensitivity analysis of the development project was then performed. At the same time, the advantages and threats were indicated which could result from the application of the residual method and sensitivity analysis, both for the determined real estate property value and for financially efficient real estate property management based on the determined value. Appraisal of the market value of commercial real-estates is most commonly performed based on the relation between the income obtained from the real estate and its market value. Building a model which includes the largest possible amount of factors affecting the real estate value is a difficult and very complex task. The final verification of the statistical model does not take place at the time of its development or testing but as a result of the comparison of the prognoses' results with actual transactions made after the implementation of the model. The most difficult moment in the creation of a model is to establish the number of significant independent variables that are being used. An insufficient number of variables makes an adequate description of the occurrence impossible, whereas an excessive number of variables decreases the credibility of the model and makes it "too sensitive". In this study, the "dominant variable" is defined and its impact on the local commercial real estate market is shown. The study also has a practical dimension, since the results of the research apply to the deliberations concerning the "Recommendation J" and may also provide a comprehensive source of information for the local authorities and national government by showing the results of planning decisions in a simple and clear manner. Real estate value determination requires the acquisition of a proper store of information, including spatial and market information. Because of the intensive real estate market development in Poland, the issue has emerged of the availability of this information and software which allows its proper processing. Information systems intended for real estate appraisers, realtors, real estate managers or banks are currently functioning. With the development of this software, GIS functionality has become a part of this system. Spatial information systems allow many advanced spatial analyses to be performed, which are necessary, among others, in the real estate value determination process. This study presents and compares the functionality of selected existing spatial information systems. Their basic functions and the preferences of their users are presented as an analysis result, which can contribute to further development of systems supporting both real estate appraisal and management. The real estate market is extremely complex, which makes it difficult to develop an objective method of price and value modeling or evaluation of the effect of individual attributes on their formation. Statistical methods and models allowing the analysis of regularities concerning relationships in time and space can be extremely useful in this case. One of the methods, which may find broad application for real estate market analysis, is discriminatory analysis, which enables the selection of attributes for market division into relatively homogeneous groups. The experimental application of discriminatory and classification methods which is presented in this paper allows, among others, the verification of the correct selection of a real estate using a database of real estate properties similar to the one being appraised. The advantage of the method is the possibility of verification and classification, at the selected probability level, of every real estate property into a precisely-defined group. Contemporary problems of appraisal and value-based real estate management should be considered in a broad international context, especially in today's world, in which the mobility of entities and capital is less and less limited by political, economic or administrative barriers. ; Edward Preweda

International audience ; The essay analyzes a text by Marcel Spada, Portrait of Pagani, traces the history of a family of Italian origin, since the arrival in France of the grandparents in Hyères (Var) to the beginning of the third generation in the 1950s. This novel, written in 1955, was destroyed by his author, who regained his composure after drawing on his memory. Without this destruction, occurred when it was not yet fashionable to highlight his «ritalianité», Marcel Spada would probably have been one of the first «children of Italians» of France to reopen the «suitcase of the migrant» of his ancestors and neighbors. The article focuses on the relationship that each generation has with Italy and the political and cultural environment that supports the settlement in Hyères (in France and in general), especially in the turmoil of the Second World War. The A.'s aim is to show how Marcel Spada, following his literary vein, contributed to the reconstruction of the past and the memory of Italians in France, an experience that private and family dramas often buried in oblivion and that historical events have helped to erase. ; El ensayo analiza un texto de Marcel Spada, Retrato de Pagani, que sigue la historia de una familia de origen italiano, desde la llegada a Francia de los abuelos en Hyères (Var) hasta el comienzo de la tercera generación en 1950. La novela, escrita en 1955, fue destruida por su autor, que luego la arreglara siguiendo los trazos de su memoria. Sin esta destrucción inicial, en una época en la que todavía no estaba de moda hacer exhaltar la «ritalianité», Marcel Espada probablemente habría sido uno de los primeros «hijos de italianos» de Francia a volver a abrir la «maleta del migrante» de sus ancenstros y de sus sus vecinos, entre ellos la de una familia de origen italiano, que conoció en persona. Todo ello, sin el propósito de compartir con sus lectores la percepción de la experiencia de la migración. El ensayo concentra su atención sobre la relación entre diversas generaciones, Italia y la atmósfera política y cultural durante el asentamiento de la empresa de Hyères (y de Francia en general), especialmente durante los acontecimientos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. El A. muestra cómo Marcel Espada, dejándese llevar por su vena literaria, contribuyó a la reconstrucción del pasado y de la memoria de los italianos en Francia, una experiencia que los dramas privados y familiares a menudo han enterrado en el olvido y que los acontecimientos históricos han contribuido a eliminar. ; Cet article porte sur un roman de Marcel Spada, Portrait des Pagani, retraçant l'histoire d'une famille d'origine italienne, depuis l'arrivée en France des grands-parents à Hyères (Var) jusqu'à l'adolescence de la troisième génération, dans les années 1950. Le roman, rédigé une première fois en 1955, avait été détruit par son auteur, qui l'a recomposé plus tard de mémoire. Sans cette destruction, survenue lors qu'il n'était pas encore de bon ton de mettre en avant sa «ritalianité», Marcel Spada aurait sans doute été l'un des premiers «enfants d'Italiens» de France à rouvrir la «valise du migrant» de ses ancêtres et de ses voisins, notamment celle d'une famille d'origine italienne qu'il a personnellement connue, et, sans que ce soit pour autant son but premier, à faire partager à ses lecteurs sa perception de l'expérience migratoire. L'article se penche sur les relations que chaque génération entretient avec l'Italie et sur l'environnement politique et culturel qui accompagne son installation dans la société hyéroise (et française en général), notamment dans la tourmente de la deuxième guerre mondiale. L'objectif est de montrer comment Marcel Spada, en suivant sa veine littéraire, contribue à la reconstruction du passé et de la mémoire des Italiens en France, une expérience que les drames privés et familiaux ont souvent enfoui dans l'oubli et que les vents et marées de l'Histoire ont contribué à effacer. ; Il saggio analizza un testo di Marcel Spada, Ritratto di Pagani, che ripercorre la storia di una famiglia di origine italiana, dall'arrivo in Francia dei nonni a Hyères (Varo) fino all'inizio della terza generazione nel 1950. Il romanzo, scritto nel 1955, fu distrutto dal suo autore, che lo ricompose in seguito attingendo dalla sua memoria. Senza questa iniziale distruzione, in un epoca in cui non andava ancora di moda evidenziare la propria «ritalianité», Marcel Spada sarebbe stato probabilmente uno dei primi «figli di italiani» della Francia a riaprire la «valigia del migrante» dei suoi antenati e dei suoi vicini di casa, tra cui quella di una famiglia di origine italiana, che conobbe di persona. Il saggio si concentra sul rapporto tre le diverse generazioni, l'Italia e l'ambiente politico e culturale durante l'insediamento nella società di Hyères (e della Francia e in generale) in particolare durante le vicende della Seconda guerra mondiale. L'A. mostra come Marcel Spada, seguendo la sua vena letteraria, contribuì alla ricostruzione del passato e della memoria degli italiani in Francia, un'esperienza che i drammi privati e familiari hanno spesso sepolto nell'oblio e che gli eventi storici hanno contribuito a cancellare. ; O ensaio analisa um texto de Marcel Spada, Retrato de Pagani, que acompanha a história de uma família de origem italiana, da chegada dos avôs na França, em Hyères (Varo), até o começo da terceira geração, em 1950. O texto, escrito em 1955, foi destruído pelo próprio autor, que o escreveu novamente mais tarde buscando na sua memória. Se não tivesse destruído o primeiro texto, numa época na qual ainda não estava na moda destacar a própria «ritalianité», Marcel Spada teria sido provavelmente um dos primeiros «filhos de italianos» da França abrindo a "mala do migrante" dos próprios antepassados e dos vizinhos de moradia, entre os quais uma família de origem italiana, que ele conheceu pessoalmente. Tudo isso, sem a preocupação de compartilhar com os leitores, a percepção da experiência da migração. O ensaio se focaliza na relação entre as diferentes gerações, a Itália e o ambiente político e cultural durante a inserção na sociedade de Hyères (e da França em geral), especialmente durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial. O autor explica como Marcel Spada, com a sua propensão para a escrita, contribuiu para a reconstrução do passado e da memória dos italiano na França, uma experiência muitas vezes esquecida, devido aos acontecimentos dramáticos, da pessoa ou da família, e apagada pelos eventos históricos.

Welcome to the last issue of the IJEI for 2013. It has been an exciting year with numerous conferences and research on academic integrity around the world. Auckland University of Technology kicked off the year with the Fraud, Fakery and Fabrication: Academic and research integrity conference, the International Center for Academic Integrity held their annual conference in San Antonio on 28 February, the National Roundtable and Australian National Speaking Tour for the Exemplary Academic Integrity Project was also held in late February and early March, the 3rd World Conference on Research Integrity was held in Montreal in May, the Plagiarism across Europe and Beyond Conference shared the results of the 'Impact of policies for plagiarism in higher education across Europe' project in Brno, Czech Republic in June, and the 6th Asia Pacific Conference on Educational Integrity showcased the work of Australian Office for Learning and Teaching commissioned projects on academic integrity in Sydney in October. With so much interest and research on this topic across a range of countries and contexts, it is perhaps not surprising that the current issue is an eclectic mix of reflective, conceptual, empirical and case study work from researchers spanning six countries, including the United Arab Emirates, Norway, Australia, Sweden, Indonesia and the UK. The issue covers diverse topics extending from the development of academic skills, to motivations and predictors of student plagiarism, systems to reduce plagiarism and the responsibility of universities to provide marketing information based on ethical principles of honesty and trustworthiness. Student groups represented include secondary school, undergraduate and postgraduate. Radhika Iyer-O'Sullivan, formerly of the British University in Dubai, analyses faculty feedback, samples of student writing and Turnitin Similarity Reports to determine if teaching critical reading as a threshold concept results in critical thinking and subsequently improved critical writing skills. While the sample was small and the results inconclusive, Iyer-O'Sullivan makes the case that teaching critical reading assists students to understand the importance of using supporting evidence to develop a convincing academic argument. Håvard Skaar and Hugo Hammer from Oslo and Akershus University College, Norway use a mixed-methods approach to explore secondary school students' plagiarism of internet sources in essay writing. The survey of 67 students indicated that 75% of students reported plagiarising from online sources and that plagiarism accounted for 25% of the total amount of text. Students with a higher grade in written Norwegian plagiarised less than those with a lower grade, and students more conversant with appropriate citation practices plagiarised less than those students less familiar with referencing conventions. Qualitative feedback from interviews with 29 students indicated that the students wanted to spend as little time and effort as possible on the assessment task and that plagiarism was chosen as a writing strategy, with little reflection on the moral aspects on this decision. In contrast, Rebecca Awdry, from the University of Canberra, and Rick Sarre, from the University of South Australia, found that the university students in their study expressed strong ethical positions in relation to plagiarism, arguing that it was cheating and dishonest. Awdry and Sarre explored students' motivations to plagiarise using a mixed methods approach, and analysed the data through the prism of criminological theory. The authors conclude that while rational choice theory provides some insight into student breaches of academic integrity, there is an apparent disconnect between the way that academics view students' behaviour and how students themselves express their motivations. In agreement with key writers in the field (Bertram Gallant, McCabe, Bretag et al.), Awdry and Sarre conclude that higher education providers should focus less on detection and punishment and more on developing a values-based culture of integrity. Based on a sample of 362 undergraduate psychology students, and in the context of the Indonesian government's position that any form of plagiarism "is a serious offense that may even be classified as an illegal action", Ide Bagus Siaputra, from Universitas Surabaya, explores the proposition that "regardless of the presence or absence of opportunities and the severity of the potential sanctions, some individuals seem to be prone to plagiarism". Siaputra builds on the work of Williams, Nathanson and Paulhus (2010), to propose five variables as predictors of plagiarism, including procrastination, performance, personality, perfectionism, and achievement motivation, and names the model 'the 4PA of plagiarism'. Findings from the author's study indicate that procrastination was the key predictor of plagiarism, followed by achievement motivation. Looking to provide a multi-pronged response to student plagiarism, Ken Larsson and Henrik Hansson from Stockholm University, Sweden share the results of an innovation at their university. The digital system called SciPro was developed to support independent student thesis work, decrease the burden on supervisors for feedback on basic skills, and reduce plagiarism. The system includes a number of modules which facilitate management, communication and learning. According to the authors, SciPro works to prevents plagiarism by providing: 1) clear instructions about rules and regulations for students and supervisors; 2) an online peer-review system; 3) transparent online communication and file storage of accumulated manuscripts; and 4) a final seminar module enabling automatic generation of originality reports from Turnitin when students upload their final thesis manuscripts. Larsson and Hansson report that the implementation of SciPro has resulted in substantial improvements in policy development, successful integration of anti-plagiarism software, and an increased awareness of plagiarism issues. The final paper in the issue reminds us that academic integrity is an issue which underpins every aspect of the educational enterprise and goes well beyond plagiarism in student assessment. Educational psychologist, John Bradley, from the UK, offers a typology of nine misleading data-based marketing claims based on his examination of UK university prospectuses. Bradley's analysis leads him to assert that marketing of higher education should aspire to higher ethical standards than marketing in general because of the high stakes involved for a potentially vulnerable group, and because the reputation of the university is founded on having high standards of scholarship. Rather than rely on external regulators to ensure the authenticity of marketing claims, the author advocates a system of voluntary peer review of university marketing prospectuses based on the principles of research and publication ethics. I trust you will enjoy this varied issue which will interest teachers, researchers, policymakers, administrators and marketers of education, in both secondary and tertiary contexts. Volume 10(1) of the IJEI, to be published in June 2014, will include the best reviewed papers from the Plagiarism Across Europe and Beyond Conference, Czech Republic 2013, along with appropriate papers submitted via the IJEI platform. Tracey Bretag, IJEI Editor Email: tracey.bretag@unisa.edu.au

This book, Natasha Stacey's Boats to Burn, is a study of considerable importance for an understanding of maritime relations in the Arafura and Timor Seas. The Arafura and Timor Seas link Australia and Indonesia. These seas provide more than just a source of shared resources; they also offer a common history of maritime involvement. This book explores this critical, but little known maritime history and considers its implication for the present. Boats to Burn focuses on the role of a distinctive population, the Bajo or Bajau Laut, who are remarkable for their sailing and fishing traditions. Known as the 'sea nomads' of the region, the Bajo have established themselves throughout eastern Indonesia searching out marine resources — trepang (or sea-cucumber), shark fin, turtle and trochus shells — and feeding these products back into a trade network linking island Southeast Asia to the Asian continent. Bajo migration has been integral to the maritime development of eastern Indonesia. In the seventeenth century, the Bajo were primarily established on many of the small islands of the Sulawesi region; by the 18th century, they had sailed southward and had reached Roti, the southernmost island of the Indonesian archipelago. Records of the Dutch East India Company from May 1728 report a Bajo fleet of some 40 small family boats searching for trepang first along the southern coast of Roti and then in the Bay of Kupang. The Bajo thus sailed as the advanced scouts for other Macassans, particularly the Bugis, searching out new areas for gathering trepang.By 1750, Dutch Company officers began issuing formal letters of permission to Macassan boats to allow them to gather trepang without hindrance. These letters covered not just the Timor coast but also the coasts of northern Australia, which was then referred to as New Holland. Describing the situation in northern Australia in the first years of the nineteenth century, Matthew Flinders sketches the beginning of this trepang-gathering industry: The natives of Macassar have long been accustomed to fish for trepang … upon a dry shoal lying to the south of Rotee but about twenty years before, one of their prows was driven by the northwest monsoon to the coast of New Holland, and finding trepang to be abundant, they afterwards returned; and have continued to fish there since that time.(1814, II: 257) If we accept Flinders' account and recognise the "dry shoal lying to the south of Rotee" as Ashmore Reef, then it follows that the Bajo arrival on the northern coast of Australia was roughly contemporaneous with the arrival of Captain Cook in Botany Bay. What is remarkable, however, is not these early dates, but the fact that Bajo sailing patterns at least to the seas in and around Ashmore Reef continue to this day. One of the great values of Natasha Stacey's research has been to trace the historical continuity of Bajo sailing patterns and demonstrate their continued presence in Australia waters even in times when little attention was paid to the area of Ashmore Reef, Cartier Island and the smaller reefs further to the south. For the contemporary period, Dr Stacey focuses on a group of Bajo who originate from two villages in the Tukang Besi Islands of Southeast Sulawesi but have settled at a site, Tanjung Pasir, in the village of Pepela at the eastern end of the island of Rote. While still maintaining close contact with their origin villages in Sulawesi, these Bajo fishermen now regularly sail into Australian waters in search of shark. They form part of a much larger group of eastern Indonesian fishermen who are permitted to fish within an area delimited by the 1974 Memorandum of Understanding agreed upon by Australia and Indonesia. Whereas the Bajo have been doing this for centuries, the majority of other Indonesian fishermen are relative late-comers to shark fishing, particularly shark-fishing in Australian waters. These various fishermen, however, have been able to take advantage of the terms of the MOU that defines 'traditional fishing' by the use of a sailing technology rather than by the continuity of rcognised historical traditions – a situation that has greatly disadvantaged the Bajo. Dr Stacey's study raises a range of critical policy issues in regard to the rights of access to fishing. These issues have become even more complex as resources in the area defined by the MOU have diminished and many fishermen from Pepela, including Bajo, have turned to the use of small, motorised bodi rather than sailing perahu to penetrate deeper into Australian waters in pursuit of shark. This has been met by concerted apprehension efforts in the past few years, forcing further shifts in the dynamics of this 'traditional' fishery. Dr Stacey's research relates to the period prior to these latest developments. She did her fieldwork in 1994-1995 with further follow-up research in 1997. Her study is nonetheless particularly relevant to an understanding of small-boat – so-called 'traditional' – fishing in the region. The explorer-navigator, George Windsor Earl, described the Bajo as a 'singular people'. He encountered the Bajo when they visited Port Essington in 1840 and wrote of his plans, which he never succeeded in carrying out, of sailing with them in eastern Indonesia. By contrast, Dr Stacey has done what Earl never managed to do. She has lived with Bajo in their villages and sailed with them over long distances; thus she has come to know them intimately and appreciate the dilemmas they face. Her book is a plea for the recognition of these 'singular' people whose world has been radically altered by international regulations, large-scale commercial fishing, and ever-diminishing resources for small-boat fishermen. Ultimately this is a book in which good ethnography raises critical questions for public policy. The impoverishment of the coastal communities in eastern Indonesian whose previous livelihoods depended, in part, upon access to Australian waters calls for efforts at redress. The absence of alternative livelihoods for these fishermen leaves them with few options but to continue to sail into Australian waters, taking greater risks in the process. This situation is particularly acute for the Bajo who have little access to land. Each apprehension only increases the impoverishment that has prompted the problem in the first place. We may all hope that this book will serve as a catalyst for further cooperation between Indonesia and Australia in addressing the problems of the Bajo and other poor fishermen of eastern Indonesia.

Capitalism manages to enact environments in the midst of its centres by means of keeping other environments out. The fundamental practice which allows for this contradictory and generative move is that capitalist agents enact environments. Capitalism does not require a clear, neat, distinct, singular environment. Multiple, fluid, dynamic environments allow far better the tactical and strategical project of staging capitalism as having its destructive environmental impacts in control. That control is a decisive fiction sustaining the unsustainable. These theses are the result of an ethnography, reported in this book, that scrutinised corporate carbon accounting practices as a site at which we are able to simultaneously explore two significant issues for the management of environments: on the one hand studying practices of corporate environmental accounting allows us to engage with agents' practical work reality by which capitalism seeks to render itself 'green' and 'sustainable'; on the other hand the focus on precisely how accountants achieve taking carbon into account is able to sharpen our understanding of how quantifying practices perform in a non-substantial area of business, such as engaging with climate change. In the received view, corporate carbon accounting is about providing the facts and figures about the emissions which a company produces. Accounting for these emissions is supposedly a condition to take carbon into account – economists would call this process internalisation. The discourse which assumes that 'if only capitalist society is able to internalise its environmental problems' (like carbon emissions which are identified as the culprit of global warming and, in consequence, climate change) 'then capitalist society will be able to solve environmental crises' – this discourse is called ecological modernisation. Within environmental sociology arguments over whether that discourse is actually materially reflected abound. Ecological modernisation theory proposes that capitalist organisations do get green(er). In the midst of debate, little attention, if at all, has been paid to those agents who are, supposedly, implementing the programmes of ecological modernisation, such as environmental management systems (EMS) and carbon accounting. This study contributes to understanding how capitalism organises its relation to environments by means of scrutinising the work practices of these agents. To conduct that study, I have carefully avoided to make assumptions about whether a particular organisation would be conducting greenwash. Much rather, the intentionally open question was: what do agents of ecological modernisation do and how do they achieve it? With this orientation, this study turned to sociological theory and methodology which does not presume any overarching structure as determining agents. Instead, by means of methodological triangulation between ethnomethodology, actor-network theory (ANT) and Pierre Bourdieu's concepts of field and habitus, this study reconstructs by which specific practices and discursive action agents manage to make greening more central to capitalism. The decisive finding is that while agents do manage to bring environmental data into the heart of the corporation – the centre of capitalism – what that data is about (the things this data is related and presumably representing, the material hinterland of that data) is simultaneously distanced from the corporate core. This study, thus, shows how capitalism manages to enact a epicentral movement of 'environment' and, in parallel, to ensure that environmental issues and concerns do not challenge orinterfere in that centre. It manages by means of keeping the largest degrees of environments out. The overarching thesis of this study is, thus, that environments, such as carbon, are not existing – for all practical purposes of corporate agents – out-there but, rather, they are carefully crafted and enacted into corporate, social and, eventually, economic reality. Environments are enacted. The plural matters. Within the organisational practices of capitalism, agents may imagine to refer to 'the' environment. Their everyday practices of taking environments into account, however, relate to specific materials, such as spreadsheets, pieces of papers, flip-charts. Environments exist through these multiple materials, in multiple versions; ontologically, thus they do not exist in the singular but they are staged as such. If the carbon emission fact of a company is established, that fact may well be out-dated a few micro-seconds or years later; it may differ several kilometres off or in a neighbouring storage unit in a computer. Any global fact is enacted in particular located situations. Emissions facts are not stable but fluid, flowing in and between myriads of situations. They are hold together by means of humans' material-discursive performances. And they shift with agents' practices just like with the dynamics in-built into materials, like a database. These processes produce artefacts, versions of environments. And these versions matter. What a society is dealing with when encountering a corporate emission fact is not Nature but a version of an environment. Next year, the same fact (as in, signifying the same imagined out-there) may have changed. Vis-à-vis Science and Technology Studies (STS), my analysis of the effects of enacting environments is indicative of a potentially general characteristic in digital quantification practices – whether in offices or in laboratories: data flows are not that clean and under control. While workers may achieve staging being in control, in practice parallel versions of realities may proliferate – for the better or worse. What we find is that the reality of corporate carbon emissions is enacted as mutable, mobile and multiple. In the practical work of corporate fact finders, it is not necessary, albeit it is deemed required, that facts are singularised and immutablised. In consequence, social and economic reality is confronted with diverse carbon emission accounts, all implying universal truths. Societies and politics which resist engaging with parallel realities and insist on singular ones may not be well equipped to manage those crises that may be co-constituted by these parallel realities. Ethnographic work underlying this argument involved participant observation over a period of twenty months as well as document analysis. The study took place at a Fortune 50 financial services provider positioned in a legitimising network involving one of the largest international environmental NGO's and one of the four largest auditing firms. The findings of this study are, thus, considered to point to practices indicative of widely organisationally accepted and shared realities within hegemonic modern capitalist culture.

SOCIAL JUSTICE, HEALTH AND POVERTY IN UGANDA John Barugahare Injustice in Uganda manifests in many ways. One most serious, yet least discussed social injustice, is inequity in Health. Although there are two equally important aims of health systems – efficiency and equity, in Uganda too much focus has been on ensuring efficiency and as a consequence concerns of equity have been relegated. Ultimately, health policy in Uganda has disproportionately negatively affected the poor's livelihoods in general and the trend seems to be worsening by day. Even though it is possible to borrow a leaf from the Western literature on how to design a good health policy, low income countries like Uganda have special features that render the extrapolation of the Western input good but not enough. In particular, these special features are the level of resource constraints, poverty and the financing mechanism of health care services. These three have very serious implications for equity in health. In general, there is a lot of injustice in the Uganda health care and this has been mainly due to poverty levels and the financing mechanism which the system relies on. Hence, there is an urgent need to concentrate on a discussion of injustice in health because health enhances people's functionings and is a mandatory condition for people's enjoyment of other life opportunities to the extent that if a section of a society is made to suffer injustice in health, this will translate into injustice in all the dimensions of their lives. This is something that fair‐minded people cannot afford to live with for long. Therefore, it is important in this work to illustrate how the above three special features play to cause and sustain inequity in Uganda health care system and to suggest the starting point to overcoming this injustice, not only in Uganda but as a general trend in health policy analysis. THE POLITICS OF RESTORING ETHICS AND THE CHALLENGE OF PATRIOTISM IN SERVICE DELIVERY IN UGANDA'S PUBLIC SERVICE Dickson Kanakulya Reports indicate that there is an erosion of professionalism and ethics across most of the East African public service systems and this is limiting the efficient service delivery and negatively impacts on social justice. Because of this challenge many approaches are being applied to mitigate it, such as the institutional, legal, cultural and the political. This paper discusses the political approach and particularly problematizes the political push for patriotism in Uganda. Most of the critique and analysis was done while carrying out research and consultancy with Makerere Centre for Applied Ethics (MACAE) in selected districts in Uganda under the project "Pro‐poor Integrity" (PPI) funded by Tiri and DFID. The paper argues that the government's policy of patriotism is more of politicking than real improvement of service delivery to the people. Political interference in public service has engendered a culture of impunity and increased unethical conduct among 'politically‐connected' civil servants right from the grass root service to the top administration, The paper argues that if ethics in Uganda's public administration is to improve politicians ought to be divorce party‐biased ideology from the patriotism discourse such that it can appeal to a wider spectrum of Ugandans. PERSISTENT COLONIAL COERCION IN CONTEMPORARY UGANDA: FOUNDATION OF SOCIAL INJUSTICES IN THE COUNTRY Gervase Tusabe Since 1962, all Uganda's major centres of power i.e., political, economic and military have always been dominated by a chosen few, and the attendant wealth that goes with such powers has always been disproportionately enjoyed in favour of these chosen few when a considerable large number of people in the country are living under the weight of abject poverty. The major argument advanced in this paper is that the fundamental cause of this experience of injustice in Uganda is the persistent domestic colonial mode of political administration that is managed by a particular closed group of individuals who more or less conspired to work together to promote their self‐centred interests at the cost of deliberately ignoring the legitimate interests of the Ugandans who are outside their group. STRUCTURAL INJUSTICES AND THE ETHICS OF ENGENDERING POVERTY ERADICATION POLICIES IN UGANDA Michael George Kizito Since time immemorial, poverty reduction interventions in Sub‐Saharan Africa like everywhere in the South, have focused on the individual as the basic ingredient of a moral society (ethical individualism). According to this perspective, in order to lift human persons out of poverty, it is imperative to integrate poor persons into poverty eradication interventions irrespective of sex, social status and gender. Scholars and institutions that subscribed to this conception of poverty thought that individuals were poor because of personal weaknesses (case poverty).This perspective has been greatly challenged due to the upsurge of gender and human rights scholarship in the 20th century. Gender scholars have painstakingly argued that in order to understand poverty, we need to look at society (ethical collectivism). They have rejected the Women in Development(WID) discourse that aims at integrating women into the development process in favour of the Gender and Development(GAD) approach to development and poverty reduction that aims at confronting power relations between men and women (empowerment).This GAD perspective looks at poverty in terms of the powerlessness speared head by prevailing structures in society (structural poverty) and hence the need to empower vulnerable persons such as women to challenge structures and strictures of oppression. The International Monetary fund (IMF) and World Bank as vehement promoters of economism in Sub‐Saharan Africa for decades have urged governments to include the perspectives of the poor in poverty polices through what they call participatory poverty assessments (PPAs). Despite its deceptive appearance, this PPAs stance of the IMF and World Bank tacitly looks at poverty as a case and not structural issue and that is why Uganda's ambitious poverty reduction policy though greatly informed by Participatory Poverty Assessments greatly ignores structures and strictures that render women vulnerable to poverty. This paper critically assesses the obliviousness of Uganda's Agricultural poverty policy to structures and how this has militated on the gender poverty production in Uganda. The paper contends that in order to realise engendered poverty eradication in Uganda, it is pertinent for the agricultural policy to ultimately make paradigm shift from focusing on the individual as the basic ingredient of a moral society (ethical individualism) to confronting structures and strictures that disempower and vulnerablelise individual moral agents (ethical collectivism). ; Contrubution authors to the chapters are John Barugahare, Dickson Kanakulya, Michael George Kizito and Gervase Tusabe.

Esta tesis producto del trabajo de investigación se planteo sobre las bases de un derecho administrativo interno creado para resolver los problemas suscitados al interior del Estado en consonancia con los postulados constitucionales, teniendo en cuenta el artículo 4° en que se establece la supremacía de la Constitución y los artículo 9°, 93, 94 y 224 al 227 que ordenan el desarrollo del derecho de integración en el marco de los países Latinoamericanos y del Caribe, por lo que surge la imperiosa necesidad de armonizar el derecho de la integración con el ordenamiento jurídico nacional y en especial con el derecho administrativo quien deberá recepcionar el mencionado ordenamiento supraestatal, alterando las tradicionales concepciones de las fuentes de este derecho interno. Por lo tanto, desde la perspectiva del derecho administrativo comprendido como un derecho legislado que regula las relaciones entre el Estado y los particulares en el que prevalece el "principio de legalidad" de los actos administrativos, se puede intuir que constituye un problema jurídico los impactos derivados de los tratados de integración, donde nos preguntamos sí las categorías de fuentes actuales del derecho administrativo son las adecuadas para abordar la recepción de estas disposiciones Por lo que al explorara las incidencias en el derecho administrativo con ocasión de la recepción del derecho de integración con particular énfasis en la Comunidad Andina, identificamos que uno de los rasgos más distintivos del ordenamiento jurídico andino, como el de otros esquemas de integración, proviene del discutido concepto de supranacionalidad. Dentro de la teoría jurídica contemporánea la comprensión de este término trae una novísima concepción que al mismo tiempo es respetuosa de la soberanía interna de los Estados miembros, la cual permite el surgimiento del nuevo ente común donde es posible la distribución de competencias en la reglamentación de ciertos ámbitos entre autoridades multilaterales y nacionales, conservando su propia autonomía. Este concepto ha permitido que en el ordenamiento comunitario andino, a semejanza de lo que acontece en el derecho interno de los Estados, exista un sistema de control de las normas jurídicas garantizado por una jurisdicción contenciosa-administrativa ejercida a través del Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. Lo que en definitiva incide en el derecho administrativo interno al encontramos frente a ordenamientos independientes, como lo son los del derecho de integración, en los que se producen, aplican y ejecutan normas según las reglas de juego adoptadas para ese efecto por los Estados miembros, que dependerán del marco del proceso de integración y su armonización con las normas internas. Es por ello, que en el resultado final de esta tesis se constata la aparición de nuevas fuentes de legalidad, donde ya no sólo se contemplará la ley y la jurisprudencia, ésta última posicionada con el devenir del tiempo debido a su pertinencia, como lo podemos contrastar con la expedición del Nuevo Código de Procedimiento Contencioso Administrativo (L. 1437/11) que aún no ha entrado en vigencia, en donde se resalta la importancia del Precedente Judicial a partir de las sentencias de unificación del Consejo de Estado. Pero más allá, de este nuevo reconocimiento legislativo, el sistema de fuentes establecido se verá alterado en su jerarquía con el derecho que nace con ocasión de los tratados de integración, lo que aún no se refleja en este nuevo Código, el cual no prevé la aplicación de las nuevas fuentes de legalidad. ; This thesis research work product will pose on the basis of an internal administrative law created to address the issues raised within the state in line with constitutional principles, taking into account article 4 which states the supremacy of the Constitution and Article 9, 93, 94 and 224 to 227 orders for the development of international integration within the Latin American and Caribbean countries, so there is the urgent need to harmonize the law with the legal integration national and especially administrative law who must recepcionar the order mentioned supra, altering the traditional conceptions of the sources of this law. Therefore, from the perspective of administrative law understood as a statutory law governing relations between the state and individuals in which prevails the "principle of legality" of administrative acts, one can sense which constitutes a legal problem impacts derived from integration agreements, where we ask each other categories of existing sources of administrative law are adequate to address the reception of these provisions So to explore the impact on administrative law at the time of receiving the right to integration with particular emphasis on the Andean Community, we identified that one of the most distinctive features of the Andean legal system, as other integration schemes coming discussed the concept of supranationalism. In contemporary legal theory to understand this term brings a brand new concept that is both respectful of the internal sovereignty of the Member States, which allows the emergence of new common entity where it is possible the division of powers in the regulation of certain areas between multilateral and national authorities, while retaining its own autonomy. This concept has allowed the Andean Community law, similar to what happens in the domestic law of States, there is a control system of legal norms guaranteed by a contentious-administrative jurisdiction exercised by the Court of Justice Andean Community. Which ultimately affects domestic administrative law to separate jurisdictions are facing, as are the law of integration, which are produced, implemented and enforced rules under rules adopted for that purpose by the Member States that depend on the context of the integration and harmonization with internal norms. Therefore, in the end result of this thesis confirms the emergence of new sources of law, where consideration will not only law and jurisprudence, the latter positioned with the passing of time because of its relevance, as we can contrast with the issue of the New Code of Administrative Procedure (L.1437/11) that has not yet entered into force, where it highlights the importance of Judicial Precedent from Case unification of the State Council. But beyond this new legislative recognition, the system font set is altered in its hierarchy with the right opportunity that comes with integration treaties, which still is not reflected in this new Code, which does not provide application of new sources of law.

El Estado Colombiano es el mayor empleador, siendo los cargos de las entidades públicas los empleos más buscados por los ciudadanos en todos los niveles en atención a la llamada estabilidad laboral. La regulación del acceso y permanencia en empleo público se encuentra en "Ley 909 del 2004", que reglamenta la carrera administrativa y el funcionamiento de la Comisión Nacional del Servicio Civil (CNSC), como ente que regula y supervisa el ingreso y movilidad dentro del servicio público. Para ingresar a la carrera administrativa la CNSC debe planear, ejecutar y evaluar los concursos públicos, función que no ha cumplido con la celeridad y eficiencia del servicio público, permitiendo la continuidad de las costumbres politiqueras de quienes ostentan el poder. El nombramiento provisional y los encargos han sido mal utilizados. Los procesos de reestructuración, fusión y eliminación de las entidades públicas, para cumplir con las exigencias de los organismos internacionales en asuntos financieros y políticos, han llevado al lastre los derechos al trabajo y la seguridad social. Varios han sido los intentos de la clase política, para legitimar los equivocados procedimientos actos que en buena hora la Corte Constitucional en cumplimiento de su función guardiana de la Constitución Política, ha dejado sin efecto. En Sentencia C-588 de 2009, se reiteró la vigencia de la carrera administrativa como la única forma legal de acceder a los cargos públicos, sin embargo, el Congreso de la República continua insistiendo, a través de varios actos legislativos, con el reconocimiento de derechos por encima de los demás ciudadanos que se encuentran en situaciones de encargos y nombramientos provisionales. ; Speaking of public employment in Colombia, is not to try a legal issue – administrative among others, directly or indirectly, the state is the largest employer in the country and, therefore, in this type of employment, without exaggeration, it is put at stake, social peace, the public perception of justice as well as the quality of life and the welfare of much of the Colombian population. In a society like ours, in which the deterioration of working conditions is increasing, where the professional life has ceased to be, for a good portion of the population, a hope of wealth, in which the real unemployment is sub - registered, and the underemployment or the precarious employment "relieve" the conscience and government statistics, having a stable public employment, decently paid and of quality, has become the main attraction and the target for thousands of Colombians that dream of a better tomorrow for themselves and for theirs. Many of these desires were collected and expressed normatively in the "Law 909 of 2004," which regulates the civil service, a claim that is coupled with the entry into operation of the National Civil Service Commission (CNSC), the entity that regulates and monitors the entry and mobility within the public service. Today, early in the second decade of the century, more than five years of entry into efficacy of these rules and institutions, and with the ostensible slowness, or rather inability, of the entrance examinations to the public sector, we face to the survival of the eternal state employment services, such as political contributions, the "payment for favors", corruption, creation, without any planning or sense of duties and functions to justify institutional charges, or the familiar "parallel payrolls, " for which there is a large debate. In this sense, it is clear that the provisional nominations and orders for longer than prescribed by law, bring along the violation of the principle of legal security that the administration must ensure that citizens have should have, likewise, the state has restructured, deleted, merged, public entities, to meet the demands of international financial and political matters, regardless of the right to work and social security of the population. In this issue, the Constitutional Court in ruling C-588, 2009, has defended the validity of the administrative career as the only legal form of access to public office, however, Congress has insisted, through legislation, to recognize the provisional workers rights over other citizens. It is at this stage on which this research aims to target a panoramic review of public employment in Colombia, analyzing its legal- conceptual bases, proposing from there, a list of basic recommendations that can improve the administrative career in the country, understood as an appropriate instrument to ensure fair and democratic right to work, on equal terms to all Colombians who have the knowledge, skills and profiles to hold certain posts in the State. In furtherance of this objective, the paper is divided into three chapters that seek, as a whole, assuming a hermeneutic understanding of the law, ie a vision of law, taking as background the need to articulate the legitimacy, validity and the effectiveness of the rules, deals to highlight the interpretive character of the rules and principles by linking legal texts with problematic contexts, in order to propose viable solutions to the socio- legal problems. With this claim, a first chapter focuses on the Origin of public employment in Colombia and the administrative career development, highlighting the appropriateness of the latter to ensure equality, democracy and quality of public employment; in a second chapter it is analyzed the structure and functions of the national Civil Service Commission, assessing their development in relation to the objectives that motivated its creation; and in a third chapter it is analyzed the legislative acts that have tried to dismiss the administrative career objectives, ending with a conclusion that seek to clarify the problematic points of the issue and set benchmarks, both political and legal, for their solution, emphasizing the importance of strengthening the civil service and the bodies responsible for promotion and administration. From a legal- political perspective, it is understood how one of the conceptual discussions that explain the crisis of the administrative career in Colombia, is the one between the welfare state model, proposed by the Charter of 1991, and public policies type neo- liberal, that have led the so called "institutional reforms" or the elimination of public institutions, national governments since the late 80s, which are well founded, paradoxically, in some sections of the Constitution itself. ; Maestría ; El trabajo y la seguridad social

Le celebrazioni per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia offrono anche l'occasione per interrogarsi sulla storia e lo sviluppo di questo Paese, in particolare in riferimento alla cultura del mare e al sistema dei trasporti via acqua. In un paese peninsulare come l'Italia, con i suoi 7.500 chilometri di fronte d'acqua, la presenza dei porti è sempre stata elemento determinante per la crescita economica e per la sua affermazione sui mercati internazionali. Ma, dalla seconda metà del Novecento, le città e i loro porti sono andati progressivamente separandosi, determinando situazioni di forti contrasti e di continue tensioni. Solo più recentemente – a seguito della legge n. 84 del 1994 – nuove forme di 'dialogo' hanno consentito, in talune occasioni, di riavviare politiche di concertazione sui piani di sviluppo delle aree portuali e sul miglioramento della situazione delle zone urbane prossime ai porti. Per tutti questi motivi, l'occasione del 150esimo anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia può rappresentare un momento significativo per riprendere la riflessione sul ruolo dei porti italiani nella storia del nostro paese, ed, eventualmente, sul potenziale rafforzamento che essi possono subire, alla luce dei dati positivi ed incoraggianti dell'intero cluster marittimo in questi ultimi anni, almeno fino alla crisi congiunturale del 2008.Al tempo stesso, si può analizzare la complessa relazione porto-città, in un'ottica di mutuo riconoscimento delle rispettive esigenze e della volontà di sviluppare le proprie attività in un quadro di concreto ed efficace spirito di collaborazione, che richiede sia una maggiore conoscenza reciproca, così come una più efficace definizione degli obiettivi per il raggiungimento di una qualità urbana sostenibile e duratura.La progressiva globalizzazione dell'economia e la liberalizzazione del mercato hanno determinato una generale crescita degli scambi commerciali a livello mondiale e in particolare il bacino del Mediterraneo è diventato un centro di flussi di traffico Est-Ovest e Nord-Sud. L'Italia, posta al centro del bacino del Mediterraneo, è tornata ad essere oggi il crocevia delle più importanti direttrici di collegamento mondiale di merci e passeggeri, vivendo una stagione di intensa crescita nei traffici marittimi. Ad eccezione per quei porti caratterizzati da una forte presenza del segmento crocieristico che ha registrato livelli di crescita interessanti, la crisi congiunturale e globale del 2008 ha avuto effetti molto pesanti anche in questo settore (traffico merci su mezzi pesanti e traffico container). Si pagano alcune lacune storiche della portualità del Mediterraneo, e di quella adriatica in particolare, quali la mancanza di collegamenti terrestri via ferrovia da e per i porti, anche se le Autorità Portuali stanno cercando di colmare il ritardo sia dal punto di vista infrastrutturale che di sostenibilità ambientale, attraverso politiche di condivisione e convivenza tra il porto e il territorio circostante e in una rinnovata e diffusa 'cultura del mare' e del ruolo attivo e 'creativo' dei porti. Solo attraverso un approccio culturale e una reciproca educazione potrà emergere una nuova percezione del porto in città e della città nel porto. In realtà, esistono già segnali incoraggianti di una recente appropriazione – o ri-appropriazione – del porto in chiave positiva e di un recupero della cultura del mare in alcune città portuali italiane. Attraverso un processo lento e complesso, articolato in eventi diversi, sta maturando un nuovo 'sentire' nei confronti dei porti, visti in chiave di risorsa e di parte integrante di una città, purché essi rispettino alcune regole necessarie per una vita urbana sostenibile. ; The celebrations for the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy also offer the opportunity to question the history and development of this country, particularly in reference to the maritime culture and the system of water transport. In a peninsular country like Italy, with its 7,500 km of waterfront, the presence of ports has always been crucial to economic growth and its success in international markets. But the second half of the twentieth century, cities and their ports have been gradually separated, resulting in situation of conflict and ongoing tensions. Only recently – following the Law 84, 1994 - new forms of 'dialogue' have allowed, on certain occasions, to restart political consultation on the development plans of the port areas and on improving the situation of urban areas close to ports. For all these reasons, the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy can be a significant moment to resume the debate on the role of Italian ports in the history of our country, and possibly increase the potential that they may have, according to the positive and encouraging data of the entire maritime cluster in recent years, at least until the economic crisis of 2008. At the same time, the complex relationship port-city can be analyzed, with a view to mutual recognition of their needs and to the development of their activities in a framework of practical and effective, cooperative spirit, which requires both a greater mutual understanding as well as a more effective targeting to achieve a lasting and sustainable urban quality. The gradual economic globalization and market liberalization have led to a general increase in trade globally and in particular the Mediterranean has become a centre of traffic flows East-West and North-South. Italy, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is now once again become the crossroads of the most important lines of goods and passengers connected world, experiencing a period of intense growth in maritime trade. Except for those ports with a strong presence of the cruise segment, which recorded growth rates of interest, the global economic crisis of 2008 has had very heavy in this sector (freight traffic to trucks and containers). This is also due to some historical gaps of the Mediterranean ports, such as the lack of rail connections to and from the ports, although Port Authorities are trying to bridge the gap both in terms of infrastructural interventions and environmental sustainability, through policies of sharing and coexistence between the port and the surrounding area and through a renewed and widespread 'culture of the sea'. Since only through a cultural approach and mutual education will emerge a new perception of the port in the city and the city in the port. In fact, there are already encouraging signs of a recent appropriation of the port in a positive light and of a recovery of marine culture in several Italian port cities. Through a slow and complex process, articulated through different events, is gaining a new 'feeling' in relation to ports, seen in the key of a resource and as an integral part of a city, provided they respect certain rules necessary for sustainable urban living.

Le celebrazioni per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia offrono anche l'occasione per interrogarsi sulla storia e lo sviluppo di questo Paese, in particolare in riferimento alla cultura del mare e al sistema dei trasporti via acqua. In un paese peninsulare come l'Italia, con i suoi 7.500 chilometri di fronte d'acqua, la presenza dei porti è sempre stata elemento determinante per la crescita economica e per la sua affermazione sui mercati internazionali. Ma, dalla seconda metà del Novecento, le città e i loro porti sono andati progressivamente separandosi, determinando situazioni di forti contrasti e di continue tensioni. Solo più recentemente – a seguito della legge n. 84 del 1994 – nuove forme di 'dialogo' hanno consentito, in talune occasioni, di riavviare politiche di concertazione sui piani di sviluppo delle aree portuali e sul miglioramento della situazione delle zone urbane prossime ai porti. Per tutti questi motivi, l'occasione del 150esimo anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia può rappresentare un momento significativo per riprendere la riflessione sul ruolo dei porti italiani nella storia del nostro paese, ed, eventualmente, sul potenziale rafforzamento che essi possono subire, alla luce dei dati positivi ed incoraggianti dell'intero cluster marittimo in questi ultimi anni, almeno fino alla crisi congiunturale del 2008.Al tempo stesso, si può analizzare la complessa relazione porto-città, in un'ottica di mutuo riconoscimento delle rispettive esigenze e della volontà di sviluppare le proprie attività in un quadro di concreto ed efficace spirito di collaborazione, che richiede sia una maggiore conoscenza reciproca, così come una più efficace definizione degli obiettivi per il raggiungimento di una qualità urbana sostenibile e duratura.La progressiva globalizzazione dell'economia e la liberalizzazione del mercato hanno determinato una generale crescita degli scambi commerciali a livello mondiale e in particolare il bacino del Mediterraneo è diventato un centro di flussi di traffico Est-Ovest e Nord-Sud. L'Italia, posta al centro del bacino del Mediterraneo, è tornata ad essere oggi il crocevia delle più importanti direttrici di collegamento mondiale di merci e passeggeri, vivendo una stagione di intensa crescita nei traffici marittimi. Ad eccezione per quei porti caratterizzati da una forte presenza del segmento crocieristico che ha registrato livelli di crescita interessanti, la crisi congiunturale e globale del 2008 ha avuto effetti molto pesanti anche in questo settore (traffico merci su mezzi pesanti e traffico container). Si pagano alcune lacune storiche della portualità del Mediterraneo, e di quella adriatica in particolare, quali la mancanza di collegamenti terrestri via ferrovia da e per i porti, anche se le Autorità Portuali stanno cercando di colmare il ritardo sia dal punto di vista infrastrutturale che di sostenibilità ambientale, attraverso politiche di condivisione e convivenza tra il porto e il territorio circostante e in una rinnovata e diffusa 'cultura del mare' e del ruolo attivo e 'creativo' dei porti. Solo attraverso un approccio culturale e una reciproca educazione potrà emergere una nuova percezione del porto in città e della città nel porto. In realtà, esistono già segnali incoraggianti di una recente appropriazione – o ri-appropriazione – del porto in chiave positiva e di un recupero della cultura del mare in alcune città portuali italiane. Attraverso un processo lento e complesso, articolato in eventi diversi, sta maturando un nuovo 'sentire' nei confronti dei porti, visti in chiave di risorsa e di parte integrante di una città, purché essi rispettino alcune regole necessarie per una vita urbana sostenibile. ; The celebrations for the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy also offer the opportunity to question the history and development of this country, particularly in reference to the maritime culture and the system of water transport. In a peninsular country like Italy, with its 7,500 km of waterfront, the presence of ports has always been crucial to economic growth and its success in international markets. But the second half of the twentieth century, cities and their ports have been gradually separated, resulting in situation of conflict and ongoing tensions. Only recently – following the Law 84, 1994 - new forms of 'dialogue' have allowed, on certain occasions, to restart political consultation on the development plans of the port areas and on improving the situation of urban areas close to ports. For all these reasons, the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy can be a significant moment to resume the debate on the role of Italian ports in the history of our country, and possibly increase the potential that they may have, according to the positive and encouraging data of the entire maritime cluster in recent years, at least until the economic crisis of 2008. At the same time, the complex relationship port-city can be analyzed, with a view to mutual recognition of their needs and to the development of their activities in a framework of practical and effective, cooperative spirit, which requires both a greater mutual understanding as well as a more effective targeting to achieve a lasting and sustainable urban quality. The gradual economic globalization and market liberalization have led to a general increase in trade globally and in particular the Mediterranean has become a centre of traffic flows East-West and North-South. Italy, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is now once again become the crossroads of the most important lines of goods and passengers connected world, experiencing a period of intense growth in maritime trade. Except for those ports with a strong presence of the cruise segment, which recorded growth rates of interest, the global economic crisis of 2008 has had very heavy in this sector (freight traffic to trucks and containers). This is also due to some historical gaps of the Mediterranean ports, such as the lack of rail connections to and from the ports, although Port Authorities are trying to bridge the gap both in terms of infrastructural interventions and environmental sustainability, through policies of sharing and coexistence between the port and the surrounding area and through a renewed and widespread 'culture of the sea'. Since only through a cultural approach and mutual education will emerge a new perception of the port in the city and the city in the port. In fact, there are already encouraging signs of a recent appropriation of the port in a positive light and of a recovery of marine culture in several Italian port cities. Through a slow and complex process, articulated through different events, is gaining a new 'feeling' in relation to ports, seen in the key of a resource and as an integral part of a city, provided they respect certain rules necessary for sustainable urban living.

International audience ; Dieser Beitrag befasst sich mit einem grundsätzlichen Widerspruch: öffentliche Politik ist als nationales Mittel vor allem vom Begriff der Grenze abhängig, der die Identität eines Staates begründet. Dennoch betrachtet der grenzüberschreitende Akteur die nationale Grenze als Relikt der Vergangenheit und bezweckt mit der Zusammenarbeit gerade die Überwindung der Grenzen. Wie kann im grenzüberschreitenden Raum also öffentliche Politik kohärent gestaltet werden? Die grenzüberschreitende Dynamik bezieht sich auf neu erscheinende Territorien, die nicht von einer Institution abhängen, sondern im Bezug auf ein Projekt entstehen. Nicht der Raum schafft das Projekt, sondern das Projekt schafft den Raum. Grenzüberschreitende Projekte stehen also am Anfang eines Territorialisierungsprozesses und bilden einen neuen Politikbereich, auf den öffentliche Politik angewendet wird. Dieser Prozess steht im Mittelpunkt der öffentlichen Politik selbst, die ebenfalls mehr und mehr territorialisiert werden muss. Grenzüberschreitenden Projekte haben in diesem Kontext die wesentliche Funktion, gemeinsame soziale Praktiken zu erzeugen, die im neu geschaffen Raum einen Integrationseffekt ausüben. Die grenzüberschreitende Dynamik ist aber für die Identität der Staaten eine echte Herausforderung, da diese die öffentliche Politik in neuen territorialen Bereichen anwenden müssen. Dies führt zu der Frage der Institutionalisierung der grenzüberschreitenden Zusammenarbeit, bei der Kompetenzfelder der Gebietskörperschaften neu definiert werden müssen. Wie sollen grenzüberschreitende Verwaltungsidentitäten geschaffen werden, ohne eine Hierarchie zwischen den verschiedenen nationalen und grenzüberschreitenden Akteuren zu bilden? Wie soll die Frage der Governance in einem institutionellen grenzüberschreitenden Kontext geregelt werden? Drei Arten von Instrumenten können aufgeführt werden, die die im grenzüberschreitenden Raum geführte öffentliche Politik zusammenbringen können. Die kognitiven Instrumente zunächst, die eine gemeinsame Basis für Informations- und Repräsentationsformen schaffen. Darauf folgen die strategischen Instrumente, durch die Projekte und Institutionen zusammengeführt werden können. Schließlich gibt es die juristischen Instrumente, mit deren Hilfe Verträge, Konventionen und gemeinsame Entscheidungsprozesse festgelegt werden können, indem ein permanentes institutionelles Gestalten stattfindet, durch das allein die Verschiedenartigkeit der Kompetenzen zwischen den Verwaltungen kompensiert werden kann. Damit die öffentliche Politik ihr Ziel erreichen kann, braucht es eine Konfiguration der kollektiven Aktion, die alle drei Elemente mit einbezieht. Auch wenn eine Perfektionierung der grenzüberschreitenden juristischen Mittel und der Governance-Modelle in den letzten Jahren beobachtet werden konnte, zeigen die Verwaltungsidentitäten noch die Tendenz auf, sich eher zu juxta-positionieren, als zu integrieren. Ein strategisches territoriales Management wird daher immer notwendiger. Der Begriff der Grenze sollte außerdem in einer mehr philosophischen Perspektive behandelt werden. Die Grenze ist der Ort, an dem drei gegensätzliche Pole aufeinandertreffen: die Spannung wischen dem Empirischen und dem Übergeordneten, zwischen dem Denkbaren und Undenkbaren und die Frage nach der Koexistenz des Staates und der Grenze selbst, da die Grenzen des Staates auch die Grenzen der Staatsgewalt bedeuten. ; This contribution focuses on one basic contradiction: public policies are, as national tools, dependent on the notion of the national border which determines the identity of a state. However, the cross-border actor considers the border as an archaism and regards it as the main objective of cross-border cooperation to overcome borders. How can public policies be made coherent in cross-border areas? Cross-border dynamics involve emerging territories that are not linked to an institution but are formed with relation to a project. The project creates the territory, it is not the territory which creates the project. Cross-border projects therefore set off a process of territorialisation by which new political fields of intervention are created which have to be covered by public policies. This process is at the heart of the public policies themselves which have to be more and more territorialised. In this context, cross-border projects have the main objective of bringing forward common social practices that help to integrate the new cross-border territory. Cross-border dynamics are nonetheless a challenge for the identity of the states which have to articulate their public action according to new areas of intervention. This leads to the question of institutionalising cross-border cooperation, where new competences must be defined for the local and regional authorities. How can administrative identities be integrated without establishing a hierarchy between the different national and cross-border actors? How, in an inter-institutional cross-border context, can the question of governance be tackled? Three types of instrument can be distinguished which are capable of bringing together existing public policies in a cross-border area. First of all, there are the cognitive instruments which help to produce common means of information and representation. Secondly, strategic instruments can mutualise the existing pattern of institutions and projects. Finally, legal instruments are used to develop contracts, conventions and shared decision-making processes, by means of a permanent institutional patchworking, which is necessary to make up for existing differences of competences between the administrations. In order for a public policy to attain its goal, a configuration of public action is needed where all three elements are combined. Even though legal tools and governance models for cross-border cooperation have been perfected, the administrative identities still have a tendency to be juxtaposed instead of being integrated. Therefore, it becomes more and more essential to develop a territorial management.The notion of the border has to be increasingly regarded from a philosophical perspective. The border is a place around which three contradictions are articulated: the tension between the empirical and the transcendental; between the thinkable and unthinkable; and the question of the coexistence of the state and the border itself, for the boundaries of the state also determine positively the limits of the state's power. ; Les praticiens de la coopération ont naturellement tendance à considérer la frontière comme un obstacle à dépasser pour mettre en œuvre leurs projets. Ce dépassement de la frontière est non seulement une condition de réussite mais souvent l'objectif primordial des projets en question. Bien sûr, cet objectif est rarement affiché en tant que tel. Mais derrière les contenus explicites des projets, formulés en termes techniques et fonctionnels, il y a toujours la préoccupation implicite de réduire la fracture frontalière. Quand cette volonté silencieuse mais essentielle vient à manquer, le projet est considéré comme un échec pour « défaut de valeur ajoutée transfrontalière »1, quels que soient ses succès apparents. En effet, ce que cherchent fondamentalement les acteurs de la coopération, c'est à contribuer à la construction d'un territoire transfrontalier intégré ; dans cette perspective, le projet n'est jamais une fin en soi, mais l'instrument d'une ambition territoriale. Dans les régions transfrontalières, comme dans les agglomérations, c'est donc le projet qui crée le territoire et non le territoire qui crée le projet2. Du point de vue des États (nationaux, fédérés ou assimilés) qui mettent en œuvre des politiques publiques, la vision est rigoureusement inverse. La frontière est la limite naturelle de leur action. C'est elle qui borne les règles qu'ils édictent, les dispositifs dont ils ont la maîtrise, les principes de légitimité dont ils procèdent ou dont ils sont la source. La frontière est inhérente à la conscience ontologique, et non seulement existentielle, qu'ils ont d'eux-mêmes. Elle les renvoie à leur finitude fondamentale, alors qu'ils ont une propension naturelle à se croire infinis. Pour analyser les conditions et les enjeux de cette prise de conscience d'un État confronté à la réalité de ses limites, il s'agit ici de prendre comme guide Michel Foucault, quand il développe dans le chapitre IX de son livre Les mots et les choses, son « analytique de la finitude ».

ÖZETDünya siyasi tarihinin en önemli dönüm noktalarından biri olan 1980'li yıllarda, SSCB çözülmeye başlamış, 9 Kasım 1989 tarihinde adeta soğuk savaşın sembolü olan Berlin Duvarı'nın yıkılmasıyla küresel dengeler Batı ve ABD lehine değişmiştir. Batı ve ABD, liberal demokratik sistemi artık dünyanın genel geçer tek egemen siyasal modeli olarak diğer ülkelere yayma ve egemen kılma stratejik hedefiyle "Yeni Dünya Düzeni" taktik projesini uygulamaya koymuşlardır.Osmanlı idaresi sonrasında Ortadoğu, uzun bir süre huzur bulamamış, bu yüzden ABD ve Batı için Yeni Dünya Düzeni projesinin en önemli uygulama alanı olmuştur. Diğer taraftan Irak, uzun yıllar istikrar yüzü görmemiş, kuzeyde Kürt grupların ayrılıkçı talepleriyle uğraşırken siyasi otoritesi ise sürekli bir darbeler zincirine muhatap olmuştur. En son Saddam rejiminin 2 Ağustos 1990 tarihinde Kuveyt'i işgaliyle başlayan fiili durum Mart 1991 tarihinde Irak'ın, askeri, siyasi ve ekonomik olarak çevrelenmesine sebep olmuştur. 11 Eylül 2001 tarihinde, New York'ta Dünya Ticaret Merkezi'ne yapılan terörist saldırılar; başta ABD olmak üzere, ülkelerin güvenlik stratejilerini değiştirmiş, "savunma" temelli stratejilerden "tehdit algılandığı anda ortadan kaldırma" eksenli bir stratejiye kaymıştır. ABD, yeni Ulusal Güvenlik Doktrini gereği Irak'ın terörizmi desteklediği ve kitle imha silahları ürettiği ve bulundurduğu gerekçeleriyle 20 Mart 2003 tarihinde İngiltere ile birlikte Iraklı muhalif grupları da yanına alarak Irak'ı işgal etmiştir. Hemen yanı başında gerçekleşen bu savaş, Türkiye'yi stratejik konumu gereği çok yakından ilgilendirmiştir. ABD'nin Kuzey cephesinin açılması konusundaki talepleri 1 Mart tezkeresi ile reddedilmiş ancak, ABD ve müttefiklerine hava sahasını açarak savaş sırasında destek olmuştur. Türkiye, bu savaşta hep "Uluslararası Meşruiyet" arayarak, barışçıl bir politika izleme konusunda azami çaba sarf etmiş, ayrıca savaş sonrası Irak'ın yeniden yapılandırılması ve imarı konusunda da lojistik destek vermiştir.İşgal sonrası, 28 Nisan 2003 tarihinde başlayan Irak yönetiminin yeniden yapılandırılması çalışmaları neticesinde, Temmuz 2003 tarihinde Irak Geçici Yönetimi oluşturulmuş, 8 Mart 2004 tarihinde daha sonraki sürece yön verecek olan Irak Geçici İdari Yasası kabul edilmiştir. Yeni devletin rejimi demokratik cumhuriyet olarak tanımlanırken, Kerkük ve Bağdat'ın ayrı tutulduğu coğrafi esaslara göre 18 eyaletli federal bir yapı oluşturulmuştur. 30 Ocak 2005 yılında yapılan seçimlerinin ardından demokrasiye geçme çabası devam eden Irak'ta, 15 Ekim 2005 tarihinde Irak Yeni Anayasası referandumla kabul edilmiştir.Yeniden yapılandırılma sürecinde etnik temelde yapılan tartışmaların en önemlisi Kuzey Irak Bölgesel Kürt Yönetimi olmuştur. Özerkliklerine anayasal temelde meşruiyet sağlayan Kuzey Irak Kürt Yönetimi, Türkiye ve başta ABD olmak üzere diğer ülkelerin baskısı sonucunda demokratik sürece adapte olma ve Irak'ın bütünlüğünün korunması konusunda mesafe alarak bağımsızlık hedeflerini ötelemişlerdir. Ayrıca, Türkiye bu süreçte "Kırmızı Çizgileri"ni koruma konusunda ABD ve Irak Merkezi Hükümeti ile diyalog içinde olmuştur. Türkiye'nin, özellikle PKK, Kerkük ve Türkmenler ile ilgili yaptığı çalışmalar kısmen başarılı olmuş, son dönemde de Kuzey Irak Bölgesel Kürt Yönetimi ile iyi ilişkiler kurmaya başlamıştır. SUMMARYOne of the most important turning point in the History of World Politics was during 1980s: the USSR was begining to disintegrate; the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989, which symbolised the (end of) cold war, shifted the global balance in favor of the United States and the Western Europe. From then on, the West and the U.S. put the New World Order (NWO) policy into effect, which is known to be a strategy aimed at spreading the liberal democratic system to other countries as the world's only and dominant political system.For a long time after the Ottoman ruling, the Middle East failed to achieve stability and became the main focus of the west. Moreover Iraq was struggling to stabilize her political system with the demands of Kurdish separatist groups and ongoing coups d'etat in the country. The Invasion of Kuwait on the 2nd of August 1990 by Saddam's Baathist regime led to the surrounding of Iraq's millitary, politics and sanctions on its economy by the west in March 1991. The 9/11 terrorist attack on America in 2001 at the World Trade Center Towers made the U.S. and other countries around the world to reconsider their security strategies from defensive to "elimating the threat at the instant of its detection". Under the new National Security Doctrine, the U.S. and Britain, with the coalition forces invaded Iraq on March 20, 2003 on the grounds of Saddam's government supporting terrorism, and holding in its possesions weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Having a war right across its borders caused a major concern for Turkey. The U.S. officially requested from Turkey to open the northern Iraqi front line and give passage to the U.S, personnel. However, on March the first, by the majority of Turkish Parliament, the bill was blocked. Nevertheless, Turkey gave indirect support to the coalition forces by opening her airspace to their military use. During the war, Turkish government had put maximum effort seeking peaceful policy on the grounds of "international legitimacy", and in the aftermath of the war, the Turkish government have been giving full logistic support during the reconstruction of Iraq.Folowing the invasion on the 28 of April 2003, restoring of the Iraqi goverment began and as the result, in July 2003 Iraqi Interim Administration was constituted. In order to direct the course of reconstruction of the country, in 8 March 2004 the Iraqi Transitional Administrative Law was approved: the new state government was defined as a democratic republic, where Kirkuk and Baghdad kept separate from the 18 states with a federal structure based on geographical basis. The effort of transition to democracy continued following the January 2005 elections, and as a result on October 15, 2005 the new constitution was approved by a referandum.In the process of restructuring Iraq, the most disputed ethnic issue was Kurdish Northern Iraq Regional Administration. The Northern Iraqi Kurdish Administration obtained a legitimate autonomy under the constitutional basis, however the administration deferred its declaration of independence due to political pressure from Turkey, the U.S and other countries. The Northern Administration was encouraged to adapt to the new Iraqi deomcratic process and to preserve the country's unity. Furthermore, during this process Turkey have been in dialogue with the United States and Iraqi Central Government to advocate for maintaining the regions safety, and the issues which the Turkish government is sensitive. Turkey's effort especially on the matters like the PKK, Kirkuk and Turkmen has been partly successful, the Turkish government has recently began establishing good relations with Northern Iraq Kurdish Regional Administration.

On 29th - 30th March 2007, SUERF and the Central Bank of Cyprus jointly organized a Seminar: Corporate Governance in Financial Institutions. The papers in the present publication are based on a sample of the presentations at the Seminar. Together, the papers illuminate a number of key issues in corporate governance in a variety of financial firms. In the first paper based on a keynote address, Spyros G. Stavrinakis, Central Bank of Cyprus gives an overview of the legal framework for corporate governance in financial institutions in Cyprus. According to a Central BankDirective issued in 2006, implementation of corporate governance principles is mandatory for all banks incorporated in Cyprus and their overseas branches and for some Cyprus branches of foreign banks domiciled outside the European Economic Area. Banks are obliged to have a robust internal governance framework, consistent lines of reporting and effective risk identification, management, monitoring and reporting procedures for all the risks to which credit institutions are actually or potentially exposed. The board of directors should take the lead in establishing and approving ethical standards and corporate values for itself and for the bank's senior executive management. Potential conflicts of interest should be identified, prevented or appropriately managed. Each bank should maintain a compliance function that monitors compliance with rules, regulations and policies. Clear lines of responsibility and accountability should be set and enforced. New members of the board of directors as well as the senior executive managers of banks have to be vetted and approved by the Central Bank of Cyprus for their " fitness and properness." In order to ensure transparency concerning the implementation of the principles, each bank's corporate governance framework should be disclosed in the bank's annual report and on its public website. In the second paper by Christian Harm, University of Muenster, "The Governance of the Banking Firm" the author builds on the literatures on corporate governance and financial regulation. In relation to governance of financial institutions, agency theory has both merits and shortcomings. It provides good explanations in many delegation situations but it has severe difficulties in dealing with institutions with several stakeholders and complex objective functions for the management. Firms guided by shareholder value may work more effectively than firms guided by stakeholder cacophony. Depositors are important stakeholders in banks. Since they are typically incapable of managing the supervision of their claims on the bank, they rely on regulators to do it for them. Remuneration systems for bank managers should provide proper incentives. According to the author, incentives should be structured such as to reward particular strategic achievements. Banks can apply executive stock option plans, but should confine options to a secondary place behind other long-term incentives based on success criteria that further shareholder interests without compromising the regulatory mission. Such an incentive framework tends, however, to be very complex so that the general ambiguities associated with the concept of governance could imply that in the banking firm, selecting managers with a proper intrinsic motivation may be superior to defining complex remuneration programs. In the third paper "Corporate Governance Issues in Non-Shareholder Value Financial Institutions: ACase Study of Mutual Building Societies in the UK", David T. Llewellyn, Loughborough University, focuses on corporate governance in non-incorporated financial firms. The author describes the relevant stakeholders and the nature of agency problems in different types of financial firms. He compares monitoring mechanisms, incentives, abilities and feasibilities of managers and members of mutuals. Mutuality raises specific corporate governance issues: Corporate governance is less clearly defined because the firm's objectives are less clearly defined. Conflicts of interest between managers and owners are less easily identified and it is more difficult to create management incentives. The almost exclusive source of capital is retained profits and each member has a non-exclusive and non-marketable claim to residual net worth. Voting rights are typically not proportional to the size of the ownership stake. There is no market in ownership claims and therefore no effective market in corporate control. Consequently, there is ample scope for mutuals to be inefficient. There is, however, no evidence that the efficiency and performance of mutuals are poorer that that of incorporated financial firms. In the fourth paper "Corporate Governance in Emerging Market Banks", Bridget Gandy, Fitch Ratings Ltd., and her co-authors from the rating agency look at the framework for corporate governance of banks in a sample of emerging market countries. Since the crisis in the late 1990s in Latin America and Asia, there has been a marked improvement in corporate governance of financial institutions in the regions under observation. Many countries have taken legal steps to develop functioning market economies with a view to the need to satisfy the demands of international capital markets. Several banks have listed their shares on stock exchanges in developed markets and foreign bank ownership and involvement in local banking systems have increased. In Central and Eastern Europe, countries' desire for EU-accession has impacted on the development of their corporate governance systems. At the individual bank level, Fitch Ratings looks at bank board independence and quality, oversight and the importance of related party transactions, the integrity of the audit process, acceptability of executive and director remuneration, ownership structures and transparency. In evaluating the quality of governance at the country level, the authors apply a three-pillar approach in line with Montesquieu: Powers and responsibilities need to be separated between a representative legislature, a competent and accountable executive branch and a fair and independent judiciary. The paper contains an interesting table in which a number of key regulatory initiatives in a sample of emerging market countries are compared. The authors point out that large scale privatizations have reduced the importance of state-owned banks in many countries. There are, however, still several examples with complex holding structures involving banks with potential negative implications for corporate governance quality and problems with related party transactions. Acquisitions by foreign banks with developed corporate governance standards have generally had a positive impact and also listing of bank shares on foreign stock exchanges with tough disclosure and transparency requirements have contributed positively to the quality of corporate governance in emerging market banks. Read together, the four papers give a good overview of the development of corporate governance practices and remaining problems in financial institutions of different types and with domicile in different countries.