Purpose The study aims to analyze the level of the disclosure of corporate governance practices by the companies that belong to the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) countries according to normative recommendations and coercive requirements considering the enforcement of laws and norms in the different legal systems and to explain it in the light of the institutional theory approach.
Design/methodology/approach The practices disclosed by a sample of the 20 largest companies listed on the stock exchanges of each of the BRICS countries were analysed, and the 52 practices recommended by UNCTAD (2009) were used as a parameter. The corporate governance practices of the companies were confronted with the laws, rules and norms that require or recommend their adoption and disclosure.
Findings China has 49 practices required by own national law in face of 52 recommended by UNCTAD/International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) followed by South Africa with 44, Russia with 33, Brazil with 28 and India with 24. Brazil has 47 practices recommended by own national governance code in face of 52 recommended by UNCTAD/Intergovernmental Working group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR), followed by Russia with 45, China with 44, South Africa with 41 and India with 22. It was found that Brazil has the higher median of number of companies disclosing corporate governance practices with 17, followed by India with 13, Russia with 11, South Africa and China with 7.
Research limitations/implications This research shows that more studies are necessary using the institutional theory to investigate how the normative and coercive pressures influence the disclosure of corporate governance information considering the enforcement of laws and norms in the different legal systems.
Practical implications The differences observed in this study about normative and coercive forces are presented as an opportunity in the legal sphere of some countries to implement mechanisms to increase their level of enforcement.
Originality/value This research contributes to various audiences such as governmental institutions, professional associations, market institutions to better understand their role in the improvement of the adoption of corporate governance practices and disclosure of information related to it.
The main object of this paper is to analyze similarities and differences in the regulation and practise of anticompetitive measures of article 106 of the Treaty Establishing the EU and article 4 of the Competition Law of the Republic of Lithuania. Main legal problems raised in this paper are connected to the problems of national law. The first question deals with the need to regulate those acts of public administrative bodies which are not covered by Lithuanian competition law that is when there is no formal legal act issued by public administrative body which after analysis could be declared as discriminating or giving privileges to undertakings. The second question raised deals with the issue of the 4 article 2 part of the Competition Law in which an exemption is provided. The problem is that only Seimas passes laws which can be used as an exemption under 4th article 2 part of the Competition Law. That is why there is a need to identify criterions based on the case-law of Constitutional court and EU Court of Justice, which national legislator could use when laws are issued. But firs in order to reach raised goals it is needed to justify the use of EC law and practise, which could be relevant in solving national problems. In this paper it is argued article 106 of the Treaty Establishing the EU and article 4 of the Competition Law are similar in terms of their purpose, rules of application. It is though that only by having an affirmative answer, then it would be purposive to use EU experience in solving problems mentioned at the beginning of this summary. After the analysis was made, it was stated that it is useful to rely on EU regulation and practise, that is why based on EU and Lithuanian experience on applying competition rules, a few suggestions for the problems raised were given. First of all, there is a need to regulate acts of public administrative bodies which are not materialized in any legal form because only then the goal of fair competition could be reached. Answering the second question, Seimas when issuing laws which later are used as an exemptions should firstly follow the principles of positive discrimination and proportionality.
The main object of this paper is to analyze similarities and differences in the regulation and practise of anticompetitive measures of article 106 of the Treaty Establishing the EU and article 4 of the Competition Law of the Republic of Lithuania. Main legal problems raised in this paper are connected to the problems of national law. The first question deals with the need to regulate those acts of public administrative bodies which are not covered by Lithuanian competition law that is when there is no formal legal act issued by public administrative body which after analysis could be declared as discriminating or giving privileges to undertakings. The second question raised deals with the issue of the 4 article 2 part of the Competition Law in which an exemption is provided. The problem is that only Seimas passes laws which can be used as an exemption under 4th article 2 part of the Competition Law. That is why there is a need to identify criterions based on the case-law of Constitutional court and EU Court of Justice, which national legislator could use when laws are issued. But firs in order to reach raised goals it is needed to justify the use of EC law and practise, which could be relevant in solving national problems. In this paper it is argued article 106 of the Treaty Establishing the EU and article 4 of the Competition Law are similar in terms of their purpose, rules of application. It is though that only by having an affirmative answer, then it would be purposive to use EU experience in solving problems mentioned at the beginning of this summary. After the analysis was made, it was stated that it is useful to rely on EU regulation and practise, that is why based on EU and Lithuanian experience on applying competition rules, a few suggestions for the problems raised were given. First of all, there is a need to regulate acts of public administrative bodies which are not materialized in any legal form because only then the goal of fair competition could be reached. Answering the second question, Seimas when issuing laws which later are used as an exemptions should firstly follow the principles of positive discrimination and proportionality.
The establishment of the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) by 2012 remains a key policy objective for the European Union (EU). According to the Council of the European Union, the development of a Common Asylum Policy should be based on a full and inclusive application of the 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees ("the 1951 Refugee Convention") and other relevant international treaties. In the European Pact on Immigration and Asylum attention is brought to the persistence of wide disparities amongst Member States (MSs, MS) in the granting of protection and the form of protection granted. This is seen as one of the main problems to be addressed in building the CEAS. It is fairly obvious that existing divergences in policy have a substantial impact upon the aims of the CEAS. It can be assumed that the difference in governmental practices involving recognizing asylum seekers on refugee grounds or subsidiary protection grounds may be a substantial factor in the decision-making process on where to apply for international protection. The European Commission stressed the importance, during the second phase of the CEAS, of paying particular attention to subsidiary and other forms of protection. This Article analyses the need to expand subsidiary protection to additional groups of individuals at the EU level in order to fully align the provisions of the EU Qualification Directive with international human rights law. This would contribute to the asylum law harmonisation objectives of the Directive, as well as lay a foundation for the establishment of the CEAS. The Article may be of interest to national and European asylum and refugee law policy makers, as well as decision makers, non-governmental organisations and scholars interested in the gaps of EU asylum instruments and possible solutions to remedy it. ; Bendrosios Europos prieglobsčio sistemos (toliau – BEPS) sukūrimas iki 2012 m. išlieka vienu iš pagrindinių Europos Sąjungos (toliau – ES) politikos prioritetų. ES tarybos nuomone, bendroji prieglobsčio politika turi būti grindžiama visišku ir visapusišku 1951 m. konvencijos dėl pabėgėlių statuso įgyvendinimu ir kitais susijusiais tarptautiniais dokumentais. Kaip pripažįstama Europos imigracijos ir prieglobsčio pakte, ES valstybių narių labai skirtingos apsaugos suteikimo procedūros ir formos. Ši situacija įvardijama kaip viena iš pagrindinių problemų, kurią būtina spręsti, kai kuriama BEPS. Pakankamai akivaizdu, kad šie minėtų procesų valstybėse narėse skirtumai tiesiogiai turi įtakos kuriant BEPS, kadangi prieglobsčio prašytojai, ieškodami apsaugos ES, renkasi valstybes nares taip pat atsižvelgdami, ar jose jiems bus suteikta vienokia arba kitokia apsauga, todėl neišvengiami taip vadinamieji antriniai migraciniai srautai. Atsižvelgdama į šias priežastis Europos komisija nusprendė antrame BEPS kūrimo etape ypač daug dėmesio skirti papildomos apsaugos ir kitoms apsaugos formoms. 2004 m. balandžio 29 d. priimta ES kvalifikavimo direktyva pirmą kartą įtvirtino valstybių narių teisinę pareigą suteikti papildomą apsaugą asmenims, kuriems nesuteikiamas pabėgėlio statusas, tačiau jiems reikia apsaugos dėl kitų priežasčių, nei įvardytos 1951 m. Pabėgėlių konvencijoje. Pasibaigus direktyvos perkėlimo į nacionalinę valstybių narių teisę terminui, vis daugiau praktikų ir mokslininkų pripažįsta, kad šiuo metu direktyvoje įtvirtinta papildomos apsaugos apimtis ratione personae netaikoma visiems asmenims, kuriems reikia apsaugos, remiantis tarptautine teise arba ES valstybių narių praktika, nors direktyva kelia tikslą suteikti apsaugą visiems, kuriems jos reikia. Šiame straipsnyje autorė kelia du pagrindinius klausimus: pirma, ar reikia plėsti papildomą apsaugą pagal ES kvalifikavimo direktyvą, siekiant, kad jos nuostatos būtų suderintos su tarptautinės žmogaus teisių teisės standartais bei užtikrintų tinkamą valstybių narių teisės ir praktikos harmonizavimą, būtiną BEPS sukurti; antra, kokiems asmenims taip būtų stiprinama apsauga? Taigi straipsnio tikslas – nustatyti situacijas, kai asmenims, kuriems Kvalifikavimo direktyvoje šiuo metu nenumatyta papildoma apsauga, vis dėlto reikia tarptautinės apsaugos, bei įvertinti, kokiais teisiniais argumentais remiantis jiems ši apsauga turėtų būti išplėsta. Be teisinių argumentų, straipsnyje taip pat pateikiamas galimų praktinių, finansinių ir kitų apsaugos išplėtimo papildomiems asmenims pasekmių vertinimas. Autorė konstatuoja, kad papildoma apsauga pagal direktyvą turėtų būti sustiprinta ir tiems asmenims, kurie negali būti išsiunčiami remiantis absoliučiomis valstybių pareigomis pagal tarptautiniuose žmogaus teisių dokumentuose įtvirtintą asmens negrąžinimo principą; tais atvejais, kai išsiunčiant būtų pažeista teisė į pagarbą šeimos gyvenimui arba nepilnamečio interesai, kai tai neįmanoma užtikrinti asmens kilmės valstybėje; išimtinais atvejais, kai asmeniui nesuteikiama sveikatos apsauga ir tai gali sukelti mirtinas pasekmes;kai asmenys priversti individualiai (ne masinio srauto atveju) išvykti iš kilmės valstybės dėl plačiai paplitusio smurto ar rimtų žmogaus teisių pažeidimų. Tačiau, autorės nuomone, ši apsauga turi būti stiprinama atsižvelgiant į tarptautinės apsaugos poreikį, o ne dėl humanitarinių paskatų. Pastarosios, jos nuomone, ir toliau turėtų likti ES valstybių narių diskrecija. Atsižvelgiant į poreikį plėsti apsaugą nepateisinama, kad Europos komisija, 2009 m. spalio 21 d. pateiktuose pasiūlymuose pakeisti Kvalifikavimo direktyvą, net neužsimena apie Direktyvos 15 straipsnio (papildomos apsaugos pagrindai) pakeitimus. Tačiau tokių pakeitimų poreikis išlieka, jei norima ir toliau siekti bendros valstybių narių prieglobsčio politikos ir praktikos. Straipsnis gali būti naudingas nacionaliniams ir Europos prieglobsčio politikos rengėjams, sprendimų priėmėjams, nevyriausybinėms organizacijoms bei mokslininkams, kurie domisi ES prieglobsčio teisės aktų trūkumais ir dėl šių trūkumų kylančių problemų galimais sprendimo būdais.
The family has a special role in the development of the specialty of skin people, as well as the suspension in general. As a result of the prosperity of the family, and of the social progress of the support, the number and quality of the population. It is in the homeland that the basic moral, moral, cultural values of people and norms of behavior are laid down. The family, as if it were socially enlightened, is guilty in the area of state and legal regulation. The need for a sovereign approach and for the visitor of the family to be recognized in the state of the art, to indicate the high status of this social institute. So, in part 3 of Article 16 Inaugural Declaration of the Rights of People, adopted by the UN General Assembly on the 10th day of 1948, it is said about those who are "the natural and the main source of the suspension and the right to seize from the side of the suspension and the state". In Ukraine, regulation and protection of family members also work within the framework of family, civil, livelihood and other law enforcement, which are focused on securing and maintaining stability. At his own devil, the best defense of the interests of all those who are suspiciously insecure encroachments, as it is possible for the memory of the nation, to become unaware of the criminal legislation, without any possibility of any kind of interest. The analysis of foreign criminal law shows the existence of common approaches to the protection of the interests of families and minors and the national specifics of the legislative process and law enforcement practices of different countries, which depend on socio-economic, cultural, moral, political and other factors. However, it doesn't make a difference in the number of visas about those, according to the norms of the Ukrainian CC of Ukraine in the field of protecting the interests of the family, and those who are not altogether familiar with the general view of international standards and visualize the tendencies of the foreign right. ; Сім'я як соціальний інститут відіграє особливу роль у становленні та розвитку особистості кожної людини, а також суспільства загалом. Від благополуччя сім'ї, її міцності залежить соціальний прогрес суспільства, чисельність і якість населення. Саме в родині закладаються основні моральні, культурні цінності людини і норми поведінки. Сім'я, як будь-яке соціальне середовище, повинна перебувати в області державно-правового регулювання. Необхідність державної підтримки та захисту сім'ї визнається на загальносвітовому рівні, що свідчить про високий статус даного соціального інституту. Так, у частині 3 статті 16 Загальної декларації прав людини, ухваленої Генеральною Асамблеєю Організації Об'єднаних Націй 10 грудня 1948 року, говориться про те, що «сім'я є природним і основним осередком суспільства і має право на захист із боку суспільства і держави». В Україні регулювання й охорона сімейних відносин здійснюються також у рамках сімейного, цивільного, житлового, інших галузей права, які спрямовані на забезпечення її функціонування і надання стабільності. У свою чергу, безпосередня охорона інтересів сім'ї від найбільш суспільно небезпечних посягань, які можуть завдати їй істотної шкоди, забезпечується кримінальним законодавством, без якого захист інтересів даного інституту не може бути визнаний повноцінним. Аналіз закордонного кримінального законодавства свідчить про наявність загальних підходів до охорони інтересів сім'ї та неповнолітніх і про національну специфіку законотворчого процесу та правозастосовної практики різних країн, які залежать від соціально-економічних, культурно-моральних, політико-правових та цілої низки інших чинників. Однак це не заважає зробити висновок про те, що норми Кримінального кодексу України в області охорони інтересів сім'ї та неповнолітніх загалом відповідають вимогам міжнародних стандартів і відображають загальний напрям сучасних правових тенденцій.
Feminist foreign policy (FFP) ensures the representation and participation of women both nationally and internationally. Initially, it aimed to focus on some special areas relating to women, peace and security especially sexual violence in conflict and women representation in peace process. Now, the ambit has been broadened and issues relating to climate change are also included. The research has already proved that women suffer double victimization as a consequence of climate change. Climate change exacerbates sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), so, they face all types of consequences of climate change (CC) and natural disasters as human beings but they face SGBV in particular because of their gender. The FFP states respect for international law and efforts to address gender inequalities and violence. Unfortunately, the existing international law e.g. the CEDAW or human rights treaties etc. generally or law on climate change e.g. the UNFCCC, the Paris Agreement etc. specifically do not address the issue. Also, the interlinkage between climate change and SGBV has not been discussed earnestly. The FFP has been consistently pursued at the UNFCCC COP negotiations in the context of climate peace initiative etc and involved women especially local and indigenous in the decision-making process. Thus, the FFP can be one of the strongest global voices to end SGBV by ensuring women's participation; addressing the legal gap; and advocating for the adoption of the gender-responsive law and policy both nationally and internationally. They can be a leader at the international level and a change-maker at the national level. This study has sought to explain how climate change exacerbated SGBV has emerged as a subject of FFP and how it can address the challenge of SGBV exacerbated by CC, the relevant legal issues therein and the road ahead.
The article discusses the problematic aspects of credit ratings and ranking. The economic and legal aspects of ranking relations are addressed. It is concluded that a low credit standing of Ukraine is a sign of our country's low debt sustainability.It is proved that both for Ukraine and for economically developed countries, the issue of credit ratings is quite important, and at times problematic. The issue is related to the development of the national and international financial credit resources, and to the need of all sides involved into these relations to have the information about the borrower's financial state; furthermore, the lender needs to be aware of the borrower's solvency, of the potential risks the former may encounter in case the latter fails to return the funds borrowed (which may come in in various forms, i.e. loan, borrowing, etc.). It is especially important to have complete and accurate information about the borrower in case it is a state power entity (e.g., the state, and local governments, which are subjects of financial and legal relations in borrowing, issuing state and local (municipal) securities, etc). In other words, both the profit making entities that operate at their own risk, as well as public authorities, whose purpose is not gaining profit but catering to public interests, providing for state and local public funding, obtaining public revenue, etc are subject to credit ranking. ; Статья посвящена исследованию проблемных аспектов кредитных рейтингов. Рассматривается экономический и правовой аспект отношений в сфере рейтингования. Сделан взвод о том, что низкий кредитный рейтинг Украины является признаком низкого уровня долговой стойкости нашего государства. ; Стаття присвячена дослідженню проблемних аспектів кредитних рейтингів і рейтингування. Розглядається економічний та правовий аспект відносин у сфері рейтингування. Зроблено висновок, що те, що низький кредитний рейтинг України є ознакою низького рівня боргової стійкості нашої держави.
Con la transposición de la Directiva 2011/83/EU sobre derechos de los consumidores, al ordenamiento español, por medio de la Ley 3/2014, de 27 de marzo, se ha incorporado al Texto Refundido de la Ley General para la Defensa de los Consumidores y Usuarios (TR-LGDCU) un nuevo concepto legal de "contenidos digitales", con novedosas medidas de protección para el consumidor que contrate su suministro, tanto con soporte material como sin él (esto es, tanto off line mediante CDs, DVDs, Blu-Ray o similar, como enteramente on line, mediante contratación electrónica por internet y acceso mediante descarga de canciones, películas, programas, aplicaciones, videojuegos, etc., visualización en tiempo real o streaming u otro tipo de servicios digitales en línea). Los principales instrumentos jurídicos de tutela del consumidor en este campo se centran en nuevos requisitos de información precontractual sobre la funcionalidad y la interoperabilidad de los contenidos digitales con otros dispositivos, así como en el reconocimiento del derecho de desistimiento también para los contratos sobre contenidos digitales suministrados sin soporte material, matizado con diversas excepciones y particularidades. Sin embargo, la incorporación de estos conceptos y medidas al ordenamiento español despierta dudas sobre la aplicación de otras reglas ya existentes, como las relativas a la conformidad en la compraventa, la responsabilidad civil, otros deberes informativos, etc., cuyo acomodo resulta necesario. Asimismo, el derecho de los consumidores a esta nueva información obliga a los empresarios a expresar con claridad los usos permitidos, prohibidos o limitados del contenido digital con respeto al marco legal de la propiedad intelectual (copia privada, medidas técnicas de protección, posibilidad de reventa, etc.), que no siempre es plenamente nítido o conocido por el consumidor. Además del estudio de las nuevas reglas, su impacto en las antiguas y su relación con las normas de propiedad intelectual, se proponen aquí algunos cambios legislativos ...
Con la transposición de la Directiva 2011/83/EU sobre derechos de los consumidores, al ordenamiento español, por medio de la Ley 3/2014, de 27 de marzo, se ha incorporado al Texto Refundido de la Ley General para la Defensa de los Consumidores y Usuarios (TR-LGDCU) un nuevo concepto legal de contenidos digitales, con novedosas medidas de protección para el consumidor que contrate su suministro, tanto con soporte material como sin él (esto es, tanto off line mediante CDs, DVDs, Blu-Ray o similar, como enteramente on line, mediante contratación electrónica por internet y acceso mediante descarga de canciones, películas, programas, aplicaciones, videojuegos, etc., visualización en tiempo real o streaming u otro tipo de servicios digitales en línea). Los principales instrumentos jurídicos de tutela del consumidor en este campo se centran en nuevos requisitos de información precontractual sobre la funcionalidad y la interoperabilidad de los contenidos digitales con otros dispositivos, así como en el reconocimiento del derecho de desistimiento también para los contratos sobre contenidos digitales suministrados sin soporte material, matizado con diversas excepciones y particularidades. Sin embargo, la incorporación de estos conceptos y medidas al ordenamiento español despierta dudas sobre la aplicación de otras reglas ya existentes, como las relativas a la conformidad en la compraventa, la responsabilidad civil, otros deberes informativos, etc., cuyo acomodo resulta necesario. Asimismo, el derecho de los consumidores a esta nueva información obliga a los empresarios a expresar con claridad los usos permitidos, prohibidos o limitados del contenido digital con respeto al marco legal de la propiedad intelectual (copia privada, medidas técnicas de protección, posibilidad de reventa, etc.), que no siempre es plenamente nítido o conocido por el consumidor. Además del estudio de las nuevas reglas, su impacto en las antiguas y su relación con las normas de propiedad intelectual, se proponen aquí algunos cambios legislativos ...
'Das vorliegende Papier befasst sich mit der Entwicklung und dem Status Quo von 'Lifelong Learning' in Österreich. Eine Zusammenfassung vorliegender Befunde wird mit der internationalen politischen Diskussion und mit einigen wichtigen neueren Forschungsergebnissen konfrontiert, um einige wichtige Grundfragen zukunftsorientierter Ansätze und Strategien herauszuarbeiten. Die Thematik wird in fünf Schwerpunkten behandelt: Erstens wird ein Überblick über die vorhandenen, meistens unzureichendenen und oft widersprüchlichen empirischen Befunde (Beteiligung, Finanzierung, etc.) und über wesentliche strukturelle Elemente und Diskussionspunkte der österreichischen Weiterbildung gegeben. Zweitens werden die Ansätze im Rahmen der Nationalen Aktionspläne von 1998 und 1999 untersucht. Drittens wird ein Überblick über die Entwicklung der wichtigsten internationalen Strategieansätze für Lifelong Learning und die zentralen Kritikpunkte daran gegeben. Viertens werden Grundprobleme der Weiterbildungspolitik aus der neueren Forschung identifiziert: Politische Konsequenzen aus Marktversagen, Probleme und Widersprüche bei verschiedenen Finanzierungsformen, und der Konflikt zwischen kurzfristiger und langfristiger politischer Perspektive. Fünftens werden auf diesem Hintergrund wesentliche offene Fragen einer österreichischen Strategie für Lifelong Learning herausgearbeitet. Die Erarbeitung einer gemeinsam geteilten Problemdefinition wird als gegenwärtig wichtigster Schritt der Herausarbeitung einer konkretisierten Strategie des Lifelong Learning für Österreich gesehen im Gegensatz zur vorherrschenden Neigung über Lösungen zu diskutieren, bevor die Problemdefinition klar ist.' (Autorenreferat)
Masalah penelantaran yang dialami oleh bayi dan anak-anak semakin meningkat. Persoalan anak terlantar bukan semata tanggung jawab pemerintah, tetapi masyarakat, baik secara individu maupun kelompok memiliki kewajiban moral untuk peduli dan berperan serta dalam mengentaskan anak-anak terlantar sesuai dengan kemampuan masing-masing. Oleh sebab itu, didirikan suatu wadah untuk menampung, mendidik dan memelihara anak-anak tersebut yang disebut dengan panti asuhan. Merujuk pada putusan Pengadilan Negeri Pekanbaru Nomor 333/Pid.Sus/2017/PN.Pbr, Yayasan Panti Asuhan Tunas Bangsa diketahui bahwa Panti Asuhan Tunas Bangsa tidak menjalankan yayasan sesuai Standar Operasional Prosedur yang berlaku. Dinas Sosial selaku instansi yang menaungi Yayasan Panti Asuhan Tunas Bangsa belum pernah mengeluarkan izin baru untuk Panti Asuhan Tunas Bangsa, tetapi izin yang dikeluarkan hanya sebatas izin perpanjangan saja. Selain itu, panti asuhan tersebut belum melakukan penyesuaian anggaran dasar sehingga hanya menggunakan izin yang telah kadaluarsa untuk melakukan kegiatannya. Sehingga anak-anak yang terdapat di panti asuhan tersebut tidak dapat menggunakan fasilitas tersebut dan membutuhkan kepastian hukum untuk dapat menjamin masa depan anak yang terlantar tersebut. Hasil yang didapatkan dari penulisan ini adalah status hukum yayasan panti asuhan yang tidak memiliki anggaran dasar dan izin yang sudah kadaluarsa sudah tidak dapat lagi diteruskan sebagai badan hukum, sehingga secara hukum, yayasan panti asuhan Tunas Bangsa tidak dapat menggunakan kata "yayasan". Sehingga anak-anak yang ada dalam panti asuhan tersebut harus dikembalikan kepada Negara.The neglect problems experienced by infants and children are increasing. The problem of neglected children is not merely the responsibility of the government, but the community, both individually and in groups, has a moral obligation to care and participate in alleviating neglected children according to their respective abilities. Therefore, a forum was established to accommodate, educate and care for these children, called orphanages. Referring to the decision of the Pekanbaru District Court Number 333 / Pid.Sus / 2017 / PN.Pbr, the Yayasan Tunas Bangsa Orphanage found that the Tunas Bangsa Orphanage did not run the foundation in accordance with the applicable Standard Operating Procedure. The Office of Social Affairs as the agency that houses the Tunas Bangsa Orphanage Foundation has never issued a new permit for the Tunas Bangsa Orphanage, but the permit issued is only limited to an extension permit. In addition, the orphanage has not made adjustments to the articles of association so that it only uses permits that have expired to carry out its activities. So that the children in the orphanage cannot use the facility and need legal certainty to be able to guarantee the future of the displaced child. The results obtained from this paper are the legal status of an orphanage foundation that does not have a constitution and permits that have expired cannot be continued as legal entities, so that legally, Tunas Bangsa orphanage foundations cannot use the word "Yayasan". So that the children in the orphanage must be returned to the State.
In United States v. Philadelphia Nat'l Bank,' the Supreme Court enjoined a proposed merger of the second and third largest commercial banks in Philadelphia. The Court held, inter alia, that section 7 of the Clayton Act 2 applied to bank mergers, and that the merger in question might substantially lessen competition. Central to the reasoning of the majority was the premise that an unchecked trend toward concentration of market power in commercial banking is contrary to the public interest in maintaining competition among existing commercial banks. Since commercial banking had traditionally been considered exempt from section 7 prosecution, the cry for legislative response was immediate. The 1966 amendment to the Bank Merger Act of 1960 reflects the congressional reaction. The amendment attempts to reconcile the judicial application of section 7 with the standards applied by the federal banking agencies in evaluating merger applications under the 1960 act. It is anticipated that this reconciliation will develop from the establishment of a single set of standards against which future merger applications may be measured. These standards are applicable to "the banking supervisory agencies, the Department of Justice, and the courts under the antitrust laws." This note, by combining legal analysis of the amendment with pertinent economic considerations, will attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the legislation and expose those areas which require more intensive congressional consideration.
This book examines the law, national and/or international, that arbitral tribunals apply on the merits to settle disputes between foreign investors and host states. In light of the freedom that the disputing parties and the arbitrators have when designating the applicable law, and because of the hybrid nature of legal relationship between investors and states, there is significant interplay between the national and the international legal order in investor-state arbitration. The book contains a comprehensive analysis of the relevant jurisprudence, legal instruments, and scholarship surrounding arbitral practice with respect to the application of national law and international law. It investigates the awards in which tribunals referred to consistency between the legal orders, and suggests alternatives to the traditional doctrines of monism and dualism to explain the relationship between the national and the international legal order. The book also addresses the territorialized or internationalized nature of the tribunals; relevant choice-of-law rules and methodologies; and the scope of the arbitration agreement, including the possibility of host states presenting counterclaims in investment treaty arbitration. Ultimately, it argues that in investor–state arbitration, national and international law do not only coexist but may be applied simultaneously; they are also interdependent, each complementing and informing the other both indirectly and directly for a larger common good: enforcement of rights and obligations regardless of their national or international origin
