Suchergebnisse

Fragestellung In zahlreichen, sowohl wissenschaftlichen als auch politischen Veröffentlichungen, wird die "Energiewende" als Transformationsprojekt eingeordnet. Zweifelsohne birgt eine Umstellung auf ein erneuerbares Energiesystem transformative Potenziale. Die Bedeutungsbestimmung von "Energiewende" oder auch Transformation bleibt in Politik und Forschung aber häufig unklar. Um dem zu begegnen, wird in der vorliegenden Studie die Bedeutung von "Energiewende", wie sie im Bundestag verhandelt wird, untersucht. Darauf aufbauend wird analysiert, ob und inwiefern die "Energiewende" einem Anspruch als Transformationsprojekt gerecht werden kann, bzw. wie sich die Wirkrichtung der mit "Energiewende" verbundenen Politiken im Spannungsfeld beharrend – reformistisch – transformativ verorten lässt. Forschungsgegenstand Die besondere gesellschaftliche Bedeutung der Bundestags-Debatten um "Energiewende" leitet sich diskurstheoretisch unter anderem aus der ihnen zukommenden' Schaufensterfunktion' ab, wonach die Debatten strategisch auf eine außerparlamentarische Öffentlichkeit ausgerichtet sind. Hinzu kommt, dass sich der hier stattfindende Diskurs, bspw. in Gesetzen, unmittelbar materialisiert. Als Startpunkt der Untersuchung wird der Beginn der rot-grünen Regierungszeit gewählt (1998), da diese – u.a. wegen der Verabschiedung des Erneuerbaren-Energien-Gesetzes (EEG) und dem politischen Beschluss zum Atomausstieg – in besonderer Weise mit der "Energiewende" in Verbindung gebracht wird. Als Endpunkt dient die letzte vollständige Wahlperiode zum Zeitpunkt der Untersuchung. Die Diskursanalyse bezieht sich demnach auf die Bundestagsdebatten zur "Energiewende" zwischen der 14. und 18. Legislaturperiode (1998-2017). Theorie Die Studie basiert auf einer Verknüpfung der Diskurstheorie nach Laclau/Mouffe (2015) mit dem Konzept des Vorsorgenden Wirtschaftens, das die transformationstheoretische Positionierung der Arbeit konkretisiert. Die Diskurstheorie nach Laclau/Mouffe (2015) zeichnet sich insbesondere durch ihre Bedeutung als politische Theorie und Hegemonietheorie sowie durch ihren Diskursbegriff aus, der die Dichotomie zwischen sprachlich/geistig versus nicht-sprachlich/materiell subvertiert, indem er die materielle Welt als Teil des Diskurses betrachtet – ohne deren Materialität zu bestreiten. Das Vorsorgende Wirtschaften versteht sich als "kritischer Ansatz", der die herrschaftliche Prägung gesellschaftlicher Natur- und Geschlechterverhältnisse zu einem Ausgangspunkt der eigenen Arbeit macht (Netzwerk Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften 2013: 10). Es basiert auf drei Handlungsprinzipien: Vorsorge, Kooperation und Orientierung am für das gute Leben Notwendigen. Mit der Verknüpfung von Diskurs- und Transformationstheorie leistet die Studie einen Beitrag zu deren gemeinsamer theoretischer und methodischer Weiterentwicklung. So gelingt mit dem Vorsorgenden Wirtschaften eine normative Erweiterung der Diskurstheorie, welche die politische Ökonomie in den Blick holt. Gleichzeitig wird das Potenzial des materiellen Diskursbegriffes nach Laclau/Mouffe (2015) für die sozial-ökologische Forschung deutlich. Ausgehend von der Perspektive des Vorsorgenden Wirtschaftens ist die Studie innerhalb einer kritischen, feministischen Nachhaltigkeits- und Transformationsforschung zu verorten. Methodik Das methodische Innovationspotenzial der Arbeit liegt insbesondere in der Verbindung aus einem Verfahren quantitativer, computerbasierter Diskursanalyse mit einer qualitativen Analyse. Als Ergebnis der Verknüpfung von Transformations- und Diskurstheorie wird ein methodisch komplexes Forschungsdesign präsentiert, das sich neben der Analyse des "Energiewende"-Diskurses auf weitere Bereiche der politischen Transformationsforschung übertragen lässt. Basis dieses Forschungsdesigns ist eine Diskursanalyse über vier Dekonstruktions-Ebenen. Zunächst erfolgt eine Operationalisierung der Diskurstheorie nach Laclau/Mouffe (2015) in einem quantitativ und zwei qualitativ ausgerichteten Verfahrensschritten. Die quantitative Auswertung aller Plenarprotokolle im Betrachtungszeitraum erfolgt mit PolmineR, einem Tool zur Analyse von Plenarprotokollen in der Programmiersprache R (www.polmine.github.io). Auf der obersten Dekonstruktions-Ebene der lexikalischen Elemente werden so zeitliche Entwicklungen des Diskurses (z.B.: Häufigkeitsentwicklungen) um "Energiewende" nachvollzogen und regelmäßige Differenzbeziehungen (Kollokationen) herausgearbeitet. Die 30 Plenarprotokolle und Dokumente, die sich dabei als besonders relevant für den Diskurs erweisen, werden im nächsten Schritt qualitativ analysiert und der Diskurs wird somit auf zwei weiteren Dekonstruktions-Ebenen analysiert. In einem kodierenden Verfahren werden zunächst komplexitätsreduzierende Erzählungen, sogenannte Story-Lines, identifiziert. Daraufhin werden den Erzählungen zugrundeliegende fantasmatische Narrative herausgearbeitet. Die diskurstheoretische Analyse auf diesen drei Dekonstruktions-Ebenen wird schließlich in einer hegemonietheoretisch fundierten Diskussion zusammengeführt. Die Ergebnisse der Diskursanalyse werden anschließend auf einer vierten Dekonstruktions-Ebene aus der Perspektive des Vorsorgenden Wirtschaftens reflektiert. Das Vorsorgende Wirtschaften wird dabei anhand seiner Handlungsprinzipien (Vorsorge, Kooperation, Orientierung am für das gute Leben Notwendigen) sowie der aus der Literatur entnommenen Kriterien "Externalisierung als Prinzip" und "Potenziale für eine herrschaftsärmere Zukunftsgestaltung" (vgl. Biesecker/von Winterfeld 2015) operationalisiert. Es wird eine Analyseheuristik generiert, mit Hilfe derer schließlich die Wirkrichtung von mit "Energiewende" verbundenen politischen Praktiken im Spannungsfeld beharrend – reformistisch – transformativ verortet wird. Die Grundlage dieser Klassifikation leitet sich aus der im Theorieteil erfolgten Verortung in der kritisch-feministischen Transformationsforschung ab. Im Sinne des retroduktiven Forschungsdesigns dieser Studie nach Glynos/Howarth (2007) wird die empirische Anwendbarkeit des Konzeptes Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften gegenstandsbezogen entwickelt und erweitert. Beispielsweise zeigen sich in der Analyse der Debatten zur Energiepolitik in einem deutlichen Umfang neokoloniale Artikulationsmuster und nationale Erzählungen, weshalb das Vorsorgende Wirtschaften hier im Hinblick auf nationale und neokoloniale Machtstrukturen analytisch konkretisiert wird. Ergebnisteil Die Ergebnisse der Dekonstruktion des "Energiewende"-Diskurses werden in zwei Teilen präsentiert. Der erste bezieht sich auf die Diskursanalyse der Bundestagsdebatten zur "Energiewende" nach der Diskurstheorie von Laclau/Mouffe (2015). Hier verweisen die Ergebnisse darauf, dass sich in den Bundestagsdebatten nach der Reaktorkatastrophe von Fukushima ein Post-Politisierungsprozess identifizieren lässt. Dieser manifestiert sich in einer überwiegend marktökonomischen Einordnung von "Energiewende" sowie einer diskursiven Loslösung von sozial-ökologischen Problemlagen. Im zweiten Teil der Dekonstruktion liegt der Fokus auf dem Sichtbarmachen von hierarchischen Externalisierungsstrukturen unter Anwendung einer kritisch-emanzipatorischen Forschungsperspektive Vorsorgenden Wirtschaftens. Materielle Wirkweisen politischer Praktiken in Verbindung mit "Energiewende" werden ebenso wie die damit verbundenen Machtverhältnisse entschlüsselt. Die feministische Perspektive der Arbeit leistet einen innovativen und in bisherigen Forschungsarbeiten marginalisierten Einblick in die Debatten um "Energiewende" im Bundestag. Die (geschlechtshierarchische) Strukturierung dieser Debatten manifestiert sich zum einen darin worüber überhaupt diskutiert wird, nämlich überwiegend über ökonomische und technologische Fragen, die dem Öffentlichen zugewiesen werden, während soziale Themen dem Privaten zugeordnet bleiben und kaum vorkommen. Zum anderen werden gegenhegemoniale Forderungen über die Abwertung des sozial Weiblichen (z.B.: als "hysterisch" (CSU 24.03.2011: 11300)) delegitimiert und aus dem politischen Raum gedrängt. Fazit In den Bedeutungskämpfen um "Energiewende" ist im zeitlichen Ablauf mit "Fukushima" ein Bruch festzustellen. Vor "Fukushima" wird "Energiewende" im Bundestag – auch unter rot-grün – nur selten artikuliert und kann in der Diskursbewertung nicht als Transformationsprojekt bundespolitischer Gesetzgebung klassifiziert werden. Nach "Fukushima" lassen sich in der Analyse überwiegend energiepolitische Praktiken identifizieren, die vor dem Hintergrund einer Forschungsperspektive Vorsorgenden Wirtschaftens in ihrer Wirkrichtung im Spannungsfeld reformistisch-beharrend zu verorten sind, bzw. in einigen Fällen sogar reaktionäre Elemente aufweisen. So lässt sich insbesondere nach "Fukushima" eine Reduktion von "Energiewende" auf verfahrenspolitische, technokratische sowie managementorientierte politische Praktiken nachzeichnen, die auf einer Naturalisierung marktwirtschaftlicher Strukturen basieren und gesellschaftliche Naturverhältnisse nicht adressieren. Es wird zudem aufgezeigt, wie vor "Fukushima" marginalisierte energiepolitische Forderungen danach von einer hegemonialen Diskursformation angeeignet werden. Das Narrativ, das sich in diesem Zusammenhang etabliert, wird hier als 'technokratisch-managementorientierter Ökokonsens'bezeichnet. Die zentralen Ergebnisse der Arbeit verweisen darauf, dass mit der "Energiewende" ein großes, potenziell auf Transformation ausgerichtetes Projekt, aus sozial-ökologisch orientierten zivilgesellschaftlichen Bewegungen für verfahrenspolitische Prozesse im Bundestag mobilisiert und gleichzeitig sozial-ökologisch und politisch an Bedeutung entleert wurde. Reflexion und Ausblick Der "Energiewende"-Diskurs konnte gerade durch die Kombination von Diskurstheorie mit einer Perspektive Vorsorgenden Wirtschaftens umfangreich dekonstruiert werden. Die Erweiterung der Diskurstheorie um ein normatives Konzept, welches wie das Vorsorgende Wirtschaften, den Blick auf politisch ökonomische Strukturen richtet, leistet einen Beitrag dazu den materiellen Diskursbegriff nach Laclau/Mouffe (2015) zu operationalisieren und die Diskurstheorie somit für die sozial-ökologische Transformationsforschung empirisch noch stärker zu öffnen. Das Instrument der computerbasierten Datenerhebung hat sich insbesondere als Vorstrukturierung für die folgenden qualitativen Analyseschritte als wirksam erwiesen und dazu beigetragen, dass das Forschungsdesign im Sinne des retroduktiven Ansatzes angepasst werden konnte. Nach dem der Arbeit zugrunde liegenden Theorieverständnis ist das Erkennen von Externalisierungsstrukturen und Naturalisierungen eine Voraussetzung für eine emanzipatorische Politik und Praxis. Kritik erfüllt dabei keinen Selbstzweck, sondern aus ihr heraus scheinen immer wieder emanzipatorische, nicht-externalisierende Gestaltungsperspektiven auf. In diesem Sinne werden am Ende der Arbeit als Ausblick Strategien einer Repolitisierung von "Energiewende" genannt. ; Research question In numerous publications, both scientific and political, the "Energiewende" is classified as a transformation project. Undoubtedly, the change to a renewable energy system has transformative potential. However, the meaning of "Energiewende" or transformation in politics and research mostly remains vague. Therefore, the present study examines the meaning of "Energiewende", as negotiated in the federal German parliament (German: Bundestag). On this basis, it is analyzed whether and to what extent the "Energiewende" complies with the claim of being a transformation project – or rather where the associated policies can be placed within an axis of persistence – reform – transformation. Object of research The particular social significance of the Bundestag debates on the "Energiewende" derives, among other things, from their so-called 'showcase function', according to which the debates are strategically oriented towards an extra-parliamentary public. In addition, the discourse taking place here materializes directly, e.g. in laws. The starting point of the investigation is the beginning of the legislative period led by a coalition of the SPD (German Democratic Party) and the Green Party (1998). This government is generally associated with the "Energiewende" due to the adoption of the Renewable Energy Sources Act (German: Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz, EEG) and the political decision to phase out nuclear power. The discourse analysis therefore is applied to the Bundestag debates on the "Energiewende" of the 14th until the 18th legislative period (1998-2017), which is the last complete legislative period by the time of the study. Theoretical background The study is based on a combination of the discourse theory according to Laclau/Mouffe (2015) with the concept of 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften', which specifies the position of the present study within transformation theory. The discourse theory according to Laclau/Mouffe (2015) is characterized in particular by its significance as a political theory and a theory of hegemony. Its concept of discourse 1 Energy transition is not a precise translation of "Energiewende", which is why the German word is used in the following. 2 As there is no precise translation of 'Vorsorge' into English, the word formation 'pre-caring', which has already been used in earlier translations of 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften', is used here. subverts the dichotomy between linguistic/spiritual versus non-linguistic/material by considering the material world as part of the discourse – without denying its materiality. 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften' is defined as a "critical approach" that takes the domination-shaped character of societal relations to nature and gender as a starting point for analysis and intervention (Netzwerk Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften 2013: 10). It is based on three principles: pre-caring, cooperation and orientation towards what is necessary for a good life. By linking discourse and transformation theory, the study contributes to their common theoretical and methodical development. Thus, by the combination with 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften', a normative expansion of the discourse theory becomes possible, which brings political economy into view. At the same time, the potential of the material concept of discourse according to Laclau/Mouffe (2015) for social-ecological research becomes explicit. Based on the perspective of 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften', the study is considered in the context of critical, feminist sustainability and transformation research. Methodology The innovative methodological potential of the study lies particularly in the mixed methods approach, combining a method of quantitative, computer assisted discourse analysis with a qualitative analysis. The link between transformation and discourse theory methodically results in a complex research design, which could also be valuable for other fields of political transformation research. The basis of this research design is an analysis of the "Energiewende" discourse over four levels of deconstruction. Als Ergebnis der Verknüpfung von Transformations- und Diskurstheorie wird ein methodisch komplexes Forschungsdesign präsentiert, das sich neben der Analyse des "Energiewende"-Diskurses auf weitere Bereiche der politischen Transformationsforschung übertragen lässt. Basis dieses Forschungsdesigns ist eine Analyse über vier Dekonstruktions-Ebenen. The discourse theory according to Laclau/Mouffe (2015) is operationalized in one quantitative and two qualitative steps. Quantitative evaluation of all plenary protocols during the periods under review is carried out using PolmineR, a tool for analyzing plenary protocols in the programming language R (www.polmine.github.io). At the first level of deconstruction of the lexical elements, temporal developments in the discourse (e.g. frequency) are traced around "Energiewende" and regular difference-relations (collocations) are examined. 30 plenary protocols and documents, which prove to be particularly relevant for the discourse, are qualitatively analyzed in the next step. In doing so, the discourse is analyzed on two further levels of deconstruction. By means of a coding method, complexity-reducing narratives, so-called story lines, are identified. Thereupon, underlying fantasmatic narratives are explicated. The discourse-theoretical analysis on these three levels of deconstruction is finally brought together in a discussion based on theory of hegemony. As a next step, the results of the discourse analysis are reflected on a fourth level of deconstruction using the perspective of 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften'. The concept is operationalized on the basis of its principles (pre-caring, cooperation and orientation towards what is necessary for a good life) and supplemented by two additional criteria from the literature – "externalization as a principle" and "potentials for shaping the future, less characterized by domination" (cf. Biesecker/von Winterfeld 2015). A heuristic for analysis is generated, with the help of which the effects of the policies associated with the "Energiewende" are classified within an axis of persistence – reform – transformation. The basis of this classification derives from the positioning of the study in critical feminist transformation research, which is explicated in the theory part. As defined by the retroductive research design of this study according to Glynos/Howarth (2007), the empirical applicability of the concept 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften' is developed in a subject-related way and expanded. For example, the analysis of debates on energy policy clearly shows neocolonial articulation patterns and national narratives, which is why 'Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften' is analytically specified here in terms of national and neocolonial power structures. Results The results of the deconstruction of the "Energiewende" discourse are presented in two parts. The first part refers to the discourse analysis of the Bundestag debates on the "Energiewende" according to the discourse theory by Laclau/Mouffe (2015). Here, results indicate that a post-politicization process has taken place in the debates after the reactor disaster of Fukushima. This becomes apparent through a predominantly market-economic integration of "Energiewende" as well as a discursive dissociation from social-ecological problems. In the second part of the deconstruction, the focus is on the elaboration of hierarchical externalization structures using a critical-emancipatory research perspective of 'Vorsorgendes Wirschaften'. Thus, material effects of political practices in connection with "Energiewende" and the associated power relations are decoded. The feminist perspective of the study provides an innovative insight into the debates, which has been marginalized in previous research. On the one hand, the (gender-hierarchical) structure of these debates manifests itself in what is being discussed – mainly economic and technological questions, which are assigned to the public sphere – while social issues remain assigned to the private sphere and hardly occur. On the other hand, counter-hegemonic demands are delegitimized and forced out of the political sphere by depreciating the socially feminine (e.g. as "hysterical" (CSU 24.03.2011: 11300)). Conclusion The analysis of the discourse on "Energiewende" shows a significant turning point with "Fukushima". Before "Fukushima" "Energiewende" is rarely articulated in the Bundestag – even under the red-green government – and thus cannot be classified as a transformation project of federal legislation. After "Fukushima", energy policy practices are identified, which – on the basis of the research perspective "Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften" – can be classified between reform and persistence, regarding their effects; in some cases they even show reactionary elements. Thus, especially after "Fukushima", a reduction of "Energiewende" to procedural, technocratic and management-oriented political practices can be illustrated, which are based on a naturalization of market-economic structures and do not address societal relations to nature. Moreover, it is shown that energy policy demands, that were marginalized before "Fukushima" are appropriated by a hegemonic discourse formation afterwards. The study identifies the narrative that is established in this context as 'technocratic-management-oriented ecoconsensus'. The central results of the study point out that with the "Energiewende" a large, potentially transformation-oriented project, which was originally promoted by social-ecologically oriented civil societal movements, is mobilized for procedural oriented political processes in the Bundestag and at the same time emptied of social-ecological and political meaning. Reflection and outlook The discourse on "Energiewende" was deconstructed extensively with the help of the combination of discourse theory with a perspective of "Vorsorgendes Wirtschaften". The extension of the discourse theory by integrating a normative concept focusing on political economic structures contributes to operationalizing the material concept of discourse according to Laclau/Mouffe (2015) and thus opens discourse theory empirically for social-ecological transformation research. In particular, the computer assisted data analysis tool has proven to be effective in pre-structuring the material for the following qualitative analytical steps and has helped to adapt the research design to the retroductive research approach. The underlying theory of this study implies that understanding and recognizing externalization structures and naturalizations is necessary for an emancipatory policy and practice. However, critique does not fulfill an end in itself, but can open up emancipatory, non-externalizing perspectives. In this sense, at the end of the study, some strategies for a re-politicization of "Energiewende" are outlined.

Pyotr Tolochko, the pre-eminent historian and archeologist of Kievan Rus, passed away quietly in Kyiv, Ukraine, late last month at the age of 87. Tolochko devoted his entire life to studying the early history of Ukraine, including 30 years as head of the Institute of Archeology of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences.His hundreds of scholarly articles and more than two dozen monographs led to international acclaim and appointments at several European and international academies, as well as two state prizes of Ukraine in science and technology. Along the way, he twice served as a member of the national parliament, from 1998 to 2006, first in the Hromada Party, then in Yulia Timoshenko's Bloc. Thanks to his efforts, the country got its first law on the protection of its archeological heritage in 2004.The passing of a medieval historian, even one of such note as Tolochko, is not usually seen as a moment for political reflection. But Tolochko was no ordinary historian. He was also an unrelenting gadfly to Ukrainian political leaders, constantly rebuking them for abusing Ukrainian history and lying to Ukrainians about their past.Believing firmly that politics should rest on a sound historical foundation, Tolochko used his considerable scholarly authority to argue that the government-sponsored narrative about Ukrainians and Russian having distinct origins was nothing but pseudo-science.Drawing on his encyclopedic knowledge of Ukrainian history, he pointed to many inconvenient historical facts. First, that Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus had all emerged from a single civilization that for centuries shared a common culture, common religion, and common language. The people who shared this culture defined themselves as Rusichy or more simply Rus. In the north and northwest, they eventually formed the Velikoross or "Great Russian" ethnos; in the west, the Belarus or "White Russian" ethnos; and in the south, the Maloross or "Little Russian" ethnos. There were other communities, such as Black Rus in the far north, and Red Rus, in modern day Ukrainian Galicia, but only these three developed into the nations that we know today as Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. The term Little Russian evokes passionate dislike among many Ukrainians today, but Tolochko refused to see anything objectionable in the term. Indeed, he often referred to himself as a Maloross and argued that Ukrainian nationalists knowingly distorted its meaning. Little Russia never referred to being a smaller part of Rus, but rather to the oldest part of Rus, its true heartland. He also insisted on viewing another controversial historical episode — Bohdan Khmelnitsky's decision in 1654 to join the Russian Empire — as a reunification of Great and Little Russians. Despite the gradual loss of local autonomy, he considered it a good thing for Ukraine, since without it the Western half of the country would have likely been consumed by Poland and lost its cultural, religious, and linguistic identity. Finally, Tolochko argued that, as an ethnic and political nation, Ukrainians appeared only after the collapse of the Russian empire, and thanks to the Soviet regime, which introduced territorial divisions along ethnic lines and tried to impose nearly total Ukrainianization on political and cultural life during the late 1920s and early 1930s, an effort that notably failed. Throughout his career, Tolochko considered ideologically imposed versions of history to be exceedingly dangerous for society, whether they stemmed from communist ideology or from contemporary Ukrainian nationalism. He described the current nationalist narrative of an indigenous European Ukraine as merely a degraded copy of the narratives created by Ukrainian intellectuals at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Their sole purpose, in his view, is to divide Ukrainian and Russians and argue that their separate origins had led them to make divergent political and cultural choices — one in favor of liberalism and Europe, the other in favor of despotism and Asia.The danger of such a simplistic dichotomy, he said, is that it demonizes the entire Eastern half of Ukraine. After three decades of struggle to have their local cultural and religious autonomy respected, their resentment exploded in 2014 when the Maidan uprising left them with no other prospect but living in an even more aggressively nationalistic Ukraine. As Tolochko put it, "We should blame ourselves for the fact that Crimea left us. We pushed it away."Since Ukraine's independence, an entire generation has been raised without any inkling of the common history and shared life in the USSR or the Russian Empire. The last 300 years have been portrayed to them as nothing but a series of conflicts between Ukraine and Russia, when in fact, says Tolochko, the Russian empire was largely a co-creation of Ukrainians and Russians. Its greatness and its darkness should thus be shared by both, just as the Scots share the glory and responsibility for the British Empire with the English. There is ultimately no other way to become a truly sovereign historical actor, Tolochko argued, than to assume personal responsibility for one's actions.On the other hand, Tolochko agreed with Ukrainian leaders that Ukraine's choice for a Christian European identity was made over a millennium ago, with the baptism of Rus on the Dnipro River. But he understood this choice not as one made by Ukrainians alone, but rather by the entire family of Eastern Slavic peoples known as Rus'.Remembering this common heritage was therefore essential to preserving national unity, and he implored Ukrainian political leaders to recognize that there were, in fact, several different kinds of Ukrainians — "Russian Ukrainians, Ukrainian Ukrainians, Polish Ukrainians, Hungarian Ukrainians, and so on. If we insist on discriminatory policies in Ukraine, on dividing native from non-native, on prohibiting language [usage], then just as we were sewn together, we can be unsewn at these seams." Instead of trying to build an identity for all Ukrainians around just the four Westernmost regions (Galicia), Tolochko urged Ukrainians to embrace the multiplicity of Ukrainian identities and to take pride in their coexistence over time.Given the resonance of his views with those of Russian President Vladimir Putin (and, if we are to be honest, with the views of most mainstream Western historians before 2014), it is not hard to see why Tolochko was eventually removed from all administrative and political positions, and prevented from speaking publicly in Ukraine. He withstood such restrictions philosophically, telling his friends that he lived not for today but in the Middle Ages.When asked about Ukraine's future, Tolochko remained cautiously optimistic. He saw Ukrainians and Russians as estranged brothers who, whatever their differences, are condemned to closeness because of their intertwined histories. Relations between them, he liked to point out, had frequently moved from closeness to alienation, and back again. The current cycle might last a long time, but in the end he felt confident that "common sense will prevail." All that was needed was patience, compassion, and a sense of history.

The connection of hesed and covenant commitment is a pivotal point in the covenant between Ruth and Naomi. The blessing of Naomi indicates that there are two agents of hesed, namely God's hesed for the two Moabite women in the future, and the hesed of the two Moabite women for Naomi's family in the past. Naomi uses the term hesed in Ruth 1:8b without giving a specific description of God's hesed. However, the oracle in Ruth 1: 9a Naomi specifies the idea of God's hesed. Through the exegetical and theological study of the text, the words of Naomi imply that the past continual covenant faithfulness of two Moabite women to Elimelech's family as well as to God is the basis of Naomi's supplication that God should reward them hesed in the future. The theological implication is that the faithfulness of human beings to the covenant commitment assures the permanence of hesed in the covenant relationship. Moreover, faithfulness to covenant commitment stood out as being a means of how God worked out His redemptive plan to turn about the human crisis. To sum, hesed is considered as the content of the covenant, and it is the basis on which the covenant relationship will be enabled to continue. Keywords: Hesed; Covenant; Commitment References Arnold, Bill T., and John H. Choi. A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Baer, David A., and Robert P. Gordon. "חֶסֶד." New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Ed. W. A. VanGemeren. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997. Badillos, Angel Saenz. A History of the Hebrew Language. Trans. John Elwolde. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Bible Works, Biblical Database Software for Microsoft Windows, version 7.o.o12x. Bible Works, LLC. Hermeneutika Computer Bible Research Software. חֶסֶד, MT, 2007. Brown, Francis, with S. R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic. Based on the lexicon of William Gesenius. Oxford: Clarendon, 1952, s.v. "חֶסֶד." Bruce K., M. O'Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990. Bush, Frederic W. Ruth/Esther. Word Biblical Commentary 9. Dallas, TX: Word, 1996. Buttrick, George Arthur. "Ruth." The Interpreter's Bible. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1953. Campbell, Edward F. Jr. Ruth: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975. ________________. "The Hebrew Short Story: A Study of Ruth." A Light Unto My Path. Ed. H. Bream, R. Heim, and C. Moore. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974. Clark, Gordon R. The Word Heseḏ in the Hebrew Bible. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 157. Sheffield, UK: Academic, 1993. Clines, David J. A. The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Sheffield, UK: Academic, 1998. s.v. "חֶסֶד." Cogan, Mordechai, and Hayim Tadmor. II Kings: A New Translation With Introduction and Commentary. New York, NY: Doubleday, 1988. Cohen, Ada Taggar. "Political Loyalty in the Biblical Account of 1 Samuel xx-xxii in the Light of Hittite Texts." Vetus Testamentum 55 (2005): 251-268. Collins, C. John. Genesis 1-4: Linguistic, Literary, and Theological Commentary. New Jersey, NJ: P & R, 2006. Daniel I. Judges, Ruth. The New American Commentary 6. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1999. Exum, J. Cheryl. Plotted, Shot, and Painted: Cultural Representations of Biblical Women. JSOTSup 215. Sheffield, UK: Academic, 1996. Fensham, Charles. "The Treaty Between Israel and the Gibeonites." Biblical Archaeologist 27 (1964): 96-100. Hamilton, Victor P. Handbook on the Historical Books: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2008. Holladay, William L. A Concise Hebrew, and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden, Holland: Brill, 1971), s.v. "שׁוב." Hubbard, Robert L. The Book of Ruth. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988. Joüon, Paul and Muraoka Takamitzu. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Winona Lake, In: Eisenbrauns, 1978. Kalluveettil, Paul. Declaration and Covenant: A Comprehensive Review of Covenant Formulae From the Old Testament and the Ancient Near East. Rome, Italy: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1982. Kathleen A. Robertson. "The Book of Ruth." The New Interpreter's Bible. Ed. Leander E. Keck. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1998. Kautzsch, Emil. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. Trans. Kautzsch Emil, A. E. Cowley, and M. Segal . Oxford, MS: Clarendon, 1990. Keck, Leander E. "Ruth." The New Interpreter's Bible 2. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1998. Kensky, Tikva Frymer. Reading the Women of the Bible: A New Interpretation of Their Stories. New York, NY: n.p., 2002. Knoppers, Gary N. "Ancient Near Eastern Royal Grants and the Davidic Covenant." Journal of the American Oriental Society 116 (1996): 670-697. Kutler, L. "A Structural Semantic Approach to Israelite Communal Terminology." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 14 (1982): 71-72. Lacocque, André. Ruth, A Continental Commentary. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2004. Lapsley, Jacqueline E. "Feeling Our Way: Love for God in Deuteronomy." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 65 (2003): 350-369 Larkin, Katrina J. A. Ruth and Esther. Old Testament Guide. Sheffield, UK: Academic, 1996. Mathew, Victor H. Judges and Ruth. New Cambridge Bible Commentary. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. McComiskey, Thomas Edward. The Covenants of Promise: A Theology of the Old Testament Covenants. Grand Rapids: MI: Baker, 1985. Meyers, Jacob M. "Returning Home: Ruth 1:8 and Gendering of the Book of Ruth." Naomi and Ruth: A Feminist Companion to Ruth. Ed. Athalya Brenner. Shefield, UK: Academic, 1993. Moran, William L. "The Ancient Near Eastern Background of the Love of God in Deuteronomy." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 25 (1963): 77-87; Nielsen, Kirsten. Ruth: A Commentary. Louisville, KY: John Knox, 1997. Prinsloo, Willem S. "The Theology of the Book of Ruth." Vetus Testamentum 30 (1980): 332. Rendtorff, Rolf. "The Canonical Hebrew Bible." Theology of the Old Testament. Ed. David E. Orton. Leiden, Holland: Deo, 2005. Sasson, Jack Murad. Ruth: A New Translation With a Philological Commentary and a Formalist-Folklorist Interpretation. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979. Smith, Mark S. "Your People Shall be My People: Family and Covenant in Ruth 1:16-17." CBQ 69 (2007): 246. Soggin, J. Alberto. "שׁוב." Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ed. Ernest Jenni, Clause Wassermann. Trans. by Mark. E. Biddle. Peabody, MS: Hendrickson, 1997. Thompson, James A., and Elmer A. Martens. "שׁוב." New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Ed. W. A. VanGemeren. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997. Trible, Phyllis. "A Human Comedy." God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality: Overtures to Biblical Theology. Ed. Walter Brueggemann, John R. Donahue. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1978. Waard, Jan De, and E. A. Nida. A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Ruth. London, UK: United Bible Societies, 1973. Waltke, Bruce K., and Charles Yu. Old Testament Theology: An Exegetical, Canonical, and Thematic Approach (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007. Zobel, Hans-Jürgen. "חֶסֶד." Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977.

Editorial I am delighted to announce the successful publication of Volume 26, 2020 of our esteemed journal, Lagos Notes and Records. This current edition is made up of thirteen well-researched articles across the various disciplines of the Humanities and Social Sciences namely History, Philosophy, Creative Arts, Language Studies, Literature, Communication Studies, and Linguistics. Lynn Schler in the first article, 'The Local and the Global in African Studies: An Essay in Honour of Prof. Ayodeji Olukoju @ 60', argues that in every geographic context, African studies evolved as an intersection between local and global flows of ideas, politics and capital. She concludes that the future of African studies requires scholars to view Africa as both a singular idea and a conglomeration of vastly diverse cultural contexts. Scholars must be aware of what is distinctive in local contexts and also take cognizance of global solutions. In the second article, 'Identity and Ideological Positioning in Popular Nigerian Ethnic Jokes', 'Rotimi Taiwo and David Dontele examine the discursive constructions of selected jokes to determine their expression of attitudinal and ideological dispositions of the ethnic groups within the multilingual/multicultural context of Nigeria. They argue that ethnic jokes in Nigeria construct stereotypes about linguo-cultural signs, and that the jokes have been stripped of their stigmatizing effects owing to the ability of Nigerians to laugh collectively at their perceived prejudices and stereotypes. In a related article, 'Impression Management and Face Sensitivities in Delta State Courtroom Interactions', Olasimbo Takpor and Felix Ogoanah investigate impression management and courtroom interactions in High Court proceedings in DeltaState of Nigeria within the theoretical framework of Rapport Management Model (Spencer Oatey). They conclude that to manage face sensitivities, courtroom interactions create diverse impressions of themselves or others by deploying impression management strategies such as self-promotion, intimidation, apologies, ingratiation and conformity as determined by the peculiarities of legal procedures and cultural norms, which mediate judicial proceedings, interpretations and decisions. Felix Ajiola's 'Colonial Capitalism and the Structure of the Nigerian Cocoa Marketing Board, 1947-1960' examines the origin, structure and impact of the Nigerian Cocoa Marketing Board (NCMB) from its inauguration in 1947 up to 1960. The author argues that the NCMB served various interests and purposes, which hardly benefitted cocoa producers, but rather exploited them through intolerable taxes, harmful price regulations and unfavourable grading policies. In another article, 'The Language Factor and Internet Penetration in Nigeria: A Practical Assessment', Olushola Are examines all the unstated assumptions behind quests for more language options on the internet with specific reference to Nigeria. The author concludes that the provision of Nigerian language options online would not significantly enhance internet penetration in the country without broader adjustments to the roles and status of indigenous languages as well as greater socio-economic and political reforms to fight general social exclusion for which linguistic exclusion of any form may be merely symptomatic. In the sixth article, 'Theatrical Intervention towards "Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness"', Oluwatoyin Olokodana-James examines Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) strategies. She argues that BPCR reduces the risks of complications in that it helps health practitioners to detect danger signs from both mother and the newborn early enough. Using qualitative research approach, the author employs theatre and dance as interventionist tools to educate women within Ifako-Ijaye LGA in Lagos State on the usefulness of BPCR. In a different article on 'Stress Patterning in Polysyllabic Words among Educated Yoruba Speakers of English in Lagos', Emmanuel Osifeso investigates one hundred (100) undergraduate and post-graduate students across Lagos State to underscore the role of stress patterning of polysyllabic words among educated Yoruba speakers of English in Lagos (EYSEL). He concludes that EYSEL have a propensity for shifting the main stress in English polysyllabic words rightward. Victor Ariole's article, 'Peul (Fulani) Worldview as seen in Ba's Work: A Critique', identifies the cultural integration constraints in Africa using Ba's discussion of the Peul/Fulani as a case study. He concludes that Ba's thought patterns are quite relevant in understanding the Peul's worldview which sees probity and constituents' responsibilities as inalienable with peaceful living or existence. Babatunji Adepoju in the ninth article, 'Cohesion in English Biblical Narratives: A Study of "The Prodigal Son"', examines the different methods that writers/speakers employ in making English narratives coherent. He discusses the reasons why many texts are considered disjointed/disorganised thereby making such texts lose the desired radiance. He concludes that the unity of a text is enhanced by adherence to the appropriate usage of grammatical and lexical ties in English narratives. Ayọdele Shotunde in 'A Discourse on the Nature of Crime and Punishment in the Administration of Social Justice in an African Culture' evaluates the nature of crime and punishment among the Yoruba of Nigeria. Adopting the critical and prescriptive methodology, he concludes that it is important to take an insightful look at the traditional Yoruba conception of crime and punishment given its embedded spirit of forgiveness because such has the potential of fostering better social ethics in contemporary Nigeria. In the next article, 'China-Hong Kong Dual System: Twenty-Three Years of Uncertainty and Broken Promises', Henry Ogunjewo argues that the relationship between China and Hong Kong in the last twenty-three years have been characterised by broken promises, failed covenants, unnecessary political meddling, judicial undercutting, press gagging and restrictions on freedom of expressions, leading to protests and political tension in Hong Kong. He concludes that the United Kingdom, former colonial administrator of Hong Kong, needed to bring international pressure on China to protect the interests of Hong Kong. Bisoye Eleshin's 'High-Toned Vowel Prefix in Yoruba' examines prefixation as it relates to gerund derivation in Yoruba. He uses the morpho-syntactic approach to establish the claim that there actually exists a high-toned vowel prefix i- in Yoruba and that the class of noun it derives is gerund. The last paper by Mosunmola Ogunmolaji and Oyinade Adekunle ''Madam Due Process': The Public Life of Obiageli Ezekwesili' is a biography of Obiageli Ezekwesili. The authors analyse the public life of Obiageli Ezekwesili providing insights into her lifestyle, especially the major forces that spurred her interest in politics and public administration. They conclude that Ezekwesili is an intellectual who has broken gender barriers in Nigeria. She possesses pragmatic understanding of the yearnings of Nigerians through deliberate identification of their problems, acquisition of necessary problem-solving tools, and swift responses to the problems whether or not she stepped on toes in the process. I hereby warmly recommend these articles to the academic community with the hope that scholars will find them interesting and useful. I congratulate the Editorial Team for a job well done despite the constraints of the COVID era! Professor Olufunkẹ Adeboye Dean, Faculty of Arts Editor-in-Chief

This article aims to present the beginnings and development of the forms of parliamentarism in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania when it was an independently functioning state and after its Union with the Crown of Poland, which gave rise to a new state in Europe called the Commonwealth. Lithuanian parliamentarism developed through a long process of evolution of representative institutions. The most important role was played by a group of magnates (the so-called lords and princes) holding the highest offices in the state and the Church, and appointed by the ruler. This group formed the Council of Lords, an advisory body to the grand dukes; during the Commonwealth ruler's rare stays in Lithuania, the Council took over many of his prerogatives, becoming the most important legislative, executive, and judicial body of the state, except for the grand duke himself. The strong position of the Council of Lords (and in fact, a few of its most important members holding the most prominent offices) influenced for centuries the political life of Lithuania, dominated by powerful families, almost constantly playing the role of the so-called hegemons, even after they were formally equated in law with the common nobility in 1563. The Lithuanian nobility, on the other hand, was slowly gaining in the sixteenth century the right to participate in the parliamentary life of the state. In principle, however, Lithuanian nobles were deprived of the legislative and control initiative; their role was accepting and executing the ruler's decisions agreed with the Council of Lords. Thus, they were interested in acquiring the rights of the Polish nobility, and consequently, in the Union with the Polish Crown. The establishment of the Commonwealth resulted in the incorporation of Lithuanian representatives from the senatorial group and poviat (county; Polish: powiat) nobility to the General Sejm of the Crown, in which, however, they could not play a significant role due to their small number compared to their Polish counterparts. In such a situation, it was important for the Lithuanians to maintain the principle of liberum veto, for in this way they could prevent the adoption of constitutions contrary to their interests. Throughout the whole history of the Commonwealth, the Lithuanians made efforts to ensure that their representation corresponded to the popular definition of the state of both nations (Polish and Lithuanian), and not one of its three equal provinces (Greater Poland, Little Poland, Lithuania). However, in the parliamentary system, their only success was the periodic separation of the constitutions for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from those of the whole state. Even so, Lithuania was treated as one of three provinces, which was reflected in the election of a Lithuanian deputy as Sejm marshal every third Sejm, in the composition of Sejm commissions (1/3 of seats for Lithuanians), and finally in holding of every third Sejm in Lithuania (since 1676). While preparing the Lithuanian state for the union with Poland, King Zygmunt II Augustus carried through substantial political and legal reforms in 1564–66. He introduced a new administrative division, a uniform system of parliamentary institutions (district assemblies, bicameral Sejm), and a new code of civil criminal and administrative law (the so-called Second Lithuanian Statute in 1566). This system was much clearer, simpler, and better thought-out than the one in force in the Polish Crown. Each of the poviats of a province (i.e. voivodeship, some being single-poviat ones), was to meet for deliberations in a specific place (in fact, the capital town of this poviat), gathering local senators and the land owners (Latin: possessionati), and deliberate under the direction of the 'lord' of a given administrative unit, i.e. a bishop or voivode in poviats, and, from 1764 on, local marshals in non-voivodeship poviats, ex officio. The law stipulated who should attend a given sejmik under pain of penalties, how long a sejmik may be in session, how many deputies could be elected (only two in each poviat for ordinary Sejms), what remuneration each of them was to receive for their function. During parliamentary debates, Lithuanian senators and deputies often debated separately at the so-called provincial sessions (similar to the nobility from Greater and Little Poland) to prepare the constitutions for their own province and, possibly, take a common position on state issues. Since in Lithuanian law, only general sejms existed, for a long time Lithuanians did not recognise convocation and coronation Sejms as such, did not always participate in them, and did not agree to include them among the alternate ones (that is, for the marshal from Lithuania to head). Until the early eighteenth century, there were cases of calling by rulers or by the citizens of the Grand Duchy themselves of the so-called Lithuanian convocations, i.e. quasi-Sejm assemblies of Lithuanian estates, for deliberations to take decisions (mainly taxes) of a comprehensive nature. This process was initiated by Stefan Batory, but Lithuanians did not welcome the convocations as contrary to the provisions of the Union. The so-called general sejmik (held first at Vawkavysk [Wołkowysk] and then Slonim), where a common position was to be agreed on matters important for the entire state and Lithuania itself, soon came to an end. Lithuanian magnates were not interested in such a gathering, and the nobility (despite the occasional attempts to revive the institution) did not have the strength or the willingness to strive for its functioning. The function of the coordinator of common positions was then taken over by the provincial sessions mentioned above. In conclusion, it should be noted that before the union with Poland (Union of Lublin) in 1569, the Lithuanians had their own tradition and solutions of the parliamentary system, clearly different from those of the Crown. Their reforms of 1564–66 prepared the state to function within the Polish parliamentarism, but the 1569 Union did not establish a new Sejm of the Commonwealth – representatives of the Grand Duchy (senators and deputies) were only incorporated into the existing Sejm of the Crown. They functioned within it, but they certainly did not play an important role, most often dominated by the much more numerous, more politically sophisticated, and feeling their political strength deputies of the Crown. For a long time, the deputies from Lithuania were more at the disposal of their magnate patrons. Enjoying temporary successes and failures, they struggled to break free from their political tutelage (especially from the hegemons of the Radziwiłł, Chodkiewicz, Sapieha, Pac, and Czartoryski families) until the collapse of the state. The functioning of the Lithuanians within the parliamentary system (sejmiks, Sejm) shared with the Poles was also one of the most important factors of their linguistic and cultural Polonisation, clearly visible in the resolutions of sejmiks (they started to be written down in Polish) already at the end of the sixteenth century.

Im hymnologischen Bereich sind die Entstehung und jahrhundertelange Tradierung deutscher evangelischer Kirchenlieder von großer Bedeutung. Sie übten in zahlreichen Ländern großen Einfluss aus. Im 19. Jahrhundert beispielsweise wurden sie in das Englische übersetzt und in Ländern dieses Sprachraums gesungen. Bei der Missionierung Koreas wurden westliche – darunter auch einige deutsche – Kirchenlieder eingeführt. Es fällt aber auf, dass im Übertragungsprozess inhaltliche und sprachliche Unterschiede zwischen deutschen und koreanischen Fassungungen auftreten konnten. Auf dieses Geschehen hat die Verfasserin der vorliegenden Studie bei ihrer Tätigkeit als Kirchenmusikerin in Deutschland das Augenmerk gerichtet und es zum Ausgangspunkt ihrer Dissertation gewählt. Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde Korea von anderen Ländern gezwungen, sich zu öffnen. Daraufhin kamen viele Ausländer – unter ihnen auch christliche Missionare – ins Land, die je eine eigene Gesangbuchliteratur mitbrachten. Insbesondere die amerikanische Mission fasste Fuß. Das erste koreanische Gesangbuch Chanmiga wurde im Jahr 1892 veröffentlicht; ihm folgten weitere Ausgaben. In der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts waren amerikanische Missionare Mitherausgeber dieser Gesangbücher. Folgerichtig dominierte westliches Liedgut. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht jene deutschen Kirchenlieder, die vor 1945 in das Koreanische Gesangbuch aufgenommen wurden. Sie fragt danach, auf welche Weise sie übernommen wurden und sich Änderungen bei ihrer Übermittlung vollzogen haben. Methodisch werden Quellen miteinander verglichen, die zum Zeitpunkt der Aufnahme relevant waren. Dank der älteren deutschen, englischen und amerikanischen Gesangbücher, die online und in deutschen Bibliotheken (Online-Archive) freigeschaltet sowie im Gesangbucharchiv Mainz vorhanden sind, ist diese umfangreiche Forschung möglich geworden. Die Bedeutung des Singens ist für die koreanische Christenheit während der Annexion durch Japan (1910-1945) groß gewesen. Sie sang als Unabhängigkeitsbewegung Kirchenlieder, unter denen besonders Martin Luthers Choral Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott unverzichtbar wurde. Aussagen zeitgenössischer Christen belegen seine damalige Beliebtheit. Ein Grund dafür liegt darin, dass in ihm zahlreiche Analogien zur Situation der unterdrückten Koreaner erkennbar waren. Das Lied vermittelte ihnen Trost, Mut und einen festen Gottesglauben. Seine besondere Bedeutung erkannte auch das japanische Regime und verbot es während der gesamten Besatzungszeit. Auch nach 1945 wurden deutsche Kirchenlieder in koreanische Gesangbücher aufgenommen. Ihre Anzahl sank jedoch gegen Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts; das aktuelle Gesangbuch, 21st Century Hymnal, von 2006 enthält nur noch 21. Es ist schließlich festzuhalten, dass Ein feste Burg nicht nur im Gottesdienst, sondern auch im Theater zu hören ist – paradigmatisch in der Oper Son Yang Won, eine Komposition des Kirchenmusikers Chae Hoon Park (*1922) aus dem Jahr 2011. Die Oper trägt den Namen des Märtyrers Yang Won Son (1902-1950) und thematisiert geschichtliche Ereignisse von nationaler Bedeutung: die Problematik der Anarchie, beginnend mit der Landesteilung durch die Sowjetunion und USA in zwei Besatzungszonen 1945 sowie die Yeosu-Sucheon-Rebellion von 1948, organisiert von wenigen kommunistischen Soldaten gegen die südkoreanische Regierung. Die vorliegende Studie untersucht, welche Bedeutung das Lied Ein feste Burg in der Oper einnimmt und wie Chae Hoon Park es bearbeitet hat. Die Dissertation beschränkt ihre hymnologische Forschung nicht auf die Übernahme und Rezeption deutscher Kirchenlieder in Korea; sie blickt umgekehrt auch auf die Rezeption koreanischer Gesänge in Deutschland. Durch Begegnungen von deutschen mit koreanischen Christen entstanden bzw. entstehen neue Gesänge und Kompositionen und werden durch ökumenische Gottesdienste und Veranstaltungen verbreitet. Die ökumenische Bewegung bewirkte nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg Änderungen im Liedrepertoire. Gesänge, nicht nur aus England, Europa und Nordamerika, sondern auch aus Afrika, Asien und Südamerika, wurden überall aufgenommen und gesungen. Die aktuellen deutschen und koreanischen Gesangbuchinhalte belegen dies. Die Ausführungen der Studie halten fest, dass religiöse Bewegungen – Missions- und ökumenische Bewegung – bei der Übermittlung althergebrachter und der Entstehung neuer Lieder eine große Rolle spielten. Dies ist anhand der Entwicklung des Koreanischen Gesangbuchs erkennbar. Früher wurden westliche Kirchenlieder von amerikanischen Missionaren nach Korea transferiert; die einheimischen Christen vernachlässigten wiederum ihre eigene Kultur und Musik. Deshalb dominierte für geraume Zeit westlich geprägtes Liedgut. Die Koreanisierung der Kirchenlieder bzw. Gesangbücher wird nun seit einigen Jahrzehnten forciert. Die wachsende kirchenmusikalische Qualifikation koreanischer Musiker, das zunehmend selbstbewusst werdende einheimische Christentum und die ökumenische Öffnung der Kirchen leisten hier wertvolle Beiträge. ; In the hymnological realm, the origin and age-long tradition of German Protestant hymns are of great importance. They have left a great impact in numerous countries. In the 19th century, for example, they were translated into English and have been sung in its language area. By evangelizing Korea, Western – including some German – church hymns were introduced. However, it is noticeable that content and linguistic differences between the German and Korean versions could occur in the translation process. As a church musician in Germany, the author of this study paid attention to this aspect and chose it as the starting point for this dissertation. At the end of the 19th century, Korea was forced, by other countries, to open. As a result, many foreigners – including Christian missionaries – came to the country who brought their own hymnals. Especially the American mission gained a foothold. The first Korean hymnal Chanmiga was published in 1892, followed by further editions. In the first half of the 20th century, American missionaries were co-editors of these hymnals. Consequently, Western hymn repertoire dominated. This dissertation examines those German church hymns that were included in the Korean hymnals before 1945. It explores the questions of how they were adapted and how changes took place in their transmission. Methodologically, sources were compared that were relevant at the time of adaption. This extensive research was possible thanks to the older German, English, and American hymnals that are available online and in German libraries (online archives) as well as in the Gesangbucharchiv (Hymnal Archive) Mainz. The importance of singing was great for Korean Christians during the annexation by Japan (1910-1945). In the independence movement, they sang church hymns; among them, especially Martin Luther's chorale Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott was indispensable. Statements by contemporary Christians prove its popularity at that time. One reason for this is that it shows numerous analogies to the situation of the oppressed Koreans. The church hymn gave them comfort, courage, and a firm belief in God. The Japanese regime also recognized its particular importance and banned it during the entire occupation. German church hymns were also adapted after 1945. However, their number decreased towards the end of the 20th century; the current hymnal 21st Century Hymnal of 2006 contains only 21. It is to note that one can hear Ein feste Burg not only in the worship service, but also in theatre. It occurs paradigmatically in the opera Son Yang Won, a composition from 2011 by Korean church musician Chae Hoon Park (born 1922). The opera has the name of the martyr Yang Won Son (1902-1950) as its title and thematizes historical events of national importance: the problem of anarchy, beginning with the division of the country by the Soviet Union and the United States into two occupation zones in 1945 and the Yeosu-Sucheon-Rebellion of 1948, organized by a few communist soldiers against the South Korean government. This study examines the meaning of the hymn Ein feste Burg in the opera and how Chae Hoon Park arranged it. This dissertation does not restrict its hymnological research to the adaption and reception of German church hymns in Korea, but it also deals with the reception of Korean hymns in Germany. Because of meeting between German and Korean Christians, new songs and composition have been composed, and they have been spreading through ecumenical church services and events. The ecumenical movement has caused changes in the song repertoire after World War II. Songs, not only from England, Europe, and North America, but also from Africa, Asia, and South America, have been adapted and sung everywhere. The current German and Korean hymnals prove it. Though the examinations in this study, it is shown that religious movements – missionary and ecumenical movements – played as a major role in the transmission of traditional church hymns and in the creation of new songs. This can be seen in the development of the Korean hymnals. In the past, Western church hymns were transferred by American missionaries to Korea, whereby the Korean Christians neglected their own culture and music. Therefore, Western hymns dominated for some time. In the most recent decades, the Koreanization of hymns and hymnals has been intensified. The growing qualification of Korean church musicians, the increasingly self-assured native Christianity, and the ecumenical opening of the churches make valuable contributions here.

La Educación Inclusiva es un enfoque emergente en todos los países como respuesta a las profundas brechas de inequidad social, los factores de exclusión, segregación y discriminación en los contextos educativos. Aún persisten barreras que impiden que muchos niños, niñas y jóvenes no asistan o abandonen la escuela, o bien concluyen su escolaridad, pero no logran los aprendizajes básicos para una convivencia social plena. El postulado central es la educación como un derecho humano fundamental y por ello se debe brindar una educación de calidad para todos con equidad. Por esta razón la educación inclusiva se conceptualiza desde cuatro ámbitos; el primero como proceso que busca la transformación de la escuela para responder a la diversidad; reconocer que cada niño es único y especial. El segundo desde componentes de participación, permanencia y logro de los aprendizajes. Lo importante no es estar en la escuela sino participar y aprender en ella. El tercero está vinculado a la atención de los niños y niñas en situación de vulnerabilidad o marginación por factores como la discapacidad, pertenecer a alguna minoría étnica o lingüística, ser migrante, o presentar alguna condición de privación sociocultural, entre otros. El cuarto está orientado a la identificación y remoción de las barreras para el aprendizaje. Por otra parte, el profesor es un elemento clave para la consolidación de la inclusión y el desarrollo de ambientes para el aprendizaje. Sin embargo, es claro que los profesores deben desarrollar nuevas competencias que les permitan responder a este paradigma. Existen diversos planteamientos que buscan conceptualizar y caracterizar la formación inicial y continúa de los profesores, entre ellos están los propuestos por la Agencia Europea para las Necesidades Especiales y la Inclusión Educativa, la UNESCO, y otras organizaciones internacionales. En México, a partir de la administración federal 2013-2018 estableció las bases para que el sistema educativo mexicano fuera inclusivo y en consecuencia y generó transformaciones importantes para lograrlo. Sin embargo, no hay una propuesta en términos de formación de profesores para la inclusión; es decir que cuente con las competencias profesionales básicas que permitan ser agentes de cambio en nuestro país. No cabe duda que la escuela enfrenta nuevos y diversos desafíos en términos de avanzar en la consolidación de una educación de calidad con equidad; que brinde oportunidades para todos, impulse nuevos modelos pedagógicos con características orientadas a la sustentabilidad, la ciudadanía global y el reconocimiento de la diversidad como componente normal. Con los objetivos de mi tesis doctoral me propuse ofrecer una respuesta al vacío que existe en la formación de docentes para la inclusión, que exige nuevas competencias profesionales, como son el tener una conceptualización precisa, promover políticas, prácticas inclusivas; nuevos modelos de relación entre los profesionales de la educación a través de la colaboración, generar ambientes para el aprendizaje, brindar atención a la diversidad de sus estudiantes, entre otros. Promover también nuevas formas de gestión y diversas formas de enseñanza. El propósito fue conformar una propuesta de innovación que incidiera en la trasformación de la formación inicial de docentes. Los resultados esperados de esta investigación fueron: Conformar un marco de reflexión teórica para conceptualizar la educación inclusiva y los retos que representa para los sistemas educativos. Ofrecer diversos modelos de formación de docentes y la necesidad de contar con un profesor inclusivo que promueva la educación inclusión a través de un programa para la formación inicial de profesores. De igual manera marcar un referente para posteriores investigaciones sobre educación inclusiva y formación de docentes. ; The Inclusive Education is an emerging approach in all countries as a response to deep social inequality gaps, factors of exclusion, segregation and discriminations contexts. There are still barriers that prevent many children and young people do not attend or drop out of schools, or conclude their schooling, but fail the basic learning for a full social life. The central tenet is education as a fundamental human right and because of that all must provide quality education with equity. For this reason the inclusive education is conceptualize since four areas; the first as a process oriented to transform the school for to respond the diversity, recognizing that each child is unique and special. The second correspond to the concern about the participation, permanence and achievement of the learning process. The important thing is not to be in school but to participate in it. The third is linking with the attention of children in vulnerability condition or marginalization for disabilities, to be part of ethnic or linguistic minority or migrant or to have a social deprivation, among others. The four is oriented to the identity and remove the barriers for learning. On the other hand, the teachers are an essential key for promote the inclusion and learning developments, but nevertheless needs to have new competencies for to respond to the new approach. At this time there are proposals oriented to support the teacher education in terms of in service and ongoing teachers from diverse international organizations as a European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, the UNESCO and others. In México, the Federal Government 2013-2018, established the foundation about the inclusive education for all Mexican Educational System, but at this time the Teacher Education Programs do not yet contemplate the formation of inclusive teachers, that is to say with the core professional competencies for to be factors of change in our country. Without doubt the schools have new challenges in term of quality education with equity, offering opportunities for all, promoting new pedagogic models oriented to sustainability, the global citizen and the recognizing the diversity as a normal element. The purposes of my dissertation I decided to offer a response to the vacuum that exists on teacher training for inclusion, which requires new skills, such as having a precise conceptualization, promote policies, practices inclusive; new models of relationship between professionals of education through collaboration create environments for learning, providing attention to the diversity of their students, among others, also to promote new forms of management and various forms of teaching. The purpose was to create a proposal for innovation that meets in the transformation of initial teacher training. The results expected from this research were: form a theoretical framework to conceptualize the inclusive education and the challenges it poses to the educational systems. Offer different models of teacher training and the need of having an inclusive teacher that promotes inclusive education through a program for initial formation, similarly is a reference point for further investigations. ; Tesis Univ. Jaén. Departamento de Pedagogía. Leída el 5 de abril de 2019.

The article intends to give an overview of current and emerging approaches used in the productive activities of reading and interpreting/ translation. It deals with investigation of reading as comparatively easy, reliable and fast process for gaining competences helping students as future graduates to become capable of competing on the job market. Reading and translating/ interpreting have a high potential to fit students' wants and needs and further push learning efficiencies. Reading as a classic technique is appreciated as an important part of students' development to increase the efficiency on the one hand and to decrease the number of mistakes in comprehension and translation on the other hand. Based on the kind of text samples, establishment of the general effect of reading and translating/ interpreting is therefore evident. The variety of changes that we can observe in class depends on texts, their structure, style and initial purposes. More specifically the article focuses on the ways of its practical realization. Thus, students become familiar with the methodology of reading and translating/ interpreting and develop these procedures in accordance with national and international standards and practices. At the institutional level, explicit descriptions of the effective ways and the desired learning outcomes have been based theoretically and studied experimentally at the linguistic faculty of the National Technical University of Ukraine «Ihor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute» References 1. Agayeva, F. A. 1990. Modalnost kak lingvisticheskaya kategoriya (na materiale angliyskogo i turkmenskogo yazykov). Ashkhabad: Ylym. 2. Arnold, I. V. 2006. Stilistika. Sovremennyy angliyskiy yazyk. Moskva. 3. Balli, Sh. 1955. Obshchaya lingvistika i voprosy frantsuzkogo yazyka. Moskva: Izd-vo inostrannoi literature. 4. Belyaeva, E. I. 1985. Funktsionalno-semanticheskiye polya modalnosti v angliyskom i russkom yazykakh. Voronezh: Izd-vo Voronezh. un-ta. 5. Benvenist, E. 1974. Obshchaya lingvistika. Moskva: Progress. 6. Ivin, A. A. 1970. Osnovaniya logiki otsenok, 21–34. Moskva: Izd. Mosk. un-ta. 7. Kozlovskiy, V. V. 1997. Predlozheniya s koniunktivom (struktura. semantika. pragmatika). Chernovtsy: Ruta. 8. Orekhova, E. N. 2011. "Subektivnaya modalnost vyskazyvaniya: forma. semantika. Funktsii". PhD diss., Moskva. http://dissers.ru/avtoreferati-dissertatsii-filologiya/a54.php 9. Microsoft. http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2011/aug11/08-29CRMForLessPR.aspx 10. Human Rights and Democracy report. 2012. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/human-rights-and-democracy-report-2012-country 11. Stock image from the FCO Human Rights Report. 2012. http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/newsroom/ press-releases/detail.cfm?customel_datapageid_42488=62321 12. US News and World report. http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2011/aug11/0804SchoolPR.aspx 13. Комунікативно-прагматичні функції інверсії в англомовних прес-релізах. 2013. http://www.ereleases.com/ pr/kosher-foodies-no-longer-relegated-to-plain-old-kosher-salt-10985 14. Paskett public relations. http://www.ereleases.com/pr/trucking-magazine-helps-drivers-battle-obesity-9350 15. Dresden International. http://corporate.ford.com/news-center/press-releases-detail/pr-ford26rsquos-fastestever-mustang-36747) 16. Starbucks Newsroom. http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=598 17. Starbucks Newsroom. http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=478 18. Starbucks Newsroom. http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=476 19. Starbucks Newsroom. http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=481 ; Статтю присвячено дослідженню сучасних підходів до читання та усного і письмового перекладу в методиці викладання іноземних мов. Читання розглядається як відносно легкий, надійний та швидкий процес набуття студентами мовної компетентності для подальшої конкурентоспроможності на сучасному ринку праці. Потенціал читання та перекладу повністю відповідає потребам і побажанням студентів і сприяє підвищенню ефективності навчання. Це класична методика, яка направлена на уникнення помилок в розумінні різнопланових іншомовних текстів. Позитивні зміни залежать від типу, структури та стилю текстів. Стаття приділяє особливу увагу методам практичного застосування читання і перекладу в аудиторії. Таким чином студенти ознайомлюються з методологією читання і перекладу, і , крім того, спільними зусиллями досягають удосконалення зазначених процедур у відповідності з міжнародними стандартами і стандартами освіти в Україні. Ми прийшли до висновку, що у нашому випадку, основоположне значення має використання рідної мови в аудиторії: це необхідно для підготовки перекладачів. Переклад розглядається як новий механізм, який дозволяє створення інноваційного середовища для вивчення мови. Таке середовище має важливе значення для подолання страхів студентів виконувати переклад під час практичних занять з «Теорії та практики перекладу». Формування у студентів спільного бачення розуміння важливості здатності перекладати на основі заохочення і мотивації для виявлення досвіду у цій царині, яка тісно пов'язана з майбутньою професією і створенням творчого середовища, що базується на критичному ставленні до продукту перекладу. Студенти мають усвідомлювати зв'язок між мовою і змістом. Викладачі мають пропонувати модель поєднання мови і змісту з детальними інструкціями на основі тематично організованих матеріалів, оскільки повнота відтворення змісту в роботі перекладача виступає як основна здатність для забезпечення ефективної комунікації. Ефективність створення середовища для розвитку можливостей читання та усного і письмового перекладу теоретично обґрунтовано та експериментально доведено на факультеті лінгвістики Національного технічного університету України "КПІ". Джерела та література 1. Агаева Ф. А. Модальность как лингвистическая категория (на материале английского и туркменского языков) / Ф. А. Агаева. – Ашхабад : Ылым, 1990. – 305 с. 2. Арнольд И. В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык : учебн. для вузов / И. В. Арнольд.– 8-е изд. – М. : 2006. – 219 с. 3. Балли Ш. Общая лингвистика и вопросы французкого языка / Ш. Балли. – М. : Изд-во иностранной литературы, 1955. – 416 с. 4. Беляева Е. И. Функционально-семантические поля модальности в английском и русском языках / Е. И. Беляева. – Воронеж : Изд-во Воронеж. ун-та, 1985. – 178 с. 5. Бенвенист Э. Общая лингвистика / Э. Бенвенист. – М. : Прогресс, 1974. – 448 с. 6. Ивин А. А. Основания логики оценок / А. А. Ивин. – М. : Изд. Моск. ун-та, 1970. – С. 21–34. 7. Козловский В. В. Предложения с конъюнктивом (структура, семантика, прагматика) : монография / В. В. Козловский. – Черновцы : Рута, 1997. – 281 с. 8. Орехова Е. Н. Субъективная модальность высказывания: форма, семантика, функции : дис. … д-ра филол. наук : спец. 10.02.01 «Русский язык» / Е. Н. Орехова [Электронный ресурс] – Москва, 2011. – С. 9. – Режим доступа : http://dissers.ru/avtoreferati-dissertatsii-filologiya/a54.php 9. Microsoft [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2011/aug11/08-29CRMForLessPR.aspx 10. Human Rights and Democracy report. 2012 [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : https://www.gov.uk/government/news/human-rights-and-democracy-report-2012-country 11. Stock image from the FCO Human Rights Report 2012. Credit Basma [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/newsroom/press-releases/detail.cfm?customel_datapageid_42488=62321 12. US News and World report. [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/press/2011/aug11/0804SchoolPR.aspx 13. Комунікативно-прагматичні функції інверсії в англомовних прес-релізах. 2013. [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу : http://www.ereleases.com/pr/kosher-foodies-no-longer-relegated-to-plain-old-kosher-salt-10985 14. Paskett public relations [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://www.ereleases.com/pr/trucking-magazine-helps-drivers-battle-obesity-9350 15. Dresden International. [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://corporate.ford.com/news-center/press-releases-detail/pr-ford26rsquos-fastestever-mustang-36747) 16. Starbucks Newsroom [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm? article_id=598 17. Starbucks Newsroom [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=478 18. Starbucks Newsroom [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm? article_id=476 19. Starbucks Newsroom [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access : http://news.starbucks.com/article_display.cfm? article_id=481

The actuality of research paper is the integration of Ukraine into the European Union and the achievement of victory over Russia in the "hybrid war" of the XXIst century, the need to unite Ukrainian people around common goals based on national pride. The Ukrainians study two important concepts - the Ukrainian the national idea (UNI) and the national identity, the means of their evaluation and development. The aim of the research is a critical analysis of common and distinctive concepts of the UNI and national identity. The purpose of the research is to define the main difficulties for spreading the victorious UNI in present conditions; to research the practice of studying and measuring the numerous characteristics of national identification by sociologists and the other Ukrainian scholars (in the first place - the language theme). The research methodology has a modern system and multidisciplinary character. The method of dialectical analysis is taken from philosophy, evolutionary approach - from historical sciences, comparative analysis - from linguistics and pedagogics, etc. We will be constantly turning to the latest scientific discoveries in ethology, cognitive science, noohistory and the other "young" sciences, that is necessary for predictions in the topic of "national identification". Particularly we are going to borrow foreign experience in the protection of the national language and in effective teaching of foreign languages. The main result of the research is the need to create and apply the UNI as a strategic means on consolidation of Ukraine. UNI-21 should rely on a combination of noohistory as the sum of exact dates of archaeological findings and the decoding of the DNA of their organic part. The facts about the Great Trypillya and the other ancestors' achievements of Ukrainians for over 15,000 years have already raised national pride and created a scientific outlook. The noohistorians have created a new theory on the of the Indo-European languages' family origin. Besides they confirmed the hypothesis of German linguists of the XIXth century about the extension of Indo-European languages' family from Ukraine's forest steppes. These and other facts are forming a high national pride, which greatly facilitates the solution of language problems. Conclusion: We have proved that the experience of Ireland on the language issues has special significance for modern Ukraine. It is known that Ireland has been colonized by the United Kingdom for 800 years. The Irish were suffered from a linguistic split and separation of a part of the nation, but they did not lose their native language. And even after the "economic victory" over the colonialists in circumstances of a very high standard living they started to restore the Irish language position of the main state language ; Актуальність теми дослідження полягає в тому, що для інтеграції України в Європейський Союз і досягнення перемоги над Росією в розв'язаній нею «гібридній війні» зразка ХХІ ст. необхідне згуртування українців навколо спільних цілей на основі національної гордості. Українські представники гуманітарних наук вивчають два важливі поняття - українську національну ідею (УНІ) і національну ідентичність, засоби їх вимірювання й розвитку.Мета дослідження – критичний аналіз спільного та відмінностей понять УНІ та національна ідентичність.Ціль дослідження - виявити головні труднощі створення і поширення всепереможної УНІ в умовах сьогодення; дослідити практику вивчення і вимірювання численних характеристик національної ідентифікації соціологами та іншими українськими науковцями (у першу чергу - мовної теми).Методологія дослідження має сучасний системний та мультидисциплінарний характер. Метод діалектичного аналізу запозичений філософії, еволюційний підхід - з історичних наук, порівняльного аналізу - з лінгвістики і педагогіки та ін. Ми будемо постійно звертатися до найновіших наукових відкриттів з етології, когнітології, нооісторії й інших молодих наук, необхідних для прогнозів у темі «національна ідентифікація», зокрема, стосовно запозичення зарубіжного досвіду в захисті національної мови й розумному викладанні іноземних мов.Головним результатом дослідження є доведення необхідності створення і застосування УНУ як стратегічного засобу зміцнення України. УНУ-21 має спиратися на поєднання нооісторії як суми точних датувань археологічних знахідок і розшифровки ДНК їх органічної частини. Факти про Велике Трипілля та інші досягнення пращурів українців за 15 000 років уже підвищують національну гордість і створюють науковий світогляд. Нооісторики створили нову теорію походження сім'ї індоєвропейських мов і підтвердили гіпотезу німецьких лінгвістів з ХІХ ст. про поширення цієї сім'ї з лісостепів України. Ці й інші факти формують високу національну гордість, яка значно полегшить вирішення мовних проблем.Висновок: нами доведено, що для України-2018 у мовній темі особливо високе значення має досвід Ірландії. Цю країну на 800 років колонізувала Велика Британія. Ірландці зазнали мовного розколу і відділення частини нації, але не втратили рідну мову й після економічної перемоги над колонізаторами в умовах дуже високого рівня життя розпочали урівноважено відновлювати ірландську мову на позиції головної державної мови ; Актуальность темы исследования заключается в том, что для интеграции Украины в Европейский Союз и достижения победы над Россией в развязанной ею «гибридной войне» образца XXI века необходимо сплочение украинцев вокруг общих целей на основе национальной гордости. Украинские представители гуманитарных наук изучают два важных понятия - украинскую национальную идею (УНИ) и национальную идентичность, средства их измерения и развития. Цель исследования - критический анализ общего и различий понятий УНИ и национальная идентичность.Задача исследования - обнаружить основные преграды для распространения всепобеждающей УНИ в сегодняшних условиях; исследовать практику изучения и измерения многочисленных характеристик национальной идентификации социологами и другими украинскими учеными (в первую очередь - языковой темы).Методология исследования имеет современный системный и мультидисциплинарный характер. Метод диалектического анализа заимствован из философии, эволюционный подход - из исторических наук, сравнительного анализа - из лингвистики и педагогики и др. Мы будем постоянно обращаться к новейшим научным открытиям в этологии, когнитологии, нооистории и других молодых науках, необходимых для прогнозов в теме «национальная идентификация», в частности, относительно заимствования зарубежного опыта в защите национального языка и разумном преподавании иностранных языков.Главным результатом исследования является доказательство необходимости создания и применения УНИ как стратегического средства укрепления Украины. УНИ-21 должна опираться на сочетание нооистории как суммы точных датировок археологических находок и расшифровки ДНК их органической части. Факты о Большом Триполье и других достижениях предков украинцев за 15 000 лет уже повышают национальную гордость и создают научное мировоззрение. Нооисторики создали новую теорию происхождения семьи индоевропейских языков и подтвердили гипотезу немецких лингвистов XIX в. о распространении этой семьи из лесостепей Украины. Эти и другие факты формируют высокую национальную гордость, которая значительно облегчит решение языковых проблем.Вывод: нами доказано, что для Украины-2018 в языковой теме особенно высокое значение имеет опыт Ирландии. Эту страну на 800 лет колонизировала Великобритания. Ирландцы испытали языковый раскол и отделение части нации, но не утратили родной язык и после экономической победы над колонизаторами в условиях очень высокого уровня жизни начали уравновешенно восстанавливать ирландский язык на позиции главного государственного языка

National drug control policies and strategies are heavily dependent on the international legal framework. International standards set by United Nations drug control conventions serve as basic principles for the development and shape of national drug control systems. International drug control system has its own, a very specific history and dynamics of development in which the United States definitely did play a very important role promoting prohibitionist approach based on the abstinence paradigm. According to this paradigm drug use is acceptable only for scientific and medical purposes. Unsurprisingly, recreational or experimental use of drugs is considered as unacceptable and inevitably leading to addiction. This hard-line approach dominated in public discourse during the 20th century and the drug use was seen either as a sin or as a disease. However, it seems that from the beginning of the 21th century, international drug control regime, ideologically based on the abstinence paradigm, is facing big challenges and it is not entirely clear what to expect in the future. Ironically, the United States is the most important player again, but this time in quite the opposite role. Moralising teetotaller Dr. Jeckyll suddenly turned in a pothead Mr. Hyde. So-called "cannabis capitalism" process in several states of USA, when the sale of recreational cannabis was fully legalised, raised serious questions about the perspectives of international drug control system, because such practice is obviously in breach of the international law. Also it is important to note other signs of moving towards the drug policy with a human face, especially raising the popularity of the harm reduction approach to the drug problem and process of "soft deception' related to that. The latter means that some countries are choosing more tolerant approach theoretically not infringing legal boundaries set by the conventions. Considering the context provided above, the main purpose of this study was to make the analysis of the peculiarities of global drug control system and their interrelation with the national drug control policy in the light of personal drug use. In order to fulfil this goal historical analysis of the development of United Nations global drug control system was made, peculiarities and characteristic features of the legal framework of this system as well as legal boundaries set for countries by the conventions were analysed. Particular attention was paid to the international legal framework regarding personal drug use, different national practises in this perspective as well as possible directions of the future development of global drug control system were discussed. Finally, Lithuanian drug control policy in the context of United Nations drug control regime was discussed. Main research methods were: logical-linguistic, systemic, comparative as well as analysis of documents and secondary data. Moreover, relevant scientific literature, national and international legal acts in the area of drug control were studied. The drug control and drug policy primarily were explored from criminological and sociology of law perspectives. In author's point of view these interdisciplinary social sciences enable to achieve deeper understanding of drug control phenomenon than it is possible to attain using only narrow legalistic analysis of laws and legal norms. According to the findings of the study the drug control policy (national, regional or global) is a complex phenomenon influenced by many cultural, social and other factors as well as different interest groups (physicians, law enforcement agencies, etc.) operating in the drug control field. It is important to stress, that usually legal control has a very limited (if has at all) influence to the prevalence of illicit drug use, which is mostly determined by the culture, social policy and social context. On the other hand, the drug control remedies are significant when dealing with the high-risk/problem drug use. The United Nations conventions set legal boundaries to the countries, but there is a certain room of interpretation. United Nations institutions (especially International Drug Control Board) support the narrow interpretation of the treaties and usually criticise countries (as sending "wrong signals") that are leaning towards less strict drug policies. Accordingly, various harm reduction practises are on the edge of violation of international law but this is a matter of interpretation. The United Nations conventions and European Union documents make a clear distinction between drug dealing and activities attributed to personal use. The drug dealing is always a matter of criminal law; accordingly criminal sanctions should be strict enough. As regards to the personal drug use countries have more flexibility and other measures (administrative sanctions, medical treatment, etc.) could be applied. On the other hand, legal market of substances controlled by the Schedule IV (e.g. cannabis) could not be created at the same time not infringing international law. In the 21th century a gradual weakening of international drug control regime could be observed. The main feature of this phenomenon is a soft deception, which is related to the increasing popularity of the harm reduction doctrine. It goes hand in hand with the decriminalisation and/or the depenalisation of activities related to personal drug use shifting from punitive approach to the more health oriented. The main challenge to the existing global drug control system is de jure legalisation of cannabis in several USA states. It is related to the process of cannabis use "normalisation"; then such practice is not regarded as a pathological behaviour anymore. It is important to stress that this approach contradicts the abstinence paradigm, which is an ideological core of the United Nations conventions. It creates a high tension and the future of international drug control system in existing framework becomes uncertain. In order to maintain the stability of the system in particular and the trust in international law in general, the revision of UN drug control conventions seems to be inevitable. Lithuanian drug control policy is oriented to the strict control measures and prevention. As regards to the personal drug use till 2017 the drug gaining and possession were partially decriminalised because such activities were subject of either criminal or administrative liability. From 2017 onwards such activities are subject of criminal law only without any explanation of this change of law. Therefore, the Lithuanian drug control policy is moving to the opposite direction than in the Western world, i.e. to more strict measures regarding personal use of drugs. In this context, it is important to stress, that criminal law is considered as ultima ratio measure which has multiple side effects, thus criminalisation of certain activity or introduction of criminal sanctions must be strongly grounded. Preferably, not only by arguments, but also by hard empirical data supporting those arguments. It could be concluded, that decriminalisation in the sphere of personal drug use has legal and pragmatic assumptions. Such policy does not violate legal boundaries set by the United Nations conventions and reflects the newest tendencies of how modern drug control policy should look like. Last but not least, it is important to stress, that effective drug control policy should be evidence based. That means that drug policy changes should be supported by science innovations, empirical data, cost-benefit analysis, etc.

The Thesis of the doctorate, which we elaborated, concerns the religious history of the Armenian high plateau. According to its title «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», it is going to shed a light on the religious, liturgical, cultural, anthropological, sociological and historic vision, as well as the philological study of the people of the Armenian high plateau generally and the Armenian people specifically. The scope of this dissertation is to study the field of the religion: the sociology, the history, the liturgy, the mythology and the anthropology following the traditions, the customs, the myths, the feasts, the superstitions as well as the key elements which define the culture of the religion. In our study, the purpose of our research will be to see which pagan Armenian religious elements were passed onto Christianity from the time of the conversion. In the first four chapters of the thesis, we are going to study the Armenian mythology, which have been practiced by the Armenian people, as to almost all the ancient civilizations. The political and geographical situation of Armenia played a significant role to create its rich vision of the religion. The Armenian view of religion, being an amalgamation of local and non local faiths, evolved through various periods. Even before the cult of idolatry, Armenia was under the influence of the religions and the cults of the nearby nations. These nations were the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, the Acadians, the Persians and the Greeks, with whom the Armenians maintained linguistic, spatial, ethnic or subordination relations. Under the influence of foreign policy, the vision of Armenian religion being a mixture with the local religions had its unique character. Through the thesis, we are going to analyze the scope of the religion: the spiritual powers, represented by the divinities, the spirits, the forefathers, the sacred places, the trees, waters, fires, and animals. Later, we are going to study the subject of the religion: the man (king and priest), the religious community (clan, Church, sect, secret society), and the spiritual elements of the man (soul). Finally, we are going to quote the expressions of the religious experience: ideals (faiths, myths, doctrines) and practices (cults, rites, feasts, magical acts). By studying «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», we concluded that by trying to eradicate the «profane», a «sacred» system was created. In our study, we have made a reflection on the policy of «armenisation» of the foreign elements, and also on what has passed in the realm of the faith. The vision of the Armenian people regarding to mankind, the world, and the God formed a system of beliefs: the myths, the rituals and the worship, which survived and were transmitted from generation to generation in the form of tradition. The manner by which such elements are transmitted are essentially the spoken traditions, the repetition of the worship and the ritual techniques through imitation and learning. Seemingly, the spiritual inheritance of paganism was replaced by the Christian legacy, but in reality had taken place a sublimation of the previous heritage. On the bases of the pagan culture and the ruins of the pagan religion, the Church put its foundations. The Church was established practically thanks to the invention of the alphabet in 5th century, which was called the golden age, it favored the growth of the Armenian Church and the prosperity of the people. ; La Thèse du doctorat qu'on a élaborée concerne l'histoire religieuse du haut plateau arménien. Selon son titre «Le substrat préchrétien et la réception arménienne du christianisme», vont être présentées la vision religieuse, liturgique, culturelle, anthropologique, sociologique et historique, ainsi que l'étude philologique des peuples du haut plateau arménien en général et du peuple arménien en particulier. Le champ d'application de ce mémoire est d'étudier dans le domaine de la religion: la sociologie, l'histoire, la liturgie, la mythologie et l'anthropologie suivant les traditions, les mœurs, les mythes, les fêtes, les superstitions et tous les éléments clés qui définissent la culture de la religion. Dans notre étude, l'objet de notre recherche sera de voir quels éléments païens arméniens religieux sont passés dans le christianisme depuis la conversion. Dans les quatre premiers chapitres de la thèse, on étudiera la mythologie arménienne, qui a servi au peuple arménien, comme chez presque toutes les civilisations antiques, à mémoriser les événements passés, ainsi qu'à idéaliser selon la créativité des peuples. En bref, la mythologie arménienne au-delà des croyances exprime la religiosité du peuple arménien. La situation politique et géographique de l'Arménie a joué un grand rôle pour fonder une riche vision de la religion au voisinage des différents peuples. Le point de vue arménien de la religion, étant une fusion de croyances locales et non locales, a évolué à travers les différentes phases. Même avant le culte des idoles, l'Arménie a été sous l'influence des religions et des cultes des nations environnantes. Ces nations sont les Assyriens, les Chaldéens, les Babyloniens, les Akkadiens, les Perses et les Grecs, avec lesquels les Arméniens entretiennent d'étroites relations linguistiques, spatiales, ethniques ou bien de subordination. Sous l'oppression des influences de la politique étrangère, la vision de la religion arménienne étant une fusion avec la religion locale, a eu son caractère unique. À travers la thèse, on analysera l'objet de la religion: les puissances abstraites, présentes dans les divinités, les esprits, les aïeux, les endroits réceptacles sacrés de forces, d'arbres, d'eaux, de feux, d'animaux. Ensuite on étudiera le sujet de la religion: l'homme (roi et prêtre), la communauté cultuelle (clan, Église, secte, société secrète), et les éléments spirituels de l'homme (âme). Enfin on citera les expressions de l'expérience religieuse: idéaux (croyances, mythes, doctrines) et pratiques (cultes, rites, fêtes, actes magiques). En étudiant les «Substrats préchrétiens», on est arrivé à la conclusion qu'en essayant de déraciner le «profane», on créa un système «sacré», qui dans le langage philosophique n'existe pas sans la présence du premier. Dans notre étude, on a fait une réflexion sur ce qu'est la politique d'«arméniser» des éléments étrangers, et sur ce qui est passé aussi dans le champ de la foi. La vision du peuple arménien à propos de l'homme, du monde et de Dieu a formé un ordre de croyances: les mythes, les rites et la liturgie, qui ont survécu et ont été transmis de génération en génération sous forme de tradition. Les manières dont de tels éléments sont transmis sont essentiellement les traditions orales, la répétition de la liturgie et des techniques rituelles au travers de l'imitation et de l'apprentissage. En apparence, l'héritage spirituel païen a été remplacé par l'héritage chrétien, mais en réalité a eu lieu une sublimation du patrimoine précédent. Sur les bases de la culture païenne et des ruines de la religion païenne, l'Église a placé ses fondements. L'Église s'est établie pratiquement grâce à l'invention de l'alphabet au Ve siècle, qui a été appelé l'âge d'or et qui a favorisé la croissance de l'Église arménienne et la prospérité du peuple.

The Thesis of the doctorate, which we elaborated, concerns the religious history of the Armenian high plateau. According to its title «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», it is going to shed a light on the religious, liturgical, cultural, anthropological, sociological and historic vision, as well as the philological study of the people of the Armenian high plateau generally and the Armenian people specifically. The scope of this dissertation is to study the field of the religion: the sociology, the history, the liturgy, the mythology and the anthropology following the traditions, the customs, the myths, the feasts, the superstitions as well as the key elements which define the culture of the religion. In our study, the purpose of our research will be to see which pagan Armenian religious elements were passed onto Christianity from the time of the conversion. In the first four chapters of the thesis, we are going to study the Armenian mythology, which have been practiced by the Armenian people, as to almost all the ancient civilizations. The political and geographical situation of Armenia played a significant role to create its rich vision of the religion. The Armenian view of religion, being an amalgamation of local and non local faiths, evolved through various periods. Even before the cult of idolatry, Armenia was under the influence of the religions and the cults of the nearby nations. These nations were the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, the Acadians, the Persians and the Greeks, with whom the Armenians maintained linguistic, spatial, ethnic or subordination relations. Under the influence of foreign policy, the vision of Armenian religion being a mixture with the local religions had its unique character. Through the thesis, we are going to analyze the scope of the religion: the spiritual powers, represented by the divinities, the spirits, the forefathers, the sacred places, the trees, waters, fires, and animals. Later, we are going to study the subject of the religion: the man (king and priest), the religious community (clan, Church, sect, secret society), and the spiritual elements of the man (soul). Finally, we are going to quote the expressions of the religious experience: ideals (faiths, myths, doctrines) and practices (cults, rites, feasts, magical acts). By studying «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», we concluded that by trying to eradicate the «profane», a «sacred» system was created. In our study, we have made a reflection on the policy of «armenisation» of the foreign elements, and also on what has passed in the realm of the faith. The vision of the Armenian people regarding to mankind, the world, and the God formed a system of beliefs: the myths, the rituals and the worship, which survived and were transmitted from generation to generation in the form of tradition. The manner by which such elements are transmitted are essentially the spoken traditions, the repetition of the worship and the ritual techniques through imitation and learning. Seemingly, the spiritual inheritance of paganism was replaced by the Christian legacy, but in reality had taken place a sublimation of the previous heritage. On the bases of the pagan culture and the ruins of the pagan religion, the Church put its foundations. The Church was established practically thanks to the invention of the alphabet in 5th century, which was called the golden age, it favored the growth of the Armenian Church and the prosperity of the people. ; La Thèse du doctorat qu'on a élaborée concerne l'histoire religieuse du haut plateau arménien. Selon son titre «Le substrat préchrétien et la réception arménienne du christianisme», vont être présentées la vision religieuse, liturgique, culturelle, anthropologique, sociologique et historique, ainsi que l'étude philologique des peuples du haut plateau arménien en général et du peuple arménien en particulier. Le champ d'application de ce mémoire est d'étudier dans le domaine de la religion: la sociologie, l'histoire, la liturgie, la mythologie et l'anthropologie suivant les traditions, les mœurs, les mythes, les fêtes, les superstitions et tous les éléments clés qui définissent la culture de la religion. Dans notre étude, l'objet de notre recherche sera de voir quels éléments païens arméniens religieux sont passés dans le christianisme depuis la conversion. Dans les quatre premiers chapitres de la thèse, on étudiera la mythologie arménienne, qui a servi au peuple arménien, comme chez presque toutes les civilisations antiques, à mémoriser les événements passés, ainsi qu'à idéaliser selon la créativité des peuples. En bref, la mythologie arménienne au-delà des croyances exprime la religiosité du peuple arménien. La situation politique et géographique de l'Arménie a joué un grand rôle pour fonder une riche vision de la religion au voisinage des différents peuples. Le point de vue arménien de la religion, étant une fusion de croyances locales et non locales, a évolué à travers les différentes phases. Même avant le culte des idoles, l'Arménie a été sous l'influence des religions et des cultes des nations environnantes. Ces nations sont les Assyriens, les Chaldéens, les Babyloniens, les Akkadiens, les Perses et les Grecs, avec lesquels les Arméniens entretiennent d'étroites relations linguistiques, spatiales, ethniques ou bien de subordination. Sous l'oppression des influences de la politique étrangère, la vision de la religion arménienne étant une fusion avec la religion locale, a eu son caractère unique. À travers la thèse, on analysera l'objet de la religion: les puissances abstraites, présentes dans les divinités, les esprits, les aïeux, les endroits réceptacles sacrés de forces, d'arbres, d'eaux, de feux, d'animaux. Ensuite on étudiera le sujet de la religion: l'homme (roi et prêtre), la communauté cultuelle (clan, Église, secte, société secrète), et les éléments spirituels de l'homme (âme). Enfin on citera les expressions de l'expérience religieuse: idéaux (croyances, mythes, doctrines) et pratiques (cultes, rites, fêtes, actes magiques). En étudiant les «Substrats préchrétiens», on est arrivé à la conclusion qu'en essayant de déraciner le «profane», on créa un système «sacré», qui dans le langage philosophique n'existe pas sans la présence du premier. Dans notre étude, on a fait une réflexion sur ce qu'est la politique d'«arméniser» des éléments étrangers, et sur ce qui est passé aussi dans le champ de la foi. La vision du peuple arménien à propos de l'homme, du monde et de Dieu a formé un ordre de croyances: les mythes, les rites et la liturgie, qui ont survécu et ont été transmis de génération en génération sous forme de tradition. Les manières dont de tels éléments sont transmis sont essentiellement les traditions orales, la répétition de la liturgie et des techniques rituelles au travers de l'imitation et de l'apprentissage. En apparence, l'héritage spirituel païen a été remplacé par l'héritage chrétien, mais en réalité a eu lieu une sublimation du patrimoine précédent. Sur les bases de la culture païenne et des ruines de la religion païenne, l'Église a placé ses fondements. L'Église s'est établie pratiquement grâce à l'invention de l'alphabet au Ve siècle, qui a été appelé l'âge d'or et qui a favorisé la croissance de l'Église arménienne et la prospérité du peuple.

In this thesis, theoretical and methodological basis of the study of informational direction of policy on protecting national interests of the state are systematized; the experience in this very area of foreign countries and Ukraine is generalized.It is proved that the informational direction of policy on protecting national interests is an integral part of state policy, which ensures the promotion and protection of interests in public political-informational, political-figurative and political-semantic fields. It has been pointed on synergistic specificity of implementing such a policy in the conditions of non-linear development of the world.The substantial difference between the concepts «political territory» and «political space», which are used as synonyms in political science, was justified. Political territory should be considered as states-nations and its associations, which have publicly recognized and legally secured borders, institutions of governance, system of legislation and regulation, and monopoly to use force. They are focused on ensuring stability, maximum protection, inviolability of borders and preservation of sovereignty. Political space is a set of interrelated political phenomena and processes which go beyond borders, but initiated by certain state in order to establish economic, political, cultural, linguistic, informational, etc. control on internal and external space. The author proposed the following indicators of divergence: geographic (border), regulatory, institutional (presence/absence of a single decisionmaking center).Such concepts as «political-figurative field» and «political- semantic field», which are the components of a constructed reality, were identified. They also define the entire set of images and meanings, which the national interests of the state are articulated in. Political-figurative field is a component of a constructed reality, a set of authentic values of the people, symbols and simulacrum, in which the national interests of the state are articulated. Moreover, it is the totality of tangible and intangible images that identify territory (emblem, anthem, flag, personalities, goods, historical places, etc.). They also create an emotional connection with target audiences for the promotion and protecting national interests.Political-semantic field refers to totality of essential characteristics of different phenomena, which form interpretations of reality and create a politicalrelevant knowledge for the promotion and protecting national interests of the state.The author added the list and the scope of the methods and techniques of research the informational direction of protection on national interests of the world states in terms of modern non-linear political processes. Forms of its manifestation in modern politics were added too.The study of information-communication activities in the field of protecting national interests as a part of political science and methodological understanding of the essence of this direction has gained further development in this thesis. It is proved, that influence of modern nonlinear socio-political processes contributed to the redefinition the role and place of informational direction of protecting on national interests, its appearance on the same level with power instruments of protection state sovereignty and interests.Based on generalized experience of formation and implementation the informational direction of policy on protecting national interests of the states and supranational organizations the author formed two models – subsidiary (US, UK, EU and NATO) and vertical (Russia).Clarified and systematized the experience of formation and implementation of information policy for the protecting of national interests of Ukraine in the conditions of nonlinear social and political processes. Improved and expanded approaches to the assessment of external and internal perception of the state based on analysis of rating indicators of the state development and polls that indirectly reflect the state of understanding, support of the national interests of target audiences in information-communication sphere.The author proposed the transitional model of the development and implementation of the informational direction of policy on protecting national interests of Ukraine in the conditions of nonlinear processes, which reflects modern transformation and transition from a vertical to a subsidiary model. ; У дисертаційному дослідженні систематизовані теоретико- методологічні основи дослідження інформаційного напряму політики захисту національних інтересів держави; узагальнений досвід закордонних держав та України у цьому напрямі.Доведено, що інформаційний напрям політики захисту національних інтересів є складовою державної політики, яка забезпечує просування і захист інтересів у публічному політико-інформаційному, політико-образному та політико-смисловому просторах. Вказано на синергетичну специфіку реалізації такої політики в умовах нелінійності розвитку світу.Обґрунтовано змістовну розбіжність понять «політична територія» і «політичний простір», які у політичній науці використовуються як синоніми. Під політичною територією розуміються держави та їх об'єднання, які мають юридично закріплені і визнані у світі кордони, інститути управління, систему нормативно-правового регулювання та монополію на використання сили. Вони орієнтовані на забезпечення стабільного існування, максимального захисту, непорушності кордонів та збереження суверенітету. Політичний простір – це сукупність взаємопов'язаних політичних явищ та процесів, які не обмежуються кордонами, але ініційовані певною державою з метою встановлення економічного, політичного, культурного, мовного, інформаційного та ін. контролю над власним та зовнішнім простором. Запропоновано такі індикатори розбіжності: географічні (кордони), нормативно-правові, інституційні (наявність/відсутність єдиного центру прийняття рішень).Розкрито такі поняття, як «політико-образний простір» та «політико- смисловий простір», які є складовими конструйованої реальності та визначають всю сукупність образів та смислів, у яких артикулюються національні інтереси держави. Під політико-образним простором розуміється складова конструйованої реальності, сукупність аутентичних цінностей народу, символів і симулякрів, у яких артикулюються національні інтереси держави, вся сукупність матеріальних та нематеріальних образів, які ідентифікують територію (герб, гімн, прапор, видатні особи, вироблені товари, історичні місця, тощо), створюють емоційний зв'язок з цільовими аудиторіями задля просування та захисту національних інтересів. Під політико-смисловим простором - сукупність сутнісних характеристик тих чи інших явищ, які формують інтерпретації дійсності та створюють політико-релевантне знання задля просування та захисту національних інтересів держави.Доповнено перелік і сферу методів та методик дослідження інформаційного напряму політики захисту національних інтересів держав світу в умовах нелінійних політичних процесів сучасності. Доповнено форми його вияву у сучасній політиці.Дістало подальший розвиток вивчення інформаційно-комунікаційної діяльності у сфері захисту національних інтересів як напряму політичної науки, а також методологічне осмислення сутності цього напряму. Обґрунтовано твердження, що вплив сучасних нелінійних суспільно- політичних процесів сприяв переосмисленню ролі та місця інформаційного напряму політики захисту національних інтересів, виведенню його на один рівень з силовими інструментами захисту державного суверенітету та інтересів.На основі узагальненого досвіду формування та реалізації інформаційного напряму політики захисту національних інтересів держав світу та наднаціональних організацій сформовано дві моделі – субсидіарну (США, Великобританія, ЄС та НАТО) та вертикальну (Російська Федерація).З'ясовано та систематизовано досвід формування і реалізації інформаційного напряму політики захисту національних інтересів України в умовах нелінійних суспільно-політичних процесів. Удосконалено і доповнено підходи оцінки зовнішнього і внутрішнього сприйняття держави на підставі аналізу рейтингових показників розвитку держави та соціологічних опитувань, які опосередковано відображають стан розуміння, підтримки національних інтересів цільовими аудиторіями в інформаційно- комунікаційній сфері.Запропоновано авторську перехідну модель вироблення та реалізації інформаційного напряму політики захисту національних інтересів України в умовах нелінійних процесів, яка відображає сучасні трансформації, перехід від вертикальної до субсидіарної моделі.

National drug control policies and strategies are heavily dependent on the international legal framework. International standards set by United Nations drug control conventions serve as basic principles for the development and shape of national drug control systems. International drug control system has its own, a very specific history and dynamics of development in which the United States definitely did play a very important role promoting prohibitionist approach based on the abstinence paradigm. According to this paradigm drug use is acceptable only for scientific and medical purposes. Unsurprisingly, recreational or experimental use of drugs is considered as unacceptable and inevitably leading to addiction. This hard-line approach dominated in public discourse during the 20th century and the drug use was seen either as a sin or as a disease. However, it seems that from the beginning of the 21th century, international drug control regime, ideologically based on the abstinence paradigm, is facing big challenges and it is not entirely clear what to expect in the future. Ironically, the United States is the most important player again, but this time in quite the opposite role. Moralising teetotaller Dr. Jeckyll suddenly turned in a pothead Mr. Hyde. So-called "cannabis capitalism" process in several states of USA, when the sale of recreational cannabis was fully legalised, raised serious questions about the perspectives of international drug control system, because such practice is obviously in breach of the international law. Also it is important to note other signs of moving towards the drug policy with a human face, especially raising the popularity of the harm reduction approach to the drug problem and process of "soft deception' related to that. The latter means that some countries are choosing more tolerant approach theoretically not infringing legal boundaries set by the conventions. Considering the context provided above, the main purpose of this study was to make the analysis of the peculiarities of global drug control system and their interrelation with the national drug control policy in the light of personal drug use. In order to fulfil this goal historical analysis of the development of United Nations global drug control system was made, peculiarities and characteristic features of the legal framework of this system as well as legal boundaries set for countries by the conventions were analysed. Particular attention was paid to the international legal framework regarding personal drug use, different national practises in this perspective as well as possible directions of the future development of global drug control system were discussed. Finally, Lithuanian drug control policy in the context of United Nations drug control regime was discussed. Main research methods were: logical-linguistic, systemic, comparative as well as analysis of documents and secondary data. Moreover, relevant scientific literature, national and international legal acts in the area of drug control were studied. The drug control and drug policy primarily were explored from criminological and sociology of law perspectives. In author's point of view these interdisciplinary social sciences enable to achieve deeper understanding of drug control phenomenon than it is possible to attain using only narrow legalistic analysis of laws and legal norms. According to the findings of the study the drug control policy (national, regional or global) is a complex phenomenon influenced by many cultural, social and other factors as well as different interest groups (physicians, law enforcement agencies, etc.) operating in the drug control field. It is important to stress, that usually legal control has a very limited (if has at all) influence to the prevalence of illicit drug use, which is mostly determined by the culture, social policy and social context. On the other hand, the drug control remedies are significant when dealing with the high-risk/problem drug use. The United Nations conventions set legal boundaries to the countries, but there is a certain room of interpretation. United Nations institutions (especially International Drug Control Board) support the narrow interpretation of the treaties and usually criticise countries (as sending "wrong signals") that are leaning towards less strict drug policies. Accordingly, various harm reduction practises are on the edge of violation of international law but this is a matter of interpretation. The United Nations conventions and European Union documents make a clear distinction between drug dealing and activities attributed to personal use. The drug dealing is always a matter of criminal law; accordingly criminal sanctions should be strict enough. As regards to the personal drug use countries have more flexibility and other measures (administrative sanctions, medical treatment, etc.) could be applied. On the other hand, legal market of substances controlled by the Schedule IV (e.g. cannabis) could not be created at the same time not infringing international law. In the 21th century a gradual weakening of international drug control regime could be observed. The main feature of this phenomenon is a soft deception, which is related to the increasing popularity of the harm reduction doctrine. It goes hand in hand with the decriminalisation and/or the depenalisation of activities related to personal drug use shifting from punitive approach to the more health oriented. The main challenge to the existing global drug control system is de jure legalisation of cannabis in several USA states. It is related to the process of cannabis use "normalisation"; then such practice is not regarded as a pathological behaviour anymore. It is important to stress that this approach contradicts the abstinence paradigm, which is an ideological core of the United Nations conventions. It creates a high tension and the future of international drug control system in existing framework becomes uncertain. In order to maintain the stability of the system in particular and the trust in international law in general, the revision of UN drug control conventions seems to be inevitable. Lithuanian drug control policy is oriented to the strict control measures and prevention. As regards to the personal drug use till 2017 the drug gaining and possession were partially decriminalised because such activities were subject of either criminal or administrative liability. From 2017 onwards such activities are subject of criminal law only without any explanation of this change of law. Therefore, the Lithuanian drug control policy is moving to the opposite direction than in the Western world, i.e. to more strict measures regarding personal use of drugs. In this context, it is important to stress, that criminal law is considered as ultima ratio measure which has multiple side effects, thus criminalisation of certain activity or introduction of criminal sanctions must be strongly grounded. Preferably, not only by arguments, but also by hard empirical data supporting those arguments. It could be concluded, that decriminalisation in the sphere of personal drug use has legal and pragmatic assumptions. Such policy does not violate legal boundaries set by the United Nations conventions and reflects the newest tendencies of how modern drug control policy should look like. Last but not least, it is important to stress, that effective drug control policy should be evidence based. That means that drug policy changes should be supported by science innovations, empirical data, cost-benefit analysis, etc.

Recently published by the Madrid publishing house Sequitur, La Escuela Universalista Española del siglo XVIII is an introductory work to a study of the so-called Universalist School. Its author, Pedro Aullón de Haro from the University of Alicante, Spain, and Head of the Research Group "Humanism-Europe" since 1994, has coordinated various volumes whose main objective is the historical reconstruction of the Late Spanish Enlightenment Period, which was truncated by Charles III of Spain's expulsion of the Jesuits, affecting a great many of its members. This Enlightenment Period, in contrast to the victorious French Enlightenment, offered not a political, but a scientific and humanistic view of knowledge, taking a comparative and universalist approach, but, due to the aforementioned expulsion of the Jesuits, the authors dispersed, leaving their work unfinished; and it is only now, under the label of the Universalist School, coined by Prof. Aullón de Haro, that they have been gathered together furthering the possibility of recovering their meaning and systematic cohesion. This volume serves as an introduction to the publications that the author has announced for 2018, in which the detailed study of the main authors within this scientific community will be undertaken following an encyclopaedic structure, which will finally give recognition to the Universalist School movement, and whose stand out authors include: Juan Andrés, creator of the Universal History of the Humanities and Sciences; Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro, creator of Universal and Comparative Linguistics; and Antonio Eximeno, creator of a universal aesthetic concept of music as language and expression.The common thread of the School is precisely the "universalist ideation" that assumes the unity of knowledge in a harmonious integration of experimental sciences, fine arts and human sciences within a humanistic epistemological framework, and consequently, comparativism as a methodology of study, based on the unity of its object: the destiny of man, with his knowledge integrated into a unitary vision of the universe and the world. All this is ultimately based on the work of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, historically rooted in the process of Greco-Roman cultural parallels, and with the main figures of Macrobius, Scaliger and Morhof.Furthermore, 2017 is the second centenary of the death of Juan Andrés, commemorated by an international Congress held at the Complutense University of Madrid and featuring an important bibliographical exhibition in the History Library of this Madrid University, titled "Juan Andres y la Escuela Universalista Española" (2017).The great scientific and thematic scope of the School means that it is possible to discern several sectors or "sub-schools", although the authors often practice several disciplines: the linguistic sub-school (Hervás and his extensive circle of collaborators), bibliographical (Miguel de Casiri, Diosdado Caballero…), botanical-naturalist (Antonio José Cavanilles, Pedro Franco Dávila, Juan José Ruperto de Cuéllar, José Celestino Mutis, Eduardo Romeo…), musicological (Antonio Eximeno, Josef Pintado, Vicente Requeno, Buenaventura Prats, Joaquín Millás…), Americanist-Mexicanist (Francisco Javier Clavijero, Juan Bautista Muñoz, Miguel del Barco González, José Lino Fábregas, Juan Nuix y Perpiñá…), on the Philippines (Juan de la Concepción, Antonio de Tornos, Bernardo Bruno de la Fuente…), meteorology (Andrés, Viñes, Faura…), studies on translation (Carlos Andrés, Juan Bautista Colomés, Pedro Cantón…) etc.The work is divided into three sections: "Teoría general", "Textos de y sobre autores de la Escuela", and "Bibliografía fundamental y selecta".The first section begins with an introductory chapter in which the conceptual principles of the School are explained in relation to the particularity of the Hispanic cultural history, where both its antecedents and theoretical limits are determined. Next comes a description of the sequence of milestones, historical circumstances and accidents that resulted in the formation of the School, as well as an in-depth explanation of the concept of "universalist ideation". Finally, "La ideación del primer programa epistemológico", is a necessary exposition of the important and almost inaccessible Prospectus Philosophiae Universae, a work that was written and directed by Juan Andrés. It is a general and pluridisciplinary programmatic text published in 1773 in Ferrara, and access to it for consultation is hard to come by. That is, it is a kind of program that intends to carry out a radical overcoming of the culture and thought of the Baroque era, through the integration of empiricist science and philosophy with classical humanism and its evolution through a historically founded and revisable concept of progress. The fourth chapter, entitled "La Ilustración universalista: creación de la Comparatística moderna y Literatura Universal", lists the conceptual keys to understanding the particularity of this late Spanish age of Enlightenment of Hispanic-Italian roots, Christian, integrative, international, intercontinental, founded on a unitary vision of the universe and the world. The fifth chapter, "La clasificación de las ciencias, la universalidad tematológica y la estética de la expresión", analyses the variables of the Enlightenment Period, the various types of European illustrations and their internal conceptual sectors, in an attempt to bring to light the lack of historical and intellectual homogeneity of a process of great relevance, and analyses the universalistic classification of scientific disciplines by comparison with the classification of the French illustration, showing the flagrant reduction of the French classification, and also includes a revealing study on the concept of "expression" elaborated by Antonio Eximeno, which was later also recovered by Benedetto Croce, although without him acknowledging the precedence of Eximeno's work.The second part, "Textos de y sobre autores de la Escuela", presents a series of documents as a critical support of the School and its authors. This is especially true of the textual references from the three main authors with respect to the other members of the School, which provides an account of the indisputable existence of a productive and active scientific community.The last part records essential bibliographical sources and information intended to enable a continuation of the study by the authors of this School, a bibliographic selection of the most important works of all the members of the School, and another selection of general and monographic studies on relevant theoretical, historical and cultural issues.In short, this work succeeds in refuting one of the most important historical and intellectual fallacies of our time: the absence of a Spanish Enlightenment Period, and consequently, proves the existence of an original and consistent modern Hispanic thought. In this way, it opens up a field of study that demands new research that will bring to light better-informed reinterpretations of both Spanish and Hispanic America pasts in general, which will lead to a search for unity, not in political and economic terms, as seems to be the objective of economic globalization, but on the basis of the concept of universality. For this purpose, the Research Group Humanismo-Europa has affiliated itself with the Instituto Juan Andrés de Comparatística y Globalización, as well created links to its online network Biblioteca HumanismoEuropa, where all the information about the authors of the School and their texts has been gathered and made available to the general public.