Suchergebnisse

Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.

Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.

I lyset af stigende miljørelaterede trusler, som klimaforandringer og ressource-knaphed, har særligt konceptet om cirkulær økonomi vundet indpas. Traditionelt set er materialer gået tabt via forbrænding eller deponi, men i en cirkulær økonomi skal materialerne recirkuleres i samfundet, ideelt set til de samme kvalitetsniveauer som de oprindeligt havde, så behovet for materiale i hele materialekredsløbet kan dækkes, og brug af nyt materiale dermed undgås. Genanvendelse af materialer, særligt fra forskelligartede affaldsstrømme som husholdningsaffald (HHA), fører dog ofte til genanvendte materialer med reduceret kvaltiet, hvilket kun medfører delvist lukkede materialekredsløb og dermed kun delvis cirkularitet. Et aspekt der på nuværende tidspunkt ikke indgår som del af miljøvurderingen af materialer og som ikke tidligere er blevet kvantificeret. Plastik er lavet af fossile ressourcer, bliver produceret i store mængder og er derfor et vigtigt materiale i overgangen til en cirkulær økonomi. Dette er grunden til, at den Europæiske Union (EU) har fastsat masse-relaterede genanvendelsesmål for emballageplastik og har særligt fokus på plastik fra husholdninger. Betragtelige tab af både kvantitet og kvalitet er dog relateret til genanvendelse af plastik fra HHA, da det kan indeholde 1) andre materialer end plastik, 2) mange forskellige typer plastik (typiske for HHA er polyethylenterephthalat (PET), polyethylen (PE) og polypropylen (PP)), og 3) mange forskellige typer produkter (flasker, bakker, osv.) med forskelligt formål og design. Derudover kan den genanvendte plastik være forurenet med potentielt skadelige stoffer, hvilket ydereligere kan nedsætte kvaliteten og dermed cirkulariteten. Omfattende viden omkring den fysiske og kemiske tilstand af både affalds- og genanvendt plastik er derfor nødvendig, før de mest cirkulære genanvendelsessystemer kan identificeres. Formålet med denne afhandling var kvantitativt at integrere kvaliteten af affalds- og genanvendt plastik i cirkularitetsvurderingen af plastikgenanvendelsessystemer, med særligt fokus på plastik fra HHA. Dette blev gjort ved 1) teoretisk at relatere kvaliteten af genanvendte materialer til cirkulariteten af genanvendelsessystemer, 2) at tilvejebringe udvalgte kemiske, fysiske og mekaniske karakteristika af affalds- og genanvendt plastik, deriblandt en detaljeret sammensætning af kildesorteret plastikaffald og 3) kvantitativt at vurdere hvordan nuværende og potentielt fremtidig plastikgenanvendelsessystemer præsterer og på den baggrund anbefale de mest cirkulære systemer. I et cirkulært perspektiv er kvaliteten af genanvendte materialer tæt relateret til anvendelsesmulighederne i forskellige produkter og kvalitetsniveauer. Kvaliteten kan, sammen med kvantiteten af genavendt materiale, samt viden om hvordan brugen af materiale fordeler sig på forskellige anvendelsesmuligheder på det gældende materialemarked, bruges til at kvantificere cirkularitetspotentialet af genanvendelsessystemer. Mellem 18 og 57% af det europæiske PET, PE og PP marked er afhængig af kemisk set højkvalitetsplastik til produktion af mademballage. Det er derfor vigtigt for cirkulariteten, at genanvendt plastik kan bruges til ny mademballage. I eksisterende plastikgenanvendelsessystemer ses betragtelig fysisk forurening samt tab af plastik. Det anbefales at implementere state-of-the-art plastik-sortering, der kan opnå høje genindvindingseffektiviteter og lav forureningsgrad, da det er det mest effektive redskab til at minimere disse problematikker. Men, selv disse bedste systemer opnår kun et cirkularitetspotentiale på omkring 0.40 (fuld cirkularitet kræver 1) og eksisterende plastikgenanvendelsessystemer er derfor stadig langt fra i stand til, at lukke plastikkredsløbet. I fremtiden kan cirkulariteten potentielt blive reduceret endnu mere, på grund af forhøjede koncentrationer af metaller i genanvendt plastik, særligt hvis plastikprodukter bliver genanvendt mange gange. Endelig viste det sig, at kildesorteret hårdt plastikaffald er meget forskelligartet, når det kommer til både formål (mademballage eller andre formål), type (flaske, bakke, osv.) og design af produkter i affaldet, inden for hver af de tre hyppigst forekomne polymertyper, PET, PE og PP, der udgjorde mere end 90%. For at imødegå disse udfordringer, og øge cirkulariteten, er det afgørende at øge mængderne af genanvendt plastik samtidig med, at den kemiske, fysiske og mekaniske kvalitet bevares. Initiativer relateret til "design til genanvendelse", hvor fx alle produkter produceres udelukkende af en enkelt polymer, anbefales kraftigt, da det kan føre til øgede mængder af genanvendt plastik med op til 23%. Derudover anbefales det, at genanvende mademballage separat, da det muliggør produktionen af genanvendt plastik, der kan bruges i ny mademballage, og dermed bevare den kemiske kvalitet. PP mademballageaffald indeholder dog særligt mange forskellige produkttyper, hvilket, ud fra et fysisk og mekanisk synspunkt, gør blandet PP affald uegnet til genanvendelse til ny emballage. For at skabe rammerne for potentiel genanvendelse af plastik fra HHA i lukkede kredsløb anbefales det derfor, at implementere regulering der begrænser plastikemballage til polymertyperne PET, PE og PP alt imens produkttyperne, inden for særligt PE og PP, standardiseres. Mere forskning er nødvendigt for, at kunne udvikle regulering, der bidrager mest muligt til øget kvantitet og kvalitet af genanvendt plastik – og dermed til øget cirkularitet. Det inkluderer forskning relateret til 1) detaljeret sammensætningen af blød- og restplastik, 2) hvordan sorteringsprocessen præsterer, og kan optimeres, for forskellige produkttyper og designs samt 3) hvordan, og i hvilken udstrækning, fysiske og mekaniske egenskaber begrænser anvendeligheden af genanvendt plastik. ; To mitigate growing environmental threats such as climate change and resource depletion, the circular economy concept has gained momentum. Traditionally, materials have been lost through incineration or landfilling; however, in a circular economy, materials are recirculated into society, ideally to the same quality levels as they had originally, so that all demands within the material loop are fulfilled and use of virgin material can be avoided. However, recycling of materials, especially from heterogeneous waste streams such as household waste (HHW), often leads to recycled material of reduced quality, which only leads to a partial closing of the material loop – and thereby only partial circularity. This aspect is currently not part of the environmental assessment of materials and is therefore yet to be quantified. In the transition towards a circular economy, plastic is highlighted as a focus material, as it is produced in large amounts from fossil resources. Consequently, the European Union (EU) has defined mass-based recycling targets for packaging plastic and placed specific focus on plastic from HHW. However, considerable physical and quality-related losses are related to the recycling of plastic from HHW, due to the potential presence of 1) non-plastic material, 2) plastic made from several polymer types (the most common in HHW plastic are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP)) and 3) many different product types (bottles, trays, etc.) with different purposes and design. Moreover, recycled plastic might be contaminated by potentially harmful chemicals, all of which may limit the quality of recycled plastic and thus the circularity. Consequently, in order to identify the most circular plastic recycling systems, thorough knowledge related to the physical and chemical states of waste and recycled plastic from HHW is necessary. The aim of this thesis was to quantitatively integrate the quality aspect of waste and recycled plastic into circularity assessment of plastic recycling systems, focusing particularly on plastic from HHW. This was achieved by 1) theoretically relating quantity and quality of recycled materials to the circularity of recycling systems, 2) providing selected chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics of waste and recycled plastic, including a detailed composition of source-separated plastic waste, and 3) quantitatively evaluating the performance of current and potential future plastic recycling systems, and on this basis recommend the most circular options. From a circularity perspective, the quality of recycled materials is closely related to the applicability, i.e. how well the recycled materials can be turned into different products with different quality levels. This quality, together with recycled quantities and knowledge on the distribution of different applications in the specific material market, can be used to quantity the circularity potential of recycling systems. Between 18% and 57% of European PET, PE and PP markets rely on chemically high-quality material for the production of food packaging. As such, it is crucial for the circularity of plastic recycling systems to have the ability to recycle plastic into material that can be used for food contact applications. Current plastic recycling practices experience substantial material losses and physical contamination. It is therefore recommended to implement state-of-the-art plastic sorting systems with high recovery efficiencies and low contamination levels, as this is the best way to limit these issues. However, even such best-performing systems achieve a circularity potential of only about 0.40 (1 indicates full circularity), and thus current plastic recycling systems are far from able to close the plastic loop. Due to elevated concentrations of metals in recycled plastic, the circularity might be reduced even further in the future, if plastic products are recycled multiple times. Finally, the composition of rigid source-separated plastic reveals a high degree of heterogeneity in regards to the purpose (food or non-food packaging), type (bottles, trays, etc.) and design of waste products within each of the three dominant polymers, i.e. PET, PE and PP, representing more than 90% of the waste. In order to mitigate these issues and improve the circularity, it is crucial to increase the quantities of recycled plastic while maintaining the chemical, physical and mechanical quality. "Design for recycling" initiatives, where for example all products are produced in a single polymer, are highly recommended, as they can lead to increases in the quantities of recycled plastic of up to 23%. Moreover, separate recycling of food packaging is recommended, as it allows for the production of recycled plastic suitable for food packaging applications and thereby maintains chemical quality. However, from a mechanical and physical perspective, the high degree of heterogeneity of PP food packaging makes it unsuitable for closed loop recycling into new packaging. Thus, in order to create the conditions necessary for closed-loop plastic recycling from HHW, where all quality aspects are maintained, regulation is needed to limit plastic packaging to the polymer types PET, PE and PP while standardising product types within especially PE and PP. More research is necessary in order to identify the most appropriate combinations of product design, polymer selection and waste collection systems, achieving the highest possible increases in quantity and quality, and thereby circularity. This includes research into 1) detailed compositions of soft and residual plastic, 2) performance of the sorting process, depending on the type and design of waste products, and 3) how and to what extend mechanical and physical properties limit the applicability of recycled plastic.

I. Objetivos 1) Analizar el cambio del papel social que ha sufrido el periodismo en las últimas décadas. 2) Describir la crisis del sector en sus principales dimensiones (de rentabilidad de las empresas periodísticas, de pérdida de audiencias, de reducción del volumen publicitario y su efectividad, de calidad de la información y de prestigio social) y comprobar su relación con el cambio del papel social del periodismo, para verificar que la crisis del periodismo actual y del negocio de la comunicación tiene su origen en las prácticas empresariales poco éticas, en la visión del periodismo como un negocio, en lugar de un servicio público. 3) Evaluar el papel que han desempeñado las nuevas tecnologías en esta crisis. 4) Prever las tendencias de la nueva realidad comunicativa. 5) Determinar el rol y responsabilidad de los periodistas en el proceso de cambio del periodismo, su pérdida de autonomía y de influencia en las informaciones publicadas. 6) Evaluar la alienación informativa de la audiencia, así como su capacidad de autodeterminación frente a los mensajes informativos y el protagonismo que la reacción de las audiencias (su fraccionamiento o el periodismo 3.0) puede haber tenido en la crisis estructural del negocio informativo. 7) Investigar qué nuevos problemas éticos ha generado el proceso de transformación del periodismo y la crisis informativa. 8) Establecer qué propuestas en el campo de la ética pueden permitir una recuperación de la dimensión político-social de la información para contribuir a la democracia en la nueva realidad comunicativa. II. Metodología Partiendo del estudio de una amplia selección publicaciones, se han incorporado análisis de comunicólogos, testimonios profesionales, estudios de normas jurídicas, referencias históricas sobre periodismo, entrevistas, análisis de datos, reflexiones de periodistas veteranos y empresarios de la comunicación, referencias económicas del sector y propuestas desde numerosos ámbitos. III. Conclusiones 1. La gestión empresarial del periodismo como un gran negocio ha conllevado un cambio sustancial en el papel social que los ciudadanos, los sistemas políticos democráticos y sus leyes fundamentales le asignaron, empequeñeciendo su labor social y agigantando el beneficio privado. 2. La explotación comercial de los medios de comunicación, productos y tecnología de la comunicación de masas generó, a partir de los años ochenta del siglo pasado, una expansión económica en este sector empresarial impulsada por el éxito comercial en la televisión. 3. El productivismo y la rentabilidad económica guían hoy la gestión de los medios de comunicación, dirigiendo la inversión empresarial a las aplicaciones tecnológicas en detrimento de la calidad de los contenidos y de la estabilidad de las plantillas periodísticas, todo ello supeditado ahora a la agenda informativa y a los intereses de las fuentes estables. 4. La salida a la crisis del periodismo supondrá una importante transformación de las formas de explotación, emisión y consumo. El futuro estará más marcado por la tecnología, una rentabilidad más compleja y un comportamiento de las audiencias más activo y menos masivo: separación del producto respecto del soporte; la prensa escrita ahondará en su crisis pero no desaparecerá; puede haber fórmulas de convergencia digital, como la hubo audiovisual; el periodismo social o 3.0 seguirá adelante, aunque no está clara su relación con las formas actuales de periodismo comercial ni con las futuras; surgirán nuevos modelos de negocio que hoy no se vislumbran; habrá buen periodismo, pero posiblemente no estará en los medios y productos actuales; el futuro del periodismo lo decidirá la rentabilidad, aunque al margen o paralelamente pueden tener un gran éxito formas no rentables de periodismo, aunque no sea de grandes audiencias. 5. Los periodistas han perdido en las redacciones gran parte de su autonomía profesional y de su capacidad de influencia en la elaboración y presentación final de las informaciones. Los profesionales se enfrentan a las presiones internas de sus jefes para no dañar los intereses económicos aliados con la empresa informativa, y a las limitaciones que impone el productivismo, la autocensura y unas condiciones laborales pésimas. 6. La audiencia en conjunto sufre un proceso de alienación informativa que contrasta con el aumento de la autodeterminación de los individuos, que se expresa en reacciones como el periodismo 3.0 o periodismo ciudadano. 7. El cambio del papel social del periodismo, el hiperdesarrollo comunicativo, la concepción de la información como negocio, la crisis del sector y las nuevas tecnologías han agravado los problemas éticos clásicos y han surgido otros problemas éticos de segunda generación. 8. La ética periodística y la calidad de los contenidos constituyen dos aspectos esenciales para la construcción de un nuevo sistema informativo que recupere el equilibrio entre la función social y el beneficio empresarial. Palabras clave Ética / periodismo / ética periodística / periodistas / contrapoder / periodismo 3.0 / autorregulación / deontología / cuarto poder / objetividad I. Objectives 1) To analyse the change that journalism has undergone over recent decades in terms of its social role. 2) To describe the main aspects of the crisis suffered by the sector (the profitability of newspaper corporations, the loss of audience, the reduction in the volume of advertising and its effectiveness, the quality of information and social prestige) and to examine its relation with the change in the social role played by journalism in order to demonstrate that the current crisis in journalism and the communication business is a result of business practices which are unethical and a perspective that sees journalism as a business instead of a public service. 3) To evaluate the role played by new technologies in this crisis. 4) To anticipate the future trends of the new reality of communications. 5) To determine the role and responsibility of journalists in the process of change being experienced by journalism and their loss of autonomy and influence in terms of the information published. 6) To evaluate the informational alienation experienced by the audience, as well as their capacity for forming their own views on the information received, and the key role that audience responses (audience attrition or journalism 3.0) may have played in the structural crisis of the information sector. 7) To investigate the new ethical problems that have emerged from the transformation of journalism and the media crisis. 8) To establish which proposals in the field of ethics may enable a recovery of the politico-social dimension of information, thus contributing towards democracy in the new reality of communications. II. Methodology Drawing on a wide selection of publications, this study incorporates analyses carried out by communication theorists, testimonials from professionals, studies of legal standards, historical references to journalism, interviews, data analysis, reflections provided by veteran journalists and communication enterprises, economic references from the sector and proposals from numerous fields. III Conclusions 1. The fact that journalism has been managed in the same way as a large-scale business has resulted in a significant change in the social role assigned to it by citizens, democratic political systems and their fundamental laws, with its social function being played down while the private gain derived from it is increased. 2. From the 1980s onwards, the commercial exploitation of the media, as well as mass media products and technologies, has led to the economic expansion of this business sector driven by the commercial success of television. 3. Today, the media is managed in a way that is driven by productivity and economic profitability, directing business investment into technological applications to the detriment of the quality of contents and the stability of the journalism industry workforce, which are now subordinated to the news agenda and the vested interests of the stable sources. 4. In order to overcome this crisis, journalism will need to undergo a significant transformation in terms of its exploitation, broadcasting/publication and consumption. The future will be increasingly marked by technology, more complex profitability, and with audience behaviour which is less massive and more active. Other factors will include the following: the separation of the product from its support; the written press will fall into a deeper crisis but will not disappear entirely; possible new formulas for digital convergence as there were with audiovisual forms; social journalism or journalism 3.0 will continue to move forward, although its relation with current and future forms of commercial journalism is unclear; new business models will emerge which have not been contemplated up to now; good journalism will be available, but it is possible that this may not take the same form as the means and products currently available; the future of journalism will be decided by profitability, although non-profit-making forms of journalism may be successful in parallel with or on the fringes of traditional forms, even if these new forms do not attract large audiences. 5. Journalists have lost a significant amount of professional autonomy when writing up their reports, as well as their capacity to influence the end result and the presentation of their work. Professionals are faced with the internal pressures applied by their bosses so as not to damage the economic interests allied to the news corporation, and with the limitations imposed by the emphasis on productivity, self-censorship and poor working conditions. 6. The entire audience suffers from informational alienation that contrasts with the increase in the self-determination of individuals which is expressed in responses such as journalism 3.0 or citizen journalism. 7. The changing social role of journalism, the hyper-development of communications, the conception of information as business, the crisis in the sector, as well as new technologies, have aggravated traditional ethical problems and other second-generation ethical problems have emerged. 8. Journalism ethics and the quality of contents constitute two crucial elements in the construction of a different kind of information system capable of restoring the balance between its social function and business profit. Key words Ethics / journalism / journalism ethics / journalists / countervailing / journalism 3.0 / self-regulation / deontology / fourth estate / objectivity

Fifty years is a long enough time to dissipate the impact of war. In the United States, the Vietnam War is no longer much discussed. Scholars still plow the field, but the war that tore America apart, spurred a counterculture movement, killed 57,000 Americans (and vastly more Vietnamese, Laotians and Cambodians), led to a restructuring of the U.S. military and the all-volunteer force, and was an impetus to Desert Storm no longer shapes the discourse.My students were born in 2002 or 2003; they're voting age. Even those with living grandparents who served in Vietnam don't know much if anything about the conflict. Of course, there have been intervening failures that proved costly, although not on the same scale. But proximity bias — the hard-wired human tendency to accord greater importance to things that are closer than others in time or distance — ensured that the mayhem generated by the Iraq and Afghan Wars would eclipse the awfulness of Vietnam.The Yom Kippur War of 1973 has likewise receded in the Israeli imagination. But its specter is more complex. The 2,500 Israeli soldiers killed (a fraction of the 15,000 Arabs who perished) was three times the per capita human cost of the Vietnam War to the United States. I was in Israel during that time, and everyone knew someone who'd been killed. The war was also far shorter, about 10 days, so the casualty list had an outsized emotional impact. It was not the long slog of Vietnam, but rather an avalanche.Early in the war, Syrian armor destroyed the Israeli tank brigade deployed to the Golan Heights and reached Gesher B'not Yaakov (Jisr Banat Yaqub). Just beyond it was the Jezreel Valley. The prospect of a large Syrian armored formation penetrating the Israeli heartland was as ghastly for Israelis as it must have been thrilling for the Syrians. The United States has never experienced anything like this, including 9/11.In the space of this instant, violence burgeoned. The largest tank battle since World War II, when German and Soviet armored juggernauts collided at Kursk, unfolded on the Golan. Fierce battles developed in the Sinai and then on the left bank of Suez, where Israeli forces encircled an entire Egyptian army. A week into the war, the U.S. launched its largest-ever intra-war arms transfer. For days, U.S. C-5 cargo aircraft touched down at Israeli airfields every six minutes. The airlift, however, occurred after Israel had regained its balance and counterattacked, halting an hour outside of Damascus and holding Egyptian territory — in addition to the Sinai, where Israel stopped the main thrust of Egyptian armor toward the mountains passes and destroyed the advancing units.The war also included other dramatic moments. Apparently believing that the Soviets were preparing to intervene militarily on Syria's behalf, the Nixon administration raised the United States' nuclear readiness level, an extraordinary step. Saudi Arabia led an OPEC oil embargo against the United States that carried profound implications for its economic and political stability for the ensuing decade, bringing the so-called long summer of postwar economic growth to an end and guaranteeing an era of sluggish economic growth and high inflation.The long-term effects of the war on Israel were profound as well. The outcome, despite the phenomenal recovery of Israeli forces under the much maligned but in fact highly competent IDF chief of staff, was traumatically dislocating for an Israeli public accustomed to thinking that its victory in the 1967 war rendered the state immune to Arab military challenge.Within four years, the Labor Party that had dominated Israeli politics in one form or another since 1948 was dislodged. Trust in the old elites was shattered. The intelligence community failed to credit the Egyptian and Syrian commitment to waging war. Across the board there was a conviction that the conditions under which the Arabs would launch an offensive simply did not exist. And Military Intelligence disregarded Mossad's success in recruiting a senior member of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's entourage who underscored that a war was in the cards. Moreover, the Israeli prime minister, Golda Meir, who had presided over the disaster, had heeded stern guidance from Nixon and Kissinger not to preempt Arab war preparations when these were finally acknowledged 24 hours before the start of hostilities.Whether or not this was a wise call on Washington's part, it certainly increased the butcher's bill Israel was to pay and undermined the Labor government. Meir would come under attack later for having ignored Sadat's peace feelers following the 1969 War of Attrition along the Suez Canal. Sadat, however, tended to frame his overtures as demands for an upfront Israeli withdrawal from all of the Sinai Peninsula, which the Israeli government could not meet. There was plenty of blame to go around. In any case, combined with serious ethnic tensions generated by the political mobilization of Mizrahim — Jews who had immigrated from the Arab states of the Middle East and North Africa — the cratering of Labor credibility enabled the ascendance of the Likud Party.Half a century later, what lingering significance does the war have? Israel and Saudi Arabia are negotiating normalization, which will entail a civilian Saudi nuclear capability that is inherently dual-purpose. The Abraham Accords have already normalized Israel's relations with Bahrain, the UAE, Sudan, and Morocco. Egypt and Jordan have longstanding peace treaties with Israel. Syria has been neutered by a long, destructive civil war. Lebanon has ceased to exist as a functioning state and has not engaged Israel in hostilities since 2006. Two eviscerating wars with the United States removed Iraq as a potential combatant of the old rejectionist front.A cataclysmic ground war between Israel and its neighbors has been inconceivable during this veritable Age of Aquarius. But if the Yom Kippur War is no longer relevant, the present irenic reality — excluding the West Bank and Gaza — is largely due to the instrumentalization of that conflict by the Nixon administration for the purpose of peacemaking. One really can't contemplate these developments without implicitly thinking about the 1973 war.Another potent outcome of the war was the diplomatic process that surrounded the ceasefire and the years that followed. Kissinger gets credit for this, not unfairly. He was not one to waste a crisis. He seized the opportunity the war presented to use Sadat's evident interest in joining the Western camp and Israel's reliance on American support to bind each closer to Washington while crowding out the Soviet Union. Although his diplomatic strategy yielded disengagement agreements on both fronts, the fact remains that Egypt and Israel had embarked on a quiet bilateral process even as the guns were still cooling.Sadat had waged the war to shatter the status quo by drawing Israeli blood and bringing the U.S. into the conflict. His goal was the negotiated return of Sinai to Egyptian control. The war, for him, had a clear and well-defined political purpose. Although the seven years that preceded the Camp David Accords were at times touch and go — down to the climactic talks themselves — the so-called peace process would be difficult to imagine without the bloody impetus of 1973. Kissinger's key insight, regrettably abandoned by his successors but seemingly grasped now by Beijing, is that it pays to maintain ties with both sides in a conflict.As the Arab-Israeli conflict has devolved to Israel and the Palestinians, this lesson of the 1973 war has faded for Israel as well. Israel's use of force now has no political objective. Its purpose is solely conflict management and deterrence. To borrow from Lord Carrington's verdict on NATO, it is to keep the Palestinians down, the U.S. out, and wealthy Persian Gulf states in.Yet, perversely, the possibility of change is in the air. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's far-right coalition partners are less interested in managing the level of violence on the West Bank than in informally annexing it. Their commitment to Israeli settlement of the West Bank is greater than their interest in grand geopolitical deals that might boost the Tel Aviv stock exchange but defer redemption of biblical lands. One could construe the hard right's agenda as restoring a true political objective to Israel's fight with the Palestinians.The 1973 war also altered Israeli military doctrine. Planners have recognized that — beginning with that war — Israel has not won any major ones. (Neither has the United States.) The reasons for this are legion, but one stands out: the losers do not concede defeat. They take a licking but keep on ticking. Hence the most recent development in Israel's military doctrine, accorded the acronym Mabam, meaning "the battles between the wars."The idea is that major wars are no longer decisive and will therefore recur periodically. The best course is to delay these wars and weaken adversaries' ability to wage them by fighting draining low-level battles in the interim. This makes some sense, naturally, but militates against any attempt to leverage the fighting to achieve durable peace. This applies to the Palestinians as well. Their violence is expressive, perhaps reflecting their view that there is no conceivable political objective.There's a larger theme here, though. The international system was vastly different in 1973. The Cold War framework in which the United States and Soviet Union conducted their foreign policies and made it possible for Sadat to conduct a war with such a bold but cogent purpose is long gone. We will see whether the U.S.-China in the Middle East recreates it.The leftist post-colonial Arab states that fought Israel are scarcely even remembered. The Israeli state and society that fought the Yom Kippur War, like the America that waged war in Vietnam, no longer exists. The values that animated it no longer shape the nation's thoughts and actions.Fifty years after the war, this should come as no surprise. In the ongoing demonstrations against judicial reform in Israel, one can see veterans of 1973 claiming that their wartime sacrifice would be betrayed by the triumph of the hard right. They are correct, but they're old duffers and out of touch with young Israeli mainstream voters, who, if they dwell on the 1973 war at all, likely see the left as the guilty party. Thus, policy makers, mostly in the West, can noodle about the war's lessons for diplomacy and statecraft, but for Israel — and the Arabs — it's ancient history.

The work sheds light on the largely under-investigated puzzle of the distributional impact of EU economic governance on the budget structures of the Member States. The overarching research question is: Is the impact of the Stability and Growth Pact neutral to the composition of domestic public spending? In addressing the EU-MS fiscal puzzle the thesis considers three main research questions: 1. when and how the SGP affects the composition of national budgets. 2. if and how the SGP has affected the domestic composition of public expenditures during the Great Recession and Eurozone crisis. 3. if and how the impact of the SGP changes across different domestic political, institutional and economic conditions. The thesis brings together the literature of the domestic determinants of national fiscal policy with that on the Economic and Monetary Union. Firstly, the disaggregate assessment of where the bite of the EU economic governance framework lands back at home sheds some light on how the Pact fulfils its policy objectives of promoting at the same time fiscal discipline and inclusive growth. Within this context, it contributes to the rich debate on the subordination of social objectives to economic ones at the hand of the EU fiscal surveillance regulatory framework. At the same time, it evaluates the claim of a detrimental effect of the Pact on investment and growth, linked to the lengthening and worsening of the severe downturn in the context of the Great Recession and Eurozone crisis, as well as the divergence between core and periphery. Building on the well-established findings on the interplay between (national) fiscal rules and the political, institutional, and economic context the analysis provides a causal empirical assessment over the panel of the EU28 from 1995 to 2018 of whether and under which conditions the EU economic governance framework impacts the structure of the budgets of the Member States. In considering both a synthetic indicator of changes to the budget structure, disaggregated impact on all budget lines (e.g. health, education, social protection, etc.), and on broad components associated with investments, transfers, and the mitigation of inequalities, the analysis provides a rare comprehensive picture of which elements are affected at all and where comparatively the highest toll emerges within the components of national spending. The main results are the following: • EU economic governance is far from being neutral in affecting the budget structure of the Member States; • Its impact on the national fiscal policy mix is heterogeneous over time - increasing substantially with the latest wave of reform - and scope, limited predominantly to Eurozone countries under EDP surveillance and aligning quite poorly with prescriptions of the CSRs; • Budgetary dynamics do not escape the bind of the EDP in times of crisis, rather the framework is the most impactful in such circumstances, generating substantial spending restructuring which is both pro-cyclical and detrimental for inclusive growth, as well as for geographical convergence; • Heterogeneity in the effect of the Pact extends to domestic circumstances, with political characteristics of the government (e.g. small budget distances, high alternation) and a unitary institutional structure as a precondition for any impact to materialise, while in the economic domain, alike for the crisis, the restraint of the SGP materialises especially in countering expansionary pressures such as those of ageing and unemployment. Findings refute the widespread argument within the literature of a limited impact of the supranational fiscal governance framework given the poor track record of compliance with the deficit targets of the Stability and Growth Pact. Conversely, the work contributes a more sophisticated account of the EU economic governance framework. It distinguishes not only membership to the EMU and the Eurozone but also close supranational budgetary surveillance under the Excessive Deficit Procedure. Additionally, it accounts for the heterogeneous effects of the Pact over its life and two substantial reforms. While an effect that runs against fiscal discipline is somewhat confirmed for EU and Eurozone membership, EDP surveillance emerges as the key driver of a consolidation-driven restructuring effect on national budget structures. Such dynamic, however, is far from homogeneous across time and place: being under the EDP leads to changes in the fiscal policy mix only within the Eurozone and after the 2011 reform when excluding the period of the crisis. Second, the analysis investigates the alignment between the effect on the national budget structure of the supranational fiscal rule and the policy coordination within the Semester comparing the distributive effect of the Pact with the Country Specific Recommendations (CSRs) in selected Member States. Overall, the negative impact of the EDP on inequality mitigating measures and investment and specifically on health, education, and social protection, more often than not clashes with the CSRs in the considered Member States. Heterogeneities both in the impact of the EDP on the budget structure in the post-2011 period across the core and periphery and the CSRs imply, however, a more substantial disconnect between the two arms of the EMU for the Southern Member States, supporting the narrative of a particularly detrimental effect of the Pact on social spending and inequality. Third, a further contribution is the granular analysis of dynamics in times of crisis unveiling whether the escape clauses shield domestic budget structures from any shock at the hands of the supranational fiscal rule or rather instead the national fiscal policy mix is affected. The analysis offers a rare detailed account of the cost of the SGP in times of crisis for specific budget components and their relative penalization at the hands of austerity policies, allowing to pinpoint if investments have been preserved at the expenses of social policies and those mitigating inequality, together with the intergenerational distributions of fiscal discipline. The results contradict the hypothesis of national budgets escaping from the claws of the pact during economic downturns. Rather, during the crisis more marked restructuring of the fiscal policy mixes emerges, as the EDP surveillance has a significant and sizeable impact on the budget structure and some of the key budget lines of interest even before the 2011 reform in times of crisis. The analysis reveals that not all spending is equally affected, as while EDP surveillance acts to (nearly fully) contain the recessionary upward push on spending, for example, in the domains of education and social protection, it more than compensates for the crisis for another key budget line such as health. As a result, divergences emerge in the constraining effect of the Pact on transfers, investment, and inequality mitigation. The first is only negatively impacted by the EDP surveillance in times of crisis, while the remaining categories always feel the constraining influence of the Pact which is further strengthened during the Great Recession. The already bleak picture for an inclusive and growth-enhancing investment rich recovery hides substantial divergences between core and periphery explored in details in the dissertation, as southern countries carry the worst prospect in terms of full containment of transfers and slashing of investments, with an intergenerational cost shouldered especially by youth. Finally, the work considers as well the interplay between the supranational level and the national context, identifying how the characteristics of the governing coalition (i.e. ideology, the range within the government and alternation), the federal- unitary institutional nature, along with fiscal rule strength preferences in the Member States, and the demographic and employment conditions affect the transmission of the supranational commitments within the Stability and Growth Pact onto the domestic budget structure. In doing so it uncovers as well which national configurations and conditions are conducive to a (restraining) impact of the SGP on national spending and the fiscal policy mix. Findings show that national political context facilitating changes to the budget structure (i.e. small coalition ranges and high alternations) are associated with a larger impact of the EDP surveillance on the fiscal policy mix, which loses significance under less favourable political conditions. A similar pattern emerges for ideology, with somewhat moderate governments as a precondition for any impact of the EDP surveillance, which is more sizeable on the left side of the spectrum. In the institutional arena unitary countries are more conducive to restructuring their budgets when falling under EDP surveillance, while conversely, national fiscal rule preferences show a complementarity between the extent to which countries prefer fiscal discipline on their own and the Pact, with EDP surveillance affecting more substantially the Member States with a laxer approach to spending. Finally, the demographic pressure and that of high unemployment stiffen the budget structure increasing the barriers against a restructuring effect of the Pact. However, from the opposite perspective - alike for the crisis - the constraining power of EDP surveillance is quite remarkable, containing their budgetary implications. To that effect, the EDP enacts substantial convergence across various levels of unemployment and old-age dependency rate. As such, the thesis confirms that while effects are heterogeneous and dependent on the national context, the Pact for Eurozone countries under EDP surveillance is far from a minor nuisance but rather a powerful force capable of substantially restraining if not annihilating key pressures such as that of demography, unemployment, and even the crisis. The thesis is structured as follows. After introducing the purpose and relevance of the work in Chapter One, Chapter Two situates the analysis within the extant literature on the domestic determinants of the budget structure, fiscal rules, and the EU economic governance, which inform and ground the research questions and hypotheses presented in Chapter Three. From such premises, the methodological approach and research design are outlined in Chapter Four touching on the key empirical challenges and mitigation strategies deployed in assessing such a complex ecosystem. Four empirical chapters follow. Chapter Five uncovers heterogeneities in the effect of the EU economic governance over its different configurations (e.g. Eurozone, EDP surveillance) and subsequent regulatory framework (i.e. initial, post- 2005, and post-2011), together with the (mis)-alignment across the effect of the Pact on domestic budget structures and the prescriptions of the Country-Specific- Recommendations. Chapter Six and Seven are dedicated to the assessment of the effect of the Pact during the Great Recession and Eurozone crisis, evaluating whether - against the expectations derived from the escape clauses - any impact on the budget structure emerges at all during the crisis, considering as well at a granular level where the bite of the EU economic governance at crisis lands across budget lines. Chapter Seven continues along the same line considering the distributional effects on investments, transfers, and inequality mitigation during the crisis, taking a closer look at the social dimension and how the intergenerational balance of spending is altered. Chapter Eight concludes the empirical analysis evaluating the interaction between the Pact and the national context uncovering which political, institutional, and economic domestic configurations are most conducive to the impact of the SGP. Finally, Chapter Nine situates the key findings of the thesis in the context of the reform debate on the Pact and fiscal governance more in general, considering as well the insights and outlook for the future of political and economic integration which can be drawn for the unprecedented challenge of the Covid-19 crisis and (partial) policy evolution for the pandemic response.

[spa] El período de crecimiento económico que aquí analizaremos se caracteriza por el foco que pondrá el Estado en el desarrollo de la política industrial, su influencia en el impulso de ciertos sectores considerados estratégicos y también en el papel como agente económico que adquirirá una vez iniciado el proceso. A partir de las reflexiones acerca del período realizadas tanto por economistas de la época como Pinto (1959) y Mamalakis (1976), y también contemporáneos como Meller (2016), parecería que se trató de un proceso fracasado, por la imposibilidad de perpetuar en el tiempo el desarrollo del sector industrial. Con el foco puesto en el crecimiento, la deuda, la inflación, el desarrollo del sector industrial y el estancamiento de la agricultura, la mayor parte de los estudios se han propuesto analizar las limitaciones del período industrializador (Bértola, 2011; Dornbusch & Edwards, 1992; Kaldor, 1971; Mamalakis, 1976; Pinto, 1959). En esta investigación queremos ampliar los elementos de análisis que existen sobre este momento, incorporando no sólo nuevos datos si no presentando un elemento transversal al proceso de crecimiento del período: las/os trabajadoras/es y sus salarios. El interés por los salarios no es injustificado, ya que han sido un elemento principal en el estudio de las ventajas y limitaciones de la industrialización desde fines del siglo XIX en Europa y su centralidad en el análisis histórico y económico hace que continúen los esfuerzos por generar o mejorar series históricas de salarios (Margo, 2000; Scholliers, 1989; Scholliers & Zamagni, 1995). Las remuneraciones, además de su contribución a la comprensión de fenómenos sociales y económicos, han sido objeto de estudio en sí mismas, por el papel que juegan en la historia de los trabajadores y en el estudio de las condiciones del mercado laboral (Goldin & Margo, 1992; Hatton & Thomas, 2010; Margo, 2000; Rosenbloom, 1998). Esta tesis se enmarca en las transformaciones del modelo de crecimiento producto de las políticas industrializadoras, pero también en las posibilidades (y limitaciones) que estos cambios entregaron al sector obrero. En ese sentido, el principal objeto de esta investigación es entregar nuevas series de salarios nominales y reales, y analizar el comportamiento de los salarios en el contexto del desarrollo industrial y económico chileno en el período de crecimiento hacia adentro. Con esto queremos contribuir al debate acerca de las características que tuvo este proceso llevado a cabo en América Latina, centrándonos en un espacio que ha sido central en los debates sobre la industrialización en otras regiones: los salarios. Junto a esto, esperamos aportar a los debates sobre los salarios en general al evaluar el desempeño salarial en un contexto de cambio estructural, a partir del potencial explicativo de variables económicas e institucionales. Los años que abarca la industrialización dirigida por el estado son complejos económica y socialmente. Hemos recorrido estos cuarenta años desde distintas miradas y perspectivas a través de las series de salarios nominales y reales. Se han presentado también series de salarios para espacios olvidados por las estadísticas oficiales, en el caso de la desagregación por sector, la rama agrícola y con una nueva serie de remuneraciones para un sector generalmente olvidado en las estadísticas históricas: las mujeres trabajadoras. El primer resultado de esta investigación son las series de salarios medios nominales, es decir, la serie total del sector obrero, las series por sector y las series desagregadas por género. Y a través de ellas, se aprecia que la Gran Depresión deja una clara huella en la curva de salarios nominales. La desagregación por rama permite ver que las remuneraciones en la etapa de industrialización fueron bajas, ya que la construcción – un sector de baja calificación y precariedad – es el que se mueve durante todos estos años en torno a la media. La evidencia de bajos salarios que nos entregan los salarios nominales se verifica si observamos los salarios ajustados por el costo de vida. La primera conclusión que podemos extraer de la curva de salarios reales es que antes de los sesenta, los incrementos de salarios responden exclusivamente a períodos de recuperación de lo perdido. El análisis de la serie de salarios medios reales se realiza en función de la productividad, la inflación, el desempleo, y la sindicalización y la huelga, como expresión del movimiento obrero. Este análisis permite observar que en los primeros años de la serie el crecimiento de la productividad tiene un papel en el bajo crecimiento de salarios, pero que luego se separa ostensiblemente del rumbo que toma el aumento salarial generando una brecha a partir de mediados de los años cuarenta, tomando el producto por trabajador una velocidad de incremento mayor. Asimismo, la inflación que a primera vista es uno de los elementos que más claramente parecen afectar los salarios parecen tener un rol preponderante pero no exclusivo en el bajo crecimiento de los ingresos, dado que especialmente en la crisis inflacionaria de los años cincuenta, estos disminuyen incluso si son ajustados por el deflactor del PIB como índice alternativo. El desempleo marca su influencia más importante en la crisis de la Gran Depresión, generando altos niveles de desocupación que motivan en gran parte la pérdida de poder adquisitivo de la población en esa época. Finalmente, vemos que la debilidad del movimiento obrero afectado por una gran represión a partir de fines de la década de los cuarenta es una de las variables que explica el estancamiento y la vulnerabilidad de las remuneraciones a los eventos inflacionarios, los que no parecen afectar al crecimiento y se concentran casi exclusivamente en la capacidad de compra del sector obrero. Así, la historia de los salarios en Chile durante el período industrializador dirigido por el Estado se ve fuertemente afectado por los bajos salarios y las pocas posibilidades de incremento que nos muestra la serie salarial media así como las series desagregadas. La curva de la productividad por otra parte, muestra que si existió en ese período espacio para el crecimiento de los salarios obreros que no se realiza principalmente como consecuencia de la represión de que fue objeto la organización sindical. Bibliografía citada en este documento Bértola, L. (2011). Bolivia, Chile y Perú desde la Independencia: una historia de conflictos, transformaciones, inercias y desigualdad. En Institucionalidad y desarrollo económico en América Latina. Santiago: Cepal. Dornbusch, R., & Edwards, S. (1992). Macroeconomía del populismo en la América Latina. Fondo de Cultura Económica. Goldin, C., & Margo, R. A. (1992). Wages, Prices, and Labor Markets before the Civil War. En Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: A Volume to Honor Robert W. Fogel (pp. 67–104). National Bureau of Economic Research. Hatton, T. J., & Thomas, M. (2010). Labour markets in the interwar period and economic recovery in the UK and the USA. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 26(3), 463– 485. Kaldor, N. (1971). Los Problemas Económicos de Chile. En Ensayos sobre Política Económica. Madrid: Tecnos. Mamalakis, M. (1976). Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy: From Independence to Allende. New Haven: Yale University Press. Margo, R. A. (2000). Wages and Labor Markets in the United States, 1820-1860. National Bureau of Economic Research. Meller, P. (2016). Un siglo de economía política chilena (1890-1990) (2a. ed). Chile: Uqbar. Pinto, A. (1959). Chile, un caso de desarrollo frustrado. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria. Rosenbloom, J. L. (1998). The Extent of the Labor Market in the United States, 1870–1914. Social Science History, 22(3), 287–318. Scholliers, P. (1989). Real Wages in 19th and 20th Century Europe: historical and comparative perspectives. Berg Publishers Limited. Scholliers, P., & Zamagni, V. (1995). Labour's Reward: Real Wages and Economic Change in 19th and 20th century Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. ; [eng] This thesis looks to contribute, through new wages series, with the debate about the problems and limitations of the import substitution period in Chile. The series that exist now do not comprehend the entire period or are calculated from different sources with various methodologies. For that, the first goal is to estimate a new average wage series, sector and gender series for the period of 1927/1928-1973. The new series show that the average wages of this period are low and that they don't grow until the sixties. The prior three decades were marked by almost no growth and wages crisis as result of inflation peaks. But the analysis also shows that there was space for growth due to a growing gap between productivity and wages after the forties, even after adjusting wages by the product deflator. In this scenario, labour movement history and data about unionization and strikes shows that the relationship between the governments and the labour unions, with long periods of repression, had an important role in the weakness and slight capacity of workers to demand for better wages.

The results of long-term clinical investigations of treating patients with diabetes, oncological and hematological diseases using the transplantations of embryonic cellular suspensions are presented: a persistent decrease in the essential daily insulin dose in insulindependent diabetes mellitus, increase in the periods and depth of remission, reduction of compli-cations' manifestations (anemia, dystrophy,etc); rapid recovery of granulocytes number (3 to 7 days) and blood count in myelotoxic agranulocytoses in oncology and hematology patients, increase in tolerance to chemotherapy, reduction of relapses and metastasising, quality life improvement, a considerable increase in psychoemotional status, decrease in depression component. The sources of stem cells (SCs) are discussed, the unacceptability of material from viable embryos after artificial fertilisation is stated. Legislative and methodological base for the development and coordination of research in the field of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) transplantation is provided. ; ПриводÑÑ'ÑÑ Ñ€ÐµÐ·ÑƒÐ»ÑŒÑ'аÑ'Ñ‹ многолеÑ'них клиничеÑких иÑÑледований Ð»ÐµÑ‡ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑŒÐ½Ñ‹Ñ… диабеÑ'ом, онкологичеÑкими и гемаÑ'ологичеÑкими заболеваниÑми Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¼Ð¾Ñ‰ÑŒÑŽ Ñ'ранÑпланÑ'ации Ñмбриональных клеÑ'очных ÑуÑпензий: ÑÑ'ойкое Ñнижение необходимой ÑуÑ'очной дозы инÑулина и компенÑÐ°Ñ†Ð¸Ñ Ð¸Ð½ÑулинзавиÑимого диабеÑ'а, увеличение периодов и глубины ремиÑÑий, уменьшение проÑвлений оÑложнений (анемии, диÑÑ'роÑ"ий и Ñ'.д.); быÑÑ'рое воÑÑÑ'ановление количеÑÑ'ва гранулоциÑ'ов (3-7 дней) и Ñ"ормулы крови при миелоÑ'окÑичеÑких агранулоциÑ'озах у онко- и гемаÑ'ологичеÑких больных, повышение Ñ'олеранÑ'ноÑÑ'и к химиоÑ'ерапии, Ñнижение количеÑÑ'ва рецидивов и меÑ'аÑÑ'азированиÑ, повышение качеÑÑ'ва жизни, ÑущеÑÑ'венное улучшение пÑихоÑмоционального ÑÑ'аÑ'уÑа, уменьшение депреÑÑивного компоненÑ'а. ОбÑуждаюÑ'ÑÑ Ð¸ÑÑ'очники ÑÑ'воловых клеÑ'ок (СК), иÑключаеÑ'ÑÑ Ð´Ð¾Ð¿ÑƒÑÑ'имоÑÑ'ÑŒ Ð¿Ñ€Ð¸Ð¼ÐµÐ½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¼Ð°Ñ'ериала из жизнеÑпоÑобных Ñмбрионов поÑле иÑкуÑÑÑ'венной Ñ"ерÑ'илизации. ПриводиÑ'ÑÑ Ð·Ð°ÐºÐ¾Ð½Ð¾Ð´Ð°Ñ'ÐµÐ»ÑŒÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð¸ меÑ'одичеÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð±Ð°Ð·Ð° Ð´Ð»Ñ Ñ€Ð°Ð·Ð²Ð¸Ñ'Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ координации иÑÑледований в облаÑÑ'и Ñ'ранÑпланÑ'ации Ñмбриональных ÑÑ'воловых клеÑ'ок (ЭСК). ; ПриводÑÑ'ÑŒÑÑ Ñ€ÐµÐ·ÑƒÐ»ÑŒÑ'аÑ'и багаÑ'орічних доÑліджень Ð»Ñ–ÐºÑƒÐ²Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ Ñ…Ð²Ð¾Ñ€Ð¸Ñ… діабеÑ'ом, онкологічними Ñ– гемаÑ'ологічними захворюваннÑми за допомогою Ñ'ранÑпланÑ'ації ембріональних кліÑ'инних ÑуÑпензій: ÑÑ'ійке Ð·Ð½Ð¸Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ Ð½ÐµÐ¾Ð±Ñ…Ñ–Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ñ— добової дози інÑуліну Ñ– компенÑÐ°Ñ†Ñ–Ñ Ñ–Ð½Ñулінозалежного діабеÑ'у, Ð·Ð±Ñ–Ð»ÑŒÑˆÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑ€Ñ–Ð¾Ð´Ñ–Ð² Ñ– глибини реміÑій, Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½ÑˆÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ Ð¿Ñ€Ð¾Ñвів уÑкладнень (анемії, диÑÑ'роÑ"Ñ–Ñ— Ñ– Ñ'.д.), швидке Ð²Ñ–Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ ÐºÑ–Ð»ÑŒÐºÐ¾ÑÑ'Ñ– гранулоциÑ'ів (3-7 днів) Ñ– Ñ"ормули крові при міÑ"лоÑ'окÑичних агранулоциÑ'озах у онко- Ñ– гемаÑ'ологічних хворих, Ð¿Ñ–Ð´Ð²Ð¸Ñ‰ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ Ñ'олеранÑ'ноÑÑ'Ñ– до хіміоÑ'ерапії, Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½ÑˆÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ ÐºÑ–Ð»ÑŒÐºÐ¾ÑÑ'Ñ– рецидивів Ñ– меÑ'аÑÑ'азуваннÑ, Ð¿Ñ–Ð´Ð²Ð¸Ñ‰ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ ÑкоÑÑ'Ñ– жиÑ'Ñ'Ñ, ÑуÑ'Ñ'Ñ"ве Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÑ€Ð°Ñ‰ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ Ð¿Ñихоемоційного ÑÑ'аÑ'уÑу, Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½ÑˆÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ Ð´ÐµÐ¿Ñ€ÐµÑивного компоненÑ'у. ОбговорююÑ'ÑŒÑÑ Ð´Ð¶ÐµÑ€ÐµÐ»Ð° ÑÑ'овбурових кліÑ'ин, виключаÑ"Ñ'ÑŒÑÑ Ð´Ð¾Ð¿ÑƒÑÑ'иміÑÑ'ÑŒ викориÑÑ'Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ Ð¼Ð°Ñ'еріалу з жиÑ'Ñ'Ñ"здаÑ'них ембріонів піÑÐ»Ñ ÑˆÑ'учної Ñ"ерÑ'илізації. ПриводиÑ'ÑŒÑÑ Ð·Ð°ÐºÐ¾Ð½Ð¾Ð´Ð°Ð²Ñ‡Ð° Ñ– меÑ'одична база Ð´Ð»Ñ Ñ€Ð¾Ð·Ð²Ð¸Ñ'ку Ñ– координації доÑліджень в галузі Ñ'ранÑпланÑ'ації ембріональних ÑÑ'овбурових кліÑ'ин.

Die Anforderungen an Rohrleitungen aus glasfaserverstärktem Kunststoff (GFK) sind im Hinblick auf die Dichtheit, die Medienbeständigkeit und die Betriebssicherheit in den letzten Jahren gestiegen. Dennoch müssen die Betreiber chemischer Anlagen mit Rohrleitungen aus glasfaserverstärktem Kunststoff mit Losflanschen aus sheet-molding-compound (SMC) diese nachweislich sicher betreiben. Die Motivation zu dieser Arbeit liegt darin, dieses Bestreben mit der Auswahl von geeigneten PTFE-Dichtungen und mit der Untersuchung und Optimierung des mechanischen Verhaltens der SMC-Losflansche sowie ihrer analytischen Berechnung zu unterstützen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse sind im Folgenden zusammengefasst. • Optimierung der Dichtungen In diesem Themenbereich wurden neun verschiedene Dichtungen aus Polytetrafluorethylen (PTFE) und zwei Gummidichtungen hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung für den Einsatz in GFK-Flanschverbindungen untersucht. Die Basis der Untersuchungen bildeten die Dichtungskennwerte nach DIN EN 13555, welche unter reduzierten Anfangspressungen im Leckage- und Stauchversuch und bei niedrigerer Steifigkeit und verlängerter Versuchsdauer im Kriechrelaxationsversuch ermittelt wurden. Vier PTFE-Dichtungen stellten sich im Leckageversuch als besonders geeignet heraus. An diesen wurden zusätzlich Untersuchungen zum Rückfeder- und Kriechrelaxationsverhalten durchgeführt. Die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse aus der Dichtungsprüfung sind zum einen, dass das Leckageratenkriterium der TA Luft mit 0,01 mbar•l/(s•m) bei 40 bar Helium von einigen PTFE-Dichtungen auch bei den in GFK-Flanschverbindungen typischen Flächenpressungen unterhalb 10 MPa eingehalten werden kann. Zum anderen entspricht das Rückfederverhalten der PTFE-Dichtungen dem der Gummidichtungen und die Kriechrelaxation der PTFE-Dichtungen unter den Bedingungen in GFK-Flanschverbindungen ist mit etwa 80% verbleibender Flächenpressung im Betrieb akzeptabel. Der Verlust der Vorspannkraft der Flanschverbindung im Betrieb resultiert maßgeblich aus der Kriechrelaxation der GFK-Flansche. Zur Optimierung von PTFE-Dichtungen werden von den Dichtungsherstellern verschiedene Maßnahmen getroffen, wie zum Beispiel die Kombination unterschiedlicher Werkstoffe oder Variation der Dichtungsgeometrie, welche das Abdichtverhalten verbessern. Um die Auswirkungen dieser Modifikationen rechnerisch erfassen zu können, wurde ein zweistufiges numerisches Konzept entwickelt, welches die Durchlässigkeit der Dichtung mit einem Transportansatz beschreibt. Dafür wird im ersten Schritt in einer Finite-Elemente-Simulation die Flächenpressungsverteilung der Dichtung bestimmt. Die lokale Dichtheit kann mit dem Leckageversuch nach DIN EN 13555 bestimmt und in einem zweiten Schritt der in Finite Elemente diskretisierten Dichtung örtlich zugewiesen werden. Die Lösung des Transportproblems führt zur Druckverteilung innerhalb der Dichtung und zur globalen Leckagerate der optimierten Dichtung. Diese Vorgehensweise liefert im Vergleich zu den gemessenen Druckprofilen innerhalb unter-schiedlich verpresster Dichtungen und für die globale Leckagerate einer vorverpressten PTFE-Dichtung konsistente Werte. Dem entsprechend konnte die Reduktion der Leckagerate einer durch Vorverpressen optimierten PTFE-Flachdichtung um den Faktor 3000 korrekt vorhergesagt werden. Die Methodik ermöglicht ebenfalls eine realistische Bewertung der Dichtheit von Flansch-verbindungen mit der Finite-Elemente-Methode (FEM), mit dem Ergebnis, dass in der Regel die zur Einhaltung der Dichtheit benötigten Mindestwerte der Schraubenkräfte im Vergleich zur herkömmlichen Bewertung der Dichtheit mit der mittleren Flächenpressung der Dichtung geringer werden. • Optimierung der Flansche Zunächst wurde der fertigungsbedingte Lagenaufbau und die damit verbundenen Werkstoffeigen-schaften der SMC-Losflansche bestimmt. Es handelt sich um eine unregelmäßige Verteilung eines transversal isotropen Lagenaufbaus. Dies wurde durch die Untersuchung der Mikrostruktur verdeutlicht, wobei festgestellt wurde, dass innerhalb der Flansche neben den eingeschlossenen Luftblasen auch die Matrix zwischen den Fasern von mikroskopischen Lufteinschlüssen durchsetzt ist. Aus diesem Grund weichen die Elastizitätskonstanten aus der theoretischen Herleitung deutlich von den gemessenen Werten an Bauteilausschnitten ab. Die Untersuchung des mechanischen Verhaltens der SMC-Losflansche wurde in einem Stauchversuch durchgeführt. Der Unterschied zur genormten Vorgehensweise nach DIN EN 16966 Teil 7 besteht darin, dass die Last kontinuierlich bis zum Bauteilversagen aufgebracht und dabei die axiale Verformung des Losflansches aufgezeichnet wird. Die Auswertung des Stauchverhaltens liefert als Ergebnis die maximale Traglast und die Steifigkeit der Losflansche. Beide Werte sind zur Bestimmung der Qualität einer Flanschverbindung von entscheidender Bedeutung. Zusätzlich werden mögliche Schwächen im Bauteil, welche zu vorzeitigem Versagen führen, erkannt. Dies ermöglicht dem Hersteller, beispielsweise durch die Variation des Lagenaufbaus oder des Matrixwerkstoffes, die Eigenschaften der Losflansche zu optimieren. Mit der messtechnischen Erfassung des Kriechrelaxationsverhaltens unter Temperatur in einem speziell dafür entwickelten Prüfstand wurde bestätigt, dass der Vorspannkraftverlust der Flanschverbindung im Betrieb maßgeblich durch die viskose Verformung der Flansche bedingt ist. Mit dem Ziel, den Lagenaufbau der SMC-Losflansche zu verbessern und die analytische Beschreibung der Losflansche zu verifizieren, wurde ein Finite-Elemente-Modell der Flanschverbindung erstellt. Darin wurden die an Bauteilausschnitten senkrecht und längs der SMC-Matten ermittelten anisotropen Elastizitätskonstanten, Festigkeits- und Kriecheigenschaften mittels geeigneter Werkstoffmodelle eingebunden. Der unregelmäßige Lagenaufbau wurde durch die Anpassung der Elementkoordinatensysteme an die an Schnitten visuell ermittelte Orientierung der SMC-Matten abgebildet. Die Bewertung der Ergebnisse der FE-Simulation mit der Festigkeits-hypothese nach Tsai-Wu bestätigt das verbesserte Tragverhalten eines Losflansches mit dem durch eine Fertigungsumstellung erzielten ebenen Lagenaufbau. Damit konnte die maximale Traglast des SMC-Losflansches um 50 % erhöht werden. Die Kriechrelaxation des SMC-Losflansches wird durch die Abbildung der an den Bauteilausschnitten ermittelten, richtungsabhängigen Kriechkurven mit dem von Hill modifizierten Kriechgesetz nach Graham-Walles beschrieben. Damit werden die gemessenen zeitlichen Verläufe der Schraubenkraft im Betrieb realistisch abgebildet. Die Vorhersage der im Vergleich zum bestehenden Losflansch geringfügig erhöhten Kriechrelaxation des Prototyps mit ebenem Lagenaufbau wird durch die Messung bestätigt. Insgesamt bedeutet die Erhöhung der zulässigen Schraubenkräfte bei Montage von 40 kN auf 60 kN eine deutliche Zunahme der Schraubenkraft im Betrieb, was die Betriebssicherheit erhöht und die Verwendung von PTFE-Dichtungen begünstigt. • Optimierung der Berechnungsmethode Mit den Erkenntnissen zur Beanspruchung von Losflanschen aus der messtechnischen Untersuchung der Flanschverbindung und aus der numerischen Simulation wurde ein analytisches Berechnungskonzept für den Losflansch entwickelt. Dieses berechnet die Beanspruchung in Umfangsrichtung aus dem Stülpmoment. Die Umfangsspannungen und die Verformung des Losflansches werden damit realistischer beschrieben als durch die bestehenden Regelwerke. Da das Berechnungskonzept ausschließlich die Spannung an der Losflanschoberseite zwischen den Schrauben abbildet, kann ein Bauteilversagen an anderer Stelle nicht erfasst werden. So muss bei der Auslegung differenziert nach der Lokalisierung des Versagens im Stauchversuch vorgegangen werden: - Losflansch versagt im Stauchversuch an der Flanschoberseite zwischen den Schrauben Das Berechnungskonzept ist anwendbar. Zur Berechnung der Flanschverbindung kann die analytische Beschreibung des Verhaltens von Losflanschen die bestehenden Regelwerken ersetzen. Mit dem zur Diskussion stehenden Wegfall der Werkstoffabminderungsfaktoren gemäß den Definitionen im AD 2000-Merkblatt führt die beschriebene Vorgehensweise zu höheren Schraubenkräften bei Montage und im Betrieb der Flanschverbindung. Dies bewirkt eine höhere Dichtheit und Betriebssicherheit von Anlagen mit GFK-Rohrleitungen. - Losflansch versagt an anderer Stelle Das Berechnungskonzept kann nicht angewendet werden. Alternativ können die maximale zulässige Schraubenkraft für Montage und im Betrieb sowie die Steifigkeiten im Stauchversuch ermittelt werden. Der Hersteller kann die sich im Stauchversuch offenbarenden Schwachstellen im Bauteil identifizieren und den Fertigungsprozess hinsichtlich des Tragverhaltens der Losflansche optimieren. ; The present discussion on environmental impact leads to the need to reduce fugitive emissions in the processing industry. In the European Union, the strategy to avoid and reduce fugitive emissions is draft in the EG-guideline 96/61/EG with its corresponding german version, the IVU-Richtlinie. It describes the required measures that plant operators have to apply, in order to meet the requirements on national level. In Germany, the TA Luft in conjunction with the VDI guidelines 2440 and 2200 refer to the standards DIN EN 1591-1 and KTA 3211.2 to carry out the requested strength and tightness proof with the gasket parameters according to DIN EN 13555. For flange connections with grp-flanges, the design method according to AD 2000-Merkblatt B8 is used with the specifications in AD 2000-Merkblatt N1, which account for the specific material behaviour of grp in terms of reduction ratios for the strength analysis. According to the operational experience of the plant operators, this method leads to unrealistic results for the allowable bolt loads. The aim of the present work is to enable plant operators to design and to operate grp-piping with grp-flanges at temperatures up to 80 °C, using polytetraflourethylene (PTFE) gaskets that shall replace the mandatory rubber gaskets. PTFE-gaskets, unlike rubber gaskets, provide an extraordinary chemical resistance to almost all corrosive media and no deterioration. Unfortunately, applying PTFE-gaskets leads to increased creep-relaxation behaviour and higher leakage rates at the characteristically low bolt forces in grp-flange connections. Nine PTFE gaskets have been evaluated according to the gasket test procedure DIN EN 13555 with respect to their qualification for grp-flange connections in terms of tightness, elastic recovery and creep relaxation behaviour. In comparison to the rubber gaskets, the leakage rates of the PTFE-gaskets were higher, but four gaskets met the leakage rate criterion of the TA Luft under the condition in grp-flange connections. These four PTFE-gaskets showed an elastic resilience comparable to rubber gaskets and acceptable creep-relaxation behaviour. Altogether, it was shown, that PTFE-gaskets can be suitable for grp-flange connections. In order to improve the sealing performance and reduce fugitive emissions, an approach was developed to estimate the effects of inhomogeneous gasket stresses, geometry changes and combinations of different gasket materials. Compression and leakage tests according to DIN EN 13555 formed the basis to characterize the gasket pressure-closure behaviour and the permeability of a homogeneously stressed sheet gasket material. Provided that linear pressure dependency is applicable, a transport-theory according to heat conduction could be applied to calculate the effects of an inhomogeneous gasket stress distribution or a variation of gasket geometry, particularly the gasket width. The developed method implies a two-stage procedure. In the first step, the local gasket stress distribution and subsequently the corresponding permeability in a flange connection was calculated. The local permeability was allocated for each element in terms of a unique material definition. Solving the steady state in the second step under inner and ambient pressure constraint leads to the internal pressure distribution, the local leakage flow and the overall leak rate. The approach is applied and verified at an inhomogeneously stressed sheet gasket and enables us to predict a reduction in the leak rate of a prestressed PTFE-sheet gasket by a factor of 3000 due to the decreased gasket width. This method can form the basis for conducting appropriate tightness proofs in designing flange connections using the finite element method. For the development of a design method that accounts for the specific material properties of grp, a detailed knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of grp-flanges was essential. In this work, the mechanical behaviour of grp slip-on flanges, fabricated using sheet molding compound (smc) was investigated in compression tests and creep-relaxation tests in order to develop a procedure to characterize their mechanical behaviour and describe it in a design method. The fabrication process of the smc slip-on flanges yields a wavy transverse isotropic layer structure. The elastic constants, the strength properties and the creep behaviour with respect to the layer orientations were determined from cylindrical cut outs with known layer orientation, and implemented in a finite element model. Comparative calculations show good agreement with the compression tests and creep-relaxation tests. Calculating the effects of different layer structures, the advantage of a slip-on flange with uniformly stacked layer structure became evident. The bearing load of a slip-on flange with uniformly stacked layer structure exceeds the load bearing capacity of the slip-on flange with wavy layer structure by a factor of 1,5. The calculation of the bolted flange connection in accordance with AD-Merkblatt does not agree with the real loading situation in a slip-on flange. The AD-Merkblatt design is based on a radially clamped bending beam. Thus, the design calculates a radial stress which represents the usage level of the flange. In real terms, the loose flange is rotated due to the lever arm caused by the difference between the diameter of the bolt-force circle and the outer diameter of the collar. Additionally, a linearly distributed load in circumferential direction is caused by the finite bolt hole pitch with the consequence of an additional bending stress. The circumferential stresses and the flange rotation were described analytically, showing good agreement with the results of the FE simulation and the experimental investigations. If the compression test of the slip-on flange shows failure under the washer, the analytical concept cannot be applied. Alternatively, it was possible to determine the maximum load bearing capacity and the stiffness in the compression test. If the slip-on flange fails at the position between the bolts, and the material strength value is known, the flange connection can be designed according to the presented new analytical concept. If the maximum strength of the grp material in the circumferential direction was reached at the position between the bolts it can be assumed that weak points existed in the structure of the grp-compound. If the reduction ratios according to AD 2000-Merkblatt-N1 were omitted and the specific material properties of grp were characterized in the design method with the analytic concept for slip-on flanges, the allowable bolt forces for grp-flange connections with slip-on flanges increased significantly. This leads to increased gasket stresses during mounting and service conditions with the benefit of improved tightness behaviour and a reduction of fugitive emissions.

Einführung Tropische asiatische Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländer zeigten rasches städtisches Wachstum dadurch, dass Bauern einwanderten, um ein besseres Leben in der Stadt zu suchen. Dadurch ergab sich in vielen Städten ein Mangel an geeigneter Infrastruktur und an sozialen Diensten. Die städtische Müllversorgung bildet keine Ausnahme; sie wird sogar oft an das Ende der Prio-ritätenliste für städtische Aufgabenpläne gestellt, da dabei zuerst die Gesetze und Verordnun-gen formuliert und umgesetzt werden müssen. Das Problem des nicht entsorgten städtischen Mülls führt (mit Sicherheit) zu Luftverschmutzung, Krankheit und zur Verseuchung des Bo-dens und des Wassers. Diese Probleme stehen in tropischen Klimaten im Zusammenhang mit hoher Temperatur und Feuchtigkeit, mit heftigem Regen und mit häufigen Überschwemmun-gen. Stehendes Wasser und Ausschwemmung aus dem Abfall werden sehr schnell zu Brutstät-ten von Insekten, Nagern und Bakterien, und damit zu einer Gesundheitsgefahr für Arbeiter und die allgemeine Bevölkerung. Darüber hinaus kann Wasser- und Grundwasserverschmut-zung/Kontamination zu einer ernsten Umweltzerstörung führen, mit direkten Auswirkungen auf die Wasserressourcen, und auf raschen Qualitätsverlust der pflanzlichen Erzeugnisse, des Rückgrates der meisten tropischen asiatischen Länder. Müllentsorgung und die Verantwortlichkeiten Lokale Regierungen müssen die öffentliche Gesundheit ihrer lokalen Bevölkerung sicherstellen und sind deshalb für die Müllentsorgung verantwortlich. Asiatische tropische Klimate sich rasch ändernde Müllzusammensetzung machen die Müllbehandlung und –entsorgung zu einer dauernden Herausforderung der Entscheidungsträger. Vor einer Entscheidung über das ver-wendete Entsorgungssystem muss eine geeignete Abfall-Charakterisierung treten. Diese Cha-rakterisierung liefert Kenntnisse über die Abfallmenge, die Feuchte, den Heizwert und die Menge der verschiedenen Komponenten im Abfallstrom, wie z. B.: organisches Material, Plas-tik, Papier, Karton, Holz, Textilien, Gummi, Leder, Glas, Metalle, Nichtmetalle, Steine und Keramiken. Darüber hinaus ist die Herausforderung, der sich asiatische Länder gegenüber se-hen, ein Mangel an Raum und damit wird die Platzierung eine Deponie zunehmend schwierig. Die Abfallwirtschaft ist eine kostenintensive, aber trotzdem notwendige Maßnahme, um das Wohlergehen sowohl der Bevölkerung als auch für die Umwelt sicher zu stellen. Es wird ge-schätzt, dass Asien im Jahr 2025 etwa 47 Milliarden US$ aufwenden muss, um 0,5 bis 1 Kg städtischen Müll je Person und Tag abzufahren und zu behandeln, oder 5 US$ je Kopf und Jahr. In Entwicklungsländern sind unzählige Leute nicht in der Lage, diese hohen Preise für die Ab-fallentsorgung zu zahlen. Deshalb liegt es in der Verantwortung der Regierung, die Abfallent-sorgung zu betreiben und zu finanzieren, um die Bevölkerung, die Gemeinde und die Umwelt zu schützen. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen jetzt bezahlbare und nachhaltige Verfahren für die Entsorgung ihrer zunehmenden Menge täglichen Abfalls benennen, wobei gleichzeitig auf minimale Umweltbelastung, auf soziale Akzeptanz und auf minimale Landverbrauch zu achten ist. Eine leicht anwendbare Entscheidungshilfe zur Wahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungs-system der Gemeinde wäre deshalb sehr nützlich. Proposition Der Zweck dieser Dissertation war die Entwicklung eines nutzerfreundlichen Instrumentariums für das Verwaltungs- und Regierungspersonal in tropischen Entwicklungs- und Schwellenlän-der. 1. Diese Vorgehensweise basiert auf einem Netzwerk, das eine Liste ausgewählter entschei-dungsrelevanter Tatsachen in Betracht zieht, die nötig sind, um eine informierte Entschei-dung machen zu können. Das entscheidungshelfende Verfahren muss von Entscheidungs-trägern bei einer vorläufigen Feststellung des Abfallentsorgungs- und -behandlungssystems für ihre Gemeinde benutzt werden. 2. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen eine Reihe von Faktoren berücksichtigen, wenn sie über ihren Abfallwirtschaftsplan entscheiden. Dazu gehören die immerwechselnde Menge und Zusammensetzung des Abfalls infolge der zunehmenden Bevölkerungszahl und des Ein-kommens je Kopf, der hohe Feuchtigkeitsgrad, Verbrennungswärme-Werte und die oft be-grenzten finanziellen Möglichkeiten. 3. Ferner sind gesetzliche, politische, verwaltungstechnische, soziale, finanzielle, ökonomi-sche und technische Faktoren bestimmend. 4. Die Verwaltung muss dabei die Wichtigkeit jedes Teilschrittes der Abfallwirtschaft im Au-ge behalten, also Abfallerzeugung, Sammlung, Transport, Abfallcharakterisierung, Entsor-gung und Behandlung. 5. Die Rolle der lokalen Gemeinden in der Entscheidungsfindung ist nicht hoch genug einzu-schätzen; deshalb müssen Mitglieder der Gemeinde aktiv am Schutz der Umwelt und an der Verhinderung ihrer Zerstörung mitwirken. Mehrere Entscheidungshilfsverfahren für ver-schiedene Anwendungen wurden entwickelt. Jedoch zieht die Mehrzahl von ihnen nicht notwendigerweise eine öffentliche Teilnahme in Betracht, und sie sind auch nicht benutzer-freundlich. 6. Um die Komplexität der Probleme besser zu verstehen, die bei tropischen asiatischen Städ-ten auftreten, wurde die Innenstadt von Bangkok, Thailands größte Stadt und Hauptstadt, als repräsentativer Fall ausgewählt, für die Entsorgung der 9000 t Müll der täglich produ-ziert wird. Thailands Klima ist, besonders während der jährlichen Monsunzeit, heiß und feucht mit einer mittleren Temperatur von 28,4°C und einer Feuchtigkeit zwischen 70 und 100%. Die Gesetze und Verordnungen zeigen sehr deutlich an, wie wichtig die Behandlung des städtischen Abfalls genommen wird. Zahlreiche Interviews, verbunden mit der Durch-sicht von Dokumenten, Berichten und Ortsbesichtigungen ergaben Kenntnisse der zahlrei-chen Entscheidungsmaßnahmen, denen sich die städtischen Entscheidungsträger einer tro-pischen Stadt gegenüber sehen. Die Durchsicht und die Analyse der Entscheidungsmaß-nahmen in Bangkoks Abfallentsorgungsstrategien zeigten, wie das Entscheiden als Werk-zeug in verschiedenen asiatischen tropischen Städten benutzt werden kann. 7. Ein Entscheidungsrahmen wurde erstellt auf der Grundlage von Literatur-Recherchen und persönliche Erfahrungen, und anhand der in der Stadt Bangkok gesammelte Daten über-prüft. Die Entscheidungspunkte im Netzwerk umfassen eine allgemeine Beschreibung der Stadt, ihre klimatischen und hydrogeologischen Bedingungen, die Menge und Art des er-zeugten Mülls, einen Überblick über die bestehenden Anlagen und die existierenden Pro-gramme, öffentliche Aufmerksamkeit zu gewinnen, den sozioökonomischen Aspekt eines Abfallbehandlungssystems und die öffentliche Teilnahme. Es berücksichtigt ferner Ge-sundheits- und Sicherheitsüberlegungen im Zusammenhang mit Abfallentsorgungsmög-lichkeiten und ihrer Kosten. 8. Das Entscheidungsinstrumentarium hat als Ziel, ein geeignetes Abfallbehandlungssystem zu ermöglichen, das als Grundlage soziale, klimatische und technische Informationen be-nutzt. Ihre Einfachheit erlaubt einem Verwaltungspersonal, das wenig Erfahrung mit Ab-fallwirtschaft und Computerwissen besitzt, verschiedene Optionen zu analysieren und Sze-narien auszutesten. Des weiteren werden verschiedene Möglichkeiten überprüft, und es wird versucht, die Optionen in die Abfallwirtschaft zu integrieren. 9. Das Instrumentarium beinhaltet über ein Hundert geschlossene Fragen, die auf das Analy-sieren der Bedürfnisse und der gegenwärtigen Situation der Abfallwirtschaft einer be-stimmten Gesellschaft ausgerichtet sind und die es ermöglichen, ein geeignetes Abfallwirt-schaftssystem für die entsprechende Gesellschaft zu wählen. Diese Fragen hatten als Grundlage die Rahmen und Eckpunkte des Entscheidungsinstrumentariums. Dieses Instru-mentarium ist selbsterklärend, und gleichzeitig bietet es Flexibilität bei der Entscheidung, um wie viel Prozent des Abfalls wieder verwertet wird, kompostiert oder behandelt durch irgend eine von den sechs Behandlungsoptionen; Kompostierung, Vergärung, nicht-Verbrennungssysteme, Verbrennung, Deponierung und Energiegewinnung. 10. Die Ziele eines integrierten Abfallwirtschaftssystems können vom Benutzer geändert und modifiziert werden. Dies ermöglicht die Überprüfung verschiedener Szenarien und die Auswahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungssystems. Das System kann sehr einfach sein und nur ein Behandlungssystem beinhalten oder mit einer Auswahl mehrere Behandlungs-systeme sehr kompliziert sein. In einigen Ländern ist es Vorschrift mehrere Systeme anzu-wenden. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaftssysteme, die mindestens zwei oder drei Abfallbe-handlungssysteme beinhalten, sind deshalb gefragt. 11. Die Ziele der Gesellschaft sind ausschlaggebend und sind die Schlüsselfaktoren für den Entscheidungsprozess. Die Menge der wiederverwertbaren Materialien, die Brauchbarkeit des Komposts, die Interesse an Vergärung, die Möglichkeit einer Verbrennungsanlage, das Verstehen eines nicht-Verbrennungssystems und die Verfügbarkeit von Land für Deponien, die Notwendigkeit für Elektrizität sind einige Schlüsselfaktoren die überlegt werden müs-sen. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaft ist wahrscheinlich die vernünftigste Vorgehensweise. Dies ermöglicht Flexibilität bei Abfallwirtschaftstechniken und ergänzt sie gegenseitig. 12. Öffentliche Verwaltungen können DMT als eine erste Bewertung der geeignetesten Tech-nologie benutzen. Des weiteren gibt DMT dem Verwaltungspersonal Flexibilität in ihrer Wahl bezüglich der Menge an wiederverwertbarem Abfall unter der Anwendung verschie-denen Technologien, welches eine gut konstruiertes und gut integriertes Abfallbehand-lungssystem für die Gesellschaft darstellt. Fazit Das Fazit ist: die Abfallwirtschaft in einem tropischen Schwellenland ist mit bestimmten Her-ausforderungen verbunden, die behandelt werden müssen. Ökonomische, technische und sozi-ale Kriterien müssen in Betracht gezogen werden bei der Wahl geeigneter städtischer Abfall-wirtschaftsysteme. Begrenzte finanzielle Möglichkeiten, Mangel an öffentlichem Bewusstsein und ein schwaches Wirtschaftssystem sind manchmal verantwortlich für die Wahl eines schlechtes Abfallbehandlungssystems, mit kurzsichtigen und über die Jahren teuren Entschei-dungen statt langfristigen und vernünftigeren Entscheidungen. Wetterbedingungen und die Knappheit an Land in Stadtnähe sind besondere Herausforderungen. Das Entscheidungsinstru-mentarium DMT macht die Identifizierung von Schlüsselfragen nötig für die Formulierung eines nachhaltigen Abfallwirtschaftskonzepts und für die Wahl eines technisch-, ökonomisch- und sozial-akzeptierbaren Abfallwirtschaftssystems, das besonders geeignet ist für tropische Klimate. Die Ergebnisse der DMT-Daten-Analyse bietet eine faire Auswertung für ein adäquates integ-riertes Abfallbehandlungssystems. Wenn einmal ein System identifiziert wurde, werden weitere Studien bezüglich Umsetzbarkeit und Anwendbarkeit nötig sein. Jedoch wird die Notwendig-keit, ausführliche Studien am multiplen Szenarien durchzuführen, minimiert, was erhebliche Ersparnisse für die Stadtverwaltung bedeutet. Eine Feasibility-Study und ein Masterplan haben zu folgen, um die standortspezifischen und Finanzierungsfragen zu klären sowie die Auswahl der spezifischen Anlagentechnik zu definieren. ; Abstract Developing and emerging tropical Asian countries have encountered fast urban development due to the migration of farmers seeking a better life in the city. This resulted in a lack of appro-priate infrastructure and inappropriate social services in many cities. Municipal solid waste management is no exception and is in fact often placed at the bottom of the list of priorities for the cities' appropriate urban management plans since laws and regulations must first be for-mulated and implemented. The problem of unmanaged municipal solid waste certainly leads to air pollution, disease, and to soil and water contamination. These problems in tropical climates are compounded with high temperature, high-level humidity, heavy rainfall and frequent flooding. Stagnant water and leachate from waste quickly become the breeding grounds of in-sects, rodents and bacteria, thus creating a health hazard for workers and local populations. Moreover, water and groundwater contamination may lead to serious environmental degrada-tion with direct impacts on water supplies, and in the fast degradation of agricultural products, the backbone of most tropical Asian countries. Many cities still allow or tolerate dumping of waste in uncontrolled sites, and open burning that disperses particulates that most likely contain dioxins and furans. Even with increasingly scarce land availability within or in proximity of the cities, sanitary landfill is still the most often cho-sen disposal method around Asia because of its lower cost when compared to modern treatment systems. Yet, most of these landfill sites do not have proper lining, daily covering, methane recovery devices, leachate control systems, nor do they have long-term closure and monitoring plans, which implies short and long-term hazards. Some municipalities opted for incineration, which usually entails high operation and maintenance costs because of the need for supple-mental fuel and often-inappropriate running conditions. Although tropical conditions appear to favor certain disposal systems such as composting, appropriate technology needs to be identi-fied in order to reduce operation and maintenance costs while ensuring good quality outputs; compost plants have often been closed because of poor quality products due to the high content of plastic and glass particulates in the finished product. Tropical Asian cities are now required to identify affordable and sustainable solutions for the management of their increasing amount of waste generated daily, while ensuring minimal environmental impact, social acceptance and minimal land use. The purpose of this dissertation was to develop a user-friendly decision-making tool for public administrators and government officials in tropical Asian developing and emerging cities. This tool was developed based on a list of selected decision-making issues necessary in making an informed decision. The decision-making tool is to be used by decision-makers in making a pre-liminary assessment of a most appropriate waste management and treatment system for their municipality. Tropical Asian cities must consider a number of issues when deciding on their waste management plan such as the continuously changing quantum and composition of waste associated with the increasing population and income per capita, the high humidity levels, and the often-limited financial resources. Other determinant factors include legal, political, institu-tional, social and technical issues. Furthermore, administrators must realize the importance of each stage involved in waste management, which includes waste generation, collection, trans-port, waste characteristics, disposal and treatment. To better understand the complexity of the issues involved in tropical Asian municipalities, the city of Bangkok, Thailand's largest city and capital, was selected as a case study for the management of its 9,000 tonnes of waste gen-erated daily. Numerous interviews, meetings along with the review of documents, reports and site visits offered an inside view of the tropical city's various decision-making issues towards its waste management plan, and examine specific problems encountered by the city's decision-makers. The review and analysis of the decision-making issues involved in Bangkok's waste management plan showed how the decision-making tool can be used in various Asian tropical cities. In conclusion, waste management in an emerging tropical country involves specific challenges that need to be addressed. Economical, technical and social criteria need to be fully understood as to capacitate government officials in the selection of the most appropriate urban waste man-agement system. Limited budgets, lack of public awareness and poor systems' management often cloud decision-makers in choosing what appears to be the best solution in the short term, but more costly over the years. Weather conditions and scarcity of land in proximity of the city make waste management especially challenging. The decision-making framework offers a tool to decision-makers, as to facilitate the understanding and identification of key issues necessary in the formulation of a sustainable urban waste management plan and in the selection of a tech-nically, economically and socially acceptable integrated MSW management system. A detailed feasibility study and master plan will follow the preliminary study as to define the plant´s specifications, its location and its financing.

Einführung Tropische asiatische Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländer zeigten rasches städtisches Wachstum dadurch, dass Bauern einwanderten, um ein besseres Leben in der Stadt zu suchen. Dadurch ergab sich in vielen Städten ein Mangel an geeigneter Infrastruktur und an sozialen Diensten. Die städtische Müllversorgung bildet keine Ausnahme; sie wird sogar oft an das Ende der Prio-ritätenliste für städtische Aufgabenpläne gestellt, da dabei zuerst die Gesetze und Verordnun-gen formuliert und umgesetzt werden müssen. Das Problem des nicht entsorgten städtischen Mülls führt (mit Sicherheit) zu Luftverschmutzung, Krankheit und zur Verseuchung des Bo-dens und des Wassers. Diese Probleme stehen in tropischen Klimaten im Zusammenhang mit hoher Temperatur und Feuchtigkeit, mit heftigem Regen und mit häufigen Überschwemmun-gen. Stehendes Wasser und Ausschwemmung aus dem Abfall werden sehr schnell zu Brutstät-ten von Insekten, Nagern und Bakterien, und damit zu einer Gesundheitsgefahr für Arbeiter und die allgemeine Bevölkerung. Darüber hinaus kann Wasser- und Grundwasserverschmut-zung/Kontamination zu einer ernsten Umweltzerstörung führen, mit direkten Auswirkungen auf die Wasserressourcen, und auf raschen Qualitätsverlust der pflanzlichen Erzeugnisse, des Rückgrates der meisten tropischen asiatischen Länder. Müllentsorgung und die Verantwortlichkeiten Lokale Regierungen müssen die öffentliche Gesundheit ihrer lokalen Bevölkerung sicherstellen und sind deshalb für die Müllentsorgung verantwortlich. Asiatische tropische Klimate sich rasch ändernde Müllzusammensetzung machen die Müllbehandlung und –entsorgung zu einer dauernden Herausforderung der Entscheidungsträger. Vor einer Entscheidung über das ver-wendete Entsorgungssystem muss eine geeignete Abfall-Charakterisierung treten. Diese Cha-rakterisierung liefert Kenntnisse über die Abfallmenge, die Feuchte, den Heizwert und die Menge der verschiedenen Komponenten im Abfallstrom, wie z. B.: organisches Material, Plas-tik, Papier, Karton, Holz, Textilien, Gummi, Leder, Glas, Metalle, Nichtmetalle, Steine und Keramiken. Darüber hinaus ist die Herausforderung, der sich asiatische Länder gegenüber se-hen, ein Mangel an Raum und damit wird die Platzierung eine Deponie zunehmend schwierig. Die Abfallwirtschaft ist eine kostenintensive, aber trotzdem notwendige Maßnahme, um das Wohlergehen sowohl der Bevölkerung als auch für die Umwelt sicher zu stellen. Es wird ge-schätzt, dass Asien im Jahr 2025 etwa 47 Milliarden US$ aufwenden muss, um 0,5 bis 1 Kg städtischen Müll je Person und Tag abzufahren und zu behandeln, oder 5 US$ je Kopf und Jahr. In Entwicklungsländern sind unzählige Leute nicht in der Lage, diese hohen Preise für die Ab-fallentsorgung zu zahlen. Deshalb liegt es in der Verantwortung der Regierung, die Abfallent-sorgung zu betreiben und zu finanzieren, um die Bevölkerung, die Gemeinde und die Umwelt zu schützen. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen jetzt bezahlbare und nachhaltige Verfahren für die Entsorgung ihrer zunehmenden Menge täglichen Abfalls benennen, wobei gleichzeitig auf minimale Umweltbelastung, auf soziale Akzeptanz und auf minimale Landverbrauch zu achten ist. Eine leicht anwendbare Entscheidungshilfe zur Wahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungs-system der Gemeinde wäre deshalb sehr nützlich. Proposition Der Zweck dieser Dissertation war die Entwicklung eines nutzerfreundlichen Instrumentariums für das Verwaltungs- und Regierungspersonal in tropischen Entwicklungs- und Schwellenlän-der. 1. Diese Vorgehensweise basiert auf einem Netzwerk, das eine Liste ausgewählter entschei-dungsrelevanter Tatsachen in Betracht zieht, die nötig sind, um eine informierte Entschei-dung machen zu können. Das entscheidungshelfende Verfahren muss von Entscheidungs-trägern bei einer vorläufigen Feststellung des Abfallentsorgungs- und -behandlungssystems für ihre Gemeinde benutzt werden. 2. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen eine Reihe von Faktoren berücksichtigen, wenn sie über ihren Abfallwirtschaftsplan entscheiden. Dazu gehören die immerwechselnde Menge und Zusammensetzung des Abfalls infolge der zunehmenden Bevölkerungszahl und des Ein-kommens je Kopf, der hohe Feuchtigkeitsgrad, Verbrennungswärme-Werte und die oft be-grenzten finanziellen Möglichkeiten. 3. Ferner sind gesetzliche, politische, verwaltungstechnische, soziale, finanzielle, ökonomi-sche und technische Faktoren bestimmend. 4. Die Verwaltung muss dabei die Wichtigkeit jedes Teilschrittes der Abfallwirtschaft im Au-ge behalten, also Abfallerzeugung, Sammlung, Transport, Abfallcharakterisierung, Entsor-gung und Behandlung. 5. Die Rolle der lokalen Gemeinden in der Entscheidungsfindung ist nicht hoch genug einzu-schätzen; deshalb müssen Mitglieder der Gemeinde aktiv am Schutz der Umwelt und an der Verhinderung ihrer Zerstörung mitwirken. Mehrere Entscheidungshilfsverfahren für ver-schiedene Anwendungen wurden entwickelt. Jedoch zieht die Mehrzahl von ihnen nicht notwendigerweise eine öffentliche Teilnahme in Betracht, und sie sind auch nicht benutzer-freundlich. 6. Um die Komplexität der Probleme besser zu verstehen, die bei tropischen asiatischen Städ-ten auftreten, wurde die Innenstadt von Bangkok, Thailands größte Stadt und Hauptstadt, als repräsentativer Fall ausgewählt, für die Entsorgung der 9000 t Müll der täglich produ-ziert wird. Thailands Klima ist, besonders während der jährlichen Monsunzeit, heiß und feucht mit einer mittleren Temperatur von 28,4°C und einer Feuchtigkeit zwischen 70 und 100%. Die Gesetze und Verordnungen zeigen sehr deutlich an, wie wichtig die Behandlung des städtischen Abfalls genommen wird. Zahlreiche Interviews, verbunden mit der Durch-sicht von Dokumenten, Berichten und Ortsbesichtigungen ergaben Kenntnisse der zahlrei-chen Entscheidungsmaßnahmen, denen sich die städtischen Entscheidungsträger einer tro-pischen Stadt gegenüber sehen. Die Durchsicht und die Analyse der Entscheidungsmaß-nahmen in Bangkoks Abfallentsorgungsstrategien zeigten, wie das Entscheiden als Werk-zeug in verschiedenen asiatischen tropischen Städten benutzt werden kann. 7. Ein Entscheidungsrahmen wurde erstellt auf der Grundlage von Literatur-Recherchen und persönliche Erfahrungen, und anhand der in der Stadt Bangkok gesammelte Daten über-prüft. Die Entscheidungspunkte im Netzwerk umfassen eine allgemeine Beschreibung der Stadt, ihre klimatischen und hydrogeologischen Bedingungen, die Menge und Art des er-zeugten Mülls, einen Überblick über die bestehenden Anlagen und die existierenden Pro-gramme, öffentliche Aufmerksamkeit zu gewinnen, den sozioökonomischen Aspekt eines Abfallbehandlungssystems und die öffentliche Teilnahme. Es berücksichtigt ferner Ge-sundheits- und Sicherheitsüberlegungen im Zusammenhang mit Abfallentsorgungsmög-lichkeiten und ihrer Kosten. 8. Das Entscheidungsinstrumentarium hat als Ziel, ein geeignetes Abfallbehandlungssystem zu ermöglichen, das als Grundlage soziale, klimatische und technische Informationen be-nutzt. Ihre Einfachheit erlaubt einem Verwaltungspersonal, das wenig Erfahrung mit Ab-fallwirtschaft und Computerwissen besitzt, verschiedene Optionen zu analysieren und Sze-narien auszutesten. Des weiteren werden verschiedene Möglichkeiten überprüft, und es wird versucht, die Optionen in die Abfallwirtschaft zu integrieren. 9. Das Instrumentarium beinhaltet über ein Hundert geschlossene Fragen, die auf das Analy-sieren der Bedürfnisse und der gegenwärtigen Situation der Abfallwirtschaft einer be-stimmten Gesellschaft ausgerichtet sind und die es ermöglichen, ein geeignetes Abfallwirt-schaftssystem für die entsprechende Gesellschaft zu wählen. Diese Fragen hatten als Grundlage die Rahmen und Eckpunkte des Entscheidungsinstrumentariums. Dieses Instru-mentarium ist selbsterklärend, und gleichzeitig bietet es Flexibilität bei der Entscheidung, um wie viel Prozent des Abfalls wieder verwertet wird, kompostiert oder behandelt durch irgend eine von den sechs Behandlungsoptionen; Kompostierung, Vergärung, nicht-Verbrennungssysteme, Verbrennung, Deponierung und Energiegewinnung. 10. Die Ziele eines integrierten Abfallwirtschaftssystems können vom Benutzer geändert und modifiziert werden. Dies ermöglicht die Überprüfung verschiedener Szenarien und die Auswahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungssystems. Das System kann sehr einfach sein und nur ein Behandlungssystem beinhalten oder mit einer Auswahl mehrere Behandlungs-systeme sehr kompliziert sein. In einigen Ländern ist es Vorschrift mehrere Systeme anzu-wenden. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaftssysteme, die mindestens zwei oder drei Abfallbe-handlungssysteme beinhalten, sind deshalb gefragt. 11. Die Ziele der Gesellschaft sind ausschlaggebend und sind die Schlüsselfaktoren für den Entscheidungsprozess. Die Menge der wiederverwertbaren Materialien, die Brauchbarkeit des Komposts, die Interesse an Vergärung, die Möglichkeit einer Verbrennungsanlage, das Verstehen eines nicht-Verbrennungssystems und die Verfügbarkeit von Land für Deponien, die Notwendigkeit für Elektrizität sind einige Schlüsselfaktoren die überlegt werden müs-sen. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaft ist wahrscheinlich die vernünftigste Vorgehensweise. Dies ermöglicht Flexibilität bei Abfallwirtschaftstechniken und ergänzt sie gegenseitig. 12. Öffentliche Verwaltungen können DMT als eine erste Bewertung der geeignetesten Tech-nologie benutzen. Des weiteren gibt DMT dem Verwaltungspersonal Flexibilität in ihrer Wahl bezüglich der Menge an wiederverwertbarem Abfall unter der Anwendung verschie-denen Technologien, welches eine gut konstruiertes und gut integriertes Abfallbehand-lungssystem für die Gesellschaft darstellt. Fazit Das Fazit ist: die Abfallwirtschaft in einem tropischen Schwellenland ist mit bestimmten Her-ausforderungen verbunden, die behandelt werden müssen. Ökonomische, technische und sozi-ale Kriterien müssen in Betracht gezogen werden bei der Wahl geeigneter städtischer Abfall-wirtschaftsysteme. Begrenzte finanzielle Möglichkeiten, Mangel an öffentlichem Bewusstsein und ein schwaches Wirtschaftssystem sind manchmal verantwortlich für die Wahl eines schlechtes Abfallbehandlungssystems, mit kurzsichtigen und über die Jahren teuren Entschei-dungen statt langfristigen und vernünftigeren Entscheidungen. Wetterbedingungen und die Knappheit an Land in Stadtnähe sind besondere Herausforderungen. Das Entscheidungsinstru-mentarium DMT macht die Identifizierung von Schlüsselfragen nötig für die Formulierung eines nachhaltigen Abfallwirtschaftskonzepts und für die Wahl eines technisch-, ökonomisch- und sozial-akzeptierbaren Abfallwirtschaftssystems, das besonders geeignet ist für tropische Klimate. Die Ergebnisse der DMT-Daten-Analyse bietet eine faire Auswertung für ein adäquates integ-riertes Abfallbehandlungssystems. Wenn einmal ein System identifiziert wurde, werden weitere Studien bezüglich Umsetzbarkeit und Anwendbarkeit nötig sein. Jedoch wird die Notwendig-keit, ausführliche Studien am multiplen Szenarien durchzuführen, minimiert, was erhebliche Ersparnisse für die Stadtverwaltung bedeutet. Eine Feasibility-Study und ein Masterplan haben zu folgen, um die standortspezifischen und Finanzierungsfragen zu klären sowie die Auswahl der spezifischen Anlagentechnik zu definieren. ; Abstract Developing and emerging tropical Asian countries have encountered fast urban development due to the migration of farmers seeking a better life in the city. This resulted in a lack of appro-priate infrastructure and inappropriate social services in many cities. Municipal solid waste management is no exception and is in fact often placed at the bottom of the list of priorities for the cities' appropriate urban management plans since laws and regulations must first be for-mulated and implemented. The problem of unmanaged municipal solid waste certainly leads to air pollution, disease, and to soil and water contamination. These problems in tropical climates are compounded with high temperature, high-level humidity, heavy rainfall and frequent flooding. Stagnant water and leachate from waste quickly become the breeding grounds of in-sects, rodents and bacteria, thus creating a health hazard for workers and local populations. Moreover, water and groundwater contamination may lead to serious environmental degrada-tion with direct impacts on water supplies, and in the fast degradation of agricultural products, the backbone of most tropical Asian countries. Many cities still allow or tolerate dumping of waste in uncontrolled sites, and open burning that disperses particulates that most likely contain dioxins and furans. Even with increasingly scarce land availability within or in proximity of the cities, sanitary landfill is still the most often cho-sen disposal method around Asia because of its lower cost when compared to modern treatment systems. Yet, most of these landfill sites do not have proper lining, daily covering, methane recovery devices, leachate control systems, nor do they have long-term closure and monitoring plans, which implies short and long-term hazards. Some municipalities opted for incineration, which usually entails high operation and maintenance costs because of the need for supple-mental fuel and often-inappropriate running conditions. Although tropical conditions appear to favor certain disposal systems such as composting, appropriate technology needs to be identi-fied in order to reduce operation and maintenance costs while ensuring good quality outputs; compost plants have often been closed because of poor quality products due to the high content of plastic and glass particulates in the finished product. Tropical Asian cities are now required to identify affordable and sustainable solutions for the management of their increasing amount of waste generated daily, while ensuring minimal environmental impact, social acceptance and minimal land use. The purpose of this dissertation was to develop a user-friendly decision-making tool for public administrators and government officials in tropical Asian developing and emerging cities. This tool was developed based on a list of selected decision-making issues necessary in making an informed decision. The decision-making tool is to be used by decision-makers in making a pre-liminary assessment of a most appropriate waste management and treatment system for their municipality. Tropical Asian cities must consider a number of issues when deciding on their waste management plan such as the continuously changing quantum and composition of waste associated with the increasing population and income per capita, the high humidity levels, and the often-limited financial resources. Other determinant factors include legal, political, institu-tional, social and technical issues. Furthermore, administrators must realize the importance of each stage involved in waste management, which includes waste generation, collection, trans-port, waste characteristics, disposal and treatment. To better understand the complexity of the issues involved in tropical Asian municipalities, the city of Bangkok, Thailand's largest city and capital, was selected as a case study for the management of its 9,000 tonnes of waste gen-erated daily. Numerous interviews, meetings along with the review of documents, reports and site visits offered an inside view of the tropical city's various decision-making issues towards its waste management plan, and examine specific problems encountered by the city's decision-makers. The review and analysis of the decision-making issues involved in Bangkok's waste management plan showed how the decision-making tool can be used in various Asian tropical cities. In conclusion, waste management in an emerging tropical country involves specific challenges that need to be addressed. Economical, technical and social criteria need to be fully understood as to capacitate government officials in the selection of the most appropriate urban waste man-agement system. Limited budgets, lack of public awareness and poor systems' management often cloud decision-makers in choosing what appears to be the best solution in the short term, but more costly over the years. Weather conditions and scarcity of land in proximity of the city make waste management especially challenging. The decision-making framework offers a tool to decision-makers, as to facilitate the understanding and identification of key issues necessary in the formulation of a sustainable urban waste management plan and in the selection of a tech-nically, economically and socially acceptable integrated MSW management system. A detailed feasibility study and master plan will follow the preliminary study as to define the plant´s specifications, its location and its financing.

Objective − to present the experience with providing specialized medical care during mass hospitalization of victims of an industrial accident at the Listvyazhnaya mine in conditions of limited capacity of medical institutions due to the next wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.Materials and methods. November 25, 2021 at 8:30 local time at the Listvyazhnaya mine (Belovo, Kemerovo region) at a depth of 250 meters in the ventilation drift No. 823, there was an explosion of mine gases and smoke in all underground workings of the mine for 40 km. At 09:00, a message about the industrial accident was received by the unified dispatching service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations (MES). Brigades of the militarized mountain rescue unit (VGSCh) and employees of the nearest ambulance service in Belovo immediately left for the accident site.Of the 285 employees of the mine, 197 miners came to the surface on their own, of which 12 victims with mild to moderate carbon monoxide poisoning were taken to the Belovo City Hospital No. 8, a level II trauma center 10 km from the mine; 39 victims needed help from the VGSCh staff. Within 72 hours from the moment of the accident, 35 victims with the main diagnosis "Carbon monoxide poisoning" were evacuated to the Kuzbass Clinical Center for Miners' Health named after the Holy Great Martyr Barbara (Leninsk-Kuznetsky, level I trauma center, 30 km from the mine); 11 victims with the same diagnosis were taken to the acute poisoning department of the Kuzbass Clinical Emergency Hospital named after. M. A. Podgorbunsky (Kemerovo, level I trauma center, 110 km from the mine).Demographic data (age), circumstances and mechanism of injury, organizational features of receiving and providing assistance to victims, heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), level of consciousness and severity of injuries (Glasgow coma scale (GCS), Injury Severity Scale (ISS), Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS)) and the severity of carbon monoxide poisoning (CO) were analyzed.Analysis of the acid-base state and blood gases with the measurement of the levels of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) and methemoglobin (MetHb) in whole venous blood was performed on a critical state analyzer "Cobas 221 S" (Roche Diagnostics, Germany).Statistical processing of the obtained data was carried out using the software package for processing statistical data of social sciences version 21 "IBM SPSS Statistics" (Statistical Product and Service Solutions − SPSS). Qualitative features are presented as absolute and relative (%) values. Quantitative variables are presented as arithmetic means (M) and the standard deviation of arithmetic means (SD), as Me (LQ–UQ), where Me is the median, (LQ–UQ) is the interquartile range (IQR) (LQ − 23 %, UQ − 75 % of the quartile).Results. Despite the difficult situation due to the re-profiling of 80 beds for the treatment of patients with the new coronovirus infection, at the time of the mass admission of victims from the internal reserves of Kuzbass Clinical Center of Miners' Health Protection named after The Holy Great Martyr Barbara, Leninsk-Kuznetsky, 10 beds were prepared in the intensive care unit (ICU), 40 beds in the departments of traumatology, surgery and neurosurgery. Additionally, 40 employees of the clinic were involved: 4 traumatologists, 3 surgeons, 3 anesthesiologist-resuscitators, neurologist, otolaryngologist, therapist, radiologist, functional diagnostics doctor, nurses of the operating unit and anesthetists, nurses.On the basis of Kuzbass Clinical Center of Miners' Health Protection named after The Holy Great Martyr Barbara, 30 victims were provided with medical care in accordance with previously developed protocols. Within 1 hour after the accident, 4 victims in serious condition were taken to the medical center and hospitalized to the intensive care unit. After 2-3 hours, another 26 people were delivered with barotrauma, carbon monoxide poisoning of moderate severity, bruises, abrasions of soft tissues. 26 % of the victims had lacerations of the head, trunk and limbs. The severity of the injury according to ISS was: M (SD) 6.2 (2) points. The severity of the condition of the victims was due to carbon monoxide poisoning. COHb levels within 0-3 % were recorded in 23.3 % of victims, within 4-10 % − in 63.3 % of victims, and a high level ≥ 11 % − in 13.4 % of victims. This made it possible to objectively assess the condition of the victims, clarify the diagnosis and conduct adequate treatment. The duration of non-invasive ventilation was Me (IQR) 1.4 (0.4-2.2) hours, the length of stay in the ICU Me (IQR) − 2.6 (0.5-2.6) hours, the duration of hospitalization in the clinic Me (IQR) − 6 (3.1-7.2) bed days.On the afternoon of November 25, 2021, 49 miners remained in the mine, as well as 6 mine rescuers, who did not return from search and rescue operations from a remote part of the mine. One victim was saved: he came to the surface on his own in more than 12 hours. The victim has poisoning and hypothermia of moderate severity. Despite the developed complication and acute renal failure due to reperfusion syndrome, this patient managed to be helped: like everyone else, he was discharged from the hospital with recovery.51 people died in the mine, including 5 people from the mine rescue team. The main reason is carbon monoxide poisoning.Conclusion. With a mass admission of victims, when there is a shortage of medical personnel involved in the provision of assistance, the issues of medical triage of victims, the targeted use of internal reserves and the potential of medical institutions to ensure the continuity of specialized medical care in the general health care system come to the fore.The unity of standards of diagnostics and treatment at all stages becomes the leading principle, which makes it possible to ensure the principle of continuity. In case of mass carbon monoxide poisoning, in order to assess the severity of the damage to the victims, it is necessary to correctly assess the acid-base state of the blood. The results of pulse oximetry in this situation, as a rule, are uninformative, they do not reflect the total oxygen content in the blood, which is accompanied by subsequent tissue hypoxia.It is necessary to improve the development of organizational technologies, operational management and personnel management, integrative management of forces and means in the context of ongoing innovative activities of medical institutions in the region. ; Цель работы — представить опыт оказания специализированной медицинской помощи при массовой госпитализации пострадавших в результате техногенной аварии на шахте «Листвяжная» в условиях ограниченных возможностей лечебных учреждений из-за очередной волны пандемии COVID-19.Материал и методы. 25 ноября 2021 года в 8 часов 30 минут по местному времени на шахте «Листвяжная» (г. Белово, Кемеровская область) на глубине 250 метров в вентиляционном штреке № 823 произошел взрыв шахтовых газов и задымление по всем подземным выработкам шахты на протяжении 40 км. В 09:00 сообщение о техногенной аварии поступило в единую диспетчерскую службу министерства по чрезвычайным ситуациям (МЧС). На место аварии сразу же выехали бригады военизированной горноспасательной части (ВГСЧ) и сотрудники ближайшей службы скорой помощи г. Белово.Из 285 сотрудников шахты на поверхность самостоятельно вышли 197 горняков, из них 12 пострадавших с отравлением угарным газом легкой и средней степени тяжести были доставлены в Беловскую городскую больницу № 8, травмоцентр II уровня в 10 км от шахты; 39 пострадавшим понадобилась помощь сотрудников ВГСЧ. В течение 72 часов с момента аварии 35 пострадавших с основным диагнозом «Отравление угарным газом» были эвакуированы в Кузбасский клинический центр охраны здоровья шахтеров имени святой великомученицы Варвары (ГБУЗ ККЦОЗШ, г. Ленинск-Кузнецкий, травмоцентр I уровня в 30 км от шахты); 11 пострадавших с аналогичным диагнозом были доставлены в отделение острых отравлений Кузбасской клинической больницы скорой медицинской помощи им. М. А. Подгорбунского (г. Кемерово, травмоцентр I уровня в 110 км от шахты).Анализировались демографические данные (возраст), обстоятельства и механизм травмы, организационные особенности приема и оказания помощи пострадавшим, частота сердечных сокращений (ЧСС), систолическое артериальное давление (САД), уровень сознания и тяжести полученных травм (шкала ком Глазго — GCS, шкала тяжести травмы — ISS, сокращенная шкала травмы — AIS) и степень тяжести отравления угарным газом (СО).Анализ кислотно-основного состояния и газов крови с измерением уровней карбоксигемоглобина (СOHb) и метгемоглобина (MetHb) в цельной венозной крови проводили на анализаторе критических состояний «Cobas 221 S» (Roche Diagnostics, Германия).Статистическую обработку полученных данных проводили с использованием пакета программ обработки статистических данных общественных наук версии 21 «IBM SPSS Statiatics» (Statistical Product and Service Solutions — SPSS). Качественные признаки представлены в виде абсолютных и относительных (%) значений. Количественные переменные представлены в виде средних арифметических величин (М) и квадратичного отклонения средних арифметических величин (SD), в виде Me (LQ–UQ), где ME — медиана, (LQ–UQ) — интерквартильный разброс (IQR) (LQ — 23%, UQ — 75% квартили). Результаты. Несмотря на сложную обстановку в связи с перепрофилированием 80 коек для лечения пациентов с новой короновирусной инфекцией, на момент массового поступления пострадавших из внутренних резервов ГБУЗ ККЦОЗШ были подготовлены 10 коек в отделении реанимации и интенсивной терапии (ОРИТ), 40 коек в отделениях травматологии, хирургии и нейрохирургии. Дополнительно были привлечены 40 сотрудников клиники: 4 травматолога, 3 хирурга, 3 анестезиолога-реаниматолога, невролог, ЛОР-врач, терапевт, врач рентгенолог, врач функциональной диагностики, медицинские сестры операционного блока и анестезисты, санитарки.На базе ГБУЗ ККЦОЗШ 30 пострадавшим была оказана медицинская помощь в соответствии с ранее разработанными протоколами. В течение 1 часа после аварии 4 пострадавших в тяжелом состоянии были доставлены в центр и госпитализированы в ОРИТ. Через 2–3 часа были доставлены еще 26 человек с баротравмой, отравлением угарным газом средней степени тяжести, ушибами, ссадинами мягких тканей. У 26 % пострадавших были рвано-ушибенные раны головы, туловища, конечностей. Тяжесть травмы по ISS составила: М (SD) 6,2 (2) балла. Тяжесть состояния пострадавших была обусловлена отравлением угарным газом. Уровень СOHb в пределах 0–3 % регистрировали у 23,3 % пострадавших, в пределах 4–10% — у 63,3 % пострадавших и высокий уровень ≥ 11 % – у 13,4 % пострадавших. Это позволило объективно оценить состояние пострадавших, уточнить диагноз и проводить адекватное лечение. Длительность неинвазивной вентиляции легких составила Me (IQR) 1,4 (0,4–2,2) часа, продолжительность пребывания в ОРИТ Me (IQR) 2,6 (0,5–2,6) часа, сроки госпитализации в клинике Me (IQR) 6 (3,1–7,2) койко-дней.Во второй половине дня 25 ноября 2021 г. в шахте оставались 49 шахтеров и 6 горноспасателей, которые не вернулись с поисково-спасательных работ из отдаленной части шахты. Одного пострадавшего удалось спасти: он вышел самостоятельно на поверхность более чем через 12 часов. У пострадавшего отравление и переохлаждение средней степени тяжести. Несмотря на развившееся осложнение, острую почечную недостаточность вследствие реперфузионного синдрома, этому больному удалось помочь: как и все остальные, он был выписан из стационара с выздоровлением.В шахте погиб 51 человек, в том числе 5 — из группы горноспасателей. Основная причина — отравление угарным газом.Заключение. При массовом поступлении пострадавших, когда наблюдается дефицит медицинского персонала, участвующего в оказании помощи, на первое место выступают вопросы медицинской сортировки пострадавших, целенаправленного использования внутренних резервов и потенциала лечебных учреждений для обеспечения непрерывности специализированной медицинской помощи в общей системе здравоохранения.Ведущим принципом становится единство стандартов диагностики, лечения на всех этапах, что позволяет обеспечить принцип преемственности. При массовом отравлении угарным газом для оценки степени тяжести поражения пострадавших необходимо обязательно правильно оценивать кислотно-основное состояние крови. Результаты пульсоксиметрии в данной ситуации, как правило, являются малоинформативными, они не отражают общего содержания кислорода в крови, что сопровождается последующей тканевой гипоксией.Необходимо совершенствовать разработку организационных технологий, оперативного управления и кадрового менеджмента, интегративного управления силами и средствами в условиях проводимой инновационной деятельности медицинских учреждений области.

As Russian forces steadily advance in the Kharkiv region, it is becoming ever more clear that the Ukraine war has been a disaster for the U.S. defense machine, and not just because our aid has failed to save Ukraine from retreat and possible defeat. More importantly, the war has pitilessly exposed our defense system's deep, underlying, faults.Critics have long maintained that our obsession with technologically complex weapons inevitably yields unreliable systems produced in limited numbers because of their predictably high cost. They are furthermore likely to fail in combat because of the military's lack of interest in adequate testing (lest realistic tests reveal serious shortcomings and thereby threaten the budget.) The unforgiving operational test provided by the Ukraine war has shown that the critics were absolutely right. Successive "game changing" systems - such as the Switchblade drone, the M-1 Abrams tank, Patriot air defense missiles, the M777 howitzer, the Excalibur guided 155 mm artillery round, the HIMARS precision missile, GPS-guided bombs, and Skydio drones endowed with artificial intelligence, were all dispatched to "the fight," as the military like to call it, with fanfare and high expectations. All were destined to fail for reasons rooted in the fundamental problems cited above. The $60,000 Switchblade drone, produced in limited numbers due to cost, proved useless against armored targets and was quickly discarded by Ukrainian troops in favor of $700 Chinese commercial models ordered online. The $10 million Abrams tank not only proved distressingly vulnerable to Russian attack drones but in any case broke down repeatedly and was soon withdrawn from combat, though not before the Russians put several out of action and captured at least one, which they took to Moscow and added to a display of Nato weaponry in a Moscow park that included an M777 howitzer and other items of NATO hardware. The M777 cannon, though touted for its accuracy, has proved too delicate for the rough conditions of sustained combat, with barrels regularly wearing out and requiring replacement in Poland far from the front lines . Notoriously, its 155 mm ammunition has been in short supply. Thanks to the consolidation of the U.S. defense industry into a small number of monopolies, an ill-judged policy eagerly promoted since the Clinton Administration, U.S. domestic production of 155 mm shells is reliant on a single aging General Dynamics plant in Scranton, Pennsylvania, which is struggling to meet its targets. President Zelensky has been loudly demanding more Patriot launchers and missiles to defend Kharkiv, which is curious, given the apparent ease with which the Russians have targeted Patriots defending Kyiv, and the system's declining effectiveness against Russian ballistic missiles. HIMARS long range missiles indeed had a deadly effect on high value Russian targets, such as ammunition dumps, but the Russians adapted by dispersing and camouflaging such dumps and other likely targets.Take it from a Ukrainian: Western Systems "Worthless."Strikingly, many of the failures of U.S. weapons, including the HIMARS, in Ukraine have been due to their reliance on a highly vulnerable guidance system: GPS. The Russians, who have long devoted intense care and attention to electronic warfare, have proven increasingly adept at jamming GPS. This has been most witheringly expressed by Maria Berlinskaya, a pioneer in Ukraine's use of drones and head of the country's aerial reconnaissance support center, who recently stated that "most Western systems have proven to be [worthless]" thanks to Russian jamming. Her gloomy assessment was confirmed in April by none other than William LaPlante, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment, who told a CSIS conference how a company (Boeing, though he did not name it) had proposed adapting their small diameter GPS guided bomb as a warhead for the HIMARS. It had been accordingly rushed through development and into production, with little or no testing, and shipped off to Ukraine. "It just didn't work," admitted LaPlante, thanks to Russian GPS jammers that threw it off course and caused it to miss. The same sad fate seems to have befallen the Skydio drone, product of an eponymous Silicon Valley startup, whose AI features trumpeted by the company - "Skydio drones have the compute capacity to see, understand, and react in real time" - did not prevent it from being driven off course by Putin's jammers.Sullivan and His Pals Drank the Kool Aid the Military Poured for Them.Needless to say, none of these assorted failures were anticipated by the U.S. military high command, few of whom would be eager to denigrate the wares of contractors with lucrative post-retirement board seats on offer. We might hope that our senior civilian leadership would be aware of such biases and temper their expectations accordingly. Unfortunately, they drank the Kool Aid, as evidenced for their high expectations for the 2023 Ukrainian counter-offensive. Despite high hopes and lavish supplies of weapons, including tanks, ammunition, drones, intensive training on the territory of NATO allies, and a grounding in U.S. command and control doctrine, the counter-offensive was an immediate and total failure. Planners were apparently caught by surprise by the depth of Russia's (easily visible) defensive fortifications, especially minefields and the effectiveness of its electronic jamming. Ever since then, Ukraine has been steadily retreating, losing in the process its reserves of military manpower.Then There's Corruption.Not all of Ukraine's dire situation can be blamed on the military deficiencies of its major Nato ally. The country's infamous corruption, well known to western governments but generally ignored in the western press, is currently highlighted by its crumbling defenses around Kharkiv. According to an exemplary report by Ukrainian anti-corruption researcher Martyna Boguslavets, published in the Kyiv-based Ukraina Pravda, the huge sums appropriated for building fortifications around the city have simply been stolen. Here is her report (machine translated.)Martyna BoguslavetsChairman of the Anti-corruption Center "Mezha"Where are the fortifications? Kharkiv OVA paid millions to fictitious companiesMONDAY, MAY 13, 2024,Hundreds of millions of hryvnias have probably been stolen from the construction of fortifications in the Kharkiv region, where the [Russians are] now actively advancing. Multi-million dollar contracts for the construction of fortifications, for which a total of 7 billion hryvnias [$173 million] were spent there, were transferred by the Kharkiv OVA [regional military adminsitration] to front companies of avatars.In particular, the Department of Housing and Communal Services (ZhKG) and the fuel and energy complex of Kharkiv OVA concluded direct contracts for the supply of wood for fortifications with companies with signs of fictitiousness.For 270 million [approx $6 million] for wood, information about which is classified, contracts were concluded with FOP Chaus I.O., LLC "Hertz Industry", LLC "Satisbud", LLC "ATT BUILD" and LLC "DEREVOOBROBNE PIDPRIEMSTVO VOSHOD".All of them started making millions immediately within a few months of signing up. Classic - under direct contracts and without competitive procurement.It so happened that the department of the Kharkiv OVA for defense procurement chose newly registered anonymous firms and private enterprises. Moreover, the owners of these firms do not resemble successful businessmen and businesswomen - they have dozens of court cases, from whiskey theft to domestic violence against a husband and mother, some of them are deprived of parental rights and have had enforcement proceedings for bank loans.Another interesting detail - it seems that these beneficiaries do not even know that they are millionaires. After all, they continue to work in shifts "in the fields" and factories.Once again: in OVA, direct contracts for wood for fortifications have been concluded with companies whose "owners" do not even know that they are making millions. This is how military information is classified."Secret" avatars of Kharkiv OVAIt is obvious that contractors for military deals were carefully sought - people who are not rich, with a number of court cases and debts. Some of them are even related to each other.The scheme started with FOP Chaus Ihor Olegovych. Three months after registration, the OVA department concludes direct contracts with him for the supply of wood worth millions of hryvnias.It is interesting that in July 2023, when Chaus just registered the FOP, he had enforcement proceedings for a fine from the police. Earlier, he was found guilty of stealing a pint of Jack Daniels from ATB. He served 100 hours of community service for the stolen whiskey. A successful businessman from the bad 2010sThe "successful businesswomen" scheme was continued. Both are from the city of Kamianske, Dnipropetrovsk region.The first is Victoria Smolyak, owner of Hertz Industry LLC. The company was registered in June 2023, and within a few months it began to earn millions from wood. Again, under direct contracts. In less than a year, the company changes four managers, which is also a sign of fictitiousness.Mrs. Smolyak has not only a limited liability company, but also 5 enforcement proceedings for recovery from banks, courts for evasion of parental duties. A drunk woman committed domestic violence against her mother. Currently, she works at the Dnipro metallurgical plant.Not very similar to the owner of a successful company that earned 116 million [$2.9 million] from the OVA department in 9 months?Send feedbackThe second businesswoman is Natalia Koval. LLC "Satisbud" is registered on it three days after the registration of "Hertz Industry". Another successful company, through which more than [$1.3 million] are finnele.The owner of the company also has a bunch of court cases, in particular, regarding the deprivation of parental rights, being in a public place in a drunken state, committing domestic violence against her husband. As we learned, the woman now works in shifts in the fields.It is interesting that both "Hertz Industry" LLC and "Satisbud" LLC have the same director - Dmytro Knorozov. It is expected, and he also has enforcement proceedings, where he acts as a debtor.Through the following companies - "ATT BUD" and "WOOD PROCESSING ENTERPRISE VOSHOD" the Department of Housing and Urban Development of the Kharkiv Oblast is chasing away millions. Their owners and managers are connected to more than 30 more recently established companies with a wide range of activities.According to this scheme, the naked eye can see how someone, being a member of the government offices, mercilessly registers new companies, using for this purpose people who, due to the circumstances, may not be aware of this. And this someone continues to make money on blood.Ideally, this should become useful information for law enforcement agencies and further exposure of fictitious companies that steal millions from the Armed Forces. After all, most of these dozens of companies are currently dormant and are probably standing by for further participation in schemes for withdrawing funds into the shadows and tax evasion.Notably, Boguslavets' report is based on public documents, available to anyone who cared to probe, which did not apparently include the host of U.S. correspondents covering the war.This article has been republished with permission from Andrew Cockburn's Spoils of War

El uso de plaguicidas destinados a prevenir, destruir o controlar cualquier tipo de plaga, incluido vectores de enfermedades, plantas o animales indeseables en la producción de alimentos , ha tenido un aumento significativo en los últimos años, gracias a los múltiples beneficios que genera tanto a productores como a consumidores [1, 2], entre otros el incremento entre la relación costo beneficio, la mejora de calidad y cantidad de las cosechas o la reducción de las pérdidas en la post cosecha. Sin embargo, dicho aumento puede traer algunas consecuencias negativas para el medio ambiente ya que se estima que alrededor de un 2 a 5% de estos cumple con su objetivo principal, el restante interacciona con todos los compartimentos ambientales [3]. La interacción de los plaguicidas con el ambiente genera varios tipos de movimiento, dentro de los que se destacan la lixiviación, la escorrentía o la volatilización. Cada uno de ellos involucra diferentes partes del ecosistema y se relacionan entre sí, con las condiciones climáticas, las características físicas y químicas de los plaguicidas y con los receptores en el medio ambiente. De la amplia gama de plaguicidas existentes en el mercado, los herbicidas son los más importantes en Colombia ya que alcanzaron ventas superiores a los 14 millones 700 mil litros (55,9%) [4]. El destino ambiental de los plaguicidas es una preocupación importante de los gobiernos, particularmente de los herbicidas por su aplicación directa al suelo [5].En los cultivos de arroz se suman dos características adicionales, la primera es que las malezas son la principal plaga, la segunda son las características anaeróbicas de este cultivo, ya que los rendimientos mayores en producción los brinda el arroz de riego o inundado, siendo el más usado en la zona centro [6]. En el presente trabajo de investigación, se evaluó la lixiviación en columna de suelo de los herbicidas metsulfurón metilo y ácido 2, 4 diclorofenoxiacético (2,4-D), para dos suelos en condiciones de inundación, ubicados en los municipios de Espinal y Prado, Departamento del Tolima, mayormente productores de arroz. Los ensayos se realizaron empleando columnas de 30 cm de longitud y 10,1 cm de diámetro. La cuantificación de los plaguicidas en las fracciones de lixiviados obtenidas en la base de la columna se realizó mediante técnicas cromatográficas. Una vez terminados los ensayos de lixiviación se realizaron extracciones de suelo, para determinar las concentraciones residuales de herbicidas en función de la profundidad [7]. Se representó la curva de elución (Breakthrough curve, BTC) de bromuro, 2,4-D y metsulfurón metilo en la columna de suelo saturado de agua del Municipio del Espinal. Se obtuvieron los coeficientes del modelo de transporte en equilibrio (CDE1) y no equilibrio (PNE2 y CNE3) mediante el programa CXTFIT 2. 1 que resuelven la ecuación de convección-dispersión, ajustando la curva obtenida de manera experimental [8, 9]. Para el herbicida 2,4-D, se calculó el coeficiente de retardo (R) en los modelos no equilibrio físico (PNE) y no equilibrio químico (2 site). Se observa que el valor estadístico del coeficiente de correlación (R) calculado fue significativamente igual en todos los modelos con respecto al promedio (2,0750,04), aunque el modelo que mejor se ajustó en las condiciones de nuestro experimento fue el de PNE. Con el valor del coeficiente de retardo mejor ajustado por las ecuaciones en PNE, se determinó la constante de adsorción para el herbicida en condiciones anaerobias (22,69 LKg-1), valor coincidente con el calculado por algunos investigadores en condiciones aerobias [10, 11]. Para el metsulfurón metilo se obtuvo la curva de lixiviación con las concentraciones de las muestras, aunque por la forma y la estructura de dicho gráfico no es posible ajustar la curva a las ecuaciones modelo del programa. Con respecto a la columna preparada con el suelo del Municipio de Prado, para el ion bromuro se obtuvo más de un 50% de la curva de elución; por otra parte no se obtuvieron las curvas de elución para el ácido 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético y metsulfurón metilo, ya que a lo largo del experimento se tuvo un flujo (0,04-0,06 ml/h) principalmente debido al alto porcentaje de arcillas dentro de este, razón por la cual se observó una mayor retención del bromuro y los herbicidas. Adicionalmente se observó que el volumen de agua eluido fue ¼ de volumen de poro, durante 6 meses aproximadamente que duró el ensayo. Dicho tiempo no fue suficiente para percolar la totalidad del trazador ni de los herbicidas. Finalmente se realizó la extracción de ion bromuro en el suelo utilizado para la columna de Prado encontrando un porcentaje de recuperación (suma de los lixiviados y la cantidad retenida en el suelo) de 94,6%. Mediante ensayos de degradación en biómetros, se evaluó la degradación en condiciones anaeróbicas para el 2,4-D en las muestras de suelo tanto del municipio de Espinal como el de Prado, encontrando un tiempo de vida media (DT50) para el 2,4-D de 11,13 días en el suelo de Espinal y 7,4 días para la muestra de suelo de Prado. Particularmente se observa la disminución del tiempo de vida media del 2,4-D con el incremento del contenido de arcillas en el suelo, fenómeno que se explica por el mayor retardo que presenta dicho herbicida en las arcillas, aunque la lixiviación se ajuste a las ecuaciones de PNE y la adsorción no sea representativa bajo dichas condiciones. Por otro lado dichos tiempos de vida media reflejan una trasformación rápida del herbicida en el momento que entran en contacto con el suelo, concluyendo que el potencial de lixiviación disminuye por la disminución de la concentración disponible en la matriz de suelo. (Texto tomado de la fuente) ; Pesticide use for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of diseases, unwanted plants or animals in food production, had a significant increase in recent years, thanks to the multiple benefits generated both producers and consumers [1, 2], including the increase between the cost-benefit ratio, improved quality and quantity of crops or reducing post harvest losses. However, this increase may bring some negative consequences for the environment as it is estimated that about 2-5% of these meets its primary objective, the remaining interacts with all environmental compartments [3]. The interaction of pesticides to the environment generates several types of movement, within which stand leaching, runoff or volatilization. Each involves different parts of the ecosystem and relates to each other, with the weather, the physical and chemical characteristics of pesticides and with receptors on the environment. Of the wide range of existing pesticides on the market, herbicides are the most important in Colombia and reaching sales of more than 14 million 700 thousand liters (55.9%) [4]. The environmental fate of pesticides is a major concern of governments, particularly herbicides by direct application to the soil [5]. Rice crops in two additional features are added, the first is that weeds are the major pest, the second are the anaerobic characteristics of this culture, as higher production yields in the irrigated rice provides or flooded, the most used in the downtown area. [6] In the present research, leaching was evaluated in soil column herbicide metsulfuron methyl acid and 2, 4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) for two soils under flooded conditions, located in the municipalities of Espinal and Prado Department of Tolima, mostly rice farmers. The tests were performed using columns of 30 cm long and 10.1 cm in diameter. Quantification of pesticides leachates fractions obtained base was performed by column chromatographic techniques. Once the leaching tests were completed soil extractions were performed to determine the residual levels of herbicide versus depth in [7]. The elution curve (Breakthrough curve, BTC) bromide, 2,4-D and metsulfuron methyl in the Espinal soil column in saturated conditions was plotted. The coefficients of the equilibrium transport model (CDE) and non equilibrium (PNE and CNE) by CXTFIT 2. 1 program is obtained which solve the convection-dispersion equation, adjusting the curve obtained experimentally [8, 9]. For the herbicide 2,4-D, the drag coefficient (R) was calculated in non-physical equilibrium (PNE) models, and non chemical equilibrium (site 2). It is noted that the statistical value of the correlation coefficient (R) calculated was significantly equal in all models from the average (2.075  0.04), although the model that best fit the conditions of our experiment was to PNE. With the value of the drag coefficient for the best-fitting equations PNE, the adsorption constant for the herbicide was determined under anaerobic conditions (22.69 L Kg-1), which coincides with the calculated value by some researchers in aerobic conditions [10, 11]. For metsulfuron methyl curve leaching concentrations of the samples were obtained, although the shape and structure of this graph is not possible to adjust the curve to the model equations program. Regarding the column prepared with soil Township Prado, for the bromide ion was obtained more than 50% of the elution curve; Moreover elution curves for 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and methyl metsulfuron were not obtained, since during the experiment, a flow (0.04-0.06 ml / h) were was mainly due to the high percentage clays within this, which is why a greater retention and herbicide bromide was observed. Additionally it was observed that the volume of eluate was ¼ water pore volume, for about 6 months of the trial. This time was not enough to percolate the entire tracer or herbicides. Finally the extraction of bromide ion in the soil used for column Prado finding a recovery percentage (sum of the leachate and the amount retained in the soil) of 94.6% was performed. By biometers degradation assays, degradation was evaluated under anaerobic conditions for 2,4-D in soil samples from both the town of Espinal like Prado, finding a half-life (DT50) for 2,4 -D of 11.13 days in soil Spinal and 7.4 days for soil sample Prado. Particularly decreased half-life of 2,4-D with increasing clay content in the soil, a phenomenon that is explained by the longer delay having said herbicide in clays is observed, although leaching meets the PNE equations and not representative adsorption under these conditions. Furthermore these reflect the half-lives of rapid herbicide transformation when in contact with soil, concluding that leaching potential decreases by decreasing the concentration available in the soil matrix. ; Maestría

When I was asked to write the foreword for this important journal I was honored. Honored and troubled. What could a conservation ecologist say about development that was particularly relevant at such a critical time in Madagascar's history? During such a distinct period of uncertainty and change, what reflection might I offer that would be helpful, hopeful, and reasonable? Over the weeks, I have witnessed the turmoil of a country searching for inner peace while dedicated individuals continue to work towards improving lives and safeguarding the future of this wonderfully unique island. And in struggling with what to say in the face of inevitable change, three concepts keep coming to mind. The first two concepts come from my ecology training; the last emerges from my experiences as a development professional. These concepts are neither new nor ground-breaking. They certainly won't solve all the challenges of Madagascar conservation and development today. Yet together, these three concepts may offer some orientation for continued integrated conservation and development work in a changing Madagascar. The first concept is connectedness. Connections are the key to ecology. Species and ecological processes linked in one complex system. Natural elements connected to people and culture through a complex web of relationships, desires and values. At this critical juncture in Madagascar's history, it seems imperative to both understand and exploit these connections. Healthy people cannot exist in an unhealthy environment. Political decisions are intimately connected to the well-being of people and the survival of their natural resource base. As choices are made, it is imperative that decisions not be taken in short-term haste to meet the pressing needs of today at the expense of the longer term needs of both today and tomorrow.A thoughtful process that embraces the connectedness of all Malagasy people to each other and their natural world is a difficult one. But by keeping these connections intact, by ensuring that each part of the system is understood and valued, a more rewarding, equitable and sustainable future can be secured. The second concept is resiliency. Resiliency relates to the ability to withstand and recover from shocks and perturbances while maintaining functionality and equilibrium. It is clear that Madagascar is experiencing shocks. More frequent and intense cyclones, changing climatic patterns, severe periods of drought and unprecedented pressure for natural resources tax the recovery abilities of humans and the natural world alike. Recent socio-political changes are undoubtedly testing the resiliency of Malagasy society. New pathways for development in Madagascar must offer resilient options for the Malagasy people.The sharing of development dividends amongst a larger number of citizens across Malagasy society will enhance the resiliency of Madagascar as a whole. Safeguarding natural assets, including soil, water, forests, fisheries and biological diversity, creates a social safety net that will allow Madagascar to cope in the short-term, and thrive in the long-term. The last concept is reconciliation. Of all the concepts, this is probably the most difficult one. In the financial world, we reconcile our accounts. Inputs and outputs, income and expenses are scrutinized to ensure that the ledger adds up at the end of the day. But such reconciliation demands an honest and clear accounting system where incomes are transparent and real costs are understood. In Madagascar, this means making development decisions that incorporate the real costs of leaving marginalized and vulnerable members of society behind, real costs of irrevocable and detrimental changes to the functioning of natural systems, real costs of losing species, and the real cost of not being able to adapt and cope with climatic changes. It means internalizing and making rationale decisions about these costs now, so that Malagasy children will be able to ensure that the ledger adds up at the end of the century. But there is another definition of reconciliation, the coming together of opposing parties to r esolve conflict and find peace. Undoubtedly, this is the hardest part. It involves open and participatory dialogue that teases out seemingly intractable issues to find balanced solutions that everyone can live with. Reconciliation cannot be forced – people must want to engage, must be willing to expose truths and be open to exploring other perspectives. With a commitment to compromise and dignity, reconciliation brings healing and harmony. It is incumbent upon us, the conservation and development community, to support the Malagasy people in efforts to come together and embrace the linkages between people and their natural world through a process of reconciliation and thoughtful weighing of trade-offs to ensure a resilient Madagascar. The lessons and articles we share through this journal offer important insights and lessons to move us in that direction.Réflexions sur Madagascar, pays en évolution Je me suis sentie en même temps honorée et troublée quand ce grand journal m'a fait honneur en m'invitant à écrire une préface. Quel sujet pertinent sur le développement pourrait donc écrire une éco-conservationniste à un moment si critique de l'histoire de Madagascar ? Que pourrais-je proposer comme réflexion qui soit à la fois utile, empreinte d'espoir et raisonnable pendant cette période marquée par l'incertitude et le changement ? Pendant des semaines, j'ai été le témoin de l'agitation d'un pays à la recherche de paix intérieure pendant que des gens dévoués poursuivaient leurs efforts afin d'améliorer les conditions de vie et préserver le futur de ce pays merveilleux et unique. Alors que ces pensées me taraudaient face à un changement inévitable, trois concepts me sont venus à l'esprit. Les deux premiers me viennent directement de ma formation en écologie alors que le dernier a été façonné par mon expérience professionnelle acquise dans le développement. Ces concepts ne sont ni nouveaux ni révolutionnaires et ils ne vont vraisemblablement pas constituer la solution à tous les problèmes du développement et de la conservation de Madagascar actuels. Cependant, ils pourront conjointement tracer une voie dans la poursuite des travaux de conservation et de développement intégré pour ce pays en pleine évolution qu'est Madagascar. Le premier concept porte sur la connexité. Les connexions sont les clefs de l'écologie avec les espèces et les processus écologiques qui sont liés dans un système complexe. Nous avons ici des éléments naturels reliés à des gens, à leur culture au sein d'un réseau complexe de rapports, de désirs et de valeurs. À ce moment délicat de l'histoire de Madagascar, ces connexions doivent être à la fois comprises et exploitées. Des gens sains ne peuvent vivre dans un environnement malsain. Les décisions politiques sont intimement liées au bien-être des gens et à la survie de leurs ressources naturelles de base. Lorsque des choix sont faits, il est impératif que les décisions ne soient pas prises dans la hâte du cours terme pour satisfaire des besoins immédiats au détriment des besoins à plus long terme actuels et futurs. Un processus réfléchi qui englobe l'ensemble des rapports connexes régissant tous les habitants de Madagascar entre eux mais aussi avec leur patrimoine naturel n'est pas aisé. Cependant c'est en maintenant ces liens, en assurant que chaque élément du système est compris et mis en valeur, qu'un avenir plus prometteur, plus équitable et plus durable peut être assuré. Le deuxième concept porte sur la résilience. La résilience se réfère à la capacité de résister et de se ressaisir des chocs et perturbations tout en maintenant fonctionnalité et équilibre. Il est clair que Madagascar est en train de subir des chocs. Des cyclones plus fréquents et plus intenses, des changements climatiques, de graves épisodes de sécheresse et une pression sans précédent sur les ressources naturelles mettent en péril les capacités de se recomposer, qu'il s'agisse des gens ou de la nature. Les changements socio-politiques récents mettent assurément à l'épreuve la résilience de la société malgache. Les nouvelles voies pour le développement de Madagascar doivent fournir des options résilientes pour les gens de Madagascar. Le partage des acquis du développement entre un plus grand nombre de citoyens de la société malgache améliorera la résilience de Madagascar dans l'ensemble. Sauvegarder le patrimoine naturel, y compris la terre, l'eau, les forêts, la pêche et la diversité biologique crée un filet de sécurité social qui permettra à Madagascar de composer à court terme et de prospérer à long terme. Le dernier concept, qui est sans doute le plus ardu des trois, est le rapprochement. Dans le monde financier, nous procédons à des états de rapprochement de nos comptes. Des entrées et des sorties, des revenus et des dépenses qui sont contrôlés pour s'assurer que les soldes dans les livres s'équilibrent en fin de journée. Mais un tel rapprochement requiert un livre comptable honnête et clair dans lequel les revenus sont transparents et les charges réelles sont comprises. À Madagascar, cela signifie de prendre des décisions en matière de développement en incorporant les coûts réels liés au fait que certaines personnes marginalisées ou vulnérables de la société soient écartées du processus, les coûts réels des changements irrévocables et préjudiciables apportés au fonctionnement des systèmes naturels, les coûts réels de la perte d'espèces naturelles et les coûts réels liés au fait de ne pas être capable de s'adapter et de faire face aux changements climatiques. Il s'agit d'absorber ces coûts et de prendre dès à présent des décisions raisonnables à leur propos de sorte que les enfants de Madagascar seront capables d'assurer que les soldes dans les livres s'équilibrent à la fin du siècle. Il existe aussi une autre définition du rapprochement, celle de la rencontre de parties en opposition pour résoudre un conflit et trouver la paix. Il s'agit sans nul doute de l'acte le plus difficile à jouer car il repose sur un dialogue ouvert et participatif jusqu'à la limite des situations inextricables afin d'aboutir à des consensus équilibrés où chacun peut se retrouver. Le rapprochement ne peut être forcé – les gens doivent vouloir s'engager, doivent être disposés à exposer des vérités et s'ouvrir pour rechercher des alternatives. Avec la dignité et la volonté réelle de dialoguer, le rapprochement peut panser les plaies et apporter l'harmonie. Il nous incombe, à nous membres de la communauté de la conservation et du développement, de soutenir les Malgaches dans leurs efforts pour se rassembler et renforcer les liens entre les gens et la nature dans un processus de rapprochement avec des compromis soigneusement réfléchis pour assurer la résilience de Madagascar. Les leçons et les articles que nous partageons dans ce journal constituent ainsi des aperçus importants pour nous mener sur cette voie.