Suchergebnisse

Issue 5.4 of the Review for Religious, 1946. ; RE VOLUME V / J,ULY 15. 1946 " Nu~BE~,~- ' , , CONTENTs "ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION~Cyril VSIlert. S.J. " " 21,7 A TIMELY PAMPHLET . ¢ -.'. . , .' , 228 ~CONCE~NING DISTRACTIONS~ha'rles F. Donovan, S.J, ~ 2;29 IN CASE YOU DON'T KNOW IT~ * 232 "SAINT APPEARED TWICE"--CIem~t J. McNaspy, S.J . 233 ~ PLAN OF SELF-DENIAL WITHIN THE 'REACH OF ALL ~ "Robert B. Eitem S.J . " 239 gP~LS ~ORVOCAT~ONS ., . ~,.~ 2~ SPEAKING' OF NAMES--Claude Kean.O.F.M . DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE . ,249 OUR CONTRIBUTORS " . . TWO HE~RTS--W. H. Hingston S.J '. ~ 251 ANN~N~EMENT . - . ~. ~_. ~-25~ RECEPTION OF SEMINARIANS INTO RELIGIOUS INSTI~UTES~, Adam C, Ellis, S.J . :BOOKS RECEIVED . ' ~ ' 263 /QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ' ,~ 22. Permission to Use G~ld Watch . 23.,Number of Delegates for General Chapter: Soliciting Votes 26~' 24. Use of Income from Special Fees '. . ~. 26~ 25. Religious Candidate Whose Parents Have,Bad Reputation 266~ ~ 26. Going to Confession in Order of Seniority . . ~ . 266 27. Communion Sundays ahd Contests to Promote Frequent Communion 267 28. Order of Precedence in Mdther House " " 268 BOOK REVIEWS-- ' , ~,~ The Mystical Life; Meditatio~ on the Passion: The Catholic Centre: Mission for Samaritans: Forming a Christian Mentality; How to Medi-tate; The Mystical Baldy of Christ: La ~iete Eucharistique: John Henr~ , , . Newman: Centenary Essays; The T h"ird Day Mano'logy: Mast'er and~ - Model: Dove Flights: Kyrie Elei~on:XTh~ P~ychology of Liturgical MU- " sic; The Life,of Father Pro 271 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. ~uly, 1946. Vol. V. No. 4. Pu~lisfied bi-monthly; January, March:May. July, September. and November at the C011ege.Press,4 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas. *by-St. Mary's College. St. Marys, ,~ansas, . with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered' as second class ~atter/~anuar), ~'15, "1942. at the Post O~ce, Topeka, ~Kansas. under the act of March 3:. 1879. EditgrlaL Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J. G, Augustine Ellard. S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider. S.J. " Copyright, 1946, by Adam C. ElliS, Permission is hereby. ~ra~n t e d for- quota't m:"n ~s. of reasonable length, provided due credit "be given this review and the auth6r.' Subscription price:, 2 dollars a year. Printed*ifi ~. Before writln~ to us,,please consult notice on inside 'back over~ ¯ ~' Or~gin~°l ~in ~nd Educa :ion Cyril Vollert, S.J. ~OST OF US who try to keep up with educational ~V~ controversies and discussions have~ become some-what surfeited with reiterated assurances that the one hope of salvaging this creaking world, so near the shoals of disaster, is education. We are told that education can save democracy, resolve the .c~lass struggle~ and confer on man. the good life.- " The striking t~I-iing is, much of this is true. But to realize'these great expectations education must be rightly conceived and rightly directed. It must be true education for man as he actually is; and it must be aimed at the right goal. Most of the. arguing about education is futile, and therefore fruitless, ' because those whd contribute the never~e.nding stream of articles, addresses, and books about education are so'often, unrealisticAn their view of the p.er~son who is to b~educate~d.or are wrong in t~eir idea.of t~e~upshot ofthe educational process. They are trying to stee~la rudderless sh~p throagh an uncharted sea to an unknown port. unless[we are right.in our notion of~the objec-tive to be a.t~ta[ned and of the~p.erson wh9 is to be educated, we are scarcely,.in a position to decide what the ~educational process ought to ~e. , . I,n this article.I s~all not pr3sume to fix the ~ltimate goal of education. Readers of this periodical know very. ~well what it is: ,God, whom we are to possess in the eternal happiness of the beatific vision. Nor shall I rashly attempt to outline an educational program. My purpose will be to describe the beneficiarydr" such a program and to indicate 217 CYRIL VOLLERT ' Reoiew /or t~elipiotts the proximate end to be achieved. The artist cannot pro-duce a masterpiece unless he knows the material he has to work on. Neither can the teacher succeed in transforming an uneducated person into an educated person unless he understands man as he actually is. The raw material of the educational' process is a boy or girl born in original sin, and still suffering the results'~ of original sin. This statement is not naive. It is not a bogy of a bygone day. It is true today and Will remain true for all time. Such a view is the only realistic view. Any other notion is false, or at least inadequate. But even tki'e truth that the person to be educated began life in original sin and still staggers under the burden of the consequences Of origi-nal sin may be distorted. To see the truth, two extremes have to be avoided: a vapid optimism and a groundless pessimism. Clear vision is n~eded, unobstructed either by rose-colored lenses or by smoked glass. The optimistic vie.w, credited by romanticists to the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau but "actually as old as Pel~ag~us in the fifth century and his iritellectual ancestors, is that every man at his origin is wholly good. Let him alone; do not hamper or misdirect the natural play of his thought-processes and appetites; and he is capable of 'ifidefinite growth ingoodnegs. Signs of the break-up of the "electiv~ System" point to th~gradual abandonment of this view. But many. educators still do not know wh~t is to replace this shallow optimism. Rousseau and Eliot are no longer the .leaders to the promised land. Nevertheless the typical modern educator remains a Pelagian. /] The pessimistic view is also hoary with antiquity. Its crudest form, Manichaeism, regards all matter as evil. Therefore man, so far as he is a corporeal being, is evil. He is hopeless till he. gets out of his Body. A less irrational 218 1946 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION variety of this pessimism is the notion, characteristic of uncontaminated early Lutheranism and Protestantism generally, that original sin intrinsically corrupted man, l'eft him forever a sinner ihcapable "of morally good actions, and destroyed his free will. Nothing can really correct the depravity of Lutheran.man. His defilement can be covered up byChrist's merits, but he himself stays a sinful wretch, utterly corrupt. A trace of this idea of man, greatly diluted, is found sometimes among Catholics, even amdng educated Cath-olics and religious. They may have a notion, not very-pre-cisely formulated, that man's nature, though not wholly corrupted by original sin, was inwardly wounded so that his understanding, considered on the purely natural _level, is now intrinsically darkened and his will is intrinsically weakened. Those who harbor such an idea of man may have been Subjected to defective instruction On this point; or they may have failed rightly to grasp what was correctly taught; or they may have had teachers who repre-- se, nted a very small, and practically unimportant,-minority opinion tfiat man actually was thus injured by original sin. But there is no sound theological basis for this per: suasion. The truth is that man, coniidered simply as natural man, is as whole today, in intellect and will, as was man regarded in his purely natural endowment when he came from the creative hand of God. In other words orig-inal sin left man in no worse condition, on the purely human level of his mind and will, than he was before Adam cast his momentous decision against God. What is true in all that we hear about the disastrous effects of Adam's sin is this: the first man deliberately renounced God and thereby lost the supernatura! endow-ments which God had conferred on him for the whole 219 CYRIL VOLLER~. 'human~ race. Adam was created not Reoiew for Religious only in'a state~ of ¯ na.tural:perfecti0n, but .was elevated to.the~sonship of God by sanc._tifying grace,. Mor9o,ver,, to~ complement th!s~divine -gift and to enable Adam to preserve it for0himself and .the entire human family, God added other remarkable.gifts, notably, t_he.~gift of.integrity whereby all hispowers affd faculties were perfectly~subordinated to his. reason and.~.wi11., and the gift of immortality whereby his. body.~asi~sub~, 'jected to his~soul so that it was liberated from the necessity of fa!ling into corruption and death. These inconceivably .great bounties, all of ,,them beyond ,the capacities ,of human na°ture, Adam. received for himselt and for all his,~descend- By:_sinning Adam lost~them all~. He lost originals, jus-tice for himseff 'and fo~ his posteri.ty., His children and his children's children down to the end of time (with the unique)exception, ofo.th~ Bles'sed V4rgin'Mary).were begot-ten in.a-sta:te,.of estrangement from God. Instead' of.being ,bOrn sons. and daughters of God in sancti£ying grace: the,y. were,born.%without that relation to God,,,.the-only Fight relation.to God once God bad,elevated mankind i(in. Ada_m). to:the,supernatural level:~ ~They were born ~in,:the stat&of . ~ ~W.ith the sin inherited from" Adamgo theieffects.of, the sin:loss'[0f,the othe'r accompanying 'gifts, integrity, and im-morgality.:,,. ThereforeAdam's~children,are worse off ~ihan-he~-~ as.,.~ Forthey all come into°the,W.ofld withbut.-the grage of di,v, ine~sonship,, without integrit~y, without immottalit, y: ,Adam s,mn £change mankind for the wors~, ifi!,soul and.in :,, --But Adam's~ sin ,did not wreck his. human nature as. such.' We are no w6rse Off now than we ~oul'd have been if God had never elevated Adam to be His ~ad0pted son, with this exception: we ought to be biafn with sanctifying 220 July, 1946 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION grace, and we are not; find so we are born in a state dis-pleasing to.God, a state of sin. ~l~rue, if we ~compare ourselves with .A'dam as he actually was in Paradis'e, we are far .inferior,,. We are deprived'of the supernatural and.preternatural Preroga~tives¯ that. made him so extraordinarily perfe~t~a man. P~i0r fo baptism we lack the divine sonship he had; and so we come into the world as sinners. And even though.we-.recover tl~e . grace of divine sonshil3 in baptism, we lack the gift of integrity: and so we find in otirselves an unruly mass of conflicting .powers, the 10w~r at odds with the higheL th6 body unsubservient to the soul. We lack the gift of immor-tality,. and so we succumb to illness, wounds, gradual cor-ruption, and death. But if we regard only Adam's nature itself unperfected by any of these gifts, oar own natures ar'e just the same. Adam's-nature, left to itself, ,had the sameelements and equipment as otirs. If he had not had the gift of integrity-he. too w.ould, even without any sin, have experienced the same conflict among his faculties. His senses would have sought their own pro~er objects just as gtubbornly as ours do,-against the will's consent. 'His body .would have been exposed to illness, decant, and death. All this appears, quite reasonable. Our first pgrents, as ,they .actually were, with God's supernatur.al and preter- ' natural gifots added to" their natural make~up, were clearly superior to .tis. Bui if we disregard Whatever is preter-n~ atural arid supernatural, we headily seb th~at they .had the same nature as we their children have. : Only one thought, nagging at our memories of what We have heard and read, keeps thrusting forward an objdc-tion; we have been taught that, as a result.of original sin, ourintellects have been darkened and our wills have been weakened. This ii :the very statement in the elementary 221 (~YRIL VOLLERT Re~oiew for Religious catechis~ most 6f us have studied: "Our natur~ was cor-rupted by tl~e ~in of our fi~st parents, which darkened our understanding, weake.ned our will,.and left in us a strong inclination :to evil." ' ' This brings us to the heart of our discussion:, just what this statement means. It means that, without the gifts of original justice,'-particularly integrity and immortality, our minds are less able to acquir~e truth and our willsare less firm in pursuing good th.a.n if we had those, gifts. I~ does not mean that original sin has .intrinsically harmed our minds and wills so that their natural power to khow and ¯ will has b~en destroyed or i~apaired, ~ The doctrine taught by the familiar catechism of our childhood is of course true. But the trUth.admits of better wording; and the recent revision of this catechism puts the matter more clearly: "The chief punishments of Adam which we inherit through original sin are: death, .suffe)ing, ignorance, and a" strong inclination to sin." What~ever is taught by the ~.hurch about t.h~ darkening of the intellect and the weakenirig of. the~will can be under-stood, and actually is understood by .all great theologians;, in .the sense of a deterioration as compared .with the mind and will of man in the state of c;riginaljustice. .This is easily perceived, in .the °casfi of the will. God ~en~riche, d Adam;s nature, with the'gift of integrity, which lined up .all his powers and passions under, the control of his reason and will so that his animal appetites could not take the initiative in attracting ~him toward evil and could no~ prevail .against the command of'his will., In punish~ ment for his sin, Ad,am lost thisomarvelous gift for him-self and for all of us. We do not possess the gift of integ~ rity, and'so *there is lacking in us the perfect order among. our various powers ~and appetites which that~ gift would have proc~ured. In. other words, we are subject to unruly 222 dulq, 1946. ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION c'oncupiscence, which means simply that each of our .appe-tites seeks its own good heedless of the good. of the whole person. When an attractive object confronts any of our senses, that sense can immediately reach out for the object quite independently of. the will's.consent, and even against the will's command. By that very fact our will is weakened. Concupiscence pulls us toward the tempting object even though we realize that taking it involves sin. We .may "already have reached out to seize it before the mind adverts to what we are doing: And even after the mind does take notice, the enticement still persists, the tug is still felt. We are much less able to resist the allurement than if the Senses were fully under our cohtrol. The will may say, "No!" Sense appetite says, "Yes!" And both will and sense appe- .,.rites. are mine. I am being torn between a higher and a lower good. I can resist, because :my will is still in charge. But often I give up; especially if, the battle is a long one. My will does not resist; I surrender, satisfy my lower craving at the expense of moral good, and so I sin. Adam in the state of original justice would have under-gone no such struggle. His will could simply have said, "No!" The sense appetite would, have straightway obeyed. Indeed, the sense appetite could not have been attracted to the object in the first place without the assent of the will. Therefore'my will is weaker than his; but only because.of the pull of concupiscence. My will, as a natural faculty just in itself, is in no way weakened by original sin. The same is the case with our intellect. Adam had a preternatural gift of infused knowledge. We have not. Therefore our understanding is dark as compared with his, for .his was bathed with divine light. If Adam had not ~inned, he would not have handed on his special, infused gift of knowledge to his descendants. For this knowledge 223 CYRIL VOLLERT Review [or Religious was a personal gift with-vc~ich God eciUipped the~fii~st-man, created.aS he Wasin adulthood in intimate communion with God and with a special office as teacher of the children.he was to beget. ~: ~ ._ ,. ~ - ~ :,~,.- ,~ Adam had, yev other endow, menfs~perfecdnghis intel-lect, Alohg with. the sanctifying grace that~ele~ated him to dupernatural heights went the infused'~virtues, theological and moral. Among these are faith and prudence,., which resided, in his intellect. These'he would h~ve~transmitted: But. he sinhed,~and,so could not. transmit sgnctifying grace and, all 'the:accompanying.gifts. We,~ born without.~sanc-tifying~, grace, begin life deprived of the infused virtues, .includidg " those ,.which would have.equipped ~our minds With a habitual~aptitude for higher truths, In this respect, too, our. minds are defective as com#ared with his before the Eall: . _ ~Bu~-here we must'consider another factor, which is :sel~ dora,well,brought out. In sinning, Adam~ lost, 'besi~h sanctifying grace>~ith its cortege of infused.'virtues, ,th~ preternatural~ gif~s~: of,integrity and immortality. with:~heqos£of, immortality~w_¢nt the loss of impassibility, 6r :immuflitw,.to~sfl.ffering, disease, and death~.,~:~His body was no longer.perfectl~ subject;to his sou.L: ~ ~ From' Adam.weinherit ~bgdies ~bereff of these~ gifts. .Not bnly are we sfibject to 'conCupiscence,~ b6t me-have .,bodies unprot&ted, from ~harm-bythe -g "~ "f t~s~ .:.o.~lm~"m -ortahty and impassibility.,. Ou~. souls are immorthl, ~but tEey ha.re not the' pow&~to i~part., i~mortality to bur bodies. ~us.left ,their nat6ral ~eakness; our bodies easily giveAn, to f~tig~e, .to a thousand different, diseases,',to, the decrepitude of advancing age, .and~:.to dissolution. All. this,,has weighty ~consequences for ~0ur ~no~ledg~ and our (apacity to learn. Obviously~ ,the,pull 0f-c6ncu~iscence,is a tremendous obstacle to the acquisition~of knowledge. Web.have a kin~ 224 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION ship for the concrete, the. sensible. Higher truths, especially the truths of theology, ,religion, and metaphysics, hav~ -little charm for most people. They waht to know and experience what is pleasant and easy. Whatever has a sur-face interest excites them. The clang of the fire-engine bell~ upsets the class; not only children in third grade but university students, and the professor himself, feel the urge fo rush to the window. Philosophy is hard put to it to rdsist the seduction of the radio. Mathematics runs a poor ~second to.movies. A game of ball in the nearby playground is. more fun than geography or arithmetic. Shakespeare. and Thackeray have less appeal than the funnies. Another important consideration, is the fatigue that goes with thinking. Continuity is essential to study. But the brain soon wearies and seeks distraction. Even under -the most favorable circumstances, sudh as absolute quidt. freedom from interruption, and robust health, mental con- ¯ centration is extremely hard work. We know how right Aristotle was When he remarked, "Learning is'accompanied by pain[" The experience of students is well formulat,ed in a wise man's saying that has passed into a p~overb.: "Knowledge maketh a bloody entrance." But ideal circumstances are rarely granted to us. Leisure for thinking is a luxury. The very necessity of caring for the bbdy's needs takes up the most valuable portion of our time and eneigies. The majority of mankind must spend half or more of each working day in sheer toil for bread~ What leisure is left is without the freshness of mind required for acti,~e thought. -Even when a person has leisure and opportunityfor learning, his bodily condition is often a deterrent to efficient °study. The eye too soon grows dim, and reading has to be rationed. Hayfeve-r, sinus infection, a cdld in the head, the hundrei:l ills that plague mankind, all. militate against the ¯- 225~ CYRIL VOLLERT ~ Revietu /or Religious attention, correlation, and penetration required for ¯ rained.thinking and for the mastery of but a single province of human kno,wledge. ~f~to such bodily distresses we add the emodonal~bias that s~ems froni concupiscence and ,impedes the disinter-ested pursuit of truth, if we take account of the environ-. mental restrictions that, as in Soviet Russia', block access to th~ sources of truth, and if with allthis we mix in the lying propaganda, rooted in selfishness or in bigotry,, that not only closes off truth but teaches error, we can go very far in explaining the darkening of our under~tandin.g that is a result of original sire , Truly, our ability to gain knowl-edge is grievo.usly inferior to that of Adam when, before he rejected God's grace, he was shielded from all these evils by his preternatural gifts of immunity to concupiscence, suf-f~ iing, and bodily dissolution. But our natural faculty of intellect was in no way intrinsically injured by original sin. Our intellect and our will are the same now, considered as purely natural perfec.-' tions, as they would have been if Adam had handed down to-us original justice instead, of original sin. Our intellec-trialand volitional inferiority results from our lack of the preternatural gifts that would have removed all obstacles to their perfect functioning. Such is the teaching of all front, rank theologians, a teaching based on their study of revelation. The punish-ment of original sin, St. Thomas notes, is restricted to the withholding of the supernatur;il goods gi:anted by God to. our first father-for transmission to his posterity.1 ~ Su;irez agrees with Aquinas: The common and true doctrine is that the powers of man or of his free will, rhgarded from the standpoint of the perfection they would ha~,e had in the state of pure nature, were not diminished in iCompendium Theologiae, 1 226 Julg, 1946 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCXTION fallen nature by original sin; they are inferior only when compare~' wxth the strength and integrity conferred on them by original jus-rice. -~ - St. Robert Bellarmine teaches the same doctrine: The corruption of nature resulted not from the lack of any natural gift, nor from the presence of any" evil quality, but from the . sole loss, owing to Ada~'s~sin, Bf the supernatural endowment.8 Thus the raw material of our educational endeavors is ~the boy or girl, the young, man or woman, with intelle'ct and will essentially unimpaired on the natural plaiae. Our aim in education should be to develop this goo,d natural equipment and to transfigure it with all the super-h~ itural ,goods Christ has given to the Church for t.he benefit of His brethren. Revelation, the Church, the sacraments, ~sanctifying grace,'the infused virtues and. actual graces and all that the Church_disp0ses of for building up the body of Christ must raise and0perfect the souli of men together with their" faculties, xspecially their powers of inteIlect and wiff. The proximate purpose of our educational work must be to train.the youth entrusted to us so to master thdmselves that, within ~he. supernatu0ral sphdre to which they have been re-elevated by Christ, they may pumue the Truth which is God, and embrace the Good, which is also God. The closest possible approxim:ition to the original in.tegrity must be the goal to which we lead our limping, students. This is no mean ambition for those whose life'long voca-tion lies in the classroom and on the campus. The same goal.is the one we religious propose to reach in our own self,education. But in addition to the bottom-less treasury of graces open to all Catholics, we enjoy,'in" our ascetical striv~ings, certain freedoms that can bring us much closer to the original freedom Adam had. Our privi-lege js brought home to us by the matchless,champion who ~DO gratia, prol. 4, c. 8, n. 5. 8De gratia primi hominis, . 5. 227 CYRIl., VOLLERT -upheld t~ae greatness of the religiot~s state against pertly attackers of his day~ ¯ The exercise of perfection requires that a person 'd6 away witl~ whate~'er can impede him from directing his affections wholly to God; ¯ for in~this consists the perfection of charity. There are'three obstacles of this sort. T14e first is the desire for external good£ This' is removed by the vow of poverty. The"second is the proclivity for pleasures of sense, among which lustful delight isthe keenest., This is surmounted by the vow ol~ chastity, The third obstacle is the deordination of th~ human will. And this.is corrected by,the,vow of " obedience.4 Thus with intellect and will intrinsically good and unspoiled in their natural soundness by original sin, we C~n with Ggd's grace'overc0me all hindrances and eventually make ou~r .own, in limited degree, the perfection of tl~e sec-. ond Ad:;m, J~sus Christ. We cannot, indeed, ever in this" life attain to the integrity of original justice; Christ did0not ~ restore that extraordinary privilege to redeemed man: ~ BuS as brothers and sisters of the God-man, or truer still, as living members of His body, we can get closer to the second ~dam, and therefore closer to God, 'than the first Adam was ~ in his primeval innocence. And so our last state can .be better ~han the first. ~ '~St.'Thomas, 8umraa, II-Ilae, q. 186, a. 7. A TIMELY PAMPHLET~ ':The Guide Posts of the Almighty to Perma~ient Industrial,Peace" presents a "plea for .the Ten Commandments as the only solid basis for lasting peace, industrial and international. The section which describes the rights and dutie~ of 'labor and management is particularly"excellent. Every emp!oyer and every laborer might well read this with profit. The pamphlet is from the pen of the Most Rev. Richard J. Cushin.g, D.D., Archbishop og Boston, and is published by the Radio Re151ies Press, St. Paul, ,Minnesota. Price: I0 cents. ~ 228 Concerning Dis :ra t:ions Charles F~ Donovan, S.d. THERE is an aspiration which I should like torecom-mend; yet I fear it might be misunderstood. It is: "Jesus, be my distraction." Now distractions are bad, they are sappers of spiritual energy, things to be avoided. And obviouslq we' do not intend to couple the name of Jesus with anything evil. But. there are certain characteristics of distractions which would be worthwhile if transferred to the thought of Our Lord, namely, their persistence, their fascination,.and their seeming ubiquity. It is these qual{- ties ofdistractions I have in mind when I say, '"3esus, be my distraction," which is a brief way of saying, ",lesus, be the magnet of my mind, the channel of my thoughts, the theme of my day from task ~o'task; when dut.y of any sort commands the center of the stage, lurk in the wings of my heart, and the moment I pause, the moment I am free ~et the spotlight of my soul rest on You alone." Every day at Ma~s the priest exhorts us, "'Sursttm corda'" (Lift up your hearts). And we respond,"Habemus ad Dorninurn'" (We have them lifted up to the. Lord). This lifting we reaflifm daily is not our passive elevation by God to the state of grace. When we receive grace,~Christ stoops and does the lifting. Yet even with grace we may remair~ earth-bound and inert. The lifting w~e profess when we say. "'Sursurn corda'" is an active elevation, our cooperation with Christ, an ~ffort to use His grace to meet Him on His own level. As Dora Augustine Baker puts it in the 'vigorous English of Shakespeare's time, we mean the "forced but very facile elevations of the will, that bluntly or blindly heaves itself up towards God." We-heave ourselves in spirit 229 CHARLES F. DONOVAN Review for Religious towards God in hope and love and joy. A distraction-, therefore, is truly a fail--not necessariI~ a fall in the sense of sin, btit a descent from the heights of communion with Christ. If we are habitually distracted we really should answer the priest, "'Habemus ad humum'" (Our hearts are fixed on the earth, on dust, on our own level). There is a fervor, a preoccupation with God which in the face of a present and pressing tluty, like signing checks or making out report cards, could be called a distraction. Some of the saints have been "bothered" by such distrac-tions. Saint Ignatius, 'for instance, sometimes had to be dispensed' from reading the Office because during it he would experience ecstasy and thus be kept from other daily business. Saint Teresa was often afraid to think of God, lest she experience some divine visitation that wquld interfere ~vith her work or embarrass her in public. BUt most of us need have no worry about such piotis distrac-tions. It is not often the thought 6t? God-that makes us' shabby workers. Our trouble is generally not that prayer keeps us from mundane things but that mundane things keep us from prayer. Our mind-wandering tends to be from God to creatures, the kind of distraction to wh{cb that religious referred who complained, with healthy self-criticism, that his new superior conducted-such prolonged ~zisits at chapel after meals that he ran out of distractions and had to' pi~ay. Now if we really have .our hearts lifted ad Dominum, if our habitual tendency and spontaneous impulse is to think of Jesus, then distraction in prayer becomes not impossible, but at least unpleasant and of slight Spiritual d~nger, like a ¯ fly buzzing around our prie-dieu. There are also distractions whicb occur all day !ong even in non-prayer time, but which don't actually keep us from our work. These are, therefore, rather potential thah 230 July, 1946 CONCERNING DIS, TRACTIONSj real distractions. Theyare our worries, our enthusiasms, our pet interests, the things which are just outside the. focus of our attention or just below the surface of consciousness, to whichthe mind tends to revert over and over dttring the day. If these concerns, these potential distractions,-are intense, the person who has them is said to be preoccupied or to "have something on the mind." Wouldn't it be won-derful if we were so intimate with Our Lord that we could be said to have Jesus on our mind? Of course, that is the ambition of all religious, to be so in love with Our Lord that He is our dominfint interest, our hobby, the object of . our ardent enthusiasm, our companion day and l~ight. Finally, there are the distractions which we seek, favor-ire" topics to which we let: our mind lazily turn in moments of relaxation, familiar themes which we find congenial and. particularly helpful when we are trying to get to sleep. The subjects that we choose for such distractions are indicative of our spiritual health. _The old saying, "Tell me~ whom you, go with and I'll tell you what you are," is applicable to mental as well as to persgnal companions. If wespon-taneously- turn to worldly thoughts, then we a.r.e very probabl); worldly ourselves. If our favorite reveries are spiritual, our character is most likely spiritual. Habitual 'and sought distractions, the recurrent musings of our idle moments, can be of tremendous influehce in our - spiritual lives. They not only indicate character; they also form character and spiritual taste. Wl~at we think ofand enjoy thinking of~when we are free, when the rule is not directing us, and the choice of mental occupation is up to ourselves, both manifests and shapes the inner self., These chosen reveries can be the occasion when temptation is most .likely to assail us. They can be little secret escapes from the cloister and from the spirit of religious life. Therefore it is of first importance that we cultivate lofty and holy 231 CH'ARLES F. DONOVAN mental companionships so that our idle moments will be in keeping with the tone of our religi0,us profession and will strengthen rather than dissipate our religious spirit. As ~ Kempis says (Bk.iii, ch.58)~ "That cometh in'to my mind which by custom pleaseth me best to think upon: and where my thought is accustomed to be, there is that which'~I love." What nobler~ theme, what~holief com-panion gould we have for our unpres~ribed and effortless meditations than Our Lord Jesus Christ? Wouldn:t we be in a blissful state of spiritual perfection if~. during the day's work we looked forward eagerly to those moments of rest, especially the moments ~ before sleep, when-we would be able to think easily and lovingly of. ,lesus, and say with the poetess, "I run, I run, I am gathered to thy heart?" In Case You Donq: Know It-- The Catechetical Guild Educational Society publishes a first-class magazine entitled Catholic Youth. $1.50 per year, for ten issues: 15" cents pet"copy; quantity rates to ~chools and churches on r~quest. Write to: CatholicLYouth, 128 E. Tenth Street, Saint Paul. I" Min-nesota. Another Catechetical Guild project is Post-Reporter, Catholic Youth's own newspaper. It is published every second Monday during the school year. $1.00 for full school year; 5 cents for single copies: bulk rates on application. ¯ Address, as above. The Dominicari Fathers~'of the Province of St. Albert tile Great publish The Young Dominican for the benefit of young men~ho aspire, to become Dominican students. The paper is attractive and informative. Copies are sent.on request. Address requests to Brother Bede's Mail Box, Dominican House of Studies, River Forest, Illinois. The Missignar~r 'Sisters of Mother of God recently began publi-cation of The.Ark, "a. monthly periodica, l devdted to ecclesiastical and' cultural affairs, p~rticulaidy Of Eastern Rites." "Subscription: $2.00 per year; 25 cents per copy. 232 Sain : Appeared Clement J. McNaspy, S.J, AM WRITING this just after giving Holy Commumon in.one.0f the.'most favored and sacred spots in our coun-try. It is the nearby convent infirmary. .The com-municant was a lay sister of the Religious of the Sacre'~d Heart. I don't know her name. The convent is .really c~alled the College of the Sacred Heart; it is located in Grind Coteau, Louisiana. If you have never heard of Grand Coteau, let me assure you.that it is one ~f the least worldly villages anywhere. T.here is no motion picture in town. There is not even a chamber of commerce. A stranger would probably~call it a "sleepy" town. Yet few towns in the United States have known such spiritual activity. For one. thing, Grand Coteau boasts a retreat house where the spiritual, exercises are made almost weekly by sizable groups of laymen. There is too a desuit-novitiate within the city limith; and no ridigious need be tol~l that a novitiate can hardly be called a "sleepy" place, especially at recreation time. But Grand ,Cot ea 'u s c.laim to. veneratioo goes far .beyond this. o As you ~drive'along Louisiana. Highway No; 5 toward the. outskirts of the village of Sunset, you are sta~rtled by a garish-(fortunately, somewhat fadi'ng) 'placard: National Shrine, Saint A15peared Twice." ~An'd the sign points to Grand Coteau.,Jhidden beneath pines and oaks and moss, one mile north of the highway. -l~his gives away Grand Coteau's secret. One of the very few first-class miracles performed in the United Sta~es and officially accei0ted by the Church took place th.ere, in ¯ that very infirmary where I w.as just privileged to gi~re 233 CLEMENT J. MCNASPY Review for Religious Holy Communion. No, the miracle didn't happen yester-day. Yet o'nly a few weeks a~o we buried ninety-six year old "Tante Yomme," who when in school at'the convent had been a witness of the miracle, the last surviving wit-ness. Besides, private archives have a way of annihilatink even decades of years; and the kindness of Reverend Mother Superior of th~ College of the Sacred Heart has put into my hands these treasured documents, original affidavits and first hand descriptions. It is engaging to read among them Sister Mary Wil-son's personal account: how she was cured of~a disease diagnosed as incurable. There glo.w warmth and imme-diacy in the young novice'-s story. She hurries along, ingenuously, simply, impatient of conventional syntax and punctuation, not even careful to sound completely consist-ent. Here are her own words, as copied from the document heretofore unpub!ished.1 Tie very next day (December 10, 1866) I was worse than I had ever been before up to that time, all hope of getting better abandoned me; I felt getting weaker and my sufferings were so intolerable that it seemed to me that it was impossible to bear them long--Given up by the Doctor I disposed myself to receive the.Holy Viaticum this was oix the 10th of December and on the llth the Father gave me the - last Plenary Ifidulgence. One of our dear Mothers brought me a picture of Blessed Berch-marts on~the 6th and said that the community was going to make another Novena to Blessed BerchmansI looked at Mother and in my incredulity asked her, if there was any other saint left that they had not already importuned; for my dear Mothers and Sisters had already made so many novenas that I thought neither God nor the Saints were willing to confer any favor upon me ". I do not think I had eaten an, ounce of food for about forty days, during that time I had taken nothing but a little Coffee or ,tea which" for a week before I recovered, I could no longer take; and for two weeks no medicines had been administered--the Doctor said 1To facilitate reading, dashes have been inserted in the text. 1946 "SAINT APPEARED TW~rCE'' it was useless 'to torture me more so he stopped giving me any; the last two days I was unable to swallow even a drop of water . ¯ Owing to the condition of my mouth and fongue it was greatly feared I would not be able to swallow the Sacred Host--the Father therefore gave me but a sm~ill particle~it was with great difficulty that I could receive even this; the Father perceiving it remained b~; my bed,side with ciborium in hand until he had the perfect assurance that I had swallowed it,~this however could only be affected by means of a teaspoonful of water, and attended by. intense palm Being Unable to speak I said in my heart: "Lord, Thou who seest how much I suffer if it .be for your honor and glory, and the salvation of my soul I ask through the intercession of Blessed Berch-mans a little relief and health, otherwise give me patience to suffer to the end, I am resigned"--then placing the. image of Blessed Berch-mans on my mouth, I said: "if it be true that you can work miracles, I wish you would do something for r~e,--if not I will not believe in you. ~I can say without s~cruple or fear of offen'ding God, I heard a voice whisper: '~Open your mouth." I do so as well as I felt some one put as it were their finger on my tongue and immed~ ately I was re|ieved. "I then heard a voice say in a distinct and loud tone: "Sister, you will get the desired habit, be faithful, have confi-dence, fear not!" I had not yet opened my eyes, I did not know who was by my bedside I turned around and said aloud: "but Mother Moran I am well"--then standing by my bedside I saw a figure he held in his hand a cup, and there was some lights burning near him--at this beautiful sight I was afraid--I closed my eyes and asked: "is it Blessed Berchmans", He answered: "Yes, I come by the order of God, your sufferings are over, fear not !" I opened my eyes but he was gone. The Sister infirmarian had gone down to the chapel to receive Holy Communion. I sat up in the bed I felt no pain. I was afraid it was an illusion and that my cure was not real--I turned over and over in the bed but without pain--I then exclaimed: "It is true, Blessed Berchmans has cured me." , The Sister infirmarian soon returned from the Chapel and made her'act of thanksgiving before a little altar in the, infirmary. I did not speak to her: in about three quarters of an hour Mother Superior came in to see me, fearing at the same time to find me in the agonies of death,--but what was not her great surprise when she met my eyes which had not been opened for six days and heard me wish 235 CLEMEN'T J. MCNASPY Review ?or Religious her good morning. Mother in utter amazement drew back and exclaimed: "and what, those eyes!" then s~eing my mouth perfectly healed.she added: "that mouth!" On and on, page after page, Sister Mary Wilson details her dreadful illness, how the doctors had given .up ,hope, and the aftermath of her cure. Equally impressive, also in these archives, are the sworn accounts of D~octors James G. Campbell and Edward Millard, both.of whom certify, in stolid.professional language, to the miraculo~us cure. Dr. Millard concludes in these words: N(~t being able to discoveb any marks of convalescence, but an immediate r'eturr~ to health from a most sever~ and painful illness, I am unable to explain the transition by any ordinary natural laws. I hereby declare under the sanctity of.my oath that the above state-ment, according to the~best of my knowledge and belief is entirely true. (Sig1~ed) Ed. M. Millard. M.D., Grand Coteau, La., Feb. 4th, 1867. Sister Wilson's close friend, Mother Moran, has for-tunately also left ah eyewitness account. Her sisterly sympathy for the young postulant so .eager to receive the habit is felt as we read along: ' Wednesday evening, Miss Wilson asked me if it was night; for her eyes being continually closed, she could not distinguish' between night and day.On hearing my answer, she rejoined: "I never more expect to see the l.ight of day. I cannot pbssibly endure such suffering much longer." - She then with perfect composure gave me several commissions, requesting me t~ attend to their execution after her death; she expressed her lfiappiness in dying at the Sacred Heart (Convent), and entrusted me with the expressing of her thanks for all her Mothers and Sisters from whom, she said, she had received so many p~oofs of affection and tender charity. Her weakness was so great, that-her voice was scarcely audible, and she spoke with such difficulty that it required over an hour to articulate these few" words. Next morning I was surprised to fintl her still living: this day, Thursday,. certainly surpassed all that had preceded, in the intensity-of pain; her half opened mouth displaying a tongue swollen, inflamed and raw, gums and teeth all 'clotted with black corrupted 'blood, 236 "SAINT APPEARED TWICE" excited an involuntary sensation of horror followed by a deeper ,senti-ment of the most. tender compassion in every one. who saw her in this condition. Mother Moran goes on to tell how exulta~ntly Sister Wilson leaped from what was thought her deathbed, and she reports the physician's reaction when he ~ame to visit his dying patient: Not being able to assign any natural ~ause capable of producing such an effect, .he several times repeated: '~Really, Miss Mary, I can-not understand it! But one thing is certain, if you recover, it is cer-tainly' not to medicine or to my care that you are to attribute your cure." - Among other interesting documents from the convent archives are the-sworn testimonies of Fathers Nachon, Benausse, and Serra, all from th~ nearby. Jesuit college, who had assisted the postulan.t with the last sacraments. Each of these Fathers writes in his own hand, in a personal way, with distinct individual touches. As you read along you wonder if they thofight it odd of Blessed John Berchmans to by-pass his own brethren's house to appear in a neigh-bo~ ing community. If they felt sensitive on this point they surely show no-indication of it: in fact, they seem almost proud that the Blessed had chosen one of their spir-itual charges to work perhaps his greatest miracle. More arresting, probalSly because less technical and formal, is a letter from Father Na~hon to a. Miss M~ry Perry, who would seem to be a non-Catholic. Writing enthusiastically just four dfiys filter the miracle, the~Father tells ~f tlqe fl~ry ~tirred up fill around Grarld Coteau~ ~The moral that he draws is~ possibly .l~ss significant in ourbwn. claywhen Loubdes and Fatima are so widely talked about. He writes: You see, child, that the time of miracles is not entirely passed away. There is nothing astonishing for us Catholics, since we know that~the saints are powerf.ul with God and that nothing is impos- 237 CLEMENT J. MCNASPY sible to God. We may rejoice it has happened amongst us because it excites us to devotion, and contributes to. animate our faith. No wonder that the Archbishop of New Orleans immediately started canonical proceedings to investigate the miracle.' Rome moves proverbially slowly, l~ut after tire-less probing and cross-examination the Church was at length satisfied and set its seal of approval on 'the mirac~- lous healing. It was officially accepted for the canonization of the young Blessed; who henceforth is' thought of as peculiarly belonging to Grand Coteau. For generations now the citizens of the little village have simply taken their privilege for granted. They are not at ali surprised that Heaven should have chosen Grand Coteau to break through to earth. And visitors usually make just that comment. For there are visitors to Grand Coteau, even though no one pushes publicity. Thereare the devoted alumnae who return to dear "Coteau" to see favorit~e old teachers or justthe hallowed, tastily land-scaped grounds. Students of the modern college, and academy attract relatives'and friends. And often enough devotees of azaleas, live-oaks, or Acadian lore are drawn to Grand Coteau. All these, quite naturally, spend some time in prayer in the infirmary. Periodically a .group of" retreatants from the retreat house will also come, and once a year the Jesuit novices and scholastics pay a pilgrimage of homage to their young con-frere. "The small room where the apparition took place has been cony6rted iiato a tiny chapel dedicated to St. John Berchmans. Onl~ two quiet mu~al~ and a notice placed where.the Saint stood remind one that this is one of Ameri-ca's treasUred shrines. "° " ,238 , A Pla°n of.Sei -denial Wi!:hin :he Reach of All Robert B. Eiten, S.J~ ~N ~CATHOLIC LIFE the principle of self-denial holds ~an important place. Yet it is a fact known to all that in i?his~ matter of self-denial there is danger of going to extremes--of failing either by defect or by excess. Those :who are too ,easy on themselves practically exclude the likelihood or even the possibility Of their reaching high perfection.; they go against the injunctions of Our Lo~d and the Chur.ch, and they oppose the common teaching .of ascetic writers. On the other hand, those who overstep their powers and go to the other extreme run the risk of broken health, shattered nerves, and even the loss of vocation. These latte} try to follow a special path without a special c,all; with only ordinary g.races at their dispoiaI they try to follow a way of life that is possible only with .e~xtraordinary grace. There havd tJeen, and there are, souls who have a special vocation to continuous heroic mortifica-tion and even vOluntarily-sought sufferings. These souls need" particular guidance; what we say here is not for them. But concerning those souls--whether priests, religious, or lay peoplemwho Seek high perfection with the aid, at least normally, of only ordinary graces, one might ask.: What~measure "of self~denial and mortification is to be expected of~ them? The answer to this question is~ con-tained in the following program. 1. To begin with, a large number of acts qf-self, abnega,ti0n and mortification can be practiced by ca?~fullg observing the Commandments, thelaws of the Church, and 239 ROBERT B. EITEN for Religious the duties of our state of life includiag the rules and customs of_our religious institute; and by patientl~l bearing those sufferings which a life of carff, ul and reasonable fidelity to grace imposes on us. This does not mean that one will never slip here and there;, for to observe peffectt~l over a long period of time the rules of at least some religious insti-tutes requires special graces over and above the ordinar!l or~es.~, It is well for religious to remember that this is no small program; for a careful observance of the rules makes. great demands in the matter.of self-effacement and morti-fication. St. 3ohn Berchmans declared that the common life was his greatest mortification. 2. Many sufferings, hardships, sorrows, and denials come to us in the ordinary pro.vidence of God. Some~times Divine Providence makes great demands. This was the case during Wokld War II when many, besides sufferingth~ loss of dear ones, had to er~dure such things as destruction of property, poor wages, nearly impossible rationing limi-tations, and so on. It is clearly the will of God that we bear such sufferings at least without complaint, and patiently. Sufferings of this kind may come to us from queer, sorts of cau.ses, cond.itions,, a~nd occasions. They~ .m~,ay come from superiqrs.,I from e~quals,, o.r frominferio, rs; from.t,he i~justice and frqm the justic~e of. others; from ,the sins, o.r.even from the generous but tastl~ss cha~rit, y of°others; or from inani-mate. creation, as~ ~n, othe cas~ "of bad Weather, t~ornadoes, floods, and so fbrth. 3: The, well-estab!ish.e~l and reasonable c.onventions, of polite society which make for proper refinement;~etiquette, ci~lture, neatness, and general social decency, algo provide 1Obviously the fact that we might be assisted only by ordinary graces should never be a pretext for carelessness in observing our rules. Thus we must seriously apply ourselves to their observance as far as we can and ask.God for the h~elp needed tO observe them perfectly. 240 _ '." ~JuJv, 194~5 ~ ~ ~ A PLAi~I OF.SELF-DENIAL~ ~ ~_ ~mucb material for self-abnegation and restraint. We, ought -~to respect these conventions" i'n a spirit of love" of the neigh-bor for the love :of,God since-these things make'life more ~ livable. Theie is r;o reason why their observance cannot-be ~upernaturali~ed. Included here are, such-things as table _ .manners, which should be exquisitely delicate but Without _.affectation; deanlinehs and neatness about our person,. office,- and room; .proper restraint in both the quality and.~ oquant~tg of' food; proper deference shown towards certain /persons.by reason of their age, sex, and rank;~ politeness and the avoidance of all vulg~arity; and, in general,, restraint in our conversation. "- Here it is well to include the mortification involved correcting deflects of disposition" and character. These -('&fects make Us deficient and negligent in the performance . our,duties and their are annoying to others. Slipshod .work, absent-mindedness, failure to return things, frequent boast" fulness, sarcastic language, a ~failure to keep appointments, "all are examples of the defects here referred to. In brief, we should always be and act the perfect, cultured Christian~ gentleman. We may well keep in mind St. Anthony'.s saying_that a saint would be-at home in any society. Such. deportment too (to dwell on another point casually) would be an effective means of fostering and getting voca, tions, oY°Ung people would be fascinated by what they. see -in us and would want to share with us that life which seems _to bring with oit, as it should, such refinement, culture, and fine iense .of propriety. ~ 4. Besides the foregoing instances of the cross which, ° wd~might say, are imposed upon us, there still remain mor~ ~tificati0ns and sufferings which we freely impose on our-~ Selves. ~ In other words they are entirety-voluntary, ~vith-" ' out° any obligation of i~recept or necessity~ All founders ROBERT B. EITEN ~-°-~ " ' Reti~ew for Religious; -of tel.i~i6us orders and all great spiritual~ writers, agree that voluntary penances are in some way an essential element of serious" tending towgrds perfection. Besides-the exercise humility and the cross, these v~oluntar~r penances prsvide,.~ for the.exercise of other virtues. o True, these voluntary mortifications must be practiced° prudently .and under the directi6n of the superior or of a goqd spiritua~l director. Norm.ally we should not, orat least need not; wait for them to propose what v61untary mortifications are to be practiced. Usually such things as ¯-spiritual attractions, reading, the insi)irations of gra~e, and~ so forth will suggest to us what might be done. After thiriking over the matter seriously, we propose, to .our. superiors or spiritual directors what vol~untary mortifica~ tions we .would like to practice. We then follow out their directions. This obedience will protect us against excesses ",in ~ith~r direction. Of course.no one needs permission to practice any of the mortifications mentioned or suggested under No. 3~ above.~ In spite of all the safeguards provided,by consulting,, and following the advice of superiors and spiritual diiectors in this matter, there remain sd,me obscurity and uncertainty - as to what and bow much voluntary mortifica.tion should ¯ be undertakenl An excellent practice might be, perhaps~. to,ask God to. send us in His providence those physical and , mental sufferings which are proper to help us reach.tl'iat~ d~gree o~ perfection to which He has called us. Such a request, if it is sincere, includes the firm resolve to conform ~ourselv~s to His will in all sufferings and hardships__w~hich He-may fiend us. ' 5. Fi~nally, it is not too much to expect fervent souls to, have at least the desire to .desire affronts, humiliationk re~'roaches, misunderstandings, and so forth. A better, dis- positidn:wouldbe to d~slre, tolong for, and to love thes~;~: ver~ things just to be like Qbrist and to help Him mo~e~" ~ffectively in the great workof the redemption. : However . ~ofi"hcco~nt of human misery and frailt~ a soul might.not these ~eneroOs dispositions. If' one has, howeqer, the'desire_to desire these things, he is by that very .disp0si-tion ~rep.aring himself for an actual desir~ and love of. :~ffronts, humiii~tions, and.so on. 7 " Here we might add that souls ought to try to mairftain a ~pi~i~ of cheerfulness in all circumstances of life; whether -'these be e'asy to bear Or very tr~ring. S. uch a spirivadds much, me~it ~and abnegation to mortifications alrea'dy practi, ced. 'A~nd how such a c6nstaht cheerfulness impresses others f, or. the better! To be cheerful at all times're~u~ires gr.eat abne-gation- anal perhaps at times a special grace.Well mi.ght We, ask,God to give us this .grace. ,,:o ~ The t~oreg~ing program of self-denied seems to be pos-sible for all. No one-will ~oncede that- it is an easy one; ~and, yet no' one can Say that it is impossible. It is sweetly: r_easonablg, not violent; yet it will make us like Christ ~Crfi~ified and will make us active collaborators with Him in the g.reat work of the redemption. '~?' P~erh£ps someone, may ask why nothing has been said~ ,.~bout gictim souls, that is, souls who offer themselves and their whole lives with all the sufferings, ti:ials, humilia-tions, mortifications, and so forth contained:therein to Gbd ::.~":jus~ as Christ did upon His entrance into the~ world °-(.~f: Hebrews 10: 5-10.) By. way of reply we may say that: souls who feel themselves supernaturally" urged to ~:his kind of offering, may follow si~ch an urge. Obviously tl~e motive for so doin~ may vary. ,It might, for example be to offer self for the' same intentions that .Christ had; or tb fill':up in one own s flesh~ what is wanting in C.hnstos ¯ o - . 243 ~ROBERT B,~ EI~TEN = ,~, ~ pfission~ fOr"~the Church.-- f.~Colos~sians 1 : 24~ 5 : Thi~--- ~victim-life, th~s.3pds(Slgte-of the cross and suffe)~ag; i~ ¯ grand:vocation., It does not, however, n~cessarilg in~olve~. any more moriifica~ions tha~ tBose~ we have ~mentioned,butT only gives special force to the ~o~i)e f6~ beating them:. _ If however there is question of a victim-sohl in the limited sensd that is, of one who_ ~sks for exceptional ~uffe)i.ng, what should be done? .No~ally,~one should~ not ~.permitt~d to makesuch'a request for-sufferi~g,~asq~ -may show a lack of humility and can emily lead to illu- ~s~ons( But if it is clear that an-individaal-has a special vocation for this type of life, then such a one should fi~stbe thoroughly,t~sted. After suNcient p~oof of the call to such a l'ife of ~uffering, the soul may offer itself to God in this very cult vocation. ~ ' "' " Let us hope that the abov~ Pr9grhm wiil clarify -'t}rs,fo~ us and that we.may "by the mercy of God"~present :our '"~odies a living sacrifice, holy, pleasing unto"God; ~0fir] re~sonable service" (Romans 12;, 1).= . ~I am 'much indebted to De Smedt (NOtre vie surnaturelle, volume 2, "pp.~472 252) not only for much of the ~aterial- found here but also in some wag fdi~the i~spiiation to write this article. ~ -~ .APP[AL5 FOR VOCATIONS ~ .~ ~he following vocation folders and pamphlets rely chiefly on excelle~t and well cffosen photographs to make their appeal: Modern Samaritans, from the NoVitiate "df~ the Alexian Brothers. Clayto~. Missouri: How about gou? (an appeal t~pros~ pective ~riest candidates) and Co~e In (an appeal for fay. Brothers), b6th from "~th~ Dominican House of Studies. River Forest, Illinois:'A Life to Give, from th~ Sisters of St. Casimir, 26.01 W. Marquette Road, Chicagq 29, Illinois: Dominican Sisters: St. Marg o~ the Springs, from the Novitiate.-St. Mary 6f tile Springs, Columbus 3. Ohio;Whg a Hospital Sister? by Rev. Dr. L. Rumble. M.S.C., fiom Radio Reply Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. * Our Ladg's Fz, ends, by Rev. Ju~ Senieur, O.F.M.Cap., describes the work t~e R~gina ~leri Society for the spiritual and financial suppprt of priestly and reli-'~ gious vocations. It. is .published by the Catholic Uni4ersity Cofiference of-Clerics and Religmus. C.S.M.G,, Cathohc Umverslty, Washmgtqn 17, D. C.~ . :~ '-- " 244 - "~,HE visitor,~a gray-hai~ed alumnlus of th~ college~, ~was [~, movifi~ about the° crowded recreation room o[ the faculty" friars, greetirig old acquaintances and ~aking new ones. He approached a card table where, over unfin-ish~ ed pinochle, three.~ unfamiliar friars stood awaiting him. "Tom Casey, class of '13," he ~smiled brgadly, hand extended. "Onesimus," .smiled back the first. "Eleuthe[ rius," smiled back the second. "Symphorianus, smiled the third. And albeit no stranger to Franciscan-phenomena. Tom Casey, class of '13, blinked hard and made a que4~r frog-like noise in°theback of his throat. "Where do you peo131e[get those names?'" he dazedly wondered. Here were names not found.~ven in his prayey-book Litany of the~Saints-though .surely there are enough odd ones in that long list! NOr had he ever, iffal[his long years and his wide travels, encountered those names among the living. If~the~y reminded him~of anything~subsolar at all, it:wa~ of Pullman sleeping cars---or of the Latin play in hi~:.4ophbfiiore year:~or of just" plain "printer's pie:' '~ What a downright shame, his meditation concluded, that nbr~ m~il"youhg men, oprobably christened :John, Wflham, Pat-rick; should now have to confront mankind as Oneslmus, "Eleutherlus, Symphorianus! -~ ~" Undoubtedly,~the religious n~mes of many of~us~d6 ~starfli~ the si~cular eai. They may at first hav~ ~tarfiede v~e ~n our ~own. Wi~: i~robably had "h.oped for something, con[ ventio~al; but the superior, with the finality"~of Z~icl-Jar~, siinply ~declared, "This is hi~ (or her)" r/am'e," and uttered bizarre syllables. A'ndothat was'that. Or, if permitted to CLAUDE KEAN Review for Religious choose our names, we probably found the community's nomenclature as depleted as Kresge counters at closing time on Christmas Eve; and what we got was what all earlier customers hadjudiciously foregone. So the names that many ,of us bear are admittedly unusual. Are they, therefore, absurd? Or may it not be that, compared with the proper names of many layfolk (names which were selected from unrestricted possibilities), our abnormal names are actually quite normal? or oub apparently mean-ingless names are at least relatively, fraught with remark-ab, le significance? From stray evidence now and then I have long sus-pected that the answer lies in our favor. From a half-hour of recent research, I now know for certain that it does. The "research" consisted in a mere scanning of proper names in the.telephone book of a representative eastern clty of the United States. Under the A alone, I found a hundred proper names, male and female, much morfi extravagant than any ever imparted to friar or monk or Sister¯ or Brother. ' To be specific, who. of us, even though destine~dot9 teach geography, is named Maryland, .or Virginia,; 6r,Columbia, or Dallas; or St,aten, or~ Reno? O~who of u~, e,ve ~n~th0.u.gh a ngt,ed nature-lover,. ~ . .bears the. name of Fern,~.~,or,Ivy, or Myrtle, or Reed, or. Violet, or, Daisy,~ or Pansy?., ~ Or ,who of .us, e.ven,thgugh avowedly interested in the classic, long,ago," wears toga-like the name of Homer, or Ca.to, or ~.~Virgil, or Caesar, or th~ myrtle-laden name of Phoebe, or Penelope, or Vesta? Or what choleric character among us is openly known as'Hasty?--what phlegmatic as Tranqu.ilisim~?-- what cynical as Burr?mwhat loquacious as Verba or Vow, els? Yet, as the telephone book plainly attests, laymen who possess these given names do walk and breathe, 246 SPEAKING OF NAMES A few names that occur-under theosame letter A savor of surrealism: Bushrod,.Hedgecomb, Hunk, Whip. Others would seem to suggest endearment: A1icebelle, Birdie, Bowie, Dernie, Goldie, Hommey,-Libby," Shorey, Sibbie, Trudie, Wadie. A sizeable percentage looks yearningly,- though uncertainly, towards the glory that,was Rome and the grandeur that was Greece: Aetha, Al"eathea, Cleora, C1evius, Euna, Iola, Lathena, Lesbia, Nova, Orpha, Thea. Several others walk in veiled oriental mystery: Arsinoe, Bayan, Desma, Zelma, Zetta. There is something of a faded Elizabethan charm in Clift, Bourne, Dell, Teare; and something suggestive Of remote constellations yet undiscovered in Arie, Angrous, Elsir, Louv~enia, Norment, Ord, Sigrid. The rest, howeyer symbolic, are not ~iuite clear in their allusions, and must be listed as mere vocables: Alonda, Armeita, Awillda, Beekman, Belva; Buxton," Demleta, Ena, Grice, Kermit, Lola, Lona, Lora, Ponten-ciano, Reta, Rulloda, Velma, Wilda, Worth. Now, it is no concern of mine--apart from the admin-istration of baptismmwhat names people bestow upon 'their offspring. In the exercise' of American freedom of expression, they may even, if they so wish, prefer numbers to names. (Ripley discovered not long ago anAmerican youth with the proper name of "Eleven."). Nor-do I in the least imply that odd names denote odd characters, that "that which we do call a rose by any other word would" not "smell as sweet." My sole contention is that, as mere~ alphabetization, the secular nomenclature equals in singu-larity, and .frequently even excels, the religious. And ~he Bell Telephgn¢ Company is. my star witness. But names are more than vocables: they are symbols. And the modern secular trend in names indicates the com-plete secularization of modern thought. Gone now are 247 CUAUDE KEAN Review/:or .Religious the.days~when~ the-names of~_men-=:as well as of the,ships they° sailed,and the ,new lands they discovered--were drawn from the rich vocabulary ~of Catholk,Faith. Gone,~ too, for the most part, are the days when devout Protestants turned to their Bibes in search of worthy nami~s for their newborn. In an age turned materialistic, men are more and mor'e taking ~their names not from God's great, but~from the:world;s great: from poets and philosophers of, a~cient Rome and Greece;. from~literati~urs of later eras (my tele: phone~ list includes Milton, Addison, Scott, Emerson, Haw-thorne~) ; from .modern scientists, like Burbaiak and Edison, and modern statesmen, like Roose~celt and Churchill. ° In even'.m6re articulate expressionof, th~ materlahstlc spirit if has now b~6m~ th~a~epted prhctice tona~e pkr-s6ns fiot¢.Mte~ other persons~ but affei things hft~r flbra . and:fauna,~ and geograpb~cal~it~s; and '~vefi mechanical objects.~ -This~ ph~ndmenbfi wOuld, to~do:i~'.ju~tlce~ ~req~i~ a Chesterton's~afysis: :.~ut,ev~n'on tge gu~face~ ~4t, to c~!l,~a.gifl ~'Petunia;,)'.;~or a;boy "Ohio", or '~Derrick":. '(and theg~ does.~,exist, a.[.b~y with: that name), is2 nbt]perceptibly ~ny;~more~?ra.tio~al.~,than. to. call ~a ~favorite .p.etuma.~ . Ger-tr~ fle,:5,or~.the stxte of OhiO~"Harold,'' or a~derrick,,,on 4be property', , "~ rl' .~1,~,- .".d" " , ¯ '~ '~ -,-~ ~. - :~ ~TBa'~: be ,to,hea~n, ~he~.figm?s" that we~rehg~ous-bear ar~,the -names obpersons. , ~nd" at"that,~ no ord~narF per-sgns: -Pe~ha~s~hose'p~rs6nshv~d m~the fat-off ~ast. "Per-ha~ little' i~'kfiooh Oaboot-them~x~pt ,tfi~t "a ~N~o or'3 Tr/j~h~r'~fi ,Diocletiah ~Ut th~ to death:; W~rid has not e~n th~"vag~egt memory 6f~the~.~-'rYet~they are the truly gr~at"~of"the 'h6~an race;.and ~God knows them~well., In their :flames ~we have inherited a, lustrous lggacy~ of honor, ~ special tide-to: protection and~aid. And in-.those names~ we h~ve~,6ur~inspiration fovholy living and DECISIONS OI/: THE HoLY SEE. dying--as :Ruskin .words it; . l~ifting hol.y hands without-wraith, and sinking to blessed ~sle~p.withoht fear." So what 6dds if ~the lay-w0rld pities 0r plllor,es us fdr ohr names? 0 What odds if not one person in ten cab pro~ nounc~e those, names fl~uently, and~,,not one in twenty can ~spell them correctly? We know the inner worth of those flames. And as to their ,outward form, well, an occasional glance at the telephone book will afford us unfailing peace hnd satisfaction. ~ .~o~yember'21, 1945:o The Sac~'d P~nite£tiary announced th~/t His " Holiness Pope'Pius XI~i in ari audience granted to the Cardiri~l Pen[- . tenfiary M~jdr ~n Ndve~ber 8, 1~45, h~d gracio~s~ grafit~d t~al indulgence o~ fifty days to the f~thful who devoutly,k~ss the ring of a p~efect apostohc. Th~s ~s t~ same indulgence which the faithful may gain by devoutly k~ss~ng the r~ng of an archbishop or bishop (Pr~es et Pta O~era, n. ~}0). Prefects apostohc are prelates'in m~s~ slon countries who govern a t~rr~tory call~ a prefecture apostohc. Usua!ly they. are not b~s~ops: h~fi~ the special ~r~nt recbunt~d 'abd~. Pemtent,ary answered ~ree questions regarding the p~ous exerc,se of the Way qf the Cross: I. According "to a decred.,dated August 6, 1757, it~ is~provided that for the pious exercise~0f the Way df the Cross, when otherwise a disturbance might be daused, a~priest and two clerics or cantors may ~ake the rounds, pausing at each station and reciting the accustomed prayers, while the faithful ie~ai~ing ia' their places give the responses. Question: Does this de~i~e.~ hold~ .only fgi, th~ ~.bublic~, exercise~ of the Way of the Cross made in a church, o~ does it hold ~hefi this exer-cise is m~de~by religious in their chapels?. - Answer: In the a~rmative to the first part, in the ndgative to the second. II. Questior~: Whether under the circumstances-mentioned in the decrees of Februa~'y 27, 1901, and of May 7, 1902 namely, when 2~49 DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE all the religious cannot go in a body from station to station in their chapel without causing a disturbance be~cause of the smallness of the place they can gain the indulgences connected with the i~ious.exer-cise of~the Way Of the Cros~ i'f only one re, ligious (B~roiher or Sister) makes the rounds f~om station to station and reads aloud ~the accus-tomeffprayers, while'rthe rest remaining in their places rise and genu-flect there.for each station? Answer: In the affirmative. " III. Question: Whether in the same circumstances already de-scribed for religious and following the same method, the faithful who live a common life, as mentioned in canon 929 of the Code of Canbn Law, can gain the indulgences attached to the pious exercise of the Way of the Cross if one man or woman, respectively, makes the rounds of the stations of the Wa.y of the Cross and recites the cus-tomary prayers? Answer: In the affirmative. Questions I and II tell us that in a religious community chapel it is not necessary to have the priest recite the prayers for the Way of the Cross; it suffices for one of the religious, Brother or Sister, to make .the rounds from station to station and to recite the customary pray-ers. ~ This has be~n explained before in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (I, 1942, p. 424; IV, 1945, p. 61). Question III extends the same privilege to communities of the faithful living a common lifb, for instance, nurses in/training in a h~pital, old folks living in a home, orphans, studehts at a boarding school, an~ so forth, so that the group may gai.n the indulgence in the chapel if one of their number, man or woman, makes the round of the stations and says the accus-tomed prayers, while the rest remaining in their places answer the prayers and rise and genuflect at each station. OUR~CONTRIBUTORS o ~LAUDE KEAN is on the faculty of Holy. Name College~ the Franciscan house of studies, Washington. D. ~C. He formerly taught at St. Bonaventure College anc~ served as spiritual director of the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn. W.H. HING-STON is spiritual director at ~lesuit Seminary, Toronto. CHARLES F. DONOVAN has just completed a year of ascetical study at St. Robert's Hall. Pomfret Center, Connecticut. CLEMENT ~1. MCNASPY is a professor of classical languages at St. Charles College, Grand Coteau. Louisiana. ROBERT B. EITEN, a professor at the University of Detroit, is much interested in ascetical subjects. CYRIL VOLLERT and ADaM C. ELLIS are members of the theological faculty at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, K~nsas. 250 Two I-[eart:s* W. H. Hingston, S.J. IN HIS RADIO address at the close of the Fatima jubilee (October 31, 1942) Pope Pius XII consecrated the wsrld to the Immadulate Heart of Mary. In the same year, on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, he pub- -licly repeated this. consecration and ordered that, as a per-petual memory of this solemn consecration, the Feast of the Immaculate Heart of Mary should be celebrated annually in the universal Church. In obedience to this, order the Sacred Congregation ' of Rites had a new Office and Mass com-pose& and these were presented .to the Holy Father for approval on December 10, 1943. A decree of the Congre-gation of Rites, dated May 4, 1944, which incorporated the text of the new Mass and Office, ordered that the feast 15e celebrated annually on the Octave day of the Assump-tion, August 22. ' Despite the fact that the decree promulgating the feast was issued two years ago, this year may be the first Oppor-tunity for many of us to make,~use of the new Mass and Office~. The occasioh seems an apt one for recalling some of the basic thoughtspertinent to the devotion to the Immacu-late Heart of Mary, and particularly for considering the relation of thii devotion to theworship of the Sac'ted Heart of Jes~us. Obviously there is an intimate link between the devo-tion to Mary's Heart and tha(which we render to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The same saint was employed by Provi-dence to initiate simultan, eously both devotions. No hearts *This article appeared in slightly different form-in The Canadian Messenger of the Sacred Heart, December. 1945, pp. 778-782. It is reprinted here with permission. 251 .W.~ H. HINGSTON Review [or Religious were ever so united by resemblance and by affection as those of .Jesus and~ Mary. The very flesh of Jesus came from Mary alone through the power of the Holy Ghost. Yet under,the outward likeness of the two beautiful devotions there are fundamental differences; and it is the purp.ose of this a~rticleto set forth briefly the resemblances and the dif2 ferences as a help toward an und~rst~indirlg piety. ¯ There is an essential 'difference to b~ observed from~the oai'set between the Form fff devotion paid to the Sac}ed Heart of Jesus and that paid ~o the Heart of HiS Moth'~r, .be.cause of the fact that in one instance veneration is ren- "d~red tO a divine Person and in the other t0a human son. Since all devotioh goes to the person whom we invoke or honor, it is e¢ident that there must be an infinite distance in this regard between the cultus of the Heart of the God- ¯ man and the cultus of the Heart of .Mary; between honor shown to God_and that shown to a creature no matter how highly favored. ~ To mark t~is essential distinction it seems pre, ferab, le, when speaking of the~ heart ofMary alone and'apart from the heart of Jesus, to use .the words H61y Heart. 0f.Mary, or Immaculate Heart, or Most"Pure Heart of Mary: rati~r than '"Sacred'" Heart ofeM~ry. That i~s whhtthe~Church d6es. Sh~ employa the.title Sacred Heaitof M~ry onl~ in the combified "title of ihe Sacred "Hearts of 5es~s and Mary. Apart°from t'h!s~ preliminary consideration, which.is of a general nature and recalls that first and most essential dis~ tinction which is never lost sight ofo by Catholics but is s~mply taken for granted, there ale other .important dis-tinctions to be made. They relate to the-three chief way~ in which we can co sider a~ay°devo~iofi, or:t0 tde t fire leading aspects under which a dev6t~on may be stud~ed. These are: i'ts ma.,terial object, its f6~mal obje~ct, it.s sp~dia.l 252 appeal~:-i'Th,ough these.wolds ~ay~ ~ound a bit 'technica),~: ~:.-x.~_~;tlSey-~ire very Useful :and '~ccurate;~ and we have all ::.(~li~rized ~ith them thrs~gh~the explanatiSns ~whidh-~e ~a~e Often~h~eafdof the de~otion to the.S'acred Hea;t Jesus. Now on each of these three fundamental ~eadings, ~;~Which together sum up a devotion, the differences between_ "~he~cultus of the Heart of Jesus and that of the H~art Mary are mgmficant and p~ofound. ¯ ~ -~irst~ then, as to the material object. In both devotigns .~a humafi heard.of flesh is presented forour veneration. Yet " ~t Once,we note a profound difference. ~The hea?t of Jesu.s :~" isin ~tself an object of ~doration. It is adorable because ~ is g~a~t.Bf that ihdividual human gature which the Divine :~ ",W0rd" mbec~0 m"m g " ~ncarnate took to H"~ m s~elf and" made Hi_s .Very own.~ It' is part of Him. Though a created object, ~-t~gfigh-a mgtenal thing, ~hough Buman flesh, .~t ~s ~he.heart ~f the Son of God madeMan. The honor, we kh~w /'~ m~s~inciude ad;ratiom "In contrast to this; iff the --,:~ 2~i~n ~to .the heart of Mary such ~eneration i~ refid~fed as~" ~ay~ be paid to a 5feature, b~t nothing o~ the adoration. ~ t~at belongs to God Mone. - N~vertheless, adoration is not the .principal act in th~ ~Tdevotion ~,t~ .the Sacred Heart. The human h~art.of the ;~Sa~ior is:~resented to us nbt primarily.that, we may r~nder ~-~,adoration~ bui because of what it stands for, the hu~" -heart:being the natural symbol of human love.~ T. he_~ight 6f the heart of Jesus spontaneously calls to mind His human -i~ l~ve,for His Father and for us. Uoiversally the he~r(is ~.,. looked upon .as the organ, or at least the symbol-of,ldve. ~So fiatural_a symbol of love is it, that in every lan~uhge the h~art.of a ~an is taken for his inward dispositions.--Aman" ~:. <" .- who - is generous, kind, sympathetic is spoken o~" as big--. ~,'hearted, ~tender-hearted, and so f~rth; or else; if he m~ni- 253 ,W H HINGSTON , ~ ,7~ * ~ ~Reoteto for Reltgtous ,, fegt no such pleasant~characterlstlcs,~ he is spoken of as hard-., h_eart~d, cold-hearted, heartless.~ - --~ N~w that thes~e preliminary observations .have beeri ~ade, we daft completeour statement regarding the materml - j,obj~ct i~ the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus~an'd,say' F_hat it-is His heart of flesh taken as the natural symbol Of " His hhman lo;¢e. The natural sy.mbolism of the heart p.la~cs a large pii,~t in the devotion, which would not be underitandablewith-.-. out'~t. In the devdtion to Maryls Heart on the contrary, the symbolism of the heart is faint and not at all empha-. sized, ,th~ reason being that it i~ not.so much her~love as her pUrit~y and her fidelity that we consider. Our attentibr; ~alled far more to the purity, htimility: and. Other vir~ue~ of ithat most faithful heart than to the~ qualities of its love., It ts~ riot hard to discover the reason why in the,devotion to t~he Heart of Jesus such emphasis is placed on the natural sym-b01ism of the heart, and why such emphasis, is lacking, from, "the'~correspbn.ding devotion to the Heart of His Mother. This will become still more apparent when we consider the_ ,f, ormal object of each devotion. A first difference between. "the t~vo devotions is thus found evenin the matefial object; which in both devotions is the heart of flesh, but in ~ach t~e~ ~ l~eartfis viewed under a somewhat different asp, ect. ~A setond and more pronounced diffe~rence lies ifi tl'ie~ - .formal object of. each,, d~voti6n. - The formal object of the devotion to Jesus' Heart is His human love for m~n. ,-,, Note in'the first place t.hat it is His human love which is stressed: -~a'ther 'than His divine love. Coeterrial with the FatheY~' '/he Wor& the~Second Person of the m6st adorable,_Trini_ty~, ,has known from ~everlasting and has loved witff an eteriaal love,each one of us. Yet it is not this eternal lovebelonging -to His divine n~ature that we c~nsider in His Sacred Heart:,,~ ~, ' dul~l, 19~ 6 "~ ~ ' ' TWO HEART~. . .~ We~ read-therein His huma~-10k~e. The symbolism of the heartdna.kes this perfectly clear, for tl~ heart i~ the symbol ~ of h~uman love, no~of divine love._ Besides, the love'of ['Jesus is presented to us as a suffering love, andonly the" .human in Him can suffer. " We venerate the human love b_y .which a divine Person loves us. Yet Christ's eternal love 5, belonging to His divine nature, though it is not and cannot properly be symbolized by any .natural symbol," is by no, ,means excluded from this°devotion. -After all, we love that ,Person Himself who loves us and suffers for u , and Him as He is, whole and entire Hisvery self, .the~ one living principle of a lov~ that is both human'and divine. The.Woid having been made flesh, having becorhe P0S- - sessed of a human °nature like ours, now loves-with a love that began only at His Incarnation, that is truly .human,- -xhat is ~harged with all the emotions of man's spiritual will -*and is colored with all those feelings that have their roots -., in- the sensitive part "of man's bodily make-up. Christ, though~a divine Person and not a human person, loves even ¯ in the, manner that human p~rsons love. He experiences, 'tOo, the consequences of human love, even to the suffering ~ Which unrequited love entails. The greater the capacity_ ~-~ .for loving, the greater the capacity for. suffering. The more -. rintense and unselfish theaffection, the ,greater the anguish-when such affection, goes unrecognized .and is not returned: Note in th~ sed6nd place' that it is Jesus" human love ° ~or. men that. is .the formal object, rather than His htiman 10re for His Father. Undoubtedly Christ, in the-human" nature that He had made His own, loved FIis Father with a,_ll the strength Of His human will; yet it is not this lmre -for His.Father that is dwelt upon, but His love for mdn_. '-"Behold the Heart which has so,'loved men," were His words to St. Margaret Mary. In contrast to this we find that in the devotion to the" Most Pure Heart.of Mary the formal object,, insofar ~is it ¯ is love and not fideli.ty, is love for her 3esus and for her _G~d, not her love for ma'nkind, at least not primarily her 10re for.mankind. We do not positively exclude from our-~ thoughts in this devotion the motherly ,love that she bears to all mankind; but our attentiofi is focused on something ¯ ~lse, rlamely, on the complete and unique absence of all self-love, on the absolute fidelity to grace, on the devotedness of-- M~ry's heart to God. . " Thirdly, there is the special appeal to be considered in each of .these two devotions, outwardly so alike. ,Here the contrast is most marked. In the devotion to_ His Sacred Heart, 3esus makes an appeal to us by His very love for to love Him i[~ return. He opens His breast, bares-His'heart - to us, reveals it afire with love for. us, bleeding for us, ~giving itself to uS without holding back anything, even t~o the Cross, even to the Eucharist; He even humbles Himself before us and shows us the wounds thiit our indifference and -. coldness have inflicted upon Him, piercing His v.ery heart. His fs a suffering love, arld.there is an awful pathos in'His hOpeal, t-he appeal of the~ Son of God begging of His crea~ tures the favor of being loved in return. Our Savior appea~l~. ~strongly to our feelings; but it would be a grave mistake 6n_ our.part and a complete misunderstanding of His plea were we to content ourselve~ with~ giving Him in answ~er mere;. ~ pious sentiments. He ga~e us deeds! He pleads for real reparation, exercised not so much in the way that at6nemen~ ~ is usually exercised, ~amely, by works of pe~nance, bfit° rather by works~ of love, especially through the ever more ,perf~ect doing of His Father's will and the perform~ance of acts ofde~votion towards Himself in the Eucharist. In "the devotion to the Most Pure Heart of Mary~ there" duly, 1946 " Two HEART~ -is also an appeal, of course, but it is not an impassioned appeal, nor are we besought to love her. She does not show us the love of her heart for us, as 2esus does, and beg us to love her in return. Unquestionably Mary has loved and actually does love us much, incomparably more than any one, save only her Son, has loved us; but there is nd allusion ~o this in her appeal. Mary's love is also like her Son's, a suffering love; and it is significant that those sufferings by which she shared in the Passion to such an extent that she is deservedly styled Queen of Martyrs were all endured in her sinless heart; for of bodily sufferings we bare no record. It is furthermore a historical fact that c6mpassion for the broken-hearted Mother--so bravely standing beside the.Cross, as St. 2ohn presents her, or with the torn and lifeless-form across he/ lap, as Christian piety has long depicted her first led the faithful into the sanctuary of Mary's suffering, heart. Nevertheless the sorrows 0f Mary form the object of a distinct.and much more ancient devo-tion in the Church; and in the devotion to the Most Pure Heart the thought of compassion is not prominent. The heart of Mary° is usually depicted encircled with fragrant roses to denote the flowers of many virtues, with~ which it is adolried, not with,thorns. The specia! appeal in this devo-tion is reilly a .very ge.ntle and very sweet and persuasiv.e invit~ition to highdr ~hings. ~ It is a call to .lead an interior life and to imitate the Blessed Virgin by purity of,life, ,by perfect.chastity~ of;th~ affectigns .which are to be. dlrect~ed ~ avcay"~ro, m°creatures,wl~oliy tO G~d, by the practice' of all those wrtues that are particularly dear to her Son. 2esus, because He is God, draws us by the cords of Adam to himself, to the Divinity. Mary because she is a creature draws us, not to herself but directly to her Son, to .her God, to Him who is in truth her child, born of her, yet 25.7 W. H. HINGSTON Review for Religious who can say of Himself: "I and the Father are one'.' (John 10:30). "Amen I say'to you, before Abraham was made, I am" (John 8:58). "Philip, he that seeth Me, seeth the Father also" (John 14:9) " The two.devotions closelycorrespondwith'one another, yet each in its own sphere. They are not on the same footing. Devotion to the Heart of Mary is really a beau-tiful pendant to the devotion to the Heart of Jesus. Her heart is, after His, the most beautiful thing in all creation, because in every way the most perfect copy of His. Upon such beauty the angels gaze in rapture. To portray it is beyond the reach of words. Yet in contemplating Mary's loveliness let us guard against the mistake of far~cying that her very greatness keeps her aloof, a sublime but ethereal beauty far removed from us, dwelling above all angels and saints in the court of the Most High. The symbolism of ~tie heart ought to save us frdm. this baneful illusior~ and should impress' upon us that Mary's is a warm and comfbrting loveliness, tender ~and sweet, and constant and motherly. The tho~ught of this should .fill us~ With confidence rather than with awe. Shh can be approached in all our needs and in our every mood. She can comfort as.none other can, for the heart of the Virgin Mother has experienced sorrow of e;cery kind and has ,known such depths of human v~oe tha~ all other anguish compared to hers must seem bearable and light. But, far and above all, tile heart of Mary overflows with joy; and no one can approach her in thought and no( feel happier for it. She takes her children by the hand and leads them straight to the Sacred Heart of Jesus along the way of encduragement, and hopefulness, and holy joy. The resemblanees between the two devotions are man, r and obvious. Reflection and meditation bring out the differences, and with clearer knowledge comes a deeper 258 July, 194i5 TWo HEARTS understanding of both these lovely devotions centered upon two human hearts that beat in unison. What does the devotion to the Most Pure Heart of Mary add to our devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus? It supplies an additional motive for trust in Him. Mary is so approachable, so understanding, so near to us! She is just one of ourselves. 'And withal how close she is to Christ! How dear to His Heart! How worthy by her stainless purity to plead the cause of us poor sinners with Him, who is the fruit of her womb, and to lead us to Him. Besides, a'better realization of the fundamental differ-ences thatexist between the two devotions brings out cer-tain aspects of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of desus which otherwise might never have been so clearly under-stood. In'this sense devotion toMary's Heart is seen to be a complement to the devotion to the Sacred Heart, which ii itself rooted in the mystery of the Incarnation, with which Mary was so intimately associated in the divine plan. But, best of all, there is the encouragement given us by Mary's life to lead an inner life. The attractiveness of . Mary's example is .best studied in its source, her heart. There we can appreciate the exquisiteness of her every action, feel the warmth of her tender affection, and breathe in the entrancing fragrance of her purity, which rises like incense in a pure white cloud from the selfless sanctuary of her immaculate heart. ANNOUNCEMENT It is even more ditScult to get pap~,r now than it was during the war. For this reason we are reducing the size of the REVIEW from seventy-two pages to sixty-four pages. The amount of matter in each number ~ri!l be about the same as we are using more small type than usual. .We shall return to the 72-page issue just as soon as we can get some guarantee of a regular supply of paper. 259 Recept:ion of Seminarians int:o Religious.lnst:it:ut:es Adam C. Ellis, S.3. ON JULY 25:194 l,.the Sacred Congregations of Religious and of Seminaries issued a joint decree regarding the reception of ex-seminarians into a religious institute and the admission of ex-religious into a seminary. This decision was duly" publi.shed in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (1, 1942, p. 71), as was also a private an-swe~ regarding the same given on May 11, 1942 (III, 1944, p: 67). A number of problems have arisen regarding this decree. Recently we received copies of Commehtarium pro Retigiosis which had been delayed by the war. One of these (XXIII, 1942, pp. 226-237) contains an interesting commentary on this decree written by His Eminence, Cardinal La Puma, then Prefect of the S. Congregation of Religious, who died in 1943. Although the Cardinal did not intend to give.an authentic interpretation of the decree but me.rely a pr!vate or doctrinal interpretation, as he himself tells i~s, yet since he was co:author of the decree there is no other person better qualified.to explain it to us; and we are happy to give our readers the substance of his commentary. We shall omit those parts which pertain to the reception of an ex-religious into a seminary, and confine ourselves to the parts which are of interest to-religious the reception of an ex-seminarian into a religious institute. For a better understhnding of the matter, we repeat here that part of the decree which pertains to our special subject: ~ "Likewise, before those who for ahy reason whatever have left a,semlna[y are a'd-miffed fo a religious family, the religious superiors shall have recourse to the S. Con-gregation of Religious, which will inform them of their opinion (;ud;clum) after having cons;dared all the circumstances of the case." The fact that the document issued by both Congregations jointl~r is called a decree should not be_overstressed, since-it provides little more than.a caution and a necessary re~medy to secure the faithful observancd of certain important prescriptions of t_he Codewhich have been treated too lightly. Much less is this document to b'e considered as a general decree, or new law, since it was not prepared in a plenary session, and it was not approved in focma speci~ica by the Holy Father. 260 SEMINARIANS RECEIVED INTO RELIGION The decree does not establish a new impediment to entrance-lnto' religion or into a seminary; nor is previous permission, properly so-called, to be asked from the SS. Congregations to admit a person into a seminary or into a religious institute since this is left to the proper superiors. The SS. Congregations are to be consulted; and after con-sider~ ng tl~e case,, they will give their opinion (iudicium) ; but thereby they'will neither admit nor impede admission, nor defer it, nor render it more difficult. The SS. Congregations had no thought or intention of. granting to Ordinaries, even indirectly, the faculty to oppose the flee entrance of' seminarians into religion except in the cases explicitly mentioned in the Code--that is, in the case of seminarians and other clerics in sa~red orders and even for these only within the strict and well considered circumstances mentioned in canon 542, 2°, first case: Let us now explain the terms of the instruction quoted above. By seminarg is meant an ecclesiastical.college in which those who aspire to the clerical state are,prepared according to the prescriptions of the law, even though a few lay students are admitted. ;A college to which both clerical and lay students are admitted almost indis-criminately chnnot be called a.seminary. To admit to a seminary means to receive a person as a seminarian; to be dismissed from or to leave a seminary supposes that one who has been a seminarian ceases to be an aspirant to the clerical state by reason of dismissal or voluntary withdrawal. To adn~it to a religious f~mitg means to admit one as a true member, that is "to the novitiate, of a religious institute in which pub-lic vows. are taken, but not to a society of men living in common without public vowS. The words "those who for any reason whatever have left ~a seminary" apply to those who are dismissed from a seminary by superiors as well as to those who leave voluntarily, thereby bidding farewell to their vocation to the clerical state, even though they do so unwillingly because of pressure brought to bear upon them from without. The phrase in question does n_ot apply to those who have completed their studies in a seminary and await ordination outside; "nor does it apply to those who have left a seminary in order to fulfill their, military service but intend to return afterwards, and thus do not renounce their vocation. What about those who Ieave a seminary because theg wish to enter religion? An authentic reply of the S. Congrega6on of Religious given to the question on June-25, 1942 says that "the decree does not 261 ADAM (2, ELLIS affect those who leave a seminary or college in order to embrace the life of religious perfection in some religious institute since these are provided for in'canon 544, § 3." Another class of seminarians who are not subject to the decre'e are those who~though they have truly left a seminary, either by reason of dismissal on account of a lack of talent required, for st6dies, or because they thought they were not called to the clerical state now ask to be admitted to the class of lay brothers in a clerical institute or as lag religious in a non-clerical institute. This means that an ex-seminarian in the strict sense of the term may not be admitted to a religious institute as an aspirant to the priesthood. He may, however, be received as a candidate for the lay brotherhood in a clerical insti-tute, or as a Brother in any non-clerical institute. There are some non-clerical institutes in which a few members are promoted to the priesthood while the majority are Brothers. In this case the ex-seminarian could be received as a Brother, but not as a candidate for the priesthood. If a religious superior wishes to receive an ex-seminarian in the strict sense, that is ohe who has been dismissed from a seminary or who has given up his vocation to the priesthood of his own accord, he must have recourse to the S. Congregation of Religious for its opinion on the case before he can admit him to the novitiate as a can-didate ~:or the priesthood. Meanwhile, however, provfded the superior has re~ceived ttie necessary testimonial letters and is morally certain that no impediments exist, he may admit the ex-seminarian in ques-tion to the postulancy or first probation preceding the novitiate while he awaits the opinion of the S. Congregation regarding his admission to the novitiate. In order to avoid useless delay, which may be harmful to voca-tions, the S. Congregation requires the following documents and tes-timonial letters, written or at least signed by the rector of the semi-nary: (1) testimony regarding the moral and intellectual.qualities of the ex-seminarian; (2) testimonials regarding studies made, as well as progress i~i them, and grades obtained in examinations; (3) tes-timony or opinion about the inclination or propensity of the aspirant towards the religious state; (4) finally, testimony regarding the reasons why the candidate left the seminary and the manner of his doing so, namely, whether he was dismissed or left of his own accord, and whether he left after finishing his studies at the end of the scho-lastic year. These dbcuments should accompany the petition of the 262 duly, 1946 '- BOOKS RECEIVED candidate and should be sent to the S. Congregation of Religious by the religious superior together with any other information which may be judged opportune, either in confirmation, or by way of example, or; finally, as a possible refutation of the statements of the rector of the seminary. Books Received (ApriL20 .to June 20) THE NEWMAN BOOK SHOP, Westminster, Ma~iyland. The Sacred Ceremonies of I2ow Mass. 'By Rev: Felix Zualdi. C.M. $2.00, More About' Fatima and the Immacidate Heart of Mary. By Rev. V. Montes de Oca, C.S.Sp. (No price given.) Life of St~ Stephen Harding. By J. B. Dalgairns: $2.50. A Mystic Under Arms. By' Ft. M:-Eugene Boylan, O.Cist.R. (No price given.) The Spirit of Christ. By Father James, O.F.M.Cap. $2.50. Counsels to Confessors. By St. Leonard of Port Maurice. $1.50. FREDERICK PUSTET COMPANY, New York and Cincinnati. Spirit in Darkness. By Rev. Fr. Brice, C.P. $3.50. H. DESSAIN, Malines, Belgium. Caeremoniale: Pars Altera: De Celebrante. Auctc;r~ J. F. Van Der Stappen. (No price given.) THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee. Wisdom /or Welfare. By Sister M. Dolorita, S.S.N.D. mentls in Genere. By Emmanuel Doronzo, O;M.I. $3.75. Shoulder.- By Rev. Thomas J. Hosty. $1.50. $2.00. De Sacra- Straight from the THE MARIAN FOUNDATION, San Antonio. The Golden Thread of Netoman. By ReV. William R. Lamm, S.M. (Paper). $.50 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, New York. St. Paul: Apostle and Martyr. By' Iglno Giordani. $2.50. B. HERDER BOOK ~OMPANY, 'St. Louis. The Mysteries of Christianity. By M. J. Scheeben. $7.50. Christianity: An Outline of Dogmatic Theology for Laymen. By Joseph H. Fichter, S.J. $2.50, JOSEPH F. "WAGNER, INC., New York, Scriptural References for the Baltimore Catechism. By G. H. Guyot, C.M. (No price given.) (No price given.) THE DECLAN X. MCMULLEN COMPANY, New York. Most Worthy of All Praise. By Vincent P. McCorry, S.J. ST. ANTHONY GUILD PRESS, Paterson, New Jersey. Frances Schervier: Mother of.the 'Poor. By Sister Pauline. 263 May a superior grant a Sister with simple vows permls~ion~ fO use a gold watch? A moderate use of an article made of gold is not. in itself, con-trary to the vow of poverty. This is evident from the fact ,that some constitutions approved by" the~HolY See prescribe the wearing of a gold ring. Frequently the constitutions or legitimate custom forbid the use of articles m_ade of gold. In such cases the superior dould not grant permission for the use of a gold watch. But if there is no such prohibition, the, superior may grant the permission, provided that the watch is not so expensive as to cause surprise to the faithful who see th~ religious wearing_it. This element depends upon. local circum. stances and customs. A possible solution for the 'problem involved might be'to have the watch removed from its gold case and put into one of less precious material. ~ 23 Accordln9 to canon law how many delegates are necessary to make up a general chapter representing a community of one thousand Sisters? May delecjafes of the general chapter of a religious communlfy induce other members o{ the chapter, before the election of the mo÷her general has taken place, to vote for a certain group of Sisters whom they wish have fpr council members? Canon 507, § to tells us that "in elections which are made by chapters, the universal.law as set forth in canons 160-182 shall be obsdrved, as well as the constitutions of the institute which are not contrary to this universal lawJ' The Code leaves th.e organization of general chapters of religious institutes entirely to the constitutions. Constitutions approved by the Holy See. usually provide that every house of twelve or more members is represented in the general chapter by the local superior and by at least one delegat~ elected by the mem-bers of the local community. Smaller houses are grouped together to form a unit of from twelve to eighteen members. This group then elects one delegate from among the local superiors and one from amdng the subjects. If the institute requests it, the S. ~ongregation of Religious will allow large communities one delegate for every twelve Sisters. Thus a community of fifty Sisters would be entitled 264 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS to elect four delegates from that community. Paragraph two of canon 507 states explicitly: "All must abstain from seeking votes either directly or indirectly for themselves or for others." This law is dear and needs no explanation. Howe:oct, the constitutions frequently allow the members of the chapter to seek information from other chapter members regarding the qualifications of certain individuals well-known to them. Insuch a case the mem-bers bf the chapter ~hould give the information required, but should abstain from positively urging any member to vote for another mem-ber. Their ~duty should be confined to giving the information requested~ according to the best of their knowledge, in all charity and sincerity. It may be well to note i~ere that 'the delegates elected by the indi-vidual communities sh0uld not be instructed regarding persons to be voted for. This would clearly be contrary to the canon quoted above: The community must have confidence in the good judgment of the delegates ,whom they elect. --24--- A college has regular tuition and board and room charges. Over and above these charges_there are fees in various departments for certain courses, for instance in home economics for food, interior decoration, and s6 forth; in the music department, for the use of musical instruments. In a~ word, these fees are for things used, for materials, instruments, and the llke. Tl~e sum total of fees charged in any department make up the budget of that department. Must such fees be used only as described or may they also be used for the general cjood of the department, for instance to buy supplies, such as records, in the music department; to give the students of that particular department an. outing; to finance a student's trip to-a con-ventlon as a representative of that department? As long as the fees charged to make up the budget of any si'ngle department are used in that dep~rtment~ both justice and Canon Law ate satisfied. ~:~he purchasing Of instruments and stipplies needed for -the laboratory experiments of the department are certainly for the benefit :of the students, and the same inay be said regarding the travel-ing expensesof a representative of the department who is sent to a .convention. And it is perfectly in keeping with the law of,'the Church to use any balance left over at the end of the year to give the students of that department an outing or some other entertainment " to which, payment of the fee for board and tuition gives them no right or cl:aim. 265 QUESTIONS AND ~NSWERS Review for.Religious ' m2Sm, Our constitutions havi~ the following provision regarding candidates for admission: "Their parents must have borne a good reputation; and should these have been under repute of any enormous crime, or have been condemned in any criminal court, the aspirants cannot be received." Does this artlcle of our constitutions oblige us 1o reject an aspirant whose par-enfs are divorced and remarried? Since the constitutions seem to have in mind a crime against the civil law and a condemnation in a civil criminal court, divorce and "remarriage would not come under the prohibition of the constitu-tions. The requirem'ent of a good reputation on the part of the par-ents looks to the edification of th.e faithful. One may say that the parents have lost their good reput~ition if the faithful would be scan-dalized by the admission of their daughter into a religious commun-ity. Hence in our practical case, if the divorce and remarriage are things "of the past, forgotten by most people, there would be no diffi-culty in receiving the aspirant. If they are recent events,, p~udence must dictate whether the reception of the candidate into religion would cause disedification or not. It may be well to note that the constitutions do not positively forbid the reception of the daughter of parents who have a bad reputation, as is the case in the second part of the article quoted. Hence it seems that such a candidate could be admitted even though her parents are divorced and remarried provided her reception would not cause scandal to the faithful. In some instances at least, it might be a cause of great edification: for instance, if it became known that the daughter was entering religion to aton~ for the sins of her parents. --26-- I heard recently of a community of Sisters in ~vhlch custom demands that they go to confession in seniority. Do you know if such a cu'sfom really exists? Would it not be against canon law? It seems to me that confes-sors' might easily recognize their penitents in such circumstances. It is not clear just what is meant here by going to confession "in seniority." If it means "according to seniority groups"---e.g. senior professed, then junior professed, then novices there seems to be nothing particularly harmful about the custom. This arrangement according to groups would simply facilitate good order and could hardl~r be a source of embarrassment to individuals. Very likely our correspondent refers to a case in which indi- 266 Julg, 1946 QUES'~IONS AND ANSWERS Oiduals go according to sepiority. 'We t6o have heard of such a custom, although we do not know of any definite pl_ace where it exists. Strictly speaking, this custom is not against the l'etter of canon law; at, least, we are not aware of any provision of law which forbids it." It'seems to us, however, that such a custom is not in accord with the spirit of canon law. For one thing--as our corre-spondent points Out" it makes it very easy for confes'sors to recog: nize ~oenitents, for if the confessor knows the community at all he will. very likely know something of the order of seniority. This is often embarrassing t6 a confessor and it.is also an obstacle to the perfect liberty of spirit enjoyed by a penitent. At least, many penitents can confess more freely when they are not recognized as individuals. An added inconvenience for the penitent, if individual seniority is insisted on, is the fact. that those who immediately follow her will always know ju,st howlong her confession takes. Also, if she does wish to take a long time, she may be embarrassed at the thought of delaying the others. m27-- What is the mind of the Church on such matters as havln9 contests between 9fades to have the most Communions in a week, and on havln9 compulsory Communion Sundays under those circumstances where the-external pressure on an individual to receive Communion is very 9rear2 The principle for solving questions like this was clearly formu-lated in a reserved instruction issued by. the Congregation of the Sacraments on December 8. 1938. The text of this instruction may be found in The Canon Law Dfgest, II, p. 208. A synopsis of the instruction was printed in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, III, p. 268. The same number of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (III, p. 252) contained the translation of a very thor6ugh commentary on this instruction by Father Emile Bergh, S.3. For an adequate discussion of this impor-tant matter we refer our c~)rrespondent to the text of the instruction and to Father Bergh's article. Answering the question very briefly, we should say: Any prac-tice which induces pressure to receive Holy Communion is wrong and should be changed without delay. If '!spiritual treasuries," contests between classes, Communion Sundays, and so forth, are had at all, they should be conducted in such a way that all indi;ciduals will feel perfect freedom to abstain from Communion if they wish. 267 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Revleto ~or Religious According to our constitutions, .the order of precedenc6 among .the Sisters is as follows: The .superior general always and everywhere precedes all the Sisters including local superiors. Then come: the general council- Ior~ accorcfing to the order of'thelr election; .the secretary general; ~the treasurer general: former superiors general in the mother house (in other houses they follow the local superior); the mistress of novices'. Is this order of precedence to be interpreted as ¯follows? (I) All general officers taEe -precedence over the local superior in pres;ding over the assemblies of~ the mother house community. In other words, in the event .that the superior cjeneral is not i~resent, who presides over the assemblies and exercises of the mother house community? (2) Just what rank and authority, does the Io~al s~perlor of the mother house hold in the mother house? (3) If the mistress of novices is a councillor and the local superior is not, does that fact dispense the mistress of novices from being subject ~o the local supe-rior and excuse her from a chapter presided over by the local superior? (4) Does a councillor stationed in any house other than the m~)ther house take precedence over the local superior? Before answering the specific questions asked above, it may be helpfial to analyze the concept of precedence. Precedence is a sign of g~e~ater honor because of greater e~cellence. It consists in the right to occupy a more honorable place i~a church, in processions, or in assemblies; or in the right to act before others. for instance, to cast a vote ahead of others. This right of precedence supposes-in the person who enjoys it a certain excellence or dignity which places on others the obligation of reverence or obedience to them. Among religious the right of precedence is conferred upon an indi-vidual religious because of th~ office which he holds. Such.an office may or may not have authority over others attached to it. Thus superiors in a religious institute (whether they be general, provincial; or local superiors) have precedence over their subjects by reason of their authority to govern them (canon° 106, 2°). Other officials such as councillors, secretaries, bursars, mistresses of novices, enjoy the right of precedence because of the dignity of their office .even though it does not carry with it any authority over other professed r.eligious. .From the foregoing' it is evident that in assemblies in which no authority is exercised, such as the presence Of a religious community in chapel for the recitation of the office or of othe~ prayers in com-mon, or attendance at meals in the common refectory, it is quite 268 1946 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS r~asonable that-some officials enjoy" pre.cedence over the local superior', even though they-be subject to her in the external discipline of ._the house. They would rank higher in the order of preced.ence~ and would take.a higher.placein the chapel or in the dining room: but .they would not exercise" any, act of authoritg in either place: Such acts "of authority in general:assemMie's belong to superiors only, not to officials who do not enjoy authority over others by reason of their- - office. . The order of precedence in any particular institute is determined by t'he constitutions and by the customs of that institut~e (canon 105, 5°). The common law contains no provisions governing precedence of officials within a .particular institute. According to the present practice Of the S. Congregation,of.Reli-gious, precedence in religious congregations ,is as follows: (1) The superior general precedes all superiors, provincial as well as local, always anti everywhere. (2) The general councillors come next, in the. order, of their election, then the secretary .general and the treasurer general, but only in .the general mother house' in other houses they take their places after the local superior. (3) Former supe~riors gen- ¯ eral come after the treasurer_general, but only in the mother house. Some constitutions give precedence over local s.uperiors to the ~general councillors and to the secretary and treasurer general. Such provisions~ of older con'stitutions would prevail over the piesent practice of the S. Congregation. Any doubts, especially with regard to recently approved constitutions, should be solved according to the pr.esent practice of the S. Congregation. (4) The provincial superior has precedence in all the houses of his province; i~rovincial councillors, provincial secretary and treasurer take precedence but in the provinr cial house only: in other, houses they come after the local sup~erior. Regarding the local superior of the mother house: (1) She gov-erns the community of the mother house just as a local superior ggv-erns a local~ house, that is, in all things pertaining to the community as such,'but subject to (he limitation put upon local superiors by the law of the Church'and by the constitutions. (2) Evidently the superior general takes precedence over the local superior everywhere and at all times; she is not subject to the local S.uperior of the mother house. (3). Unless the constitutions or legitimate "custom~ have exempted higher officers and have made them-directly depend.ent on the superior general, the general councillors, secretary and treasurer ¯ general, exTsuperiors and so forth, are all subject'to the local, s.uperior 269 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS even thotfgh in public assemblies they take a higher place. (4) So,me constitutions provide that the first councillor or any one of the coun-cillors appointed by the superiqb general~ shall be local superior of the mother house. ' The mistress ot: novices and the novices are subject to the local Superior in all matters pertaining to the general discipline of the house (canon 561, § I). The fact that the mistress of novices is also a general couricillor would not change her relations to the local supe-rior of the mother house unless the constitutions or legitimate custom place her direct.ly and immediately under the superior general. In this latter case ~i distinction would have' to be made. In her official capacity as mistress of novices, she would still be under the general authority of the lo.cal superior together.with her novices by reason of the legisla-tion- of the Code; but in her private capacity ~s a general councillor she'would n6t, but: would be directly finder the authority of the. supe-rior general. We are ready- now to answer the questions asked above:. 1. In the absence of the superior general, the local superior of. the mother house presides over .all assemblies of the mother house com-munity. Officials--such as general councillors, the secretary general, the treasurer general--may precede th~ local superior in such assem-blies, that is they may occupy a higher place of honor; bfit they do not fireside, tl'iat is they do not exercise any authority, ianless legiti-mate custom gives them the right so to do. 2. The local superior~ of "the,mother house exercises the same authority over the community as such as does any other local superior over her community. All Officials, the superior genera.1 alone excepted, are subject to her regarding the general discipline of the house, unless -the constitutions or "legitimate custom have exempted higher officials from her authority and have made them subject to the superior gen-eral alone. If the mistress of novices is a councillor and the local superioress. is not, the former wo~uld still :be subject to the local superior in. the chapter of faults presidedover by the local superior, unless the coun-cillors have be~n~explicitly excused from such s.ubjection either by the constitutions or by legitimate custom. , 4. NormaIly a general councillor stationed in another house wh{ch is not the mother house does not take precedence over the.local superior unless the constitutions or legitimate custom explicitly so declare. 270 THE MYSTICAL'LIFE. By Pascal P. Parente, S.T.D., Ph.D., ~J.C.B,.A, s' s o "c,ate Professor of Ascetical Theology,. Catholic University of America. Pp. x ~- 272. B. Herder Boo~( Company, St. Louis, 1946. $2.50. This is the companion volume to the same author's The ~tscet[cat Life, which appear.ed two years ago and contained an announcement of this work. With it Father Parente completes his systematic sur-vey of the spiritual life, and gives us the first study of the kind to ema'nate from an American theologian. Thus it possesses a certain histo'ric~l distinction. In content it is just about what one would expect in a brief intro-duction to mysticism. The first part of it is entitled "General Aspects and Basic Elements of Mysticism," the. second "Mystical State~ in Particular," and the third "Mystical Phenomena."' The last chapter discusses the practical questions of direction for mystics, the perusal of mystical literature, the vocation to the mystical life, °and desire for it: Without saying much about the controversies which have enlivened mystical theology i~i recent years, Father Parente generally steers a middle course between the doctrines of the" extreme schools. \ He is a strong advocate for the distinction between acquired and infused ~onteinplatlon. Rather singularly and originally he pro-poses that the difference is neither specific nor one of degree,-bu.t one of iaianner, of the way in which contemplation comes to one. It is highly uncertain whether St. Teresa, for instance, and others who ha~e experier~ed the diversity, would agree that there is not a greater distinction. In describing the prayer of quiet, the first of the "infra-ecstatic states~,'' the author writes: "As a matter of fact, God by reason of His omnipresence does not enter but simply makes Himself known to the soul" (page 121). Is there any such perception or . experience in" acquired Eontemplation? The vocation to mystical graces is not universal, but, at least practically, restricted to a limited number ofsouls. 'It is rather characteristic of this ~rork that it opens with an inter[ esting account of the ancient pagan mystery cults. It contains rela-tively much from Scripture and also from the Fathers Of the Chfirch that illustrates or supplies analogues to mystical phenomena. The cases botfi of Teresa Neumann and of Padre Pio of Pietralcina, the 271 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Relioious first stigmatized priest, are .treated professedly. ~-G. AuG. ELL/~RD, 8.2. MEDITATION ON THE PASSION. Compiled from Varlou~ Sources, with an Introduction" by the Reverend Reginald Walsh, O.P: Pp. rift ~ 305. The Newman Bookshop, Westm. lnsfer, Maryland, 3946. $3.'/5. "Reaction to a meditation book, especially t'o a book on the P~is-sion, is aft'extremely personal thing. What strikes a responsive chord in one person may prove dull finduninspiring to another. Yet, in spite of the uncertain personal factor; this book is .likely to please and to be helpful to almost anyone who sincer.ely wishes good meditation matter on the Passion. The various chapters treat of the entire Pas-sion'with thoroughness, yet without that meticulousness that makes one nod drearilywhile preparing his meditation. The. points are well planned and gasiiy fixed in the mind. The reflections are sound and agreeably warm. The colloquies--well, it seems that in affy meditation book colloquies have to be taken as "the bitter with the sweet." At least, this reviewer (behold :the personal element!) would be well pleased: if all meditation books dis.pensed with the Ohs .and Abs that give colloquies the fingernail-on:the-blackboard effect. But it is only fair to say ~hat if you like colloquies, you will likethese; and if you do not like them, you can. easily skip them, for they are clearly labeled. The meditations were composed originally by a ~ister who was mistress of novicek for thirty years. The editor has omittedthe parts that applied to ieligious women as such; hence the present edition is useful (decidedly so) to ~ill.--G. KELLY, S.3. THE CATHOLIC CENTRE. By Edward Ingram_ Watkln.Pp. 261. Sheed' and Ward, New YorE, 1945. $3.00.- The republishing of this book Six years after its first appearance is subely, due as much to the book's intrinsic merits as to the fact that Mr. Watkin's more recent Catholic Art and Culture has made his name and w(~rth known to a greater number of readers. This earlier work takes its name from the fact that "Since Catholic Christianity is the supreme :and most complete revelation of religious truth, and the philosophy which it implies the most.balanced and comprehen-sive i.nt~rpretation of human experience, we shall expect to find Catholicism and the philosophy it demands occupying a central position between all extremes and one,sided excesses, reconciling and 272 dulg, 1946 ~ BOOK, REVIEWS balancing[them,by m~aintfiining the p~ositive truth they'contain'~aiad rejecting their~exce~ses and exclusions." The detailed exposition of the ways in which Catholicism is central,~ complemented realistically by the fa~t, that "As. actually~ practiced and understoo& ho.wever, Catholicism is not the perfect oia media, nor do.es .it occupy the exact centre of. human thought and action" because of~human 1.imi-" tations "gives, the author materi:~l for a skillfully integrated., bogk. He~outli~es the ideal, searches out and b~ings under a very uncom~ .plimentary spotlight remediable defections from the ideal; and pro-poses various readjustments by .way of constructive criticism: The attentive reader will not always agree with Mr. Watkin, but he cad hardly fail. to-be,prodded into serious thinkihg oi~ fundamental .questions.--C. DE MUTH, S.,J. MISSION FOR SAMARIT.AN$. By Anna Dengel, M.D. I~p. x -[- 126. The ~,:~ Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 1945. $1.75. Medical rriissions is" a,live subject,in the Catholic' mind. Here we hav~.~short .bier-comprehensive treatment from the pen of a pioneer in the movement. The doctor'and the religious in Mother Dengel speak on every page. Not only is she a skilled practitioner,~but she hfis~studied ~he;history °bf:her :field thoroughly. Her statements,~are carefully~ weighed anff sulS~orted; by c0nvincing~evidence. ceeds in stirring the heart to an.appreciation for her ideal,~the win_ning 6fpagan souls for,Christ by~supplyin~ them with.the expert medical ~a~?e of religious .doctor~ and.nurses. Christ is responsible; :for the Catholic attitude~'towards the s!~ck: He first healed men's bodies and.then won their~souls: Mother Dengel has it ~thiit one purpose of His coming was to. renew the weak.ened h~man"body for.the sake of thesoul. She~ puts before us the response ofthe Church tboChrist's~example and precept. ~ Universal care ,of the si~k and°diseased'has flourished wherever~Christ's Church has~ reache& The lat~er half~ of the book is of intriguing'interest. ~ The medi-c~ il situation of mosto of,our mission~fields, includingeven the,,Negroe.s and white vagrants of America, i~ briefly but chpably described. Tbe picture is indeed pathetic, all the more so because ignorance, super-station, and~lack of facilities i~ccount for so much needless suffering. Mother De_ngel shows us ou~ opportunity: if with complete unselfish-ness we devbte ourselve~to the restoration of pain-wracked bodies, we can be sure that the grace of Christ, working through us,¯will take care of their souls. R.D. HUBER. S.J. ,.273 BOOK REVIEWS FORMING A CHRISTIAN MENTALITY. By the Reverend Killan J. HennHch, O.F.M.Cap. Pp. xll -t- 288. Joseph F. Wagner, Inc., New York, 1945. (No price g~ven.) This book, designed as a companion volume to the :author's Youth Guidance, was written to aid priests, teachers, and parents in their direction of'young people. The work is divided into two parts. The aim of the first is to promote the spirttuahzatlon of individuals in their preparation for married life. The second part continues this project with a description of the Christianization of the famil,~ through the liturgy. Father Hennrich's qualifications for this task are attested by his many years of experience in dealing with'adolescents and by th6 dozen or more books he has written in the past several decades-on various phases of Catholic social activities. The exposition is rather abstract and impersonal, almost wholly unrelieved by graces of style, variety, or sprightliness. But preachers and educators who study the book perseveringly will find that it outlines a sound program for the instruction and religious guidance of young men and women. C. VOLLER'I', S.~I. HOW TO MEDITATE.BY Rev. John P. Roothaan, S.J. Translated by Rev. Louis J. Puhl, S.J. Pp. viii + 72. The Newman Bookshop, Westminster, Maryland, 1945. $1.25. First published in 1837, Father Roothaan's little treatise De Ratione Meditandi has become the classic exposition of the so-called "Ignatian Method'" of prayer. Not that St. Ignatius ever intended that religious and other pious persons should confine themselyes to this.rigidly methodical form of prayer for the rest of their lives. He himself "suggests bther forms in his Spiritual Exercises; but he intended it to serve as an introduction to and foundation for a life of prayer. Hence the translator tells us in his introductory note: "It is an undeniable fact that here even the most unlettered beginner will find a clear, easy, fruitful method of meditation that can easily be adapted., to personal needs and dispositions." Normally the religious who has seriously practiced this funda-mental method of prayer, as explained by Father Roothaan, will in due time pass on to the practice of affective prayer: but even he will find it helpful if not necessary to fall back occasionally upon the method d~scribed by the author. It is always a safe refuge in time of spiritual dryness and affliction. ¯ 274 July, 1946 ,~ BOOK REVIEWS Thi~ little book should b~ in the hands of every novice. Older ¯ religious will 6nd it u~eful reading "to spu'r them on to greater dill-gence in practical .and fruitful prayer, and zeal in the pursuit of per-fection." This reviewer .regrets exceedingly that this English version of Father Rootbaan's classic was not publ.ished ~n pamphlet form so as t6 give it a wider distribution.--A.C. ELLIS, S.J. THE MYSTICAL BODY OF, CHRIST. By Frledrlch Ji~rgensmeler, D.D. Transl,,fed by H. Gardner Curtis. Pp. :~09. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, J945. $3,00. The first section of this book discusses the biblical doctrine.and offers an excellent presentation of the importance and place of the Mystical Body in the divine plan of salvation. The second part develops the author's conviction that this ~ys~ery is the fun~amental~ principle of asceticism. /, The translation from ~bicb this photographic reproduction was ma'de is yery disappointing. After comparing several sections of the book, sections of ten to fifteen pages in length, with the original German, this reviewer was astounded at the many inaccuracies found in the translation. Furthermorel ~t times, phrases, clauses (in fact, sometimes' whole sentences) have been~ omitted. For example, we. read (p. 64) : "The Second Person of the. Godhead u, nited mankind to Himself in a hypostatic union." And, again (p. 81) : "Christ is distinguished from the Father and the Holy~ Ghost by the circum-stance .of His human, existence." .Needless to say, the original Ger-man does not have such ambiguous-(to say.the very least)~ doctrine. The last paragraphs of pages 65~.~66, and sections of pages 69 and 70 are very inaccurately translated. In general, religibus who have not studied theol0gy will find this book too ponderous. Sections, especially the treatment of the Mys: .tical. Body in the ascetical life, will be .helpful. But we cannot ,. recommend the English translation.--M. LA PIETE EUCH,~RISTIOUE By J. F.Ber~ube, s.s.s. Pp. 151. La Libr'-'qrle Eucharls÷ique, 514,.avenue Monf-Royal Est, M<;nfreal 34, 1945. (No '" prlce-given,) The source,, the means, ~nd the end of a11 our life of grace is 2esus Christ. The Holy Eticharist, ~because it c6ntains the whole Christ, must therefore be the source, the means, and.the end of .our spiritual 275 BOOK REVIEWS R~oieto [oF Religidus life. How the Eucharistic Christ, in the ~acrifice of the' Mi~ss, in Holy Communion, in the Real Presence, is the all and all of our tioliness, and fl0w we should respond to these profound truths-- .l~his is the book's important message to the faithful. It is followe.d by two eloquent~ inspiring pronoi~ncements of Pius XII

Issue 33.1 of the Review for Religious, 1974. ; Review ]or Religious is edited by faculty members of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copy-right (~) 1974 by Review ]or Religious. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $1.75. Sub-scription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year; $11.00 for two years; other countries, $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be .accompanied by check or money order payable to Review ]or Religious in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent Review ]or Religious. Change of address requests should include former address. R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor January 1974 Volume 33 Number 1 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts, books for review, and materials for "Subject Bibliography for Religious" should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106. Review for Religious Volume 33, 1974 Editorial Offices 539 North Grand Boulevard Saint Louis, Missouri 63103 R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor " Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Review ]or Religious is published in January, March, May, July, September, and November on the fifteenth of the month. It is indexed in the Catholic Periodical and Literature Index and in Book Review Index. A microfilm edi-tion of Review ]or Religious is available from University Microfilm; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Copyright (~ 1974 by Review for Religious. Documents concerning Religious The following are seven recent documents concerning religious given here in chronologi-cal order and in the English translation provided by the weekly English edition of L' osservatore romano. LETTER TO THE GENERAL OF THE JESUITS To Our Beloved Son PETER ARRUPE Superior General of the Society of Jesus On the solemn occasion of Easter last year you intimated to Us that you were thinking of calling a general congregation of your Society in the year 1974, whose task it would be to explore the most apt ways for the Society to per-form its work in the Church and in the world of today. Importance of the Congregation Our Venerable Brother, the Cardinal Secretary of State, replying in Our behalf,~sent you Our best wishes. Now that you have publicly annoUnced the general congregation, and the provincial congregations are soon to be held for the election of delega.tes and for the preparation of postulata to be proposed to the general congregation, We Ourselves because of the love We bear the Society wish to address Ourselves through this letter to you and your companions to encourage you and to send you Our best wishes for a happy outcome of the congrega.tion. For we are well aware of the great im-portance of convoking it at this time, which could be an hour of decision, so to speak, for the Society of Jesus, for its future destiny and for its task in Church, as it is also for other religious families. 4 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 This meeting is a sign--and We are happy to say so--that the Society of Jesus is making a great effort, in accordance with the aims of its institute, to adapt its life and its apostolate to the needs of today's world, which is so constantly and rapidly changing. The Mind ot Vatican II Your desire, in fact, corresponds with the norms of the Second Vatican Council, the proper and careful implementation of which We Ourselves are strenuously trying to attain. Indeed, the congregation is in accord with the opinion of the Council fathers who said: "Effective renewal and proper adap-tation cannot be achieved except with the cooperation of all the members of the institute" (Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 4). However, if that universal Synod was looking for renewal fitting the needs of the present, it did not want this to be brought about through a hazardous experimentation that might be alien to the very character of the religious family, or lead to an abandonment of the primary values of a life consecrated to God. No, it was the mind of that Synod that the common elements of religious life should be confirmed and that they should be allowed to grow and develop. These are: a following and imitation of Christ, "as proposed in the Gospel" (ibid., 2); a renuncia-tion of worldly things so that the religious might live for God alone and for the building up of the Church; a practice of all the human and Christian vir-tues, best achieved by a joyful and constant observance of the vows (cf. ibid., 5), which should lead to the heights of the spiritual life where sublime contemplation is joined with magnanimous action. In Our apostolic exhorta-tion "Evangelica testificatio," which We published later, We explained all this in more detail and dealt with it more fully, using it as a paternal invita-tion to all religious that "they might shed light among men, so that, when they see the good you do, they might give praise to the Father in heaven" (cf. Mt 5:16). The Society of Jesus, especially called to walk in the path of the follow-ing of Christ, should feel itself particularly impelled to review its style of life, testing it constantly in the light of the Gospel, according to the exhortations contained in the words and example of St. Ignatius. Let this be undertaken with a view to actually effecting the renewal begun at the instance of the Council, taking into account new circumstances and needs. This should be done, however, in accordance with the spirit of the Society of Jesus, that is, in fidelity to its tradition which is based on .Christ, on the Church, on St. Ignatius. Hence, that the preparation for the coming General Congregation may not be limited to organizational matters, but give to all the members of the Society of Jesus a proper orientation and win their full commitment to it, they will have to rehearse with penetrating insight, a clear grasp of reality, and a profound sense of duty those principles of the spiritual and apostolic life which for centuries formed, as it were, the very structure that held the Documents concerning Religious / 5 Society together, and which made it a most serviceable instrument for a pastoral, missionary, and educational apostolate involving cultural forma-tion of" the highest excellence. Those responsible for this accomplishment were a large group of men distinguished for holiness of life and love of neighbor. Sources of Strength The foundations of religious formation which were laid in the past should today, even under changed conditions, still be the source of strength of the Society of Jesus. They are: a diligent dedication to prayer, which "has its origin in the authentic sources of Christian spirituality" (cf. Decr. Per- [ectae caritatis, 6); an austerity of life, preventing a person from easily adopting that frame of mind which, casting aside that which is sacred, pre-vails in so many forms of contemporary life and practice; supernatural strength by which apostolic effectiveness is increased, and in the absence of which no action, no matter how excellent on the surface, can yield lasting fruit for the transformation of the human conscience; complete observance of the vows, especially obedience, which is peculiar to the Society and a condi-tion of its religious discipline by which its vigor was always preserved. Hence, there must be no attempt to introduce new methods of deliberation and deci-. sion-making that not only undermine the very notion of obedience, but alter the nature itself of the Society of Jesus. Finally, the ascetical value of com-munity life and the advantages it offers for the formation of character should be kept in mind. To these weighty principles We would also add in a very special manner the fidelity to the Apostolic See, whether in the area of studies and education of young scholastics, who are the hope of your order, or of the students at-tending the great number of schools and universities entrusted to the Society, or in the production and publication of writings aimed at a wide circle of readers, or in the exercise of the direct apostolate. Dangers to Essential Structure of the Order Nor are We ignorant of the fact that over the past few years in several parts of the Society--and it is by no means absent either from the life of the Church in general--certain tendencies have arisen of an intellectual and dis-ciplinary nature which, if fostered and given support, could lead to serious and possibly irreparable changes in the essential structure itself of your So-ciety. As you know, Beloved Son, we have through Our closest collaborators called your attention more than once to these matters, while expressing the hope that the expected renewal will be brought about securely and smoothly. Therefore, on the occasion of the announcement of the gen-eral congregation We express once again Our desire, indeed Our demand, that the Society of Jesus should adapt its life and apostolate to today's con-ditions and needs in such a way that confirmation be given to its characteris- 6 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 tics as a religious, apostolic, priestly Order, linked to the Roman Pontiff by a special bond of love and service, as ratified in the "Formula of the Institute" or fundamental rule of this same Society, approved and repeatedly confirmed by Our predecessors. In the adaptation of which We .speak, experience will be your teacher. It will show what concrete forms of life and action have now become irrelevant and outdated, and what new needs and opportunities pre-sent themselves of work to be undertaken or directed according to the mind of Christ and the nature of the apostolate. We also hope that in the preparation for the general congregation, and later when it is in session, all the religious will be intent on the good of the Society, united in that charity required by your Founder, whose voice can still somehow be heard, in your Constitutions: "Union and agreement among all ought to be sought with great care, and the opposite ought not to be per-mitted; in order that, being united among themselves by the bond of fraternal charity, they may be able better and more efficaciously to apply themselves in the service of God and the aid of their fellowmen" (P.III, c.l, n.18). Final Thoughts~ and Suggestions These,, then, are Our wishes; that they may be heeded we pray to ,the Virgin Mother of God, Queen and Mother of the Society of Jesus; may she support it with counsel, strengthening goodwill, stirring up hearts, and in-spiring all the religious to ever more zealously imitate the Divine Savior in their task of constantly and courageously establishing His reign. What we have written should show you and your companions what is ex-pected of you by Us, who know well what influence the Society of Jesus has, what the task is that it has to fulfill, what confidence it enjoys; all this must be carefully considered, both with respect to the Society itself and with respect to the Church. We wish you to inform your collaborators and all the members of the Society of Jesus of this message, so that each one may see the witness of Our paternal benevolence and of the concern We have for the future destiny of the same Society. For We are convinced that the more faithfully the sons of St. ignatius conserve the Ignatian charism as it appears in the principle docu-ments of the institute, the more effectively will they pursue the glorious work of evangelizing today's world according to their God-given vocation, emulat-ing the example of so many Jesuits who consistently tried-~--and We use the words of St. Ignatius--"to distinguish themselves in the total service of their eternal King and universal Lord" (Spit. Ex., II week). Having made known in writing what is in Our heart, We gladly impart to you and to the whole Society of Jesus the Apostolic Blessing as an'augury of the divine assistance. ~ " From the Vatican, the fifteenth of September, 1973, the eleventh year of Our Pontificate. PAUL VI Documents concerning Religious "/ 7 LETTER ON ST. BRIDGET OF SWEDEN To Our Venerable Brother JOHN E. TAYLOR Bishop of Stockholm In this year marking the sixth centenary of her death, honor is rightly paid to St: Bridget, Flowei" of the North, and rightly are the faithful exhorted to direct their thoughts, with fresh° enthusiasm, so to speak, to the spiritual beauty of this heavenly one, as her memory is being solemnly recalled to mind. This chosen woman had a double fatherland: Sweden, where she was born at the beginning of the 14th century and Rome, where she spent nearly 20 years, and where after her return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, she de-parted ripe for heaven, to the eternal Jerusalem, on the 23rd day of July, in the year 1373. ~ In that northern region to which the devout mind turns with heightened eagerness on this occasion, the ecclesiastical life was at that time in a fluorishing state, particularly because the Cistercian monks and after them the mendicant orders had introduced a piety that was well adapted to the people. For nurturing this piety, devout pilgrimages, to which Christians were much given, proved very effective. And' when the Scandinavians ad-venturously and with devotion and enthusiasm betook themselves to the holy places:in distant parts of the world, they, as it were,°exchanged spiritual riches with other brethren in Christ whom they met and also experienced in a vital way the unity.of the body of the Church. Wife and Mother Such were the times in which Bridget grew to womanhood. Although she desired to consecrate her virginity to God, she was thwarted in her desire of a Divine Spouse. In,submission to the will of her father, she married Ulf Gudmarsson, an excellent man. As wife and mother she was a shining ex-ample; she lived united to her husband by the bond of Christian love andsh~ reared her' eight 6hildren with discerning wisdom; that is to say, she wished them to grow up to be not only good citizens of their fatherland, but also servants and children of God. And so it came about that the seeds of religious vocation came?to flower among her offspring. Indeed, her second daughter, Catherine, with the aid ofdivine grace reached the heights of sancity. Nor may ewe neglect to mention the charity of St. Bridget lavished on the mem-bers of Christ suffering from poverty or other distress. Following a pious pilgrimage they had made together to the Shrine of St. James at Compostella, Bridget's husband entered a Cistercian monas-tery and soon after he died there. Whereupon Bridget, having set her domes-tic affairs in order, devoted herself entirely to the ascetical life and prepared for her own flights to God, by whom she wa~ richly favored with mystical 8 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 gifts. During the two years in which she lived in a retired place near the monastery where her husband Ulf had withdrawn from the world, she was inspired by Christ with the resolve to found a new Order to be named for our Divine Savior, in honor of Mary the Virgin Mother of God. There would be double monasteries housing in separate buildings men and women who had,freed themselves for divine pursuits, but they would constitute onecom-munity, as it were, gathered together in God's name. This order, whose rule Our Predecessor Urban V approved in 1370, began with the foundation called Vadstena. Spiritual Writings There is cause for rejoicing indeed in the fact that this religious family, which almost disappeared at the time when the seamless garment of the Church was pitiably rent, began to flourish again at the beginning of this present century, insofar as its branch of consecrated women is concerned; and a house was established at the Campo dei Fiori, where the mother foundress had formerly lived. That this institute may prosper with a happy increase in this anniversary celebration honoring St. Bridget is the object of our earnest desire. Deservedly extolled also are those works which are entitled "Revela-tions," and which set forth the mystical graces bestowed on St. Bridget. They are records valued besides for their wealth of sacred doctrine, treating of her cult of our Savior's humanity, of His sacred passion, of the Blessed Virgin, St. Joseph, and the angels. The spiritual writings and religious art of the 15th and 16th centuries reflect the strong impact of these works. Solicitude for the Church Broadening the range of her concern, however, St. Bridget, like another Catherine of Siena, extended her great and zealous solicitude to the Church and the Apostolic See in that troubled period. As a devoted daughter she sought the reformation of the Church, ihe Mother of all, which, as Vatican Council II says, "is summoned by Christ, as she goes her pilgrim way, to that continual reformation, of which she always has need, insofar as she is an institution of men here on earth" (Decree on Ecumenism, Unitat& redinte-gratio, 6). Like the "valiant woman" she was, Bridget entreated Clement VI, lingering in Avignon, to return to Rome and urged the proclamation of the jubilee year of 1350. This woman, then, who by her life and work united so admirably and beneficially in the one Church her illustrious native land of the North and the See of Peter, corroborates, so to speak, as a citizen of heaven, the gener-ous efforts of those who after a prolonged and lamentable severance are now striving to restore Christian unity. Indeed, Our predecessor Boniface IX ap-pears in some way to have foretold this when in an apostolic letter dated under his seal, 7 October 1391 he said that he declared Blessed Bridget of Documents concerning Religious / 9 happy memory to be a saint "for the unity of the faith and of the Ch'urch" (Bullarium Priv. ac Dipl. Pont., III, Rome, 1741, p. 391 ). Tolally Dedicated Again, we rightly commemorate this singular and exemplary woman be-cause, although she was totally dedicated to God, she was not estranged from her own people. More than this, animated by a Christian love of her native land, she labored for its true progress. Her own family gave 'to Sweden for almost a hundred years kings, among them St. Eric, who were intent upon the good of their people and social justice. And although occupied with household cares, St. Bridget often served as an instructress in royal duties at court and was like a watchful mother to King Eric the Great (or Erikson) and his wife. She gave them a Swedish translation of the Holy Bible, and for this and for her writings mentioned above, she obtained a place in the literary history of her country. May her light shine radiantly, therefore, a light recognized also by those who are not of the Catholic communion. May this extraordinary woman in-tercede with God that He may graciously bestow on the Church the gifts of peace and unity. These obtained, may the faithful of Christ in Sweden and the adjoining northern regions come to recognize that he who is placed over the Catholic Church and exercises the highest apostolic ministry testifies to a singular esteem and brotherly love for them. May the example of this devout pilgrimage ot~ olden days kindle the hearts of those who come to this City in the forthcoming Holy Year, so that sincere repentance and desire for the interior life may bring about a spiritual renewal that will benefit not only in-dividuals but the Church also and civil society. This then is Our message to you in observance of the sixth centenary of th~ death of St. Bridget. In conclusion, We affectionately impart to you and to the faithful under your care the Apostolic Blessing as a token of spiritual strength and joy. This Blessing we desire to extend also to the Abbess Gen-eral and the Sisters of St. Bridget, the Order of our Divine Savior. From the Vatican Palace, on the 19th day of September, in the year 1973, the eleventh of our Pontificate. PAUL VI ADDRESS TO BENEDICTINE ABBOTS The following address was given October 1, 1973, to 270 abbots and con-ventual priors of the Benedictine Confederation led by the Abbot Primate, Dom Rembert Weakland. Also present for the audience were three Orthodox monks and three Protestant monks. From the heart we greet you, representatives of the whole Order of St. Benedict, who, in St. Cyprian's words, have come "to the Chair of Peter and the primatial church, the source of priestly unity" (Ep. 12, 14; PL 3,844-5). You have desired also to pay a visit to us, the successor in the apostolic min- Review for Religious,. Volume 33, 1974/1 istry to that same blessed Peter, in the long intervening line of Pontiffs. We greet also the Priors here present ot~ monasteries located for the most partin Africa and in Latin America, in which areas, with laudable spontaneity you devote your energies to missionary work; that is to say, "you are diligently engaged in implanting there the very rich tradition of your Order" (see Conc. Vat. II, Decr. Ad gentes divinitus, 18). Experiencing God We welcome in addition, recognizing at the same time the high prestige they enjoy, the observers, who, though not full participants in the Catholic communion, are yet striving to follow in the footsteps of St. Benedict. Fi-nally, we receive paternally the abbesses of monasteries and th~ mothers general here present of congregations that adhere to the spirit of this Patri-arch and are called by his name. We know that you are now holding a meeting on a subject of no small consequence; namely, on the mode of experiencing God in monastic life. This topic has various facets, as it were, whether it is considered according to Biblical doctrine, to sacred liturgy, to history, to the conditions and exigen-cies of the present day. We regard this subject as serviceable indeed, if this troubled age of ours is really to return to the great and fundamental reflec-tions that concern human existence itself. For there is danger today that men may banish the sacred from their minds and from their condu& and even presume they can do without God, at least in the use they make'of thoii" lives. Sometimes even those who have given themselves to the divine service and are dedicated to the pastoral ministry can be infected with this secular view. You, however, as monks in appearance, dress, and way of life affirm or should affirm that you belong to the number of those who do not rely upon the vain and passing things of this world, but seek wholeheartedly Him who is the Absolute: whom alone we ca.ll God, God our Highest Good, God Eternal. Here there shines before the eyes of the mind the true concept of religion, whereby man becomes intimately aware that he is ordered to God, Creator, Ruler, Last End, and Author of Salvation, to whom he owes in-terior and exterior worship. Such religion, therefore, encompasses the entire man and obliges him to devote himself to God in wholehearted service. Hence, you who "have chosen the best part" (see Luke 10:42), inasmuch as "your main task is to render the Divine majesty a service at once sim-ple and noble within the monastic confines" (see Conc. Vat. II, Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 9), dembnstrate the excelling power of the interior life for opposing that secular propensity whereby men are induced to abandon their own true center, as it were, and surrender themselves to exterior things. Liturgy of the Hours It should be your concern, then, to be religious who are truly, called so, Documents concerning Religious under a unique title, since you strive to ascend to God, to whom you have been consecrated by the profession of the evangelical counsels, through liv-ing the contemplative life, which you nourish by daily effort. Merely in doing this you express your protest against the neglect of God and against the profane way of life which pervades the world in these times. From our brief exposition, the excellence of prayer to be directed to God is already manifest. Indeed, all the sons of the Church, as you well know, are to adore the Father "in spirit and in truth" (see John 4:23). But since in the world of today prayer is beset by so many snares and threatened by so many perils, to you, who enjoy a more fortunate position, is entrusted the special task of directing your study and efforts to the end that the Church may really appear as the Ecclesia Orans. We are cognizant of the zeal with which you have studied the liturgical aspect in this meeting. We rejoice greatly in your diligence and your ardent desire to make that venerable tradition of yours flourish among you and to preserve that which constitutes the essential part of your spiritual life and which in the course of the centuries has ever enhanced the life of the Church itself. We know also of your solicitude for the vital force, the profound sig-nificance and the benefits which have been derived from the renewal of the liturgy that you brought to pass. Joined to this solicitude of y_ours is appre-hension lest these same benefits be not rightly and duly recognized, the more so because differing inclinations of soul in the great family of- St. Benedict have become evident with regard to the order to be observed in the Liturgy of the Hours; that is, whether this order should be uniform in the various monasteries or particular to each one. Need to Study and Weigh This is a very important question, whether as pertaining to your con-sistent historical and spiritual tradition or to your monastic cohesion which is no longer supported by only one form of sacred liturgy, but is expressed through several different voices, so that in celebrating the praise of God you are no longer "speaking with one voice." Consequently, this question should be studied in such a way as to embrace all its aspects in accordance with the vows made by you, before appropriate norms with the force of precept are laid down. Nevertheless, we wish to state that the difficulties which have arisen should be so weighed, and due account taken of the benefits already ac-cruing, while with joint effort you strive to offer a testimony of fervent and ardent prayer to the world of today with its secular outlook. Assuring you therefore of our fatherly concern for the welfare of your monastic communities, we strongly affirm that we shall take under our eager and careful consideration the outcome and result of the work you have begun on this question, and already at this stage we acknowledge our Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 high esteem for the manner in which, with your wonted wisdom, you are addressing yourselves to this task. However, you are obliged to fulfill not only the duty of liturgical prayer, immensely important as this is, but also that of private prayer. On this sub-ject the Second Vatican Council has given a wise reminder (see Const. Sacrosanctum Concilium, 12), and St. Benedict himself is considered to treat of this point in his Rule, in the section headed. "De reverentia ora-tionis": "Supplication should be made to the Lord God of the universe with all humility and pure devotion" (cap. 20; see P. Delatte, Commentaire sur le R~gle de Saint Beno~t, Paris, p. 217). The exhortations of your founder are by no means inappropriate to this age, in which things progress and change with such rapidity. Just as in former times, so also now, you are to establish "a school of the Lord's ser-vice" (Reg. prol.); in other words, your monasteries should be so struc-tured that those who enter therein learn how to serve God and how to be continuously employed in His service. Such service, however, chiefly com-prises divine worship, by which the virtue of religion is exercised, as we have indicated above, and also holiness. With reference to worship we should like to bring out a special point: in celebrating the sacred liturgy with diligence and piety, as it behooves you to do, let. the sweet voice of the singing Church sound forth and never cease to sound forth in your churches. For men of today also feel the in-effable power of song that uplifts the soul and with gentle modulation gives expression to feelings of adoration, praise, penitence, and petition. Specially Chosen As regards holiness, this thought of St. Augustine should be deeply meditated: "Let not your voice only sound forth the praises of God, but let your deeds be in harmony with your voice" (Enarr. in Ps. 166, 2; PL 37, 1899). Although you have withdrawn from the world, to be occupied with the Lord, you have nonetheless "been specially chosen to preach the good news" (Rom l:l). May that hidden apostolic fruitfulness of which the Council speaks (see Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 7) flow out therefore from your mon-asteries upon the Church and society. May the yeast be prepared in them whereby, through the operation of divine power, the world may be renewed. This holiness, moreover, pertains not only to the life of the soul, but also to what you are doing for the cultivation of natural gifts, inasmuch as, to mention some examples, you devote yourselves to liturgical, Biblical, and historical studies for the common benefit, or, you engage in work, especially manual labor. Indeed, this last, may I add, enables you to go to the assist-ance of those who are suffering from poverty and other hardships, in keep-ing, of course, with the practices of the monastic life. This is in accord with the mind of the Council fathers who exhorted religious "to contribute to the Documents concerning Religious / 13 support of the poor, whom all should love with the tenderness of Christ" (see Decr. Per[ectae caritatis, 13; Const. Gaudium et spes, 42). Finally, not only your own individual life, but the life of the community as a whole, whereby you are joined one to another with the sweet bond of charity, should be adorned by this mark of holiness: that through the fel-lowship of community life directed to God, each individual is assisted in carrying out his service to the Lord, is incited to work for his brethren, is protected from dangers. Thus you will truly bear witness before the world to the holiness of the Church. In short, a community such as this, like a kind of novitiate, prepares religious during their lifetime for the everlasting day. Not without reason did St. Bernard reckon among the aids to good works: "to desire eternal life with all spiritual avidity" (Reg. cap. 4). ~ Example and Exhortation Of all these practices let the abbot give the example and exhort thereto the brethren entrusted to his care. Although the office of governing is ren-dered more difficult at the present time, yet he who "is believed to hold the place of Christ in the monastery" (Reg. cap. 2) should make the utmost effort that the vigor of spiritual life and of monastic discipline be strength-ened, increased, and, if need be, restored. To this end the abbot should en-deavor to maintain an unimpaired union with the magisterium of the Church, like a channel through which living water is drawn off for himself and for the brethren placed in his charge. The foregoing is what we have had affectionately in mind to say to you, and we do not doubt you will strive that your Order may aid the building up of the Church with spiritual forces, also in these times, to the needs of which it should prudently adapt itself. The announced Holy Year should offer you further incentive, since as you know we wish it to be a time of interior renewal. Lastly, as a pledge of heavenly gifts and as testimony of our assured affection, we impart the Apostolic Blessing to you who are here present and to all the members of your families in the Lord. ADDRESS TO THE LITTLE SISTERS OF JESUS The following address was given to the Little Sisters of Jesus at an audience of October 3, 1973. Dear Little Sisters of Jesus, last Friday we had the very sweet joy of meeting you at Tre Fontane, in the eloquent simplicity of your houses and in an impressive atmosphere of evangelical serenity and happiness. Your participation in this audience is like a return feast, for you and for us like-wise. To the thirty-seven Little Sisters who have just made their vows of per- 14 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 petual consecration at St. Peter's tomb, we address our best wishes for fervent faithfulness. But our brief words are also addressed to their families, who have in many cases come from very far away to be present at their de-finitive commitment "because of Jesus and the Gospel." They are addressed likewise to the two hundred Little Sisters at present attending a session of spiritual formation under the direction of dear Father Voillaume. We entrust to you our heart's most ardent desire. We would like you to take all over the world the conviction that a religious profession com-mits at such a profound level that changes of structures and activities have only a relative importance, even if one suffers from them. The essential thing is to keep a very keen awareness of the call of Christ who chooses His friends Himself (see Jn 15:15.) Is not Fr~re Charles de J6sus an example of this faithfulness deepened through different, if not contradictory, situ-ations? It is clear, however, that his mysterious route finds its coherence and its unity in passionate imitation of Jesus Christ, the One Model. Fr~re Charles de J6sus appears as one of the most perfect types of this deep faith-fulness of a human freedom to the freedom and faithfulness of God, who took him far beyond his expectations and hopes. Dear Little Sisters of Jesus, be confiden!! To be faithful does not con-sist in becoming tense over one's promises, but in relying on the Lord to ensure our ~faithfulness. That is why the long hours spent~with Christ in the Holy Eucharist will always be the primary and indispensable source of the friendship, the evangelical testimony you have promised to give in the Church and in the world today. It is with these sentiments that we renew our affectionate Apostolic Blessing to you and to your relatives and to your whole religious family. ADDRESS TO REDEMPTORISTS On October 6, 1973, the Pope gave the following talk to the members of the general chapter of the Redemptorists. Beloved Sons, To you assembled in the General Chapter of your Congre-gation of the Most Holy Redeemer and engaged in deliberations of great importance to the life of your religious family, We extend our affectionate greeting. We desire, moreover, to welcome expressly the new superior gen-eral, who is charged with the office and the burden of guiding your congre-gation through the difficulties of our times--neither few nor inconsiderable --and of conducting it to "green pastures" (see Ps 22:2). Purpose of Chapters A general chapter provides an excellent opportunity--offered to every institute--to 'reflect once more upon the true nature and end set for the institute and to hold discussions that will have a salutary effect on the life of the members. For the responsibility of a general chapter is not discharged Documents concerning Religious / 15 by holding elections and. legislating; .the chapter must also promote the spiritual and apostolic vitality of the whole body (see Litterae Ap. Ecclesiae sanctae, motu proprio, I, 2). Therefore, in a meeting of this kind, the entire family is gathered together in the presence of God to hear His voice and take counsel with regard to its renewal which, as also for the whole Church, "essentially consists in an increase of fidelity to its own calling" (see Conc. Vat. II Decr. Unitatis redintegratio, 6). Your congregation was founded by that most devout Doctor of the Church, St. Alphonsus, in order that its members might sanctify them-selves by an assiduous and faithful imitation of Christ and also engage in apostolic works, above all that special care of souls involving salutary con-tact with the most abandoned. Servants of God Beloved Sons, you are servants of God in the true and primary sense of the word; for "by your vows you are totally dedicated to God through an act of supreme Love" (see Const. Lumen gentium, 44). To be dedi-cated means to be given over to another as his property and possession. You should be followers of Christ as the Universal Synod advised all re-ligious (see Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 2a), corroborating, as it were, and realizing more completely the desire of your Father Founder. Hence each of you must endeavor to order his life to a certain unity and seek Christ daily with a sincere and generous heart. Daily you should put on Christ, an effort which is the beginning and the end and the whole of your life, whether as individual religious or as communities. Thus you truly make Christ present in the world, which is in many instances utterly alienated from Him, its Redeemer. Then those who see you, who speak to you or liave dealings with you may experience a certain mysterious power emanating from our Savior. Thus also you manifest the holiness of the Church, to the world which especially demands holiness in her sons. Life of Charity This daily effort to put on the likeness of Christ constitutes, however, a life lived in charity and motivated by charity. For religious thus "impelled ¯ . . live ever increasingly for Christ and for His body the Church" (Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 1 ). But love truly and properly so called is not for a limited time, is not hedged by conditions, is not rendered less ardent by difficulties, and knows no end. Justly did the Second Vatican Council address to every religious the following exhortation to fidelity: "Let all who have been called to the profession of the vows take painstaking care to persevere and excel increasingly in the vocation to which God has summoned them" (Const. Lumen gentium, 47). The life in which one dedicates himself to God with an undivided heart 16 / Review Jor Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 becomes a means to show forth the love of God for men. Just as God "loved the world so much that he gave his only son" (Jn 3:16), so too a religious who strives to attain the fullness of his vocation is a kind of gift bestowed upon the world. For an apostolate that is enlivened by continual prayer, liturgical and private, by ascetical zeal and the practice of the vir-tues, transfuses the divine life into men and constitutes in its truest sense the service of one's brothers in Christ. Beloved members of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, you have illumined the Church by the sanctity of certain of your brethren, of whom We are pleased to recall to mind the Saints, Alphonsus Mary de'Liguorl, your founder, Clement Hofbauer, Gerard Majella, Blessed John Nepomucene Neumann. By your apostolic labors you have brought the light of divine grace to so many souls. On the occasion of this general chapter, persevere with renewed alacrity in your noble purpose, and if need be give fresh impetus to your zeal and redouble your efforts that the Church of God may reap benefit from you now and in the future as in times past. In fatherly encouragement to you in all these efforts, we lovingly im-part the.Apostolic Blessing .~o you who are present here and to all your members. ADDRESS TO MISSIONARIES OF THE SACRED HEART At the general audience of October 10, 1973, the Holy Father gave the follow-ing talk to jubilarian Missionaries of the Sacred Heart who were present at the audience. Venerable Brothers and Dear Sons in Christ, It is a joy for us to receive you on this occasion which marks the anniversary of your sacerdotal ordi-nation. For forty years you have exercised the ministry of the priesthood, having been called by the Lord Himself and sent out by the Church to preach "Christ crucified" (1 Cor 1:23) and to assist in giving witness to His Resurrection (see Acts 4:33). We can well imagine how many graces the Lord has offered you over the years and how many helps your ministry has brought to those whom you have served with fidelity and sacrifice. On this happy occasion we are glad to offer you our blessing, our felicitations, and our encouragement. We see you as part of a vast number of our brother priests who have been conscious of their responsibility and calling and who have endeavored with God's grace to perform their ministry, in the spirit of St. Paul, as one "worthy of God's approval, a workman who has no cause to be ashamed" (2 Tim 2:15). Today we wish, at this point in your lives, to confirm you in the faith, which you have received and preached, and in the priestly vo-cation that has been your precious gift, high dignity, and important obliga-tion. We urge you at this time to keep alive your hope and to maintain to the end that confidence with which you began (see Heb 3:6,14). To each Documents concerning Religious / 17 of you we say with the Apostle: "God . . . will not forget your work and the .love you have shown him by your service, past and present, to his holy people" (Heb 6:,10). May Christ fill all of you with joy and keep you in his love. On our part we cordially give your our special Apostolic Blessing. Our special greeting of grace and peace in the Lord go to the members of the General Conference of the Congregation of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart, gathered together to consider questions of religious life and missionary activity. As we assure you of our paternal affection and en-couragement, we pray that Christ Jesus will make you apt instruments of preaching His gospel with ever greater effectiveness. We pray that you may indeed draw copiously from the riches of His love so as to be able to com-municate this same love in all its fullness "to the praise of his glori6hs grace" (Eph 1:6). Our Apostolic Blessing accompanies you in your im-portant responsibilities. ADDRESS TO THE CLARETIAN CHAPTER On October 25, 1973, Paul VI gave an audience to the members of the Claretian general chapter during which he delivered the following address. Beloved Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary! We express to you our deep pleasure at th!s vi.s.!t you pay us at the con-clusion of the meetings of your general chfi~ter. We hope that the work you have carried out these days will be fruitful. We hope that the dedicated service of the superior general and of the other members elected to form part of his council, will be effective and helpful for the purposes of your religious family. ~ We cannot overlook a particularly, iIluhainating circumstance, ,.which makes this joyful meeting more attractive: yesterday we celebrated the liturgical feast of St. Antonio Maria Claret. You yourselves made known for this reason your desire to visit Peter's Successor. We thank you for this gesture of support, in which we see a testimony of ekquisite spiritual affinity with your founder. How could we fail to recall before his sons the deep de-votion' he felt for the Vicar of Christ? And how could we fail to,venerate his memory in view of his eloquent and moving 'profession of faith in papal infallibility at the I Vatican Council? All that obliges us gratefully to open our mind to you in confidence, so that. you know that it is in perfect har-mony of religious sentiments with your own. THE CLARETIAN IMAGE We are sure that, during these days of your chapter, the protecting and guiding presence of St. Antonio Maria became more intense and exacting among you. And we like to think too that, when tracing the lines of re-newal, you took as your fixed point of reference the most genuine faithful- 18 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 ness to the origins of your institute and to the teachings on the consecrated life that the II Vatican Council proposed .and we ourself have repeatedly in-culcated. Allow us to savour with what purity of characteristic features the image of the Claretian presented itself to the contemplation of St. Antonio Maria. We read it yesterday during the lesson: "I tell myself: a Son of the Immaculate .Heart~ of Mary is a man burning with charity who sets fire wherever he passes. Nothing disheartens him; he takes pleasure in priva-tions, meets difficulties, delights in slander, and rejoices 0in torments. He thinks of nothing except how to follow and imitate Jesus Christ, in working, suffering and struggling always and only for the greater glory .of God and the salvation of souls" (El celo, c. I, BAC 188 [1959], p. 777). o See here, projected towards you, a whole program of holiness, based on religious renunciation of oneself, the fruit of its fertile evangelical vitality. It points out to you clearly,, with expressions of clear Pauline dynamism the good to which your personal and community life must aspire: the following and imitation of Christ in impulses of a charity that is always operative. BEARERS OF VALUES If to this program of interior life we add the very special cult of the Blessed Virgin h~ inculcated in you together with the~rimary dedication to the ministry of the Word, ,we have the complete picture of the Claretian vocation and spirituality. These and no others were the motives that gave life and ,meaning to the irrepressible zeal of the son of Sallent. And none other was the stamp of religious austerity that he imposed on himself to make his ministry more worthy of credit and more in conformity with the demands of the divine call. To proclaim the Good News to the point of sacrificing oneself for the good of one's brothers, to teach men the ever new languagel of;charity, characterized his overwhelming pastoral,task as Arch-bishop of Santiago in Cuba. Rightly could~we say of him, as of the Apostle of the Gentiles, that his vigor as '.'herald and teacher in faith and truth" (see 1 Tim 2:7) suffered no decrease in the midst of difficulties. On the contrary, his pastoral cares, his missionary anxiety found a way to express themselves continually in new ministerial initiatives, at home and abroad, inspired and nourished by the spirit of faithful service to the Church. Beloved sons, .appreciate this spiritual patrimony of yours;, spare no effort in tending its roots, if you really wish to be a tree always young and flourishing, able to adapt itself to the environment, to the changing require-ments of the times in order to continue to give ripe fruit to the Church, as it did in the past and continues to do at present, through its most illustrious sons. , At the chapter you have just held you have been able to convince your-selves that you are bearers of certain values that do not grow old because they .are a select part of the heritage and the universal vocation of the Documents concerning Religious /o 19 Church. The Christian community itself asks you for faithfulness and dis-cretion, generosity and disinterestedness in order to accept you and recog-nize you as the living and united sign of its human and spiritual aspirations. We do not wish to expatiate at greater length. Entrusting these thoughts to you, we wish to encourage you in your aspirations to holiness with our prayers to the Immaculate Heart of Mary so that, with the help of her motherly intercession, you may be exemplary sons of the Church. As con-firmation of these desires and as a testimony of particular benevolence we warmly impart the Apostolic Blessing to you and to the whole Claretian family. First Penance and First Communion Sacred Congregation [or the Discipline of the Sacraments and Sacred Congregation for the Clergy The Supreme Pontiff Pius X, relying on the prescription of Canon 21 of the Fourth Lateran Council, decided by the Decree "Quam singulari" issued on August 8th 1910 (AAS 1910, pp. 577-583), that children, once they had reached the age of discretion, should receive the sacraments of penance and Eucharist. That decision, having been put into operation throughout the universal Church, has produced and continues to produce very many fruits of Christian life and spiritual perfection. The "Addendum" to the General Catechetical Directory issued on the 1 lth April, 1971, by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy (AAS 1972 pp. 97-176) confirms the custom of children receiving the sacrament of penance before Communion: "Having weighed all these points, and keeping in mind the common and general practice which per se cannot be derogated without the approval of the Apostolic See, and also having heard the Con-ferences of Bishops, the Holy See judges it fitting that the practice now in force in the Church of putting confession ahead of first Communion should be retained." The same "Addendum" took into consideration the fact that in certain regions in the Church some new practices had been introduced allowing children to be admitted to first Communion without first receiving the sacra-ment of penance. It allowed such practices to be continued for a time, pro-vided there was "prior communication with the Apostolic See and., they [the Conferences of Bishops] are at one mind with it." Having now carefully considered the matter and having taken into con-sideration the wishes of the bishops, the Sacred Congregations for the Dis-cipline of the Sacrament~ and for the Clergy, by virtue of this present docu-ment, and with the approval of the Supreme Pontiff, Paul VI, now that the 2O First Penance a~nd First Communion two years have passed, declare that these experiments should be brought to an end with the conclusion of the school year 1972-73 and that, there-fore, the Decree "Quam singulari" is to be obeyed by all everywhere. Given at Rome 24 May 1973. ANTONIUS Card. SAMORI~ Praef . JOHANNES Card. WRIGHT Praef . A Note on Intercommunion Secretariat [or the Union of Christians The following text is an explanatory note concerning the "Instruction on Intercom-munion" issued by the Secretariat for the Union of Christians on June 1, 1972; the text of the 1972 "Instruction" was given in Review ]or Religious, January 1973, pp. 12-8. 1. After the publication of the "Instruction concerning Particular Cases When Other Christians May Be Admitted to Eucharistic Communion in the Catholic Church," on June 1, 1972, various interpretations of it were given, some of which depart from the letter and the spirit of the document. To pre-vent the spread of such inaccurate interpretations and their consequences, we think it useful to recall to mind a few points. 2. With this instruction, pastoral in character, the Secretariat for Pro-moting Christian Unity had no intention of changing the rules laid down by the Vatican Council's decree on ecumenism and further explained by the Directorium Oecumenicum. The intenti6n was to explain that the existing discipline derives from the requirements of the faith and so retains its full vigour. 3. The basic principles of the instruction are: a) There is an indissoluble link between the mystery of the Church and the mystery of the Eucharist or between ecclesial and Eucharistic com-munion; the celebration of the Eucharist of itself signifies the fullness of pro-fession of faith and ecclesial communion (cf. Instruction, par. 2, a, b, c). b) The Eucharist is for the baptized a spiritual food which enables them to live with Christ's own life, to be incorporated more profoundly in Him, and to share more intensely in the whole economy of the mystery of Christ (cf. Instruction, par. 3). 4. Within the full communion of faith, Eucharistic Communion is the .4 Note on lntercommunion / 23 expression of this full communion and, therefore of the unity of .the faithful; at the same time it is the means of maintaining and reinforcing this unity. But Eucharistic Communion practiced by those ,who are not in full ecclesial communion with each other cannot be the expression of that full unity which the Eucharist of its nature signifies and which in this case does not exist; for this reason such Communion,cannot be regarded as a means to be used to lead to full ecclesial communion. 5. All the same, both the Directorium Oecumenicurn and th~ '~Instruc-tion," on,the,strength of what has already been said in the Vatican Council,s decree on ecumenism, allow the possibility of exceptions insofar as the Eucharist is necessary spiritual nour!shment for the Christian life. 6. It is the local ordinary's responsibility to examine these exceptional cases and make concr&e decisions. The instruction (no. 6.) recalls that the Directorium Oecumenicum gives the episcopal authority power, to decide whether in these r~re cases the required conditions are present or not. The episcopal authority's faculty of examining and deciding is governed by criteria laid down in the Directorium Oecumenicum (no. 55) and further explained in the instruction (no. 4 b),:. ". admission to Carbolic'Eucha-ristic Communion is confined to particular cases of those Christians who have a faith in the sacrament in conformity with that of the-Church, who experience a serious spiritual need for the Eucharistic sustenance, who for a prolonged period are unable to have recourse to a minister of their own community °and who ask for the sacrament of their own accord; all' this provided that they have proper dispositions~ and lead lives worthy of a Christian." ~. This criterion is observed if,,ail the required conditions .are verified. An object.ire, pastorally responsible examination,does not allow any vof,the con-ditions to be ignored. . ~. ~ ~ It must also be noted that the instruction speaks of particular cases, which are to be examined individually. Hence-a general regulation.cannot be~ issued which makes a catego.ry .o.ut of an exce.ptional case, nor is it possibles.to legitimate on the basis:of, epikei.a by turning this latter into a general rule. Nevertheless, the bishops can in tiae various situations decide what are theneeds that make exceptions applicable, that is to say, what constitutes a special case, and they can determine the manner of verifying whether all the required conditions are fulfilled in such a particular case. When par-ticular cases presen.t themselves fairly often in one region, following a re-current pattern, episcopal conferences can issue some guiding principles for ascertaining that al!,the conditions are verified in particular cases. Normally however it will be within the competence of the local ordinary to judge such cases. 7. For other Christians to be admitted to the Eucharist in the Catholic Church the instruction requires that they manifest a faith in the sacrament Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 in conformity with that of the Catholic Church. This faith is not limited to a mere affirmation of the "real presence" in the Eucharist, but implies the doctrine of the Eucharist as taught in the Catholic Church. 8, It is to be noted that the instruction (no. 5) calls to mind the fact that the Directorium Oecumenicum (par. 34-54) provides for the Orientals not in full communion with the Catholic Church rules different from those regarding other Christians (par. 55-63)o For example, (a) Since they belong to a community whose Eucharistic faith is in con-formity with that of the Catholic Church, a personal declaration of faith in the sacrament will not be required of them when they are admitted: in an Orthodox this faith is taken for granted; (b) since the Orthodox Churches have true sacraments and, above all, by virtue of apostolic succession, the priesthood and the Eucharist, conces-sions for sacramental communion must take account of legitimate reciprocity (no. 43); (c) Justifiable reasons for advising sacramental sharing are considerably more extensive. 9. The question of reciprocity arises only with those Churches which have preserved the substance of the Eucharist, the sacrament of orders, and apostolic succession. Hence a Catholic cannot ask for the Eucharist except from a minister who has been validly ordained (Directorium Oecumenicum, no. 55). 10. The desire to share the Eucharist fundamentally expresses the desire of the perfect ecclesial unity of all Christians which Christ willed. Intercon-fessional dialogue on the theology of the Eucharist (as sacrament and sacrifice), on the theology of ministry and of the Church is pursuing its course within the ambit of the ecumenical movement, supported by the promises and prayer of our Lord; it is stimulated and enlivened by the charity, poured into our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. We express the hope that the ecumenical movement will lead to a common profession of faith among Christians and so allow us to celebrate the Eucharist in ecclesial unity, giving fulfillment to the words, "Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body" ( 1 Cor 10: 17). This note has been approved by the Holy Father, who has authorized its publication. 17 October 1973 JOHN CardinaF WILLEBRANDS President CHARLES MOELLER Secretary Decree on the Holy Year Indulgence Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary A DECREE WHICH DETERMINES WHAT SPIRITUAL WORKS ARE NECESSARY TO GAIN "THE GIFT OF THE INDULGENCE" IN THE VARIOUS LOCAL CHURCHES ON THE OCCASION OF THE HOLY YEAR The Cardinal President of the Central Committee for the Holy Year has asked this Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary to determine what spiritual works are necessary to gain "the gift of the Indulgence," which the Holy Father has promised to reinforce the spirit of reconciliation and renewal which are the characteristics of this Holy Year. Charged by the Sovereign Pontiff, the Sacred Penitentiary grants that, from the 1st Sunday of Advent of this year, until the day when the Holy Year is solemnly initiated in Rome, the faithful of the individual local Churches can gain: 1. The Plenary Indulgence, in the times to be decided by the Episcopal Conferences, if they go on a. pious pilgrimage to the cathedral church, or also to o~her churches determined by the local Ordinary, in which a solemn community function is held; 2. The Plenary Indulgence, likewise in the times to be decided by the Episcopal Conferences, if gathered in groups (for example, families, school pupils, workers, employees and professional workers, pious associations), they visit the cathedral or other churches designated by the Ordinary, and remain there in pious meditation for a suitable time, concluding the visit with the recitation or singing of the Lord's Prayer and the Creed and with the invocation to the Blessed Virgin; 3. The Plenary Indulgence if, prevented by sickness or any other serious 25 26 / Review fo.r. Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 cause, they join spiritually in the pious pilgrimage, offering God their prayers and sufferings. As regards the diocese of Rome, which should rightly be in this matter an example and stimulus for other ecclesial communities, the same Sacred Penitentiary decrees that the times and ways to gain the aforesaid Plenary Indulgence shall be determined by the Cardinal Vicar General of Rome. Notwithstanding any provisions to the contrary. Rome, from the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, 24 September 1973. G. SESSOLO Regent G. CARD. PAUP1NI Grand Penitentiary COMMENTARY ON THE HOLY YEAR INDULGENCE The following commentary on the preceding document appeared in L'osser-vatore romano, November 29, 1973, page 6. 1. By order ~f the Holy Father, the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary issued, on 24 September 1973, a decree confirming and clarifying what had already been said with regard to the Jubilee indulgence during this first phase of the Holy Year. It establishes::the so-called "work" or "pious practice" to be carried out by the faithful, at given times and places, to acquire the Jubilee indulgence. ~ .' The "work" prescribed is a "pilgrimage" to a designated church, con-cl'~ ding witl~ barticipation in a solemn community servic~ or at le.ast with the i'ecitatign 'of some prayers. Summarizing the decree of 24 September 1973 and keeping in mind both the norms for indulgences and the Holy Father's Letter of 31 May 1973, to Cardinal Maximilian de Ftirstenberg, President of the Central Committee for the Ho!y Year, the following points.may be r~oted. The faithful who, duly,dispoged, approach the sacraments of confession affd communion and pray acco~:ding to the intentions of the Holy Father and the Episcopal C~ollege, are granted, in conformity with the norms in fbrce, the gift of the i91enary indulgence, at the time~'to be determined by the respective Episcopal Conference, beginning from 2 December 1973: (a) if they'take part in a pilgrimage to the cathedral church or to another church #esignated by the local Bishop and participate in solemn comrriunity serVice there; (b) if they go in groups (for example ram!lies, "sc3ools, professignal @orkers, associations) to one of the afpresaid chur'~hes and devote the, m-s'elves for ~/suitable space bf time to pious considerations, concluding them with the recitation or the singing of the Ou{ Fath~" and the Creed and with an invocation to the Blessed Virgifi; (c) if, being unable to take part in'tli~ pilgrimage of their comn~unity (ecclesial, family, or social), because they are pi'evented by illness or any ~Decree on the Holy Year Indulgence / 27 .o, ther serious cause, they join in it .spiritually by offering their prayers and sufferings. 2. We spoke above of the faithful being ."duly disposed." This is a reminder that the '.'gift of. t, he indulgence" must .be merited by fervent prep-aration; it is bestowed to reward° and "strengthen"--as we readAn the re-cent d.e~cree--the spirit of renewal and reconciliation that must characterize the Hgly Year. , For this reason the simple practices that are required to gain the Jubilee indulgence must not be separated from the work of preparation, on which s9 much stress has rightly been laid. The practices themselves are, as ~it were, the point of arrival°and ,tOe exte_r.na_l sign of deep renewal of the spirit and reinvigorated love for God and one's brethren. . No.w, ,,the work of renewal and fervor is 'the most valuable part of the Holy Year, because, great as is the value of the indulgence that remits the te.mporal pen,alty in the case of, those who are disposed, the value of the works proposed when their fulfillment leads,to an increase of charity is in-comparably greater (St. Thomas, Supplement to the Theological Summa, q. 25~ 2, 2 and q. 27, 2, 2). ,. 3. We mentioned above--in addition to the proper disposition and the "work" prescribed~what are commonly called "conditions" for gaining the Jubilee indulgence, namely:sacramental confession, eucharistic,communion, and prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and the Episcopal College. The three "conditions" mentioned above are also required for every other plenary indulgence, with the only difference that the prayer, according to the general norms, is said for the intentions of the Holy Father, while in this circumstance the Holy Father himself (cf. Letter to Cardinal de Ftirs-tenberg, quoted above) has wished to associate the intentions of the Bishops with his own. For the fulfillment of the conditions (cf. Norms, nn. 27, 28 and 29), the following should be noted: " (a) Communion and prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and of the Episcopal College should be on the same day on which the pilgrimage is made, but they may be before or afterwards. (b) To fulfill the condition of prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and the Bishops, the faithful may recite a prayer of their own choice. (c) As for sacramental confession, in order to be able to make it un-hurriedly, it can be made even twenty days before or after the pilgrimage. It should also be remembered that confession must be made even by those who do not feel any serious guilt on their conscience; that it is required on the occasion of any plenary indulgence, but even more so for the Jubilee indulgence because of the particular commitment of purification and re-newal that the Holy Year entails. The confession, in fact, if the penitent so desires and the confessor con-s~ ders ~t useful, may ~nclude not only the s~ns since the last good confession, Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 but also the sins of a longer period of time to facilitate a deeper renewal of life. Furtherra~ore, to facilitate the faithful in making their individual con-fession, the recommendation that there should be confessors available "on the days and at the hours established for the convenience of the faithful" (cf. Normae~ pastorales of the S0 Congr. of the Doctrine of the Faith. 16 June 1972, AAS 64, 1972, page 513), is especially applicable for the Holy Year. (d) During .the Holy Year it is also ct~stomary to grant confessors special faculties in order that, if necessary, they"can absolve penitents in some cases, usually "reserved" to higher authority, without the obligation of re-course to the Bishop or to other competent Superior or to the Holy See. During the first phase of the Holy Year, which is celebrated in the vari-ous local Churches, the Bishops can make provision in this regard by grant-ing, at least to the more experienced confessors, the ample faculties at their disposal (cf. M.P. Pastorale munus of 30 November 1963, n. 14: AAS 56, 1964, p. 8). 4. Mention was also made above, in a generic way, of the "norms in force." It will be sufficient to recall here expressly the following two: (a) Every indulgence can" be applied to the dead by way of suffrage (norm 4). (b) The plenary indulgence can be acquired only once a day (norm 24, 1). Religious Life: Style or Culture? Vincent P. Branick, S.M. Father Vincent P. Branick, S.M., teaches Scripture and philosophy at Chaminade College of Honolulu; 3140 Waialae Avenue; Honolulu, Hawaii 96816. Paradoxically, loneliness has appeared most intensely in communities which have accepted in full seriousness the needs of the individual to express and communicate his unique personality. Groups which have sacrificed rich traditions to avoid the suffocation of their members in a mass of impersonal structures, congregations which have radically reformed their rules in quest of a truly personalized life have found their members suffering an over-whelming sense of isolation and lack of social maturity, to the extent of a serious weakening or even destruction of~their religious vocation. The Loss of Religious Culture Obviously, the ideals of personalism governing these reforms are not false. The evident validity of these ideals has led administrators to hold to the reforms in the face of their congregations' equally evident devitaliza-tion and even extinction. The mistake lies not in the ideals but in an un-recognized consequence resulting from an oversimplified pursuit of these ideals, namely, in the loss of religious culture. Many young people who came to religious life with a profound desire to be religious are leaving for the lack of a religious culture in which they could live. Many older religous are retreating into a comfortable bachelorhood for want of a religious cul-ture in which they could grow. What is this missing culture? Culture in General In its fundamental sense, a culture is a milieu or atmosphere in which 29 30 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 the human person can express his heartfelt values and through which he can communicate with others about these values. A culture is a consistent pat-tern of practices and manners which specify a shared approach to life, a familiar environment in which an individual finds himself, in which he can feel "at home." This fundamental sense of culture appears most strikingly in the cele-bration of a folk-festival. A nation celebrating itself gathers up its heritage, dances, and contests as a reminder of all that its members have in common. The songs a people sings are truly its songs. These are the songs which its ancestors sang and which likewise catalyzed its ancestors' sense of identity. Through these traditioned customs a nation can celebrate its solidarity in the present and its link to its past. Thus, a folk-festival is not a celebration separated from daily life, but rather an intensification of elements active in a lesser way throughout the daily life of a people, binding a people together. The stranger can visit and enjoy the celebration, but he can never fully par-ti~ ipate in it. He is not of the same culture. Culture as a Social Reality In its more common meaning as a complex of refinements and sensi-bilities, culture is likewise basically a social concept. The "cultivated" per-son is one whose sensibilities have been refined to perceive the beauty of the art and customs of a nation, to understand and use the language and literature that bind a people together, ultimately to understand the languages and customs that bind all men together. The use of such refinement as a device for. mere self-display produces a grotesque caricature, confusing cul-ture. with snobbery. True culture is essentially a social reality. The cultivated person is one who has mastered.the symbols of a society, the symbols which are the means of communication within that scciety. As a social reality, culture is an extension of the human body's ability to symbolize the soul to others. It is an extension produced by a consistent use of many details of life, perhaps insignificant in themselves but very sig-nificant in the pattern they form together. This extension is accomplished with other persons, who together create a circle of common gestures, lan-guage, dress, and other customs, a circle in which each individual feels at home, in which he can express himself and be confident,of understanding, since he is communicating with others in a familiar medium. The N~ed of Every Man for a Culture Every man needs such a culture in which to grow. The man in society needs to feel a certain rhythm about him which he knows and which he can use as a sounding board for his inner life, allowing him to concretize and control that inner life and, above all, to share it with others. Even the her-mit has taken with him his language and his manners which remain at least an unconscious reminder of the people he knows and which .allow him to Religious Li]e: Style or Culture? / 31 express to himself the life he is leading. The man without a culture is the barbarian, the one incapable of using the symbols of communication, the conventions of sharing; thus he is reduced to grunting his basic needs. Far from suppressing individual persons and ideas, the discipline of a culture provides a man with the means of expressing and developing his individuality. The great poets expressed their genius not by creating new and private languages, but by mastering their mother tongues. Perhaps the great attraction of the "hippy culture" was its success in mediating a solidarity and communication among its members. The pattern of the many external, insignificant details permitted one member to talk to another. The long, slightly matted hair, the beard, the colorful but bleached clothes, necessarily frayed at the edges, the beads, and above all, the vocabulary--these details, insignificant in themselves, formed a culture within which one hippy could understand another. The apparent contradic-tion between the hippy ideal of freedom in personal expression, on the one hand, and the strict conformity in dress and hair, on the other, can be un-derstood in the light of the enormous importance such details have when taken together to form a culture. Religious Culture In the same way the person who enters religious life needs a culture, The person who wishes to live his Christian life in intense simplicity and poverty, the person who seeks a prolonged meditative prayer needs a pat-tern of bodily symbols to concretize his aspirations, a sounding board against which he can objectify his ideals. Furthermore, he needs others who share his spiritual values and with whom he can communicate. He thus needs an atmosphere or pattern in which he can develop this life and communicate with others about this life. He needs a religious culture. It is not surprising to find at the historical origin of religious life the practice of spiritual di-rection, the practice of communicating profound religious insights and val-ues, oa practice which gradually of itself expanded into a pattern of religious customs, into a complete religious culture. Loss ~f Culture by Focus on Style Many communities .today have lost this sense of religious culture 'by focusing rather on the question of style. The emphasis on personal style in religious life has had the value of underlining the individual differences in a community, differences which enrich a.community. Yet, in fact, this same emphasis on personal style has broken down much of the consistent re-ligious patterns and symbols in congregationsland, as a result, much of the communication among the members. Diverse individuals and groups, each absorbed in its preferred style, became isolated from each other. Frequently one religious no longer knew if.another possessed the same spiritual sensi-bilities, the same interests, the same background on which communication Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 could be based. The least common denominator in a particular community became less and less. As religious life became a "life style," attention shifted from "life" to "style," and individuals charted their courses alone, away from each other. Presupposed in this pluralistic approach was the belief that each mem-ber of a community could work out his style of life by himself. The man who wished austerity could rise early by himself, eat frugally by himself, and by himself develop a contemplative form of prayer. Supposedly, the others in the same community who did not wish to share this desert could avail themselves of more bourgois amusements. This presupposition, however, neglects man's need for a culture. In effect, this emphasis on style has led to the introduction into the con-gregations of diversities normally holding among congregations. A particu-lar community could find itself composed of austere Trappists, Christian hippies, and mere professional bachelors, each with his own spirituality, each with his own style. Sharing the same province or even living under the same roof, members of communities began to look like strangers to each other. The fundamental element of religious life, spiritual direction, be-came impossible. Prayer life broke down, not through laziness, but through loneliness, through the inability to communicate with others about one's prayer. Formation of recruits became an impossible task, often involving a series of contradictory instructions as a young person passed from the recruiting community, to the novice master, and on through the stages of formation. Rebuilding Religious Culture At present most attempts to rebuild the bond among the members of a community tend in two distinct ways.', the one "theoretical," the other "recreational." The first consists of an attempt to find and concentrate on "the essen-tials." In the face of a bewildering variety of life styles, many communities have sought to articulate the essence of their life, the core reality that every-one could accept, on which everyone could concentrate, allowing then the accidentals to vary according to individual preferences. The theologians were asked to present in clear terms the essence of religious life. General chapters met and held their breath, waiting for this description of the essence. They will probably continue to wait for some time, because the task of articulating the essence of such a concrete and mysterious reality as re-ligious life appears as an impossible job. Whatever "essential trait" is sei~ed upon, whether some particular vow, the three vows, or community life, there appears in history or in the present some obviously religious form of life that flourished or is presently flourishing without it. The appeal to ca-nonical definitions likewise fails to point out an essence of the life, since Religious Li]e: Style or Culture? / 33 these definitions appear more as descriptions after the fact, more as arti-ficially clear and distinct deliniations required for the legal functioning of the Church than as theological penetrations into the fundamental structure of the life. Like peeling away the successive skins to find the onion, the-ologians peeled away the "accidents" but found little left to identify as an essence. The second method of rebuilding the bond among the members of a community is far more down to earth and consists on stressing "the com-mon fun." While awaiting the perfect theology of religious life, people can do something practical. They can recreate together and in that recreation seek to build a community. Such suggestions as "Let's fire the cook and make our own meals together!" or "Everybody in the club room tonight for cocktails!" often clothe desperate attempts to build community. Certainly this effort has served well by focusing on the real need for sim-ple friendliness in communities (to say nothing of the marvelous cooks pro-duced). Yet the idea of common life meant more to the ancients than our attempts at common fun. Such a shallow basis of life does not attract dedi-cated young people. If all they see is this recreational aspect of our lives, they will hardly be convinced to sacrifice spouse and children for a con-viviality that can never approximate the intensity and warmth of a natural family. The community recreation is important, but it can never form the basis of religious common life. The Need to Reestablish a Religious Culture The isolation and loneliness vitiating communities can be overcome only by reestablishing a whole religious culture, a consistent and relatively stable milieu in which religious can feel at home as religious, a pattern of con-crete practices through which one religious can express his deep spiritual values to another. The precise culture will vary with each congregation. Any form, how-ever, will demand certain general lines. First, a religious culture demands an attention to a multitude of accidental details, many of which when taken alone may appear insignificant and even superficial. Neither the cut of the clothes, nor the simplicity in a house, nor the hour of rising appears worthy of an intense crusade. It is useless to seek a rationale directly behind such details, and the temptation exists to peel them away one by one, to peel them away as though from some essential core. Yet insofar as it is a cul-ture, the essence of religious life may be inseparable from the sum total of the "accidents." A religious culture does not stand or fall with any particu-lar detail, but the simple removal of each accidental reduces by that much the identifiability of that culture. Second, any religious culture is necessarily built around the form of prayer of the community, more specifically, around the degree of con-templation a community chooses to practice. A particular type of prayer 34 / Review for Religious, l/olume 33, 1974/1 often requires an ambience, a degree of calm, a type of simplicity regulat-ing the details of the whole day. Conversely, a particular form of contempla-tive prayer colors all else: personal service, the celebration of the Eucharist, professional work. The type and degree of mental prayer is thus a key ele-ment in any religious culture. Third, religious culture, like any culture, requires a willingness of the members to sacrifice personal preferences for the consistency of a com-munity atmosphere, to place a social culture before a personal style. This is not to say that the culture must take the form of some immobile mass of customs. Customs must evolve. As practices no longer serve to communicate the spiritual inspiration of a community, as gestures lose their symbolic values, they should disappear. However, a culture must change as a culture. It must evolve on,the basis of other more stable elements, not on the basis of members darting off in their own directions, according to the demands of personal style. ¯ Within the context of such a religious culture, the search for the essence of religious life can continue, guided not simply by an abstract analysis, but, .more importantly, by a lived contact with the reality. Since religious life is received by man as gift, not produced by him as invention, since the life is fundamentally beyond his natural powers, he will probably never attain that clear insight into the nature of the life that results in a precise defini-tion. Our speech about religious life will probably always be dominated more by poetic intuition than by abstract concept, a poetic intuition that feels at home with small details and operates from a position within the object spoken of. Likewise, the efforts to improve community recreation should have an important part in the building of religious culture. The simple kindness and conviviality of a community recreation can be a powerful expression of the fundamental value of fraternal love, if this expression is part of a greater milieu. Culture and Personal Development Where the individual religious finds a living and consistent culture, there he will find the medium in which to express his unique individuality. In the expressed solidarity of a group, a member has the means of developing a truly personalized life. There he has the means of expressing for himself and for others his unique riches. A culture which involves even many small details will not stifle individuality. As the expression of the spirit, a culture will function as a guide and an agent of personal development. Only a vibrant culture in religious life will dispel the present loneliness. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious Sister Jane Marie Kerns, S.H.C.J. Sister Jane Marie is a faculty member of West Catholic Girls High School and,lives at the Convent of the Holy Child Jesus; 4724 Cedar Avenue; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19143. ~ Six years have passed since the CMSW undertook the monumental study known as the Sisters Survey in an attempt to delve into the thinking and feelings of the religious who participated. Prescinding from the reported findings, one can suspect that even the launching of such a study had value simply as a consciousness-raising device. Foremost among the areas of re-ligious life that came under scrutiny was the, dynamics of group living that we call community life. Explosive--because it is inescapably personal-- and sacrosanct--because it is integral to religious traditions and the essence of religious life as we understand it, the whole topic of group living by re-ligious is subject to biased interpretations. Why? Perhaps just because celibates need so much from community life. Perhaps just because we de, pend so much on life in community to underwrite the whole structure of the social apostolates in which we engage. Perhaps just because an ideal form of community life promises to make tangible and present the kingdom of God toward which we daily strive. Size and Cohesiveness Whatever the reason, there can be no doubt that community is a prime concern among religious and that size as related to cohesion is a pivotal area. In order to bring empirical objectivity into an issue clouded with un-conscious and often conflicting biases, the author undertook a research 35 36 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 project designed to investigate the effects of size on the cohesiveness of groups of religious living together in local communities. By devising a method to quantify the degree of cohesion exhibited through the affective choices made by members of several large and small communities, it was possible to make a comparison based on evidence more objective than opinion and more concrete than theory. Background The CMSW Survey in 1967 showed that 59.7% of the 125,000 sisters who responded to it felt that there was an optimal size of community groups beyond which it would be impossible for members living together to become a community. (Though the Survey did not define the term com-munity, it is patent from much of the literature of the day that sisters under-stand some special sense of fraternity and solidarity or cohesiveness that should be characteristic of the shared life of religious who live together.) Among the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus, who were the subjects of the research project on which this article is based, an even greater majority-- 78.2%--concurred in the opinion expressed on the CMSW Survey instru-ment. In subsequent years a plethora of literature praising small group living has led to a general belief among religious in the therapeutic value of the small local community as the preventative for malformation of personality and as a booster shot for personal fulfillment through the healthy human interaction indispensable for strong ego-building? The impetus for the renewal of religious life given by Vatican II in-corporated much that flowed from the best developments of social psy-chology. In this context the drive to revivify the apostolate of the Church required that religious orders of men and women march in tune with the personalism of the culture of which they are a part. Definition of the Problem From this two-pronged incentive of development in the social sciences and updating in the Church, there arose interest in the applicability of many facets of small group research to religious communities. Focusing on the i~ssumptions that in a given group (1) more frequent interaction conse-quent on smaller nfimbers of members tends to produce more cohesive groups and (2) members of a small cohesive group will experience more strong satisfying interpersonal relationships than members of a larger group, the author undertook an empirical study of eleven groups of re-ligious sisters for the purpose of developing an index of cohesiveness that would enable comparisons to be made between larger and smaller groups, 1Gabriel Moran and Maria Harris, Experiences in Community (New York: Herder and Herder, 1968). This is one of many possible examples. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious and thus promise an objective test of the hypotheses involved. In brief, those hypotheses state that community size will have a signifi-cant effect both on the number of members with whom one can have good positive relationships and also on the proportionate number of people in community with whom one can have such relationships. Definilion of Key Words Certain key words must be defined in accordance with their use in this ¯ study in order to provide a common working base. The following appear to be most important: 1. cohesion 2. good, positive relationship 3. group--small, large Because of characteristics peculiar to religious orders, the task of defining terms is more complicated than simply borrowing from highly quoted au-thors in the field. A method of definition by distillation was employed in areas where circumstances required. A prime example was the term cohesion. In consulting authors,~ one is confronted with a notion of forces constraining members to remain in the group. But there is nothing in the literature that seems to correspond to the force of perpetual vows which bind the religious to membership in the re-ligious institute and to residence in specific local communities according to the directives from authorities in the order. Two levels of "force" are in-herent in the situation of the religious. One revolves around the strength of his commitment to the religious life itself and the second around the de-gree of commitment with which he engages in the affairs of the local house in which he lives--a commitment arising basically from a sense of duty toward an ideal based outside of the group in which he lives. A third force, distinct from the levels mentioned above, yet probably to some extent conditioned by his whole approach to religious life, is the at-traction that the local community holds for the religious by reason of the rapport he feels with particular members of that given group at any one time. Since all the groups used in this study operate under the same two forces resulting from religious profession in the order, it appears that the third type of force is more germane to our purposes here. Therefore, cohe-sion in this study denoted ". the degree of attachment (involvement, be-longingness, importance) that members have for the group.":' In this con-text then cohesion refers to the obvious capacity of the group to satisfy the ~The writings of men like Cartwright and Zander or Festinger, Schachter, and Back are typical. :~Clovis R. Shepherd, Small Groups: Some Sociological Perspectives (San Francisco: Chandler, 1964), p. 25. 311 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 personal needs of its members. It is this connotation that is meant by "strong, satisfying, interpersonal relationships" referred to in the second assumption; and this is the definition of good, positive relationships used in this work. (Though use of the word "friendship" might be a more graceful way of ex-pressing these ideas, its use is being purposefully avoided to.allow for a more open-ended definition of friendship to be employed later in the pre-sentation. ) By small groups, we shall mean groups of between 6 and 11 members and the large groups used in the study ranged from 12 to 29. Procedure The procedure used in the research involved a sociogram-like type of questionnaire in which the respondents were asked to list any number of sisters with whom they had lived during the last year and with whom they would enjoy engaging in a series of activities ranging from purely recrea-tional, to work related, to deeper, more intimate sharing on the religious plane. In every situation the emphasis was on the natural affectivity of one sister for her companions and not any exercise of supernatural charity? Approximately 91% of the sisters responded thus providing the researcher with excellent material from which to construct four measures of cohesion. Three of these stemmed from analysis of who chose whom and how often. By diagrammatically presenting the chain of relationships resulting from tracing the choices of the most frequently chosen individuals as they re-lated to the others in. community, a distance factor was developed. Finally, a study was made of the average number of "good friends" that the sisters INDEX OF COHESION AS DEVELOPED THROUGH THIS STUDY Community z-score corrected distance use of per- average size order ranking z-scores factor sonality votes rank " A 1 1 1 1 1 B 3 2 2 2 2 C 8 3 5 6 6 D 2 5 4 4 3 E 4 7 3 5 4 F 5 6 9 9 7 G 6 4 7 3 5 H 9 10 8 8 l0 I ll 11 6 7 8.5 J 7 8 10 10 8.5 K 10 9 11 11 I1 4For a complete exposition of the steps involved in the research readers are referred to the original work by the author, Sister Jane Marie Kerns, A Quantitative Analysis o[ Size and Cohesion (unpublished M.A. thesis, St. Louis University, 1973). Size and the Cohesiveness oI Groups of Religious / 39 in each house claimed. In this phase of the project each respondent was permitted to define the phrase "good friend" in any way that she felt was adequate and then she was asked to tell how many such "good friends" she had in the~ community in which she lived. Analysis of this section revolved around both the absolute number of good friends claimed and the number proportionate to the size of the community. Interpretation of Results A word of caution is in order here. Before any interpretation of the results can be presented, it must be remembered that this study was de-signed to measure relative cohesion only. It cannot be stretched to comment on disunity, on morale, or on working efficiency of the groups involved; and it must be seen as a measure of natural affectivity--a factor which cannot be assumed to be the dominant motive force for most of the group's activity. This caution is necessary both to maintain a scientific discipline and also to prevent our losing sight of the supernatural aspects of community life that cannot have been explored in this kind of work. Be that as it may, it is still remarkable to notice that the study revealed the presence of no isolates--persons not chosen by any other members of a group--in any of the eleven communities totaling 141 religious. Not only are there no iso-lates, but in actual count there is no, member of any community who was not chosen by at /east 21% of the members of the community who re-plied--- by no fewer than 50% of the members in 7 out of the 1! com-munities. Therefore, it can be insisted that we are justified only in conclud-ing to relatively more or less cohesion but not to any implication of disunity or disaffection. Size as a Significant Factor It can be stated unequivocally that the empirical evidence presented points to size as a significant factor in the study of cohesion. There is every reason to conclude that the smaller, the group, the more the members demonstrate stronger natural choices for a wider segment of the group. But hidden within this general overall conclusion are several important considerations that must be brought to light. Whereas the techniques used here demonstrated the validity of the commonly held belief that small groups tend to be more cohesive, the ques-tion dealing with friendship upset the commonly held expectation that more good friendships are found within small groups and that theoexistence of such friendships is the reason for greater cohesion. From our study the results indicated that such a line o[ r~easoning is faulty. In the first place, smaller houses reported neither a greater number of friendships absolutely nor a greater number proportionately speaking. Hence, friendship and co-hesion are not synonymous nor are they positively related. Rather, it might be concluded that they are alternatives within the group process. 40 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 Two possible lines of thought might be adduced to explain the seeming contradictions posed by the fifth stage of the investigation. First, by de-veloping and combining some of the thought of Simmel~ and of Mancur Olson'~ with regard to small groups, a synthesis can be arrived at which sheds light on the subject. Simmel's contribution springs from his conten-tions that smaller groups have qualities, including types of interaction among their members, which inevitably disappear when the groups grow larger. Olson points to a major difference between large and small groups when he formulates as a principle: ". the larger the group, the less it will further its common interests." Second, by appropriating some of the insights of Sister Joan Michele Rake7 and blending them with the thought of Simmel and Olson, the contradiction of fewer friendships in more cohesive groups is dissolved. Sister Joan Michele draws the boundaries between "engulf-ment" by the community and self-development of the healthy religious who makes good use of the structures of community. Hers is not so much a study of the effect of size but rather a clarification of issues on some of the dynamics at work in any group. The Specifics of Small Groups Consider the relative investment that members of a small group must make in order to obtain the benefits of membership and conversely the mag-nitude of the slack that must be taken up by the remaining members if one member fails to carry his own weight. More specifically, consider the num-ber of functions that must bc performed smoothly if life in the house is to be mutually beneficial. Since the small group enables not only face-to-face rela-tionships but even more importantly, person-to-person contact and consul-tation, many of the decisions reached and the functions implicit in the religious life lived in community are arrived at and disseminated tacitly. For example, each one knows from personal experience that does not need explicitation that communal worship can only be consummated if the com-munity is present and each one knows that in a small house her absence is both noticed and keenly felt. The differential involved is not merely a quan-titative one, but actually a qualitative one. There is a certain unspecified number below which communal worship declines into merely a collection of individuals attending the same liturgical function. And it is this height-ened sense of awareness of the qualitative contribution made by personal participation of each that typifies the small group. Person-to-person contact makes possible agreement--implicit or ex-plicit-- on common goals of a more specific nature than can be formulated '~Kurt H. Wolff, The Sociology o] Georg Simmel (Glencoe: Free Press, 1950), p. 87. ~;Mancur Olson, The Logic o] Collective Action (New York: Schocken, 1968), p. 36. rSister Joan Michele Rake, Friendship in Religious Li]e (unpublished M.A. thesis, Duquesne University, 1969), Chap. 7. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups o]. Religious / 41 when a larger number of individuals is involved. And converSely, devia-tion from the commonly accepted ideas is more obvious and therefore re-quires more of an expenditure of psychic energy for continued adherence on the part of the deviant and more of an effort on the part of the group as a whole to combat either by modifying the idea or by converting the deviant member. Whether we speak of positive elements that tend to unite or of negative elements that tend to threaten the group's solidarity, there is more immediate response required, a greater expenditure of personal effort on the part of each member in the small group, and a return in the way of benefits of group membership commensurate with the effort expended. The Specifics of Large Groups In the large group the sahae level of return is expected, but the level of expectation of individual participation is lower. Since person-to-person com-munication on. :every issue and between every set of persons is too time-consuming and too indeterminate in the process of seeking consensus, cer-tain abstractions in the form of community mechanisms, offices, and so forth must be established and these become looked upon as the expression of group cohesion that can no longer be immediately and obviously attained. The areas of shared ideas becom6 somewhat more general and, therefore, more readily acceptable to the total group in spite of the greater variety of opinions. In turn these more abstract expressions of relations and more general types of agreements require less commitment on the part of the individual. Though the ideas themselves may be less "radical," less basically rooted in the peculiar characteristics of the group, more generalized, ad-herence to the ideas becomes more radical, more a bare minimum that can-not be sacrificed if group unity is to be maintaini~d. A full complement of the members is not required to constitute a "com-munity presence." Absenteeism is not as noticeable--certainly not as per-tains to the particular individual who is absent, since her personal contribu-tion has in some ways become distanced or formalized in the large group setting. Differences between Small and Large Groups Wha~t results from the above discussion is an argument to the effect that the demonstrably greater cohesion among the small group members results more from a heightened sense of personal investment and personal con-cern, a greater consciousness of the personal element in the affairs of the house, a greater consonance between the individual's own approach to life since his personality enters more fully into the determination of group atti-tudes, a greater sense of the interdependence of the persons in the com-munity in all its affairs---especially because they answer directly to and for each other. In the larger group some degree of personalism is lost as the sheer force of numbers demands some degree of abstraction and the substi- Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 tution of shared symbols that can be immediately present to all when the person-to-person common search for common understanding is not practi-cal, The sense of interdependence is therefore "once removed" with the result that the individual who has to expend less of herself in contributing to and in conforming to more general ideas is then .freer to develop inde-pendently of the group in more areas. Not only is there in larger groups more room for individualism to fluorish and a greater variety of personality types emerging (assuming of course the absence of any rigorous pressure to conform in all respects), but this sharper differentiation among component personalities enables stronger, more particularized dyadic relationships to de-velop out of the shared responses. Hence, we see the application of Simmel's principle that the quantitative increase in size of a group leads to a qualitative differentiation ~on the part of the individuals.8 Simmel holds that an individual tends to maintain a certain balance between the social and the individual aspects of his life. When he is involvi~d in a small group with a high profile for cohesiveness or for strong identity as a group, he has little opportunity to express his own individuality--and little need to do so since there is satisfaction offered in the group. But when he is involved in a larger group with a less ~iell-defined profile, °one that is less consonant with his unique personality since it is necessarily more generalized, he then finds scope--indeed he must--to express his individuality. As the group gains in individuality ~(a situation that pertains to small groups), the individual loses and vice versa. The Question of Friendship Sister Joan Michele believes that wherever the "corporate mentality" is strong among religious--that is, a tendency to look on the group life as an exercise in efficiency--it will be more difficult for 'real friendships to grow. If friendship is ". an encounter between two persons. [which] results in an enduring nonexclusive relation which is lived as a gift of affinity and affection and occasions the autonomous growth of the persons involved,''~ it can only flourish where there is a real encounter of unique personalities --personalities well-developed, mature, sharing a common ground in .their search for truth, and coming, as it were, by chance upoh an unconscious, mysterious affinity that raises comrades, colleagues, and companions. above those levels of association to a new plane that is by no means the necessary consequence of living in community. Precisely what dynamics are generated by the presence of more or fewer dyadic relationships could not be explored in this project since the identity of "good friends" was not revealed; but it has been necessary to digress into these areas ever so slightly, simply to make the point that the cfn-~ 8Wolff, The Sociology o! Simmel, p. 87. '~Rake, Friendship, p. 52. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious / 43 clusions reached in this research are quite validly and integrally consistent with the general direction of small group theory. Yet there is real danger that they may lend themselves to simplistic interpretations that do not con-vey the whole picture. The research has confirmed the theory that (1) community size does have a significant effect on the number of members with whom one can have good, positive relationships---both the absolute number and the proportionate number of members; and that (2) the smaller size communities are the ones that exhibit these good, posi-tive relationships more frequently. Equally important, however, are the findings resulting from the question on friendship; namely, the members living in larger groups tend to report both a greater number of "good friends" and to consider a greater proportion of members of the com-munity in the category of "good friends." The above statement when coupled with the theory of writers like Van Kaam, Sister Joan Michele, and even classical authors such as Simmel indi-cates there are ways in which the more cohesive small groups are at the same time more restricted in opportunities for developing friendship and that friendship might actually exist as an alternative to cohesiveness, not as a concomitant element. Practical Conclusions Taking a step beyond the scientifically validated conclusions of the study itself and addressing the practical value of all this for the present-day religious community, there are perhaps two major points to be considered. The first point of practical concern for religious is the importance of the absence of isolates from the communities studied and the commentary this is on the ability of religious who share the overall goals of the religious institute to assimilate members into a community even when religious have no voice in choosing where or with whom they will live. Though this point cannot be pushed beyond the limits mentioned earlier, it can be cited as evidence that the freedom in assigning personnel that has been a plus factor enabling religious groups to function efficiently in the apostolate is not in and of itself incompatible with the desire to provide living condi-tions that foster good interpersonal relationships. The second point to be made is that decisions regarding community size (where circumstances allow for either possibility) might reasonably be made in favor of smaller community groups at a time when the call to re-newal emphasizes our need to search together for a more radical commit-ment to the essence of religious life. If sociologists and psychologists are correct in their assessment of the differential in ability of various size groups to reach consensus at various levels of abstraction, certainly religious would do well to make use of this knowledge in their efforts to re-create 44 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 in the Spirit the shared faith that brought their institutes into being. Further-more, if the members of congregations are appraised of what can and cannot be achieved in groups of various sizes, realistic expectations can constitute solid foundations auguring well for solid progress. Structures of themselves will never cure. But they can facilitate if used wisely, and they can hinder if used poorly or ignored. Size is not of itself a panacea, nor a Pandora's box. Perhaps we have mistakenly held in the past that the same quality of religious life can exist with six or sixty in the community. As we eschew past folly, let us not perpetuate new foolishness by assuming that small size will do more than facilitate the emergence of a faith sharing which will depend for its quality, not on numbers but on the grace of God realized in the lives of those who grow together toward the fulfillment of their covenant with both God and His People. The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities John Allyn Melloh, S.M. Father John Allyn Melloh, S.M., a member of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, lives at the Marianist Residence; 4528 Maryland Avenue; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. The Liturgy of the Hours should not be looked on as a beautiful monument of a past age, to be preserved almost unchanged in order to excite our admira-tion. On the contrary, it should come to life again with new meaning and grow to become once more the sign of a living community.--The General Instruc-tion on the Liturgy of the Hours, paragraph 273 Reform, renewal, restoration of the liturgy is always one of the paramount concerns of any ecumenical council; Vatican II was no exception. Desirous of "imparting an ever increasing vigor to the Christian life of the faithful" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 1), the Council fathers placed liturgical reform top on the list of their priorities. If the liturgical celebrations of the People of God were to be a "foretaste of that heavenly liturgy which is celebrated in the holy city of Jerusalem toward which we journey as pilgrims" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 8), then much renewal was needed, lest the pilgrim people of Yahweh seek a new city-~one where celebration was indeed a reality! Restoration of Eucharistic praxis, as well as an updating of other sacra-mental ritual celebrations, was essential for the nourishment of Christian piety and the mediation of the salvific graces to all mankind (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 1 !). Equally important for the liturgical life of the ekklesia was the restoration of the Divine Office, the Liturgy of the Hours, the "public prayer of the Church" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 90). In the age of aggiornamento, this "wonderful song 45 46 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 of praise" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 84), which had all but entirely disappeared, had to be revived; and a genuine "revival" was needed for the "voice of the bride addressed to her bridegroom" (Constitu-tion on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 83) had become mute. This "very prayer which Christ himself, together with his body, addresses to the Father," had become, over the ages, a prayer which Christ, along with a few isolated members--becoming fewer day by day--of His Church addressed to the Father. The opus Dei had become the onus Dei.t General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours Almost ten years later, in February 1971, the Sacred Congregation of Divine Worship issued the General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours. In five chapters, full of good solid Christology, ecclesiology, and spirituality, this document speaks of the Liturgy of the Hours as a viable prayer form for the Church--even in 1973! Perhaps one of the most significant Roman documents issued of late, and certainly the longest and most theological document ever issued on the topic of the Divine Office, the General Instruc-tion makes clear that the intent is the restoration and revitalization of the Liturgy of the Hours. The "ptiblic and communal prayer of the people of God is rightly considered among the first duties of the Church" (General Instruction, paragraph 1), for the ekklesia is most itself, achieves its own special identity, and fulfills its mission when the assembly is together at prayer, especially at liturgical prayer. Vatican II has consciously and firmly asked that~the Liturgy of the Hours once again be prayed, that this prayer form once again be given life by the living People of God--that it may become a living prayer and that the entire Church may "offer praise to God . . . in singing that canticle of praise which is sung throughout all ages in the halls of heaven" (General Instruction, paragraph 16). The New Book of the Liturgy of the Hours A day to be hailed in litui'gical circles was 23 June, 1971, for on that day, L'osservatore romano published Laudis canticum, officially promulgat-ing the new book of the Liturgy of the Hours. The work of Vatican II and its liturgical commission had borne fruit. The new edition of that book once called the "Breviary" had been arranged and prepared in such a way as to encourage the faithful to celebrate the hours. Once again, this necessary complement to Eucharistic worship and sacramental practice was restored so that it would become "the prayer of the whole people of God" (Laudis canticum, L'osservatore romano, page 1 ). At least now there was a chance that should one of the faithful stumble across the Prayer of Christians he might recognize it! In the new edition--albeit interim--of the Liturgy of the Hours genuine reforms were made. Structure of the hours was modified, the cycle of Psalmody changed, intercessor3/prayer introduced--all with a view to pub- The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities / 47 lic celebration of the Hours of Prayer. In its restored form, the Divine Office was to be a "font of piety and nourishment for personal prayer" (Laudis canticum, L'osservatore romano, page 1 ). Toward a Revitalized Celebration The documents of Vatican II, the General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours, Laudis canticum--all ask that the prayer of Christ be con-tinued by the members of His Body; earnestly they request that this prayer of Jesus be continued in the revitalized celebration of the Liturgy of the Hour's. It is in our spatio-temporal matrix that groups of praying men and women can continue this prayer of the Lord who lives ever making inter-cession for us (Heb 7:25). Communal prayer will once again take root in the Church at large, replacing, in part, private prayer, especially that form of private recitation of the Office which is a liturgical anomaly. Once again the Church-united may celebrate the prayer of the Hours "to give Him glorious praise" (Ps 66:2). The General Instruction on the Litu.rgy of the Hours, despite the wealth of genuine theological principles and very fine material for meditative re-flection, is rather weak in detailing how the Liturgy of the Hours may "be celebrated in communities--"celebrated" as opposed to "recited," "said," or "read." In the following pages, it is my intent to ,describe how the Liturgy of the Hours is celebrated in our Marianist community in St.Louis, Missouri; likewise, since Evensong was celebrated each evening at St. Mary's University in San Antonio, Texas, during the. 1973 summer session, using the same format of celebration, I would like to include comments from those who participated in those liturgical celebrations. Morning Praise Matins consecrates to God the first movements of our minds and hearts; no other care should engage us before we have been moved with the thought of God, as it is written, "I thought of God and sighed" (Ps 76:4), nor should the body undertake any work before we have done what is said, "I say this prayer to you, Lord, for at daybreak you listen for my voice; and at dawn I hold myself in readiness for you, I watch for you" (Ps 5:4-5).--The General Instruction on the Liturgy o] the Hours, paragraph 38; quotation from St. Basil Morning itself conveys the notion of rebirth and renewal; the gift of God--a new day to be lived out in Christ--stirs the soul of the Christian to prais.e and to supplicationl The character of the Morning Office quite naturally becomes an act of dedication, of preparation, of offering the first fruits of the day's labor to the Lord, in the hope that the entire day will be pleasing in His sight. As Morning Praise is celebrated in our community, a vested celebrant enters the chapel and greets the community after reverencing the altar. A Morning Hymn is sung; this hymn thematically recalls the symbol of God who is light (1 Jn 1:5) and of Christ who is the Sun of Justice (Mal 4:2). Review for Religious, I"olume 33, 1974/1 Praise and thanksgiving for light--both natural and supernatural-colors the sung praise of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. A redeemed people, brought from darkness to the kingdom of God's beloved Son (Col l:13), from darkness of idolatry to the light of the Gospel, we praise our God for crea-tion, for redemption--for the light of day and the light of Christ. A brief penitential rite--an offering of incense--follows the hymn. During the incensation of the standing community, Psalm 51 or 63 is sung. St. Basil explains: "When day is breaking, all together, as from one heart, sing the Psalm of confession [Ps 51] to the Lord, each one making his own these words of repentance." John Chrysostom points out that Psalm 63, an ardent cry of longing for the Lord, is also a Psalm of purification, giving voice to the Christian's awareness of his weakness and need for the loving mercy of the Lord. A collect concludes this brief prayer for purification and readies the community for the celebration of the Word of God. The community is seated during the singing of the morning Psalmody. Psalms of praise, especially the traditional morning Psalms 148 through 150, are used. Ordinarily, only one Psalm is sung and the usual mode of singing is responsorial. Psalms are chosen according to themes well suited for a morning prayer. A significant pause for silent prayer follows the singing of the Psalmody. An appropriate Psalter collect, stressing praise of the beneficent God, concludes the sung Psalmody. An adequate rhythm of community prayer is enhanced through the use of lectio continua in Morning Praise. Especially appropriate are Old Testa-ment selections; since the Epistles and Gospels are proclaimed during the celebration of Evensong or the Eucharist. The choice of readings varies with the Church year. After a period of silence of several minutes, all stand for the singing of the Gospel Canticle of Zachary, which accompanies the offering of incense. As a symbol of intercessory prayer "going up" in the Lord's sight (Rev 8:3-4)--a survival of the Temple usages described in Exodus 29 and 30-- the offering of incense is made at the altar, which is then incensed. Intercessory prayer is generally a brief morning litany which concen-trates on themes of renewal, dedication for the work of the day, prayer for God's continual blessing throughout the day. Usually the prayer is sung; and on penitential days the community kneels for this prayer, which is con-cluded by an appropriate collect. The Lord's Prayer, which Tertullian has called the "epitome of the Gospel itself," that eschatological prayer which stresses the primacy of the kingdom and the life of those living in it, can be considered the climax of the Office. The prayer is always sung and the congregation prays it in the usual orans position. A blessing concludes the Morning Office--the prayer of praise of God, of thanksgiving for creation and redemption, and of ardent desire for the life of the Kingdom. The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities / 49 Evensong Our fathers did not think it right to receive the blessing of evening light in silence. Rather, the moment it appeared, they would praise and thank God for it.--St. Basil, Treatise on the Holy Spirit As day is drawing to a close and the evening is upon us, the Christian community gathers to give thanks "for what has been given us during the day, or for the things we have done well during it" (St. Basil, Regulae fusius tractatae, Resp. 37, 3; PG 31, 1015). With an evening light service, the celebration of Evensong commences. To the proclamation: Jesus Christ is the Light of the world! intoned by a vested deacon, the congregation responds: A Light that no darkness can extinguish! During the ceremonial illumination of the church, the lighting of the candles and the lighting of the chapel lights, an evening hymn is sung. Ordinarily the Phos Hilaron is sung in one of its several settings, or another appropriate evening hymn, stressing the theme of Christ our Light, is sung. A diaconal proclamation, an act of thanksgiving for the blessings of light and an act of praise of God, concludes the light service. An evening act of contrition, an offering of incense, follows; and Psalm 141, "The Psalm at the kindling of lights," accompanies the liberal incensa-tion of the community. This offering of incense, an atonement symbol (Num 17:11-3), is a purificatory action. It should help the Christian com-munity recall the "sweet odor of Jesus Christ" (2 Cor 2:14-6) and be a symbol expressive of that saving blood of the Lamb who ever lives to make intercession for us (Heb 7:25). An appropriate Psalter collect is a conclu-sion to this ritual action. Evening Psalmody is sung responsorially. Ordinarily only one Psalm, in addition to Psalm 141, is sung in the evening. Evening themes of thanks-giving for the blessings of the day and repentance for inevitable daily failings can be found in the Psalter. Such Psalms are appropriate for the evening Office. A period of meditative silence of significant length follows the sing-ing, and this period of prayer is concluded with the praying of a collect. The reading from Scripture is taken from the cycle of readings in the new lectionary. Customarily, Epistle and/or Gospel readings are used in the evening. A homily is preached when Evensong is celebrated immediately preceding the community evening dinner. The period of meditative silence is broken by the singing of the Gospel Canticle of the Virgin Mary which accompanies the offering of incense. In line with the use of incense as a symbol of intercessory prayer, the altar is honored with incense to affirm our belief and real participation in the com-munion of saints (Rev 8:3-4). Gospel Canticles, reverenced as the good news of salvation, are always sung standing. A fundamental part of Christian prayer, intercession for the universal needs of the Church and the world, is offered, following the urgings of Paul (1 Tim 2:1-4). The traditional Byzantine Litany of Peace is often 50 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 sung as one form of intercessory prayer. Other litanies are also used. One of the most famous and popular of the Eastern hymns is the Tri-sagion, which came into wide usage after the Council of Chalcedon in the fifth century. A hymn of Trinitarian praise and thanksgiving as used with the doxology, it is a fitting introduction to the prayer given us by Jesus. It is essentially of the same prayer style of praise and thanksgiving as we find in the prayer given by Jesus and as such it is a beautiful sung introduc-tion. Expressing an ardent desire for the coming of the kingdom and a solemn plea for the forgiveness of sin and genuine fraternal reconciliation, the Lord's Prayer is a most fitting conclusion to the Christian Office. A solemn blessing, most often tripartite in form, is the dismissal of the community, an invocation of the power of God upon the assembly and a petition for the mercy and loving kindness of the Almighty Lord in whose name we have gathered. At times, the Kiss of Peace is exchanged at the conclusion of Evensong, as a symbol of the peace of the kingdom, that peace which alone can be given by the Lord of that dominion. ' Resurrection Vigil of the Lord's Day Come,O faithful: let us drink a new drink, produced miraculously not from a barren rock, but springing from the tomb which is a fountain of immortality: the tomb of Christ by which we are strengthened. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Today the whole creation, he~iven and earth and the deepest abysses of the earth are filled with joy. Let the whole universe celebrate the resurrection by which we are strengthened. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Yesterday I was buried with You, O Christ! Today I rise with You in your resurrection. Yesterday I was crucified with you: glorify me with you in your kingdom. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Christ is risen from the dead! He has crushed death by his death and bestowed life upon those who lay in the tomb. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Jesus is risen indeed, as He had foretold: He has given us eternal life and abundant mercy.--Third Ode, Easter Canon of John of Damascus Byzantine Daily Worship, Easter Sunday, page 849 These words contain the spirit of unrestrained joy of the Christian who encounters the Paschal Mystery of the Lord Jesus. The sense of triumph, of joy, of exultation, and of hope permeate this entire text. While the vigil of the Easter celebration of the resurrection is truly "Mother of all Vigils," nevertheless a weekly commemoration of the Pascha of the Lord is in the mainline tradition of the Church. The celebration of the Resurrection vigil of the Lord's Day, which takes place at eleven o'clock Saturday evening, is a wonderful preparation for the Eucharistic Banquet of the Lord's Day. It is a rich and deep experi-ence of the mystery of the passion, death, and resurrection of our Lord and The Liturgy o] the Hours in Religious Communities / 51 Savior Jesus Christ, celebrated communally with hymnody, Psalmody, and readings. The Night Watch, that time when we gather as a community, to recall the resurrection of Jesus and to pray for His glorious return, is a service of the Word celebrated with grandeur. The chapel is in darkness awaiting the appearance of the New Light. A vested presbyter and vested deacon enter, bearing the lighted Paschal Candle. The diaconal proclamation of Christ as the Light of the World begins the celebration, and the ceremonial illumina-tion of the church is accompanied by the singing of the Phos Hilaron. A Byzantine setting of Radiant Light, arranged for three-part singing, is a magnificent hymn of light praising Father,' Son, and Holy Spirit. The Paschal Candle is honored with incense during the singing. The deacon sings Hip-polytus' Easter Hymn or the Paschal Praeconium, giving voice to the joyful thanksgiving of the Christian assembly. The singing of Psalm 141, with its accompanying offering of incense, is polyphonic. While this ritual action is an evening act of contrition, it is nevertheless a joy-filled, because confident, plea for the loving kindness of the Lord who always awaits with eagerness the return of those who have been unfaithful. Concluding this action of repentance is an appropriate collect. At times the singing of Psalm 141 is omitted in favor of using a differ-ent Psalm, one with Paschal overtones. The second Psalm, sung respon-sorially, takes on a Paschal character through the use of alleluia antiphons. The great cry "Alleluia" re-echoes in the hearts of those who have experi-enced the risen Lord and Psalms of praise express the gratitude of the as-sembly for the Great Passage of the Lord. One of the charismatic speeches recorded in Acts with a sung respon-sorial Psalm or an appropriate patristic reading is the First Lesson, followed by a distinct pause for reflection on and assimilation of the text. The Gospel Alleluia is intoned as the Book of Gbspels is incensed. The account of the Resurrection is sung by the d

Issue 56.1 of the Review for Religious, January/February 1997. ; for relig i ou s Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1997 ¯ VOLUME 56 ¯ NUMBER 1 lived experience of all who find that the church's rich heritages of spirituality support their personal and apostolic Christian lives. The articles in the joumml are meant to be informative, practical, or inspirational, written from a theological or spiritual or sometimes canonical point of view. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Lonis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: I:OPI~ EMA@SLUVCA.SI~U. E DU Manuscripts, books for review, aud correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDouough OP 1150 Cedar Cove Road ° Henderson, NC 27536 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional ,nailing offices. See inside back cover for iuformation on subscription rates. ©1997 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy an), material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal t, se of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear uotice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will o,aly be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisoty Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Jean Read James and Joan Felling Iris Ann Ledden SSND Joel Rippinger OSB Edmundo Rodriguez SJ David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Christian Heritages.and Contemporary Living JA~NUARY-FEBRUARY 1997 ¯ VOLUME 56 ¯ NUMBER 1 contents living the consecrated life ~ 6 The Ambiguity of Religious Life: Does It Evolve? Nadine Foley OP highlights the living tradition of consecrated life evidenced in the phrase "consecration for mission" and its development in Vita consecrata. The Vatican II Generation and Religious Life Brian J. Pierce oP comments on his post-Vatican II experience of contemplative spirituality, community living and sharing, and ministry among the poor. Of Those Who Leave Us: A Typology Edward van Merrienboer OP describes five types of members seeking permission to leave and the behaviors that led to their petitions. growing as christians 37 Four Seasons for Christian Group Sharing Hilary Ot~ensmeyer OSB proposes a dynamic based on the framework of the four seasons for Christian groups to reach new levels of sharing. Inner Work with You~ Anger 'Paul Duckro, Marjorie Kukor, and Jean Meier CSJ present the potential of a contemplative or meditational encounter with anger, so linking the psychological and spiritual aspects of healing. On Letting Go Denise M. Callaghan SSND reflects on the pervasiveness of a "letting go" in the continuing call of God to us as individuals and as a community. Review for Religious 59 loving as celibates Nuptial Love and Discerning Celibacy's Call Daniel J. Trapp examines the specific call to celibacy as a spousal response to Christ's love. Consecrated Celibacy as Means, Peril, and Delight Melannie Svoboda SND describes a few aspects of the religious experience of consecrated celibacy which is rooted in the unfathomable mystery of God's radical-mad love. 72 finding God Mystical Moments in Daily Life Matthias Neuman OSB calls attention to the mystical moments that reveal a transcendent mysteriousness and often a holy . presence which are a part of our ordinary faith experience. Silence Donald Macdonald SMM points the ways in which silence helps us perceive the priceless gift of a Spirit-filled world. Jesus, Power, and the ONE Edmundo Rodriguez SJ presents a way of understanding how action on behalf of justice is sanctioned by the life and teaching of Jesus. departments Prisms ~.,~ /~o ~ ~-,~, ~-Jf~o,o- Canonical Counsel: Diocesan Institutes and Pontifical Institutes Book Reviews January-February 1997 prisms Jesus is the focus of this year's celebra-tions preparatory to the coming third millennium. In John Paul's apostolic letter "As the Third Millennium Draws Near," the thematic structure of the three-year period 1997- 1999 is Trinitarian. Since the distinctly Christological char-acter of the jubilee is a primary emphasis, the first year, 1997, is devoted to "reflection on Christ, the Word of God, made man by the power of the Holy Spirit" (40). National conferences of bishops, local dioceses and individual parishes, religious congregational provinces, and other church organizations have proposed various ways of entering into this reflection on Christ: Some helpful study aids, reflection guides, and discussion outlines are available. Programs and conferences, gatherings among various Christian churches, and especially prayer services are planned throughout .the year. We all are called to become a part of this movement-- like a three-year-long Advent preparation--to celebrate our Christian jubilee. The challenge for each of us is accept-ing our responsibility "to know Christ Jesus" and acting on it. Knowing Jesus was a constant theme of St. Paul's writ-ings to the young churches. It is the theme reemphasized in our preparation for celebrating the millennium. How do we come to know Jesus? Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John each give us a way of knowing Jesus. Every Gospel account became a composite reflection of the stories told about Jesus within an evange-list's particular community. Details and settings of the same stories differ from Gospel account to Gospel account, and it does not matter. Each way of telling the story is true in its Review for Religious ability to give us an entrance into knowing Jesus. At one moment in our lives, through the Gospel of Mark we may find ourselves impressed by the immediate sense of Jesus' activism, the uncluttered quality of his speech, the directness of his affective response. At another time we appreciate the Jesus of Luke's Gospel, who appears so much the person of prayer, compassion, and lively joy. Sometimes the longer wisdom stories of John's Gospel and the image-identity language of being bread, life, light, vine, shepherd, gate, or para-clete call us to pe~r deep into our well of meditation. Over and over as we move through the Gospels, we find ourselves always com-ing to know Jesus~ Perhaps, taking our cue from St. Paul, we might discover anew the insight especially applicable to our millennium preparation. Necessary and helpful as the Gospel accounts are for our knowing Jesus, only in entering into our own experience will we find the Jesus who calls us by name, knocks at the door of our heart, and persists in bringing about the fullness of the reign ofGod. St. Paul was marked forever by his experience of One saying to him, "It is Jesus of Nazareth whom you are persecuting." For Paul there was no confusion of James and Joseph and Julia and Claudia with Jesus. But Paul realized that, in his dealings with James and Joseph and Julia and Claudia, he was also dealing with Jesus and coming to know him more, Paul came to know Jesus the more he preached and the. more he worked with all the people in his churches and the more he prayed. What Paul focuses for each of us is the Jesus in front of us, the Jesus whose coming we await by the way we live and minis-ter now. Jesus in his total gift of living and dying and Jesus in his sure promise of coming is always being made present to us in the Eucharist and so in his Body, the church. We experience Jesus. Experiencing Jesus is more than studying Christology or gospel reading. Experiencing Jesus is more than serving a, soup line or demonstrating for peace. Experiencing Jesus is knowing Jesus in the way that Paul exhorts his churches to know Jesus and to let themselves be seen as models of imitation because of that knowl-edge. The demand for people who know Jesus in this way has never been so clearly expressed as it is in the pope's apostolic letter. In John's Gospel, the story is told of some Greeks who came forward to Philip, making the request "We want to see Jesus." How will we, with the question coming both from within us and from with-out, respond this year to that request? David L. Fleming SJ ~anuary-FebtwaO, 1997 living the consecrated life NADINE FOLEY The Ambiguity of Religious Life: Does It Evolve? A number of years ago, in one of those seemingly endless discussions about the character of religious life that flour-ished among women religious after Vatican Council II, I remember making a reference to the evolution of reli-gious life. Within my hearing a canonist vehemently snapped out an objection. "Her response startled me; I could not see a reason for her agitated insistence. Was it the word evolution? The word seemed appropriate to me as a member of a religious congregation of women whose founders, responding to needs of the mid-1800s, emerged from their cloistered life in Regensburg, Germany, and ,.met the challenges of ministry in their new home in America. The move was not merely geographical. It entailed considerable adaptation of their lifestyle, their sense of mission, and ultimately their self-identity as a religious congregation of women. Their revered daily reg-imen of discipline and prayer as Second Order Dominican nuns was not immediately adaptable to what they were to undertake in a new and strange world. In due time they made the wrenching decision to become conventual Third Order Dominicans, an available alternative within Dominican structures. Was this development some kind of evolution? Nadine Foley OP, a former president of the Leadership Council of Women Religious (LCWR), is professor of religious studies at Siena Heights College and is historian for the Adrian Dominican Sisters. She can be addressed at 1257 East Siena Heights Drive; Adrian, Michigan 49221. Review for Religious Other institutes of women religious, founded directly for active apostolic or ministerial life, came sooner or later to share much similarity with active institutes such as mine that have their ¯ historical roots in the cloistered contemplative life. For both of these groups, there were expectations of meeting the obligations that had pertained to contemplative life: separation from the world, limited contact with the laity, conformity in dress and often in demeanor, a set horarium of prayer and liturgical observance, and disciplinary practices of silence, self-abnegation, and obedi-ence. Many of these were unique to women religious and not shared by their male counterparts. But changes were occurring in women's religious life without the appropriate "infrastructure" to support it. Modifications were made--dropping night vigils and prayers, from the daily horarium, omitting face veils from the prescribed dress, and the like--but tensions often existed, whether acknowledged or not. The model for the religious life of women remained that of the enclosure. The 1917 Code of Canon Law, welcome in many respects, more or :less fixed the ambiguity canonically in the sense that its architects--and, no doubt, members of religious institutes as well--did not have a clear perception that something new was emerging in religious life and might require a new look at the canonical legislation. In the 1930s and 1940s religious congrega-tions hastened .to write new constitutions in conformity with the Code while at the same time many made formal application for the status of pontifical institute. The all-consuming preoccupation for women religious (and many men religious as well) was with developing the entire spectrum of Catholic education and health-care to meet the needs of a burgeoning Catholic population. The effort required education of the members in all of the relevant fields of specialization to meet the standards of accrediting agen-cies. Meanwhile, imperceptible to the outside observer and even to many within religious life, a ferment of dissatisfaction and dis-affection was gradually spreading. The competencies developed by religious in the many secular fields required for their professional ministries had the additional effect of providing them with criti-cal tools of analysis that they began to apply to their own per-sonal development and their social organization as religious institutes. Then came Vatican Council II. By this time the institutes of women's religious life were ready for the directives from Rome ffanuary-Febrttaty 1997 that followed it: Hold a general chapter of renewal within three years, consult all the members in preparation, and enter into a period of experimentation where it seems advisable. A further communication, directing the institutes to write new constitu-tions and statutes, called for a thorough review of the original inspirations of the founders. No one could have predicted the impact of what followed, particularly when the institutes devel-oped internal processes for consulting all the members. Their reflections and consultations brought to the fore a wealth of expe-rience that hitherto had not been factored into general-chapter decisions about the congregations' agendas. The questions and the solutions were wide ranging and radical in the very good sense of reaching to the roots of religious life and its very identity. Reexamining origins and reflection upon a century and a half of experience in ministry were critical in formulating new con-stitutions. The documents produced were perhaps the first to reflect the character of women's active, or ministerial, ~eligious life. Mining the rich tradition~ in the original inspirations of reli-gious institutes led to a breadth in understanding ministry, not so much as specific works, but as response to the needs of people in our times. 'But a parallel effort was in progress at the same time: the reform of the Code of Canon Law. While religious worldwide submitted data for the section on religious life, their work on constitutions proceeded without benefit of knowing how the canonical revisions were progressing. In the final analysis, while some strides were made, religious were unable to find in the revised canons support for some of the new approaches--to traditional values of governance, community, ministry, the vows-- that had already been duly incorporated into their constitutions and statutes. As one who participated in the process of gaining approval of new constitutions through conversations with members of the Vatican Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life (CICLSAL, a recent name change that requires its own exegesis), I had a privileged vantage point from which to examine the notion that religious life does not evolve. While processes had been devised whereby entire congregations participated in developing new constitutions (documents that for the first time accurately reflect our sense of identity as ministerial congregations of women religious), it became quite clear that we were expected ,to fit into a Procrustean bed of fixed categories. Review for Religious The suggestion, once heard, that we could save ourselves a lot of trouble if we just settled upon calling ourselves "secular insti-tutes" epitomized the problem. We did not fit many canonical expectations of "consecrated life," but at the same time we found no comfort in being labeled secular institutes. ("Institutes of apos-tolic life," founded specifically for traditional "missionary" activ-ity in "foreign" lands, continues to be a unique category.) It is against this background that I read the postsynodal apos-tolic exhortation Vita consecrata. Many things can be said about this document, some positive and some nega-tive. (I will not dwell here on the persis-tence of noninclusive language.) But I take encouragement in the inference I draw from it that there is basis here for the idea that religious life can in fact evolve--or at leastodevelop, if that is a more acceptable word. I draw this conclusion as I move from chapter 2 to chapter 3 and find a distinct theological shift from a transcendent view of religioils life to what I will call an incar-national one. The shift is particularly evi-dent in the treatment of consecration, no longer wholly identified with the vows, but associated with mission in the phrase "con-secration for mission." While the theological reorientation is not consistent throughout, the theme is pervasive enough to be noted as a significant change. Two themes that are present throughout 'the exhortation are consecration and eschatology. The manner of their treatment illus-trates, the shifting theology. In chapter 1 the organizing biblical text is Matthew's account of the transfiguration, described as "a decisive moment in the ministry of Jesus" (§ 15, italics in the original here and elsewhere). While the document presents this experi-ence of Peter, James, and John as constantly relived by the whole church, a people on its way to the eschatological encounter with its Lord, it has particular meaning for those called to the conse-crated life. For, we read, Peter's words "Lord, how good it is to be here! . eloquently express the radical nature of the vocation to the consecrated life." The. ecstasy and the mystery of the trans-figuration lead to the evangelical counsels as "a specific acceptance of the mystery of Christ, lived within the Church" (§16). Thus reli- Reexamining origins and reflection upon a century and a half of experience in ministry were critical in formulating new constitutions. Januaty-February 1997 gious consecration is linked to the eschatological realization of the reign of God to come. Applying this interpretation to the three basic vocations within the church, the text reads: "The laity, by virtue of the secular character of their vocation, reflect the mystery of the Incarnate Word particularly insofar as he is the Alpha and the Omega of the world, the foundation and measure of the value of all created things. Sacred ministers, for their part, are 'living images of Christ the Head and Shepherd who guides his people during this time of 'already and not yet,' as they await his coming in glory. It is the duty of the consecrated life to show that the Incarnate Son of God is the eschatological goal towards which all things tend, the splendor before which every other light pales, and the infinite beauty which alone can fully satisfy the human heart" (§16). The three vocations here do not reflect the division of the church into episcopacy, clergy, and laity found in Vatican II's Lumen gentium, an outline that, by including nonclerical religious only invisibly among the laity, seems to drop them from the church (see LG §§31 and 43). While harking back to the "objective superiority of the conse-crated life" (§§18 and 32), a notion seemingly abandoned after Vatican II, chapter 1 acknowledges that religious life, in addition to its eschatological witness, is also "a particularly profound and fruitful way of sharing in Christ's mission, in imitation of the exam-ple of Mary of Nazareth, the first disciple" (§18). The "sacred bond of chastity for the sake of the kingdom of God" is singled out as the first and essential evangelical counsel. A further expansion to all the church's members' manifesting the one mystery of Christ is contained in the statement (here retranslated from the Latin) that, "as their specific but not exclusive characteristics, the lay faithful have activity in the world, the clergy have ministry, and consecrated men and women have special conformity to Christ chaste, poor, and obedient.''l This assertion occurs in the discus-sion of baptism and confirmation's conferral of a consecration that is common to all members of the people of God (§31). Erroneously but understandably, "ministry" in the official English translation of this sentence is sometimes taken to be the exclusive responsibility of the clergy, and special conformity to Christ in chastity, poverty, and obedience an exclusive character-istic of consecrated men and women. The qualifier "but not exclu-sively" seems to be attached only to the specific characteristic of the laity ("activity in the world") when in fact it pertains to the Review for Religious specific characteristics of the other two groups as well. Just as the laity and the clergy are not to repudiate the importance of their own "conformity to Christ chaste, poor, and obedient," neither priests nor (at least during the last several hundred years) women and men religious have been excluded from activity "in the world" along.with the laity. This is "missionary" activity, understood in the fundamental sense of their having been baptized into mission. It is just possible that collectively reli-gious have been quite as involved in ministry in the world as the laity have been, and no doubt proportionately more so until the recent past. Further reflection upon these three distinct-- but also overlapping (officially in this document and manifestly in historical praxis)--categories of baptized people seems to suggest that such separation of roles among the people of God no longer serves, If all the people of God are baptized into mission, and bear a responsibility for it, saving the term ministry exclusively for bishops and priests would scarcely be helpful. The term is today widely applied to many kinds of ser-vice as forms of diakonia, an essential component of mission, along with kerygma and koinonia--preaching and community. Perhaps in this connection we could profit from an expanded exploration of the meaning of the priesthood of all of the faithful. In various ways it is being exercised, but without the kind of theological reflec~ tion that would help us understand who we are as a total priestly people of God addressing the many aberrations in faith and morals that surround us in our global society today~ For many of us the subhead "Consecrated for mission" that appears at the beginning of chapter 3 leaps off the page as a sign of theological breakthrough. It encapsulates the case that I tried to"make for this concept in.my 1989. LCWR presidential address (see Origins 19, no. 13 [31 August 1989]: 209-214). At that time the idea abroad here and there that some r.eligious had opted for consecration and others for mission seemed dangerously divisive. The dichotomy became a defining issue for reflecting upon who and what women religious uniquely had become. We were and If all the people of God are baptized into mission, and bear a responsibility for it, saving the term ministry exclusively for bishops and priests would scarcely be helpful. Janltary-Febrvtmy 1997 are present in the world not merely as a kind of ethereal escha-tological "sign" of the kingdom to come--by reason of the vows we profess, that particular consecration of ours. Rather, we were and are present also as ministerial workers actively advancing the good of people and, thereby, the reign of justice and peace. In this way, too, we are a striking sign of the reign of God--by rea-son of our dedication to the mission of Jesus, consecration in that sense as well. Indeed, as the exhortation at this point says, "The task of devoting themselves wholly to 'mission' is ~,. included in their call . A sense of mission is essential to .every institute, not only those dedicated to the active apostolic life, but also those dedicated to the contemplative life" (§72). In support of this, Luke 4:16~ 19 is cited to emphasize that the Spirit has consecrated Jesus to bring good news to the poor, to captives, to the blind (§82). Consecration for mission places the vows in a new context and suggests that they testify to the evangelical counsels' "profound anthropological significance" (§87). Chastity is presented as a response to "a hedonistic culture which separates sexuality from all objective moral norms, often treating it as a mere diversion and a consumer good and, with the complicity of the means of social communication, justifying a kind of idolatry of the sexual instinct" (§88). Poverty is related to "a materialism which craves possessions, heedless of the needs and sufferings of the weakest, and lacking any concern for the balance of natural resources" (§89). And obe, dience is a response to "those notions of freedom which separate this fundamental human good from its essential relationship to the truth and to moral norms. In effect, the promotion of freedom is a genuine value, closely connected with respect for the human person, But who does not see the aberrant consequences of injus-tice and even violence, in th( life of individuals and of peoples, to which the distorted use of freedom leads?" (§91). These ideas on the vows, incarnational in my view, are more compatible with our experience than the idealized and "transcendental" notions pre-sented in the earlier sections of the document. They are consonant with the serious study we have done on Gaudium et spes and with the implications we have drawn for our identity in mission and the ministries we have undertaken to further the reign of God. These interpretations are welcome in expressing a realistic understand-ing of the vows, one with which we can identify. Whether or not~ religious life evolves is in the end not that sig-nificant a question. What really is at issue is whether or not the Review for Religious church--and the religious life within it--has a living tradition, one that adapts and grows and grafts new things into its old self, for the sake of gospel mission. The experience of women reli-gious over the years reveals that there is a dynamic interior prin-ciple among us that challenges, motivates, energizes, and adapts in our ongoing history. The traditional values of religious life are not cast aside; they are evaluated in new contexts, reinterpreted and reformulated for our mission in the contemporary world. Our communal discernment in these recent years convinces us that this interior principle is the Holy Spirit, to whom we must be faithful. Thus, Vita conseo'ata, Pope John Paul's postsynodal exhor-tation "on the consecrated life and its mission," strikes us as an affirmation of a movement of the Spirit of God that we have rec-ognized in our experience and articulated in our theological reflec-tion. We are happy to find this movement acknowledged in this exhortation. Note i "Licet varia haec genera unum Christi mysterium demonstrent, pro-prietatem peculiarem quamvis non unicam laici prae se ferunt, saecular-itatem nempe, pastores ministeriorum curationem, homines consecrati peculiarem cum Christo virgine paupere oboediente conformationem" (AAS 88, no. 5 [13 May 1996]: 405, §31). Our Lady of the Gifts Bewildered by the gifts: they bring Her son--such treasurest. and still listening For more nightsongs strange spirits sing, Her human love thrusts these apart As not fully human; let him start With just one gift; pressed to her breast For all she has to give: her human heart. Nancy G. Westerfield Janua~y-Februmy 1997 BRIAN PIERCE The Vatican II Generation and Religious Life lhad just celebrated my second birthday when John XXIII _~-went over to a dusty, closed window, threw it open with a smile, and invited the windy spirit of Vatican Council II in to freshen things up a bit. Needless to say, I do not recall the excite-ment of that time. Nor do I remember where I was when the news broke that John F. Kennedy had been shot. Only three at the time, I was probably building a fort in a sandbox somewhere-- totally oblivious to the tears and shock that swept the nation and the world, sending my mother into early labor. I do not even remember my little brother's birth the next morning. My preparation for first Communion was with a group of guitar-playing sisters who taught us a revised version of the Act of Contrition (I never did learn the "0 my God, I am heartily sorry" version that my older brother learned). They taught us, too, thaf it was okay to chew the Communion host before swal-lowing it, something my brother had distinctly been told not to do. To top it all off, none of my philosophy or theology classes as a Dominican were in Latin, and so, every time an older Dominican tosses out a Latin phrase during a dinner conversation, We younger men just roll our eyes and pretend to know what he is saying. Coming from that background, I can honestly say that I love the church and am committed to continue the journey as a Brian J. Pierce oP is a member of a Dominican community whose activ-ity includes lay ministry formation, university ministry, and pastoral accompaniment of persons with AIDS. His address is Frailes Dominicos; Apartado 2608, San Pedro Sula; Honduras, Central America. Review for Religious believer, a disciple of Jesus, and a preacher in the family of St. Dominic. I often get the feeling, though, that some of those who grew up in the pre-Vatican church look at us of the postconciliar generation as second-class Catholics: "Nobody can call himself a real Catholic if he's never attended a forty-hours' devotion," said one of those faithful daily-Mass folks to me one morning. I swallowed and smiled, not daring to confess to him that the young priest who had just "said Holy Mass" was one of those question-able "pseudo-Catholics." A sense of humor and some patient understanding help in those situations in which the distances between the generations seem irreconcilable. Religious Life and Spiritual Development In his recent book Further along the Road Less Traveled, M. Scott Peck, noted psychiatrist and spiritual guide, has capsulized in simple language the stages of spiritual development that James Fowler and others had mapped out earlier. Peck speaks of four stages: (1) chaotic-antisocial, (2) formal-institutional, (3) skeptic-individual, and (4) mystical-communal. My intention here is not to give an overview of the stages, but instead to comment on my own experience as a religious withi'n the post-Vatican church in light of Peck's categories. I realize that to make sweeping generalizations about faith development, especially on an institutional level, is both preten-tious and dangerous. I do so only as a way of situating us within the present moment so that we can more readily hear the Spirit calling us to growth. All ages of church history have had persons and communities representing each of the four stages. I think, though, that i( is safe to say that the pre-Vatidan church and reli-gious life had become somewhat bogged down in the legalistic uniformity of Peck's stage 2 (formal-institutional). Vatican II opened up the windows and doors of dialogue, both within the church and with the world. This dialogue marked the social and ecclesial environment in which my generation of religious grew up. In our childhood years Catholic liturgy was being transformed (causing its share of confusion, I later learned), and we began singing such hits as "Sons of God, hear his holy word" (inclusive language being still in an embryonic stagg). Renewal brought many new apostolic groups and movements, and there was an Janua~y-Febm,ary 1997 Pierce ¯ The Vatican H Generation and Religious Life overall air of dialogue and experimentation, especially in religious life. Uniformity was out, and modified habits and consensus deci-sion making were coming in. Vatican II's fresh breeze opened up the possibility for many persons and religious communities to move into skeptic-individ-ual faith development, Peck's stage 3. Peck says that, even though this stage is outwardly less "religious," it is in fact more "spiritual.". It is the stage of healthy questioning, conscientious dissent, and the blending of psychology and spirituality. In many ways those first years manifested themselves as an overreaction to the for-malities and legalisms of years past. In a positive sense it was a time of much dialogue and growth. My generation was still too young to be involved in 'the dialogue, but our early religious edu-cation took place in that environment. I remember the lay couple who taught our confirmation class in the early 1970s stressing that for us to be mature Christians we had to learn to make moral decisions with gospel responsibility. A far cry from the Baltimore Catechism of our parents' generation! Now we are in the 1990s and rapidly approaching the new millennium. Again, recognizing the frailty of making any kind of generalization, I think it safe to say that most of us raised in the postconciliar generation and most of the religious communities that went through renewal are still in Peck's stage 3. I do not mean that we have stopped growing or have become stagnant. Quite the contrary. In the American church in general and also among religious, a strong spirit of creative searching, is still preva-lent. At the same time, though, I think that very few religious communities have moved to what Scott Peck calls the mystical-community level. This may be quite natural, given the fact that Vatican II happened only thirty years ago, but my hope is that our generation may have something to offer here. Those of us who were formed in stage-3 parishes and reli-gious communities, complete with guitar Masses and face-to-face "celebrations of reconciliation," never went through the painful birthing process that gave way to the renewal of Vatican II. We are grateful to those who have gifted us with this rich inheritance-- a more mature and liberating life of faith within the community of believers. In many ways we had it easy, and perhaps it is now our .turn to lead the way through the desert. Many of my friends (ages twenty to forty) have left the church for a variety of reasons. Some have gone back to stage-2 Review for Religious Catholicism (usually lured there by disgruntled elders) or have found security in fundamentalist Christian groups. Reactionary Catholic religious congregations and movements and Bible-thumping evangelical churches (sometimes even with a shiny, high-tech faFade) are on the rise. Others of my friends--some of whom experimented with drugs--are trying to get to stage 4 by New Age pseudomysticism. Many young people today have a thirst for religious and mystical experience, and not all of them seek just a quick fix. The large num-ber of young adults (many ex-Catholics) adhering to the rigorous disciplines of Eastern meditation practices is an impor-tant phenomenon of our day. Our gener-ation is willing to sacrifice if we believe it is worthwhile (that is, no blind obedience, please). What, then, is this new journey that calls out to us today? If Our religious com-munities are not opening up the path to a deeper mystical and communal level of faith (Peck's stage 4), how can we respond in creative ways to bring about the needed growth? I am no expert on either faith development or postcon-ciliar religious renewal, nor do I propose to speak on behalf of all the Vatican II'generation. I simply speak out of my fourteen years of experience, prayerful struggle, and reflection as a Dominican. We have been hearing for several years now that religious life is in crisis, and I basically agree with that reading of the signs of the times. Crisis, however, does not have to mean something bad, a negative experience. Crisis can mean growth, a time for matur-ing, Just as past generations of Catholic religious strove to pro-duce new forms of religious life, so must we do today. This is no time to give up or go backward. We have received a generous and precious inheritance indeed, but the "not yet" of God's reign still burns within us: Now it is our generation's time and task to carry the torch. I am aware that much is being written about the renewal and refounding of religious life these days, and in no way do I intend a comprehensive overview of the issues at'stake. I will look at three main topics (contemplative spirituality, community living and sharing, and ministry among the poor) while attempting to We have received a generous and precious inheritance indeed, but "not yet" of God's reign still burns within us. I7- Januao,-Feb~waO, 1997 Pierce * The Vatican H Generation and Religious Life reflect on them from the perspective of us who were raised beneath the cool shade of Vatican II. Contemplative, Prayerful Living My mother, whbm I consider to be a fairly open and renewed Catholic, still pulls a tattered Stations of the Cross prayer book out of her purse to reflect on before Mass or after Communion. In other words, she still holds on to and receives life from the meditative and devotional practices common before Vatican II. That kind of prayer-book piety does not fill my spiritual needs, but neither does the "my ministry is my prayer" pastoral workaholism that apparently has taken its place, especially among us younger religious. It seems to me that we went from saying prayers (Peck's stage 2) to not saying prayers (stage.3 skepticism) and somewhere along the way began to lose sight of the plain, simple art of just praying. For many of us, the charismatic renewal, with its focus on prayer rather than saying prayers, offered a stepping-stone in our spiritual development, but the emotionalism and fundamental:- ism in the movement caused many to look elsewhere. I am con, vinced now more than ever, after five years of living among the destitute poor of Central America, that being a follower of Jesus necessitates a deep commitment to prayer--and prayer requires time, energy, and creativity. Without a very intentional spiritual life, we run the risk of doing many good things on an ego~ trip rather than out of gospel-based selfless love. As I grow in prayer-ful communion with God, I discover that my loving others is freer, less needy, more liberating. In the past several years, there has been a growing interest in contemplative and centering prayer throughout the country. This is a wonderfully hopeful sign, and in many places it is the laity who are taking the lead in this kind of prayer. It saddens me that I have lived in or visited religious communities where com-mon prayer is either nonexistent (stage-3 individualism, at best) or simply "reciting the breviary" (stage-2 formalism). In order to grow into a communal, stage-4 level of faith, we must learn once again what it means to really pray together. I occasionally spend my annual retreat with a small commu-nity of Benedictine women in Oklahoma. These women gather three times a day for contemplative, sitting meditation, a blend of Review for gelig4ous Catholic contemplative prayer and Eastern meditation practices. The shared silence has been a gift beyond measure for me. In my years of formation, we were enc.ouraged to give time each day to personal or "private" prayer--can Christian prayer ever be "pri-vate"?-- but because of the previous generations' experience of having to spend a half hour together each morning in the chapel for "meditation," we rarely shared silence as a form of prayer. It seems to me that in our day and age, with all its diversity and respect of the individual, we could profit immensely from a kind of shared prayer of silence. Silence binds together and bridges gaps in ways that words sometimes cannot. The liturgical reforms brought in by Vatican II .helped to bring our com-mon prayer back into the real world, but I believe that in many ways our common prayer has become just one more task to complete in the day's busy schedule and thus something that many find uninteresting. Introducing some shared silence into our common prayer can be a way of celebrating sacred time together in a "non-doing" manner. Prayer as a,task to be completed increases the workaholism of the many religious and lay Christians brought up on "do good to your neighbor" faith renewal after Vatican II. Not that we should reverse the renewal, for the recovery of the social-justice dimen-sion of our faith has been one of Vatican II's greatest gifts to the church; but are we perhaps only following our culture's insatiable drive for success and efficiency when we burn ourselves out as gospel do-gooders? A deep spirituality.that combines contem-plative prayer and Sabbath rest not only promotes gospel values, but challenges our consumerist society as well. The renewal of the contemplative dimension of our religious life consequently brings into question the professionalization of our ministerial commitments. I think that the emphasis on solid formation in theology, Scripture, and the social sciences that has come as a result of Vatican II is to be highly lauded, especially for women religious, for whom such opportunities were rare in the preconciliar years. To my mind, this move toward professional- In our day and age, with all its diversity and respect of the individual, we cof~Id profit immensely from a kind of shared prayer of silence. ~anua~y-February 1997 Pierce * The Vatican II G, eneration and Rdi~_ous Life ization, though, has taken away much of the evangelical freedom that marked the early years of our foundations. As professionals we have had to buy into the world of competitive salaries, con-trolled work schedules, tenure-track professorships, and the over-all efficiency mind-set that characterizes the corporate and professional marketplace. Can we honestly cultivate the deeply contemplative prayer life that we entered religious life desiring while yielding too much to that system? Without losing sight of the need to be justly compensated for our ministry, have we not given up some of the freedom to "be with and for God" by trad-ing in our vow of poverty for the corporate model of church life? Have we fallen into'a minimalisrunderstanding of Sabbath (noth-ing more than Sunday Mass) because of the demands of ministry? At a recent day-long conference on Dorothy Day and Thomas Merton--given by Jim Forrest, who knew them both--someone asked what his strongest memory of Dorothy Day was. Jim answered quickly and with no hesitation: "When I think of Dorothy, I think of her on her knees praying. She spent a lot of time in prayer." Imagine that! This dedicated social-justice apos-tle of the United States is remembered as a woman on her knees praying, and for long periods at a time. Stage 4's mystical dimen-sion cannot be integrated into our lives if prayer is just another point on the "things to do" list for the day (after clocking out from work at the social-service agency, of course). Our commu-nal and contemplative prayer must be leaven in the dough of our daily lives. For, when our prayer truly becomes prayer, then our ministry and our lives as a whole will also become prayer. Real Community vs. Corporate Individualism We know it. We say it. We preach it. We write books about it. But do we live it? Do we live real community? The early Christian communities were not sacramental fast-food outlets, nor were they the early predecessor to Motel 6 (key, clean bed, cable TV,, free breakfast, cheap rates). They were brothers and sisters who had made a commitment to each other and to fol-lowing in the footsteps of Jesus of Nazareth. They lived, shared their goods, worshiped, and died with and for one another and the gospel. The beatitudes were their daily bread, and they knew that being a disciple of J.esus was to be their everything, their cross and their deep joy. Jesus was the way, the path by which the com- Review for Religious munity of believers would walk together towards the promised reign of God. Does this sound a bit idealistic? Well, the picture which the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles paint for us probably is a somewhat idealized version of reality. But let us not forget that these pictures appear in our Scriptures precisely because they were the goal towards which the early communities strove. Many ist-century Christians gave their lives to make this dream of com-munal gospel testimony a lived reality. Today we have the same struggles, difficulties, and weaknesses as the early Christians. But can we also claim to share the same goal of offering the world a living witness of the Body of Christ? I think that women and men religious provide coundess exam-ples of Christian witness, but I also think that the communal dimension of gospel living--and consequently of religious life-- has suffered great setbacks since Vatican II. We give ourselves to excellent and creative ministries, but more and more we do them alone. Everyone in the community has a project, and all the pro-jects are nicely organized under a fancy mission statement. We have all made use of the Myers-Briggs and the enneagram to facil-itate our once-a-month interface gatherings (which used to be called community meetings!), but does the world feel the force of our communal witness to the gospel of Christ? In my own Dominican tradition, the example of the first fri-ars in the Americas stands out strongly: a small band of Spaniards on the island of Hispaniola in the early 16th century. Needing to make a response to the atrocities of the conquest and oppression of the island's native inhabitants, and convinced that the atrocities were not the will of God, the community broke with the dominant theology of the day and preached that the Spanish conquerors were living in mortal sin because of their unjust treatment of the Indians. They all signed the community's homily that was preached by Antonio de Montesino, and, as expected, their words brought upon themselves a tidal wave of reactions, one of which was a harsh reprimand from their provincial back in Spain. Listening to the homily that day was young Bartolom~ de las Casas, who years later became the continent's most important defender of the cause of Indian rights. The question that blaringly stands out is whether or not the same words from a single Dominican friar on the island would have had the same dynamic effect on the history of Latin America that the community witness had. I think not. .']anuaty-FebruaD, 1997 Pierce ¯ The Vatican H Generation and Religious Life Today's church has become so individualistic in its focus that one wonders if there is still room for a prophetic witness in com-mon. The "something for everyone" mentality has worked its way into every part of chursh life in our country. Many of our parishes look more like the food malls where thirty or so minirestaurants are squeezed in between J.C. Penney's and Florsheim Shoes. We have become pastoral experts in creating a program for every-one, in itself not a bad outreach mentality; but the lack of focus is something we have to look at seriously. What is the message we are giving about the gospel? How can we celebrate the gains brought on by the council, with its renewal of lay participation in church life, without dispersing our witness in so many directions? I believe we need to step back and ask ourselves the tough ques-tion: Is corporate individualism the same as community? The question becomes even more urgent when we ask it from the point of view of publicly vowed religious life. Are we mir-roring the communal striving of the early Christian communi-ties or the strategic planning model of IBM? Brother David Steindl-Rast~OSB, in his book Gratefulness, the Heart of Prayer, uses a wonderful image to describe community living. He com-pares the old model of pre-Vatican corporate uniformity (Peck's formal-institutional) to sardines all lined up in a can--nice and orderly, but all dead. Real community, he says, is more like a school of fish swimming together gracefully'(Peck's mystical-com-munal). I think that we threw away the sardine can in the 1960s and then, liberated and full of life, all swam off in different direc-tions (Peck's skeptic-individual). How can we get back to swim-ming together gracefully in a school without destroying our creativity or drowning our witness in watered-down corporatism? There certainly are no easy answers, but we know deep down the hunger for such a life. Young people want community. Many of the people my age and younger are tired of the broken fami-lies, broken relationships, and lonely apartment living that have characterized our generation. The thousands of young people who flock to Taiz~ each year in postmodern, de-Christianized Europe must be telling us something. The human heart longs for communion, and the world denies the fulfillment of that longing to more and more people everyday. Many religious women and men are choosing to live alone and work .in their own ministries, often identifying themselves professionally with a group that is not their religious community. Review for Religious We have come to accept this reality as quite normal, but will it continue to attract young people to a life of public, gospel-cen-tered, and vowed living? Real community is an urgent need for us who long to channel our creative energies in healthy ways in a world that sees little value in the commitment of celibate living. Will we find that companionship if we come home to an answer-ing machine full of messages or a "com-munity" room full of brothers or sisters inert before the TV set like the pillars at Stonehenge? Could Acts 2:42-47 give us some hints as to where to continue journeying along the path? References there to the teaching of the apostles, the common life, the breaking of the bread, and prayer point to a community that spent a lot of quality time together. Today we have many meetings run with corporate efficiency, but do we really spend time together (sharing the day's stories during a leisurely evening meal, faith sharing, studying the day's or the week's liturgy texts together, recreating or even taking a day off together--away from the phone and TV-)? The early Christian community's life had a tremendous impact on the local people (2:43). Does ours? Have we ever considered a ministry in which the whole community works as a team (for example, a series of lay formation workshops, time each week in a soup kitchen, regular visits to the AIDS wing of a hospital), giving witness to the value of community through our example? The passage goes on (2:44-45) to the difficult point of sim-ple living and common sharing of goods. It is an area of great challenge for us today. We have adopted the "have credit card, will travel" mentality of mainstream America, some of which, per-haps,, is inevitable. But are we taking these steps with sufficient reflection and caution? Are we willing to defend the truth even when it may not be a popular stance among some of our generous benefactors? Do we tithe from our salaries and communal accounts?.Where does our province or religious congregation invest its money? Do those investments promote social, economic, and ecological justice? Are we content with generic brands of food Many of the people my age and younger are tired of the broken families, broken relationships, and lonely apartment living that have characterized our generation. ffanuaty-February 1997 Pierce ¯ The Vatican H Generation and Religious Life and a simple wardrobe? Do we have a common library, or do we all keep adding personal bookshelves? There are many questions to struggle with, but gospel witness is well worth the struggle. The last two verses of the passage (2:46-47) speak of enthu-siasm, joy, and simple sharing. We glimpse an early community that freely praised God while giving a clear witness to an alter-native, counterculrural way of living. Freedom to be for God and for others was their common ground. They risked martyrdom in order to keep giving their communal witness to the gospel. Theirs is not an easy act to follow, but it sure beats a sardine-can existence or lonely nights at Motel 6. Acompafiamiento, a Way of Walking with the Poor A great gift of Vatican II and these past thirty years has been the church's openness to continuing the dialogue with the world that the council's document on the church, Lumen gentium, high-lighted. The Latin American Church followed up with the prophetic stances taken during the Medellin and Puebla confer-ences of bishops (1968 and 1979). In the United States the pastoral letters on peace and economic justice have been lights .on the path of relating gospel faith to pertinent issues in our world today. We must not underestimate the steps that have been taken since Vatican II. Having said all this, I wish to comment on where I see a weak-ness in our post-Vatican II model of engagement with the world's poor. Not that what is being done is wrong or contrary to the gospel, but in many instances there is, I think, a need to move to a deeper level. Archbishop Oscar Romero, the martyred prophet of El Salvador, popularized during his years as archbishop the term acompa~amiento (accompaniment), a form of walking with the poor that is different from just working with the poor. Acompa~amiento is a way of living more than a way of doing (though, of course, this division in itself is dualistic). Several years ago I heard the noted liberation theologian Gustavo Guti~rrez say that we often reduce the option for the poor to going to the poor neighborhoods and barrios, to the social-service centers and the inner-city schools to work during the day, only to return to our comfortable homes and convents at night. To truly opt for the poor, Guti~rrez said, means to spend the nights withthem as well. In other words, we are called not only Review for Religiotts to do good things for the poor, but to be with them, to walk with them, to live with them, and, if necessary, to die with them. Romero's acompa~amiento could be translated as "sharing bread along the journey." It is different from giving bread to the poor; it is a sharing of life that dissolves the distances that separate us from them. To opt for the poor through acompa~amiento moves beyond all dualisms to make more real the concepts of global commu-nity and people of God. The hospice movement, Habitat for Humanity, L'Arche, and Christian base communities are expres-sions of this new way of being church and community. Each model portrays a community of equals, living and working together for a new world. There is very little corporate mentality present in them. This was the power of Archbishop Romero's witness--an erasing of the distances: the sheep and the shepherd together risk-ing their lives for the kingdom. How can our communities continue to make the transition to more of an acompa~amiento model over the traditional "charity" model (I do not favor the impoverishment of the word charity in contexts like this). I believe that, first of all, we have to set aside the obsession with efficiency and success that our world impresses upon us and complement our doing with an equal emphasis on being with. It is not an easy step. Rather than sending money, clothes, and food to the poor, can we pray, eat, study, recreate, and even live with them? The challenge is at the heart of the Catholic Worker Movement founded by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin decades ago, and it is the call heralded by St. Paul when he proclaimed that our baptism erases all the divisions between persons, making possible a true community of equals (Ga 3:28). Finally, and perhaps this takes us back to the start, I believe that to truly love the poor as .sisters and brothers requires a con-templative (mystical) heart. To develop the capacity to stand in silence alongside the poo~r and accept the ambiguities of life is to grow into the mystical dimension of our faith. We really are not separate from "the others," but only a contemplative heart can begin to grasp the interconnectedness that holds us all together. If we grow in such contemplativeness, our being with becomes less a heroic act of giving life to .somebody in need and more a happy fulfilling of our potential as children of God: we are uninhibitedly glad of the opportunity to see the kingdom that .Jesus preached radiating from our simple act of "sharing bread along the journey." Januao,-FeblvlaO, 1997 Pierce * The Vatican H Generation and Religious Life I recently learned this lesson anew. A group of university stu-dents and I were scheduled to visit the inmates at the local prison. The students, among whom was Diana, a young crippled woman, met at our house, about ten blocks from the prison. I quietly asked if one of the students would go with her on the bus while the rest of us walked to the prison. Overhearing my request, Diana told me politely that she preferred to walk. I would not hear of it. Angry that no one offered to go with her on the bus, I decided to do it myself. By that point Diana, perceiving herself a burden to ¯ the group, had grabbed her crutches and begun walking home. When she finally had the courage to return to the group two months later, she told me I had made her feel terribly uncom-fortable that day. I had wanted to do something~r Diana. She simply wanted to be part of the group. I had seen her as a problem rather than as a person. Without a heart made flesh by prayerful silence and careful listening, we run the risk--as we go about doing good works to save the world of forgetting that we too are just part of this world already saved by God's love. To step back, to see and lis-ten to God speaking to us through poor people, is not always the quickest, most efficient way to bring about change in the world, but it is God's way. Stepping back, we discover anew each day that we are all part of one body--crippled, broken, healed, and set free. Community and Grace Thirty years after Vatican II, we all still have much to learn. The gospel is new each day and in every generation. However much progress we may have made since, the council, we need some self-critique as we continue the journey. Many people my age are not attracted to a church that differs little from the trap-pings of their everyday job, and the skeptic individualism in reli-gious life does not stand out as an exciting alternative. They can live that way and get paid a pretty good salary for it! Religious life' among the Vatican II generation must continue to offer some kind of critique of the dominant culture if it is to be viable for our times. Some cultural criticism, however, neglects important parts of Jesus' teaching. The post-Vatican II generation of Catholics is nov looking for more moralistic condemnations of modernity. They want a life with deep meaning, a simple life Review for Religious they can share with real people (and not just through their Internet modems!), a life that can help to make our world a bet-ter place without making themselves workaholic basket cases in the process. I believe it is still possible to swim gracefully through the waters of our times, guided not by the uniformity of the past nor the runaway individualism of the present, but by the Spirit of Jesus given to us and quietly moving in us with transforming new-ness and amazing grace. Awakening Golden leaves rustle and swirl Beneath the silver birch tree As sunlight from crisp blue skies Comes to rest on the forest floor. And nature poised on winter's brink Does not die but falls asleep Until it one bright spring morn Awakens to song of birds and brook. How like our lonely restless souls When in their final slumber lie Until aroused one glorious dawn By sweet sounds of an angel's horn. Eva Marie Ippolito Janua~y-Fd.-uaty 1997 F EDWARD VAN MERRIENBOER Of Those Who Leave Us: A Typology Tpe contemporary leader of a religious community is ected to be a person of prayer, with a vision, who can manage finance and who knows the legal aspects of public cor-porate life. Although few people ever fulfill all of these expecta-tions, most leaders do very well at some of them while in office. Many leadership tasks give one a sense of joyful accomplishment; of those that fail to do so, none is more painful, in my experi-ence, than participating in the departure of a member. I was a member of my province's council from 1973 to 1983 and then, until 1992, a member of our general council in Rome. In both the provincial and international contexts, the pain was ever present when a petition for dispensation came in. Impressed by the unique story that each of the many petitions revealed, I began to ask myself what I could learn from them personally and corporately about departure. During my nine years on our general council, I kept a brief list of people's reasons for leaving. My purpose was to learn from these experiences how to help those in leadership. I wanted espe-cially to help the men working in our initial formation programs so that they in turn could help our candidates avoid such painful experiences for themselves and their communities in the future. I share these reflections in that spirit. Edward van Merrienboer OP chairs the Department of Theology and Philosophy at Barry University. From 1983 to 1992 he was assistant gen-eral for the apostolic life of the Dominican order. He has written on reli-gious life, social justice, and spirituality. He can be addressed at Barry University; 11300 Northeast Second Avenue; Miami Shores, Florida 33161. Review for Religious Collating the many stories, I found that about eighty percent of those who left our community from 1983 to 1992 could be gathered into five groups, no matter what part of the world they lived in. My findings, of course, are not scientific conclusions of the sort one expects from an empirical study using a sociological method. Rather, they are reflections made after reading petition after petition regarding departure decisions that had been arrived at by individuals and/or the provincial leadership. I did not speak with the men petitioning for dispensation, nor did I interview their provincial leadership for additional data. My typology is based on what they and their provincial superiors wrote in the petitions. Typologies are models that seldom fit reality perfectly: there is always some overlap among the types. But still the general pat-terns proved helpful when I was making visits to our provinces. These types, from what I have learned from previous members of our general council, represent a change. During the time of Pope Paul VI, most members departed°to enter marriage. Today this is still a reason, but other reason~ have become more dominant. I have shared my findings with members of other general councils. They have found my insights to be valid in their communities and have encouraged me to share them more widely. What follows is a brief description of the five types of mem-bers seeking permission to leave and of the behaviors that led to their petition: the free agents, the must-have-its, the new founders, the loss-of-hopes, and the I'm-better-nows. The Free Agents Most free-agent petitions came from those who entered at the time of the Second Vaticah Council or within ten years after it. My religious community, like most religious communities of that time, was emerging from an era of strict legalism and con-formity. While we never had a fixed mold to force people into, informal ideas of what religious were supposed to be and to do defined almost every aspect of our lives. Perfection would be achieved by going through a "narrow gate," the perfect mechanism for making sure that, of the many called, few would be chosen. After the council, all the rules of our life were examined and revised. Now a wide embrace would replace the narrow way that was so well defined. Pluralism was encouraged in ministry and in 29 January-Feblwal.'~ 1997 Merrienboer * Of Those Who Leave Us local community life. Everyone was encouraged to participate in shaping our life and mission.For most of us this new freedom was a blessing because it allowed us to be ourselves and be faith-ful to our community at the same time. While limits were less defined, most religious knew that there were limits because of our vowed life. This was not the case with the members whom I am calling free agents. They enjoyed the new freedom and saw no limits. For some of them the freedom involved embracing works that were hard to locate within the mission of the institute or within the vowed life. Commonly they found ways to spend community funds while being little concerned about bringing in any money themselves or about the consequences of their expenditures on their community. Because finance is so concrete, much of the ten-sion between free agents and their community is about money. In extreme cases they establish private bank accounts or have funds that are not accountable to the community. Sizable funding is essential to them because it provides the means to express their freedom. Money provides the physical necessities they need to be free from the community's demand for responsible account-ability. Another area of conflict between free agents and their com-munity is their approach to relationships within and outside the community. Some of these relationships become exclusive com-mitments that involve genital expression. Self-direction in ministry becomes essential as part of their freedom agenda. Most are happy with the spirit of freedom that the council mandated; but, when "oppressive" superiors or members begin to challenge their lim-itless freedom, they became unhappy and start to question their vocation. They often say that they woul.d never have come to the point of seeking dispensation from their vows if it had not been for narrow-minded, or legalistic leaders. They do not see the problem of living a lifestyle that is contrary to their public commitment. Long and painful dialogues with their superiors do not enable them to see the points of conflict. Some express their anger at the community for trying to restrict the freedom given to them by the council. Many view the challenges coming to them from their community as statements of distrust. The decision to leave the community is a result of having to choose concretely between their agenda of freedom and certain Review for Relig~ous behaviors their community identifies as essential. It is tragic that often these members leave us without ever understanding that every life option imposes certain limits upon people, that in this regard religious life is no different than any other vocation. The Must-Have-Its Departing members of the second type seek dispensation within a very short time--usually three years or less--after their final profession or ordination. Judging from externals, one won-ders whether these members have really given religious life a fair chance. A common concern expressed by leadership is that these members may be acting in haste. The problems the mem-bers are experiencing could be rooted in the normal adjustment period from initial forma-tion to the wider life of the community. Because of the short time that these mem-bers have been in the community, unless there have been major difficulties previously, most religious superiors give only a very qualified support to their petitions for dispensation. This is understandable from an administrative per-spective, but I think there is an aspect of these members' personality that is perhaps being over-looked. It is this: They cannot come to a decision to leave the religious life or the priesthood until they actually possess these realities. Part of their personality demands that they prove to themselves that they can be a religious before they can decide that they do not want to be one. Some of this feeling is rooted in a need to be clear that they are rejecting the community and not being sent away. Very often I noted that, when during their initial formation they were asked as candidates to question their decision to be a religious, they responded by devoting themselves to becoming a better religious. Even when their simple vow period was extended so that they could look at their vocation, they never questioned their call to religious life. Some indicate that, almost from the day of their final pro-fession or ordination, they began to question if this was for them. They felt that before final profession they really .had not known While limits were less defined, most religious knew that there were limits because of our vowed life. Janua~y-Feb~vla~y 1997 Merrienboer ¯ Of Those Who Leave Us what it would be like; now they knew fully and were not happy. Others fully expected that after final commitment their experience of the life and ministry would change radically. It did not; in some ,cases it even became worse. They were given less attention and were expected to be fully contributing members of the commu-nity- which beEame a major source of frustration. Even in situations where a mentor was assigned to assist them in their adjustment to the postformation community life, there was little the community could do to change the attitude that, "now that I have what I set out to achieve, I noolonger want it." My reading of their autobiographies comes up with a pattern throughout their life of obtaining something, then setting it aside. Before entering the community, a high number of petitioners had obtained graduate degrees in unrelated fields and then never used this knowledge and experience. At the core of persons of this type is their inability to project their hopes into the future and make an assessment of their fitness for that vocation. Their experiences of initial formation do not enable them to make an educated guess about their ability to live religious life in the future. They only know what is present to them, and now that they have the life in its fullness they no longer want it for themselves. The New Founders Some people enter a religious community with the idea of reshaping it according to their own vision of religious life. Such an idea is in strange contrast to a community's centuries-long acceptance of its charism, but it is a fact that some people feel that their own image of religious life today takes priority over all that has come before it. One area into which such new-foundation efforts are brought is the community's mission. New founders would define this mis-sion as movement for social change or promotion of a different theological perspective. In countries where there has been a his-tory of repression in society, they see religious community as a resistance movement that offers its members prophetic opportu-nities. When the new founders promote involvement in social action, they become disappointed that not all the members feel called to participate. In more industrial countries the meaning of religious life, Review for Religious according to some new founders, is to protnote the women's movement or the gay movement. For others it is to become pro-tectors of traditional understandings of the faith. A common focal point for new founders is the community's liturgy. It becomes the platform for their view of religious life. Whether traditional or progressive, they see community prayer as a way to form the other members into a new identity. Most new founders are critical of programs for new members and of the actions of the community's leaders. They believe that, if their own vision of things prev~lils, the community will be refounded with new vitality. They blame the community's short-age of vocations on its resistance to their newcomers' vision of community renewal. The tone of their petitions for dispensation often indicates that they consider themselves to be ahead of or even better than most of the institute's members. They predict dire consequences for the community after their departure, Convinced that their own vision is important and urgent, they feel they must leave and find a place to implement it immedi-ately. Such refounding attitudes seem to stem from an assumption that the community is joining them on their journey, not that they are joining a group that already has a reasonably defined identity as it proceeds on its journey. In my experience, formation programs that encourage self-expression without enough regard for the community's corporate identity only encourage new founders in convictions that will prove problematic. The Loss-of-Hopes I have thus far described three types of departing members. I believe that the responsibility for their departure from religious life rests primarily with them and not the community. The com-munity has failed them in many ways, but the motivation of these individuals has been essentially flawed, often from their very early years in religious life. The fourth type of persons leaving reli-gious life today are different. Here the primary responsibility for the departure lies with the community, with its lack of faithfulness to its charism. These tragic petitions come from persons who have given their best effort to be faithful to the religious life and have not found much support from other members. Some have found it JanuaTy-Febtvtaty 1997 Merrienboer * Of Those Who Leave Us nearly impossible to find within their community a supportive environment for prayer and the vowed life. If they have shared their frustrations with other members, they often have received kind words but not active support. Sometimes this, alienation from the community has been caused by other members' general lack of interest in things spir-itual. These other members see themselves as professionals and have little feeling for the idea of a vocation. Considering the meaning of the vows to be very personal, they avoid discussing their own viewpoint with others for fear of seeming to impose it on them. I believe that the departure decisions of members of this type are rooted in their experience of hopelessness about the direc-tion in which the community seems to be moving. Often they feel that they do not even speak a common language about reli-gious life with the other members. They feel that the commu-nity has settled for the lowest common denominator for reasons of avoiding the tensions associated with serious conversion efforts. From my distant vantage point, there appear to be real signs of death in places where these departing members have been living their religious life; regrettably, suggestions to try another place are too late by the time the petition for dispensation reaches the major superior. It falls on leaders to learn from these tragic stories and to address the perceived failures as part of their leadeiship task. In my experience, it is almost impossible to restore hope to members who have become disillusioned; but leadership should make dis-tinct efforts to change situations in which, in the future, even more members would be likely to lose their hope. The I'm-Better-Nows Persons of the fifth and final type of men leaving religious life during my term of office were those who through most of their lives suffered from spiritual or emotional problems. Often their motive for entering religious life was the hope of having their problems resolved by the vowed life. Some of these problems were rooted in their early childhood experiences. Religiou~ life appeared to be a safe place to escape the pain of their family sit-uation. Their low self-esteem was a primary reason for entering community. Their hope, however, that religious life would con- Revie'a, for Religious fer a new value on them and make them better people had not been fulfilled. In some cases the reality of verbal or physical abuse made them fearful of any close relationship. They perceived the vow of chastity as protecting them from such trials, but as the years passed they experienced an inability to relate in a healthy manner with other members of the community. Their lives were marked by a crisis event, such as substance abuse, which made their superiors suggest or even require them to get professional help. Their petitions for depar-ture were often set in the context of the ther-apy in which their suffering was addressed. As they became spiritually and emotionally more integrated, their reasons for being a religious seemed to them less cogent. If they now were capable of healthy relationships, they wanted marriage or the freedom to find deeper mean-ing outside religious community. While it might seem strange, their main reason for wanting to leave community was that they were now happy and did not need the community anymore, Their needs for protection and status had been resolved in a positive manner. Most of these petitioners expressed gratitude to the community for their loving support through their many trials, and they knew true sorrow as they left. I have spoken with a number of healthcare givers about mem-bers of this type, and all have suggested that departure may be the best option for them. They also suggest that religious should examine within their communities the dynamics that allow peo-ple to hide from their problems until they reach the crisis stage. One healthcare professional once told me he thought that reli-gious practice "false mercy" in not addressing the problems of disturbed members until there is a major crisis. As they became spiritually and emotionally more integrated, their reasons for being a religious seemed to them less cogent. Reflections for the Future No matter how perfect our formation programs become, there will always be some members who make the decision to leave us after many years of association. This is to acknowledge frankly Janttaty-Febtvtat3, 1997 Merrienboer * Of Those Who Leave Us the human dimension of religious life, but we can learn from our experiences. It is for the sake of such learning that I have shared my insights as a general-council member who has returned to his province and seen these patterns continuing in religious com-munities. Can we learn from those who have left us? Can we speak hon-estly with our present members when we see behaviors that have led others to leave us? I believe that, if we have the courage to say yes to these two questions, the pain of occasionally having some members choose to leave us and our life together would be much more bearable. In the Temple Year followed year the two had come to this place, old man, old woman, wearing persistence like a skin. Here, perhaps, familiar shadows sharpened the eye's observance. What ¯ better place to find the light, and by it be found, than in the dark? Leonard Cochran OP Review for Religious HILARY OTTENSMEYER Four Seasons for Christian Group Sharing From time to time a gathering of like-minded Christians-- whether it be a spiritual-direction group, an Emmaus group, a Bible-sharing group, or a prayer group--expresses a desire to "go deeper." This desire, perhaps only vaguely defined, generally means that the members want to be more self-revealing, more honest in discussing areas of faith, doubts about the church, glossed-over conflicts within the group, and fears that the meetings have become perfunctory, even boring. In such a case the introduction of some simple group dynamic into the meetings may allow the group to reach a new and more comfortable, if challenging, level of sharing. A dynamic based on the four seasons seems well suited to that task.~ The first time the dynamic is used, an outside facilita-tor can be helpful, one whom the group has chosen for being able and trustworthy. Later, on its own, the group could well devote at least one session to each of the seasons. Nature's seasons are an experience with which we are all familiar. The seasons can function for a group in poetic, dynamic ways, that is, ways in which the clearest and most labored prose cannot. Such metaphors break through the limits of human speech and help us become aware of thoughts and feelings that are otherwise inaccessible. The "I am" statements of John's Gospel demonstrate this beau-tifully. Each believer brings a different set of meanings Hilary Ottensmeyer OSB wrote "The Problem with Problems" for our September-October 1995 issue. His address remains 1414 Southern Avenue; Beech Grove, Indiana 46107. Ottensmeyer ¯ Four Seasons for Christian Group Sharing on hearing Jesus describe himself as the Good Shepherd or the Bread of Life. The seasons function in a similarly evocative way. People instinctively realize that we grow only when we hon-estly share the burdens and problems of our minds and hearts. Time and again we witness this in the pages of the Gospels. The healed leper, the demoniac rescued from among the tombs, the blind Bartimaeus lifted from his roadside isolation, the breath-less disciples returning to Jerusalem from the road to Emmaus, all these Jesus restores to community where they can pour out their hearts in sharing their "stories." Some Cautions Sharing in a group must be neither .intrusive nor abusive. Certain agreed-upon boundaries need to be set to protect the sanctuary of the individual conscience and the dignity of personal free will. There can be no forced entry into the heart. Even God will not force that door, but, like a true lover, quietly tells us, ,Listen! I am standing at the door, knocking; if you hear my voice and open the door, I will come in to you and eat with you, and you with me" (Rv 3:20). The ultimate dream: table companionship with God! As a minimum, the following rules apply: 1. Members should make only."I" statements, never "you" statements, that is, "I think." and not "You are . " We cannot know the full reality of other people's minds and hearts until we ask them from a respectful distance. 2. Anyone should feel free to call a halt at any time to a line of inquiry directed towards herself or himself: "I'd really rather not discuss that at this time." This allows group members to claim the reverence which is their due. 3. Members should accept responsibility for the unfolding of their lives, avoiding the chronic "victim mentality" that is pervasive in our culture. Blaming others or "life" is most often an evasion.~ As one friend expresses' it, there are four doors into the neurotic. Each door is a belief in one of the following statements: (1) I can make you happy; (2) I can make you sad; (3) you can make me happy; (4) you can make me sad. Reluctant though we are to acknowledge it, each one of us is responsible for his or her own life. Only catastro-phes that overwhelm us exempt us from facing this honestly. 4. We help each other through honest and clear feedback, painful though that may sometimes be. Simple feedback, that Review for Religious is, a brief statement about how another's thoughts or actions come up in one's own life, proves most helpful: "When I am drawn to act that way, I find ."Advice giving is to be care-fully avoided. Other cautions come to mind, but these seem basic. We do not have a direct perception of ourselves. So burdened are our thought processes, so fixed into routine are our actions, that we need the kind mirror of another's perceptions held up before us. We seem at times so suffocated by our prejudices, by our closely guarded denials and chosen ignorances, that we experience a real joy when someone gently opens the window to let in the fresh air of new ideas and new possibilities. Indeed, our deepest prej-udices are those we hold against ourselves. This is the saddest discovery of all. What a joy when someone helps us stand up and claim our own worth! Fall: Season of Fruition Easing into the sharing process is most gently done by choos-ing as a beginning the symbol of fall. Most mellow of seasons, fall is the time of harvest, when good things are gathered up and fes-tivals begin. The rewards of hard work and steady determination lie before us. We have a need to celebrate at this time of year. At this point, what are the fruits of the group's loyalties? There are stored memories of joy shared, of times when a mem-ber has been lifted up and celebrated. The group has had insights that can be recalled, times when it realized that Jesus was there in their midst and hearts burned with awareness of his presence. The Lord was walking with the group as it went along the way. Ours is a faith community devoted to the joys of remembrance, as every Eucharist proclaims. One way of beginning: Inventory the gifts each individual brings to the group. What do I bring to the group which, because of my background, education, talents, and so forth, constitutes a special gift? Follow this by a question put to the entire group: What do we think this one member contributes that is most enriching? Move on then to a consideration of how the group has changed over time, pointing out new levels of support and understanding. Where has a sense of continuity been discerned? What new and unexpected biessings have been slowly revealed in each individual? ffanuao,-Febrttaty 1997 Ottensmeyer ¯ Four Seasons for Christian Group Sharing An important benefit of a sharing group is the contact that members have between sessions. We all struggle to keep alive a "circle of friends." A support group affords an excellent opportu-nity to widen that circle beyond relatives and school-day chums. Do the members of the group reach out to each other between meet-ings? Has acquiring and sustaining friends--those essential inter-personal skills--been nurtured by the activities of the support group? What new skills have been acquired? "If you want a friend, be a friend" is a truth that needs to be lived out day by day. Living in community is of itself no assurance of having friends, but only company. Have I worked at being a friend to members of the group? Winter: Season of Perseverance Winter is the season of hoping and of endurance. For most of us in these northern climes, except for the occasional bright win-ter day, the skies are covered and a chill hangs over the land. Winds bite. Snow and ice impede travel. One has to draw on deep inner resources of strength, and hold on to memories of warmer days. There are winter seasons for a support group, too. These times have to be confronted and admitted. There is a time for breaking open the soil before spring planting. We are reluctant to put a hand to this kind of work, but it is the necessary condition for future growth. A "winter" discussion is the most difficult kind the group will have, and requires patience and loyalty. Questions needing examination fall easily into three cate-gories: 1. Where have we silently established "off limits" areas of discussion: subtly agreed-upon restrictions and withhold-ings? When and how does sharing break down in the group? What expectations did we bring when we joined the group, and how have these been disappointed because of these unspoken conventions? Was I honest with my hopes when I joined? Certainly, every group has the right to mark the boundaries of its sharing. But were these boundaries hon-estly agreed on when the group was formed? Were we too idealistic, too superficial, or too demanding? Were there angers in the group that were glossed over? ¯ 2. What does the group need to work on with determina-tion, for example, admitting and establishing boundaries, facing avoidances; or surfacing denials? Review for Religious 3. Very importantly, what healings need to take place? Does any member feel wounded or rejected in any way? How would this healing best come about? One makes a wonderful discovery in crossing this difficult winter terrain. Secrets can poison people's lives. When we have the courage and trust needed to reveal those tender areas of the heart, we find that others too have suffered in the same way. Walls crum-ble. The Jesus who draws us together out of our loneliness and fears is there, in the eyes and voices of others, to strengthen the fragile bonds that hold together a faith community. Spring: Season of Hope Renewed We all love spring with its beginnings of new life, with early crocuses, hyacinths, and tulips. Winter seems sometimes to linger stubbornly, but spring finally triumphs and spirits soar. Melting snows turn into sparkling rivulets. Sap rises in the trees, and ten-der greens appear along the limbs of trees. A support group too brings forward its hopes for renewal, for new life. It is helpful to go back and test the roots for their vital-ity. This can be done when the members share where their indi-vidual faith stories began. People are always eager to tell their stories. The vast professional therapeutic industry has risen because people are hungry to recount their stories. If the listen-ers are skilled, they can help the storyteller understand better the meaning of the tale. Within the faith story, certain elements are important. Who taught you to pray? Who were your role mod-els of faith? What were some of the significant moments on your faith journey? What was your image of God in childhood years, and how has it evolved over the years? How do you pray at this time in your life? What more do you wish for in your relationship with God? What is your answer when Jesus asks, "What do you want meto do for you?" (Mk 10:51). Not only do roots need to be inspected, but growth too needs to be looked for. What hungers are you aware of in your faith today? How could this support group help you? What aspects of your faith do you want to bring into the lives of those you love or those with whom you work? I have noticed that groups experience a surge of interest when "spring" sessions take place. A renewed commitment, a deeper investment is made in the group, and mem-bers reach a deeper trust level very easily. Januao,-FebrttaO, 1997 Ottensmeyer ¯ Four Seasons for Christian Group Sharing Summer: Season of Sustained Growth The summer months fill us with a sense of achievement. The harsh days of winter are over. The stimulating work of spring has been accomplished. Now is the time to relax and enjoy the warm days and long, quiet evenings. In fields and in flower beds around the house, buds are gathering to maturity; grains are swelling in the fields and fruits filling out to ripeness in the orchards. This is the season of contentment, when gentle rains come to nature's aid. Now people have time for visits, vacations, and concerts in the park. Indeed, the "lazy, hazy days of summer" clothe us like a comfortable garment, and we are grateful. Groups, too, can benefit from at least one "summer" session, counting the blessings the members have seen coming to fruition among themselves. What was the heritage the individual members received from their mother and father? Looking back on the ten-der years of childhood, each person recognizes a "gift" from his or her parents, a "breath of life" that only parents could breathe into the heart of a child. Influenced deeply by our family roots, we make decisions about our place, our possibilities, in the world. What was the special legacy, outlook on life, stance before the future that the members received-from their mother and father? And how has this gift been nurtured and cherished? How did the hands of your father and mother feel at your back as they sup-ported your first steps and as you still, to this da~,, feel their hands steadying your walk through life? Or, and this too must be faced, did their hands grasp you and hold you back? When did you first feel the hand of God at your back, reach-ing with help and love into your life? Perhaps you experienced God as a hand drawing you forward through difficult days and years, pointing the way prophetically towards promise. Which times were times of contentment, when your journey reached a plateau and you rested quietly for a while? Seasoned Years Our lives seem to take the shape of repeated cycles. The pri-mordial journey of Abraham comes to mind here. A call comes to move forward when we are asked to entrust our future to God in faith. Then follows a transition period presenting obstacles to overcome, anxieties and failures to accept, flesh commitments courageously to be made to our beckoning God. Finally comes a Review for Religious sense of arrival, a time to rest and gather strength for the next call, time to sing a canticle of gratitude. Such a pattern applies to a support group. How has the group experienced these calls, these trials, and these periods of rest? Does the group know how to celebrate its members, choosing activities that will express its joy? One priest group I know takes a three-day trip each summer. All eight pile into a rented van, set out for a not-too-distant point of interest, and simply enjoy them-selves. They are gathering shared happy experiences to live on through the months to come. Nothing has been said on the impor-tant topics of how a group is set up, how members select themselves into a group (or are allowed to join it), and how an individual might bring closure when leav-ing. Indeed, perhaps the group decides it no longer serves its original purposes and goes out of existence. No mention has been made of how a group defines its orig-inal goals or modifies them. Without that vital process, the prospects for a successful investment of time and energy are rather dim. These are all con-siderations for another article, one that indeed has been written many times and was not our purpose here. Group renewal is our purpose. Every group, no matter how well put together at its inception or how generous and serious the will of its members, needs to be renewed in its commitment from time to time. The four seasons of the year can help in that necessary task. When did you first feel the hand of God at your back, reaching with help and love into your life? Note ~ The seminal idea for this article was suggested to me by Donna Fyffe; CommunityWorks; 101 West Ohio Street, Suite 1776; Indianapolis, Indiana 46204. Januar),-FebJvlat3, 1997 PAUL DUCKRO, MARJORIE KUKOR, AND JEAN MEIER Inner Work with Your Anger Anger is an emotion much maligned. It is often referred to as a "negative" emotion. Many persons are not comfort-able feeling anger and seek to suppress it in the interest of har-mony and accommodation. Paradoxically, by such efforts people increase their likelihood of expressing anger dysfunctionally. When people suppress anger, or even repress it, it does not disappear; it is left to work its way indirectly, like a force under-ground. It may express itself in very rationalized statements, rec-ognized only in the impossible and recurring problems that follow in their wake. There may be episodic outbursts of anger followed by gre~t anxiety and remorse, forming a cycle of conflict. Other persons may use anger much more overtly, as a domi-nating force. In them anger is a trademark, emerging frequently with few inhibitions. It may even become crystallized in ways of viewing the world--as evil, inconvenient, incompetent, and so forth. Either extreme--expressing anger frequently or habitually suppressing it--may lead to the development of a clinically sig-nificant syndrome for which professional therapy is indicated. Along with such destructive potential, anger has many posi-tive aspects that we shall point out. Moreover, there are proactive ways to deal constructively with deleterious anger in everyday life. Behavioral therapies have been demonstrated to be very effec- Paul Duckro PhD, Dr. Marjorie Kukor, and Jean Meier CSJ, PsyD, can be written to at St. Louis Behavioral Institute; 1129 Macldind Avenue; St. Louis, Missouri 63110. Review for Religious tive. For example, cognitive behavior therapy is effective in cases of uncontrolled anger, suppressed anger, simmering resentment, or cycles of angry outburst and fearful restraint. Typically it com-bines development of new skills, modification of dysfunctional beliefs, and exploration of past experiences that have shaped a person's thoughts and behaviors. More experiential approaches are effective too. In clinical practice these have been shown to improve the recognition, acknowledgment, and expression of anger, whether or not there is the opportunity to work through the anger interpersonally. Experiential therapies take many forms. Art, movement, and fan-tasy are common ways to explore and express anger. Painting and sculpturing are evocative media through which the source of someone's anger can be revealed. Color and form can often rep-resent anger that lies too deep for words. This therapy has long been used with children, but it is no less effective with adults who feel trapped in their own anger. Exercise and movement can express and diffuse angry feelings. Emotional energy is "con-verted" into physical energy rather than being "trapped" in psy-chological or physical symptoms. Fantasy allows people to express and then explore their powerful emotions in a safe way, even toward absent or deceased persons or toward the unseen God. The persons "work through" angry feelings, moving toward a new level of integration and wholeness. Experiential therapies are important when the anger is not even recognized, much less processed, as emotion. It is not unusual for anger to be experienced and expressed--and masked-- in intellectualized forms such as opinions and logical judgments. In such cases, working in a tactually receptive form of experien-tial therapy can release emotions otherwise effectively disguised as thoughts and verbalizations. For persons of faith, contemplative or meditational encounter with the anger has great potential, linking the psychological and spiritual aspects of healing. It is on this approach to anger man-agement that we focus here. For our purposes we will refer to it as inner work. Inner work is the interior correspondent of con, flict resolution. The essence of both is movement, as opposed to remaining stuck in resentment, bitterness, or cynicism. From the exterior perspective, the time given to inner work appears to be "doing nothing." In fact, this doing nothing is true only superficially. Inner work is an active and engaging process of Janua~y-Feb~'ualy 1997 Duckro, Kukor, and Meier ¯ Inner Work with Your Anger coming to terms with both the immediate stimulus for the anger and its deeper sources within. Synergistic with the more obvious activity of conflict resolution, engaging in inner work may provide the time needed for cooling off. Beyond such a practical benefit, this doing nothing is also the space in which one can reflect and make associations and thus prepare to move forward in relation-ships. It helps individuals to insure that they are not pinning their own issues onto someone else or substituting one-sided judgment for dialogue. Stages of Inner Work Inner work with anger involves several stages. The first appears so simple that it is often overlooked: the recognition that you are angry. This step requires regular self-examination, knowl-edge of the ways you may experience anger physically and psy-chologically, and alertness to how you customarily try to mask your anger. That regular self-examination is necessary only restates the obvious: if one does not look, one will not see. Knowing the variety of ways that people experience anger increases the odds that you will recognize it. Anger is, of course, an emotion that people experience directly, but it can also be uncovered in behaviors, thoughts, verbalizations, and bodily reac-tions. Individuals will have characteristic ways in which their anger is masked, expressed indirectly, or expressed passively. Becoming aware of these patterns of human response, you will more likely recognize your own anger under such guises as logi-cal argument, social withdrawal, passive resistance, depressed mood, and spiritualization. If you do not recognize your anger, it cannot be channeled or transformed. Anger that is not experienced or expressed directly is not easily unmasked. Gruff exteriors can hide from the indi-viduals themselves an anger that is obvious to everyone else; so can a smile, and so can solicitousness. For you to relate to such a "shy" anger within yourself may be compared to relating to some-one who is reluctant to come forward. The unmasking must not be done forcefully, or hurtfully. Imagineextending your hand to the anger within, with reassurance that there is no need to hide. In this invitation the anger is reassured that it is seen as a legiti-mate emotion with a reason for being which is important for you to understand. Review fi~r Religious The simple power of recognizing your anger (we might call it awareness) lies in the fact that merely paying it attention changes the anger at once. This phenomenon, the power of simple obser-vation to transform what it observes, is well recognized, not only in behavioral but even in physical science. It can be found in var-ious forms also in our spiritual tradition. From earlier teachers we know the concept that to hold the true name of anything or any-one is to have power over it. We learn that the desert fathers and mothers taught their spiritual children first to name their demons.St. Teresa of Avila taught us that, if anything is embraced in love, it already begins to be transformed. To be true to this way of proceeding, we must remind ourselves that the power does not lie in trying to manipulate or control the anger. In each case, as in the example of dealing with "shy" anger, there is an encounter with the anger. Encounter implies relationship, interaction, and the potential for mutual change: the anger also has something to say. The second stage of inner work with anger may be described as bringing the anger inside yourself. Unpacking that metaphor is not easy; not all of its meaning will be captured in any one exposition. It is already evident that the first and second stages are diametrically opposed to what is often a reflexive response to strong, unwanted anger--trying to get rid of it. We turn to a familiar fairy tale to shed more light on the power of bringing the anger inside. Recall the story of "The Three Little Pigs." Imagine being one of the little pigs barricaded in the last house, the one made of brick. Anger at first may seem like,the big bad wolf howling menacingly outside the door. You shake within, behind the barred door and locked windows. To be exposed to such a monster would be certain death. If matters continue in this way, there can be no happy end-ing-- at best there is stalemate. You know the pigs' solution, and in a way it is related to what we will suggest. But let us modify it in the interest of love and mutual growth. In a feat reserved for imagery, imagine yourself inviting that wolf in. Already, simply to enter the house, the big wolf must become small, at least small Inner work is an active and engaging process of coming to terms with both the immediate stimulus for the anger and its deeper sources within. JanuaJ3,-FebJvtal3, 1997 D_.~ckro~ Kukor~ and Meier * Inner Work with Your Anger enough to fit through the very same door which you use. From that time the wolf already becomes more your equal; the bad wolf becomes your guest. Your fear calms down to prudent caution. Anger, upon being brought inside, begins the dialogue, furthers mutual understanding, and allows you to listen to the message-- which apparently some part of you thought was important enough to arouse such a furor. The third stage consists of continuing your association with the anger. This is the dialogue, and the very heart of inner work with anger. Although associating with your anger must of neces-sity be a free-flowing process, with content unique to yourself, it is useful to consider the general material you might encounter. The material of association might be divided into old and current issues. Old issues are the recurrent themes that come up again and again in anyone's life. Much of the message of any intense "negative" emotion has to do with these recurring themes. A popular way of conceptualizing this idea has been called the 90/10 rule. It suggests that, in understanding the message of strong feeling, very little (10 percent) has to do with what seems to be obvious, the matter on which you are focused. The greater part (90 percent) arises from old issues that have been reawak-ened by the current circumstances. Imagine a detonator: a small and harmless charge sets off a much larger and destructive explo-sion, a cache of dynamite for example. Obviously, the great positive potential in associating with the anger is in learning to listen for the old issues which come up in the process. These old issues influence your perception as perva-sively as a pair of colored glasses affects your view of the world around. They color your interpretations and lead to a type of conditioned reality. You actually see what you expect to see. Unrecognized old issues lead to compulsive or addictive cycles of behavior. You perceive each new situation through lenses that transform it into an old familiar one. In turn, you bring up and apply old familiar responses to these new situations. Outcomes become more and more predictable. Imagine a traveling theater troupe picking up extra actors in each town. The players are dif-ferent, but the plots are always the same. With anger, bitterness, or resentment, there is a kind of cold comfort in having been right about the advent of unpleasant realities (while you conve-niently forget that often it is you who make them unpleasant). Such victories are P))rrhic, Finding the results familiar becomes Review for Religious for you (however unconsciously) more desirable than finding--or trying to make--the current reality pleasant. The rigid shape of such compulsive behavior is evident. To emphasize the importance of old issues is not to say that current issues are unimportant. On the contrary, as you recog-nize the anger, calm the anxiety, and listen for old issues, the cur-rent issues become more distinguishable and more manageable. The solutions that present themselves are likely to be effective for being rooted in your actual current situation instead of being autonomous repetitions of previous experiences. When you see current issues clearly, you under-stand them in terms of relationship rather than as someone else's problem affecting you. You see a problem as relational, a matter between or among the several concerned parties rather than in one or another person. Common sources of anger in the present include threats to self-esteem, feeling vulnerable, being cheated, receiv~ ing dishonest or indirect communication. When these problems are freed from the heavy bag-gage of the old, recurring themes, their substance remains but they become much lighter to carry. Consider, for example, a threat to self-esteem. A colleague is given attention for her successes. It seems to you that some of her ideas carrie from' conversations in which you played a part. There is resentment that she is in the spotlight and fear that no one will look to you for ideas in the future. The most power-ful factors in your emotional response to the situation lie in your previous experiences. If you have felt unappreciated, if you have been afraid to speak before others, if you have learned to feel that others do not take you seriously, if you have learned to deeply doubt your own value or your ability to succeed, you will feel burning anger at your dubiously accurate perception of a threat to your livelihood and reputation. If you are not good at pro-cessing and expressing anger, you will carry it as a tortuous con-flict within you, eating at body and mind, blocking the flow of spirit. On the other hand, if you can recognize the old issues for what they are, can avoid disparaging yourself for holding them, and then begin dealing with them directly, you will find within The great positive potential in associating with the anger is in learning to listen for the old issues which come up in the process. dO dTtttltta13,-Febrtttlty 1997 Duckro, Kukor, and Meier ¯ Inner Work with Your Anger yourself the energy for doing so. You will assess more clearly how serious the immediate threat is. From that assessment you can gauge the strength of the confrontation and discussion you must have with your colleague. If you are not.skilled at assertive expres-sion, you may determine a course of action to improve such skills. The problem is resolvable. The actual method of associating with your anger requires some elaboration. An essential component is to calm yourself down. The failure to calm down, especially to calm down your cognitive activity, heightens the risk of repeating a version of the old issues that tend to inflate your angry response. Physiological calming facilitates cognitive calming, and both allow the pro-duction of fresh associations. It is important to distinguish this type of calming from sup-pressing the anger or avoiding the current issues. The idea is not to become suddenly and inexplicably blissful. The aim is simply to be present to the anger--bringing it in, seeing it for what it is, and sorting out the old issues that are inflaming it. The most effective way to calm down is simply to become aware of your breathing and then to breathe gradually more slowly and deeply, and from the diaphragm. No particular rate or pro-portion of breathing is necessary, but it is often helpful to allow each exhalation to proceed slowly, like a slow leak from a tire. With each long exhalation your heart rate will be slower, and you will feel more and more relaxed. Let yourself move as necessary to remain physically comfortable, and do not be afraid to take a big ungainly breath if you get out of rhythm; just come back to the slow, diaphragmatic breathing as soon as possible thereafter. The overall goal is a sense of effortlessness in the breathing, letting the tension and the struggle to control melt away, but feeling all the sensations of the body with even greater awareness. Focus then on the parts of the body that seem most active. You will find in these places the physical correlates of your anger, As you interact in this way with your physical sensations, move to the emotion underlying them. Remaining relaxed, let yourself feel the anger more fully, either directly as emotion or in its phys-ical manifestations. Now that it is allowed to enter within your relaxed self, it will no longer be overpowering as you contemplate it. Call it by name with your inner voice, softly and repeatedly. As you do so, remain calmly aware and allow your mind to produce the next thought, feeling, image, or memory. Accept that next Review for Religious association without judgment, and then focus on it. Continue the process in just this way until you reach an association that seems new and striking a.nd that requires more time. Stay with it for a 16nger time, just holding it in mind. Other thoughts and feelings will weave themselves around it. If you find yourself excessively dis-tracted, try writing.down your thoughts, feelings, or sensations, associating further with each one as you write. In this process of free association, you are opening doors within you. Areas which have been blocked off by shame or will-fulness may become accessible. Some of these areas may be unpleasant, exposing feelings that are painful. These you must bring to spiritual direction, prayer, intimate friends, or psy-chotherapy for support in working through them to new life. In the course of such work, you move toward oneness within; this is the essence of the integrity you seek. You see yourself more hon-estly and clearly, and you see also what is being touched within you. What you must do becomes more clear. The last stage is taking the anger to relationships.° Although our focus in this essay has been on inner work, this inner work leads to interpersonal interaction. It is in the movement from intrapersonal exploration to the interpersonal resolution of anger that we avoid individualism and act for justice and peace in our personal worlds. These personal worlds, in any particular life or set of circumstances, may range from the grand scale of interna-tional diplomacy to the intimate relationship of two persons. This inner work, then, is not an alternative to external work, but is the basis from which to move toward others. In inner work we take time to explore thoroughly .the nature of our own anger, with-holding action until we have taken the beam from our own eye. Upon so doing, when we do act we are much less likely to return evil for evil. We are more likely to be able to collaborate with God in turning all things to the good, for ourselves and others. Relational Responses In discussing this stage in which we take the anger to rela-tionship, it is useful to highlight the basic choices with which we are faced. Our choices determine whether and how much our response will further a relationship. In coming to terms with any strong "negative" emotion, we are faced with such choices, lead-ing to greater or lesser connection with others. Januaty-Febtvlaty 1997 Duckro, Kukor, and Meier ¯ Inner Work with Your Anger The mutuality required for integration rests ultimately on dialogue, people expressing their own feelings and desires and listening to one another. Y2 At its worst, anger polarizes. The participants separate into factions whose interests seem mutually opposed. Anger so expe-rienced leads to stronger or longer-lasting feelings of hatred and resentment, and to behaviors aimed at the injury or destruction bf the other parties. We easily see such hot or cold wars on the broad and somewhat anonymous levels of local, national, and interna-tional politics; they occur just as often, however, on the smaller stages of our personal and professional lives. Somewhat more benign, but still only minimally relational, is what we might call parallel play. In this live-and-let-live stance, there is no intention to hurt the other parties, but neither is there much sense of the common or universal good, and there is no intimate interaction. Farther along the continuum, we can indicate a point of compromise. This term is unfortunately not held in high esteem. What some people see as a reasonable compromise, many others see as "giving in," collaborating with evil; in fact, they see the compromiser as "compromised"-- or, at best, wishy-washy. However, com-promise (literally: putting forth, together) can be actually a high-level response with the potential for build-ing a better relationship out of previous anger and conflict. The partners in conflict become sensitive to each other's agendas and to opportunities for their mutual benefit in a common good. The arrangement might be unsteady, but continued dialogue in this spirit leads to change, however slow it might seem to those who prefer war, personal or otherwise, as a means of change. On any given day, compromise may be all the relationality we can muster. Nevertheless, its regular practice can move us along toward the point of integration. It is in the honest integra-tion of apparent opposites that we most fully participate in ongo-ing creation. Both compromise and integration must be and remain, opposed to syncretism, in which each side is reduced to being a lesser entity than it was. Integration requires the full pres-ence of both parties, each maintaining--and even realizing more fully--its own identity, but also coming together to form, from an Review Jbr Religious appreciation of their essential unifies and commonalities of inter-est, a new whole never before experienced. To accomplish such a union requires freshness of experience: two persons seeing each other as if for the first time. Obviously, the ideal is challenging and not easily reached. It is best to consider it a process that incor-porates the letting-go of egoism, that sense of self which empha-sizes self-protection and personal rights at the expense of openness and intimacy. It is analogous to the process of inculturation in evangelization presented by Pope John Paul II and articulated eloquently in the documents of General Congregation 34 of the Society of Jesus. The mutuality required for integration rests ulti-mately on dialogue, people expressing their own feelings and desires and listening to one another. Words are a poor medium to express such matters, but they are often the best means we have. In love, they are enough. At this level of relationship, anger has been transformed. It is now not merely a difficult emotion to be managed, but an impetus to new creation. Of such dialogue--two or more persons allowing their center of focus to be between or among themselves rather than within any one of them--it may truly be said that the reign of God is there. Forgiveness and reconciliation are experienced in a fresh way. Old hurts are not forgotten, but now are embodied in the new whole. They are used to create a new way of understanding which, rather than suppressing them, coopts them for the good. Taking care of oneself is redefined, as self has been redefined, beyond the limits of the corporeal body and one's personal psy-chological history. The well-being of any other person comes grad-ually to be seen as vitally important to one's own self. The Contemplative Stance This coming together in integration is certainly not without much pain and difficulty. More often than not, it seems that the creation of a new whole from disparate positions is impossible. Nevertheless, it is this apparent impossibility that in fact calls us to a new something. There is a tradition, among shamans of so-called primitive religions, that iust such apparently impossible situations signal, often in a sacred dream, the opportunity to advance to a new level of spiritual understanding. In our Christian tradition we may understand this new creation as furthering cor-poral realization of the mystical body of Christ. .~mlttaly-Febrttal3, 1997 Duckro, Kukor, and Meier o" Inner Work with Your Anger A contemplative stance in life facilitates the recognition and acceptance of opportunities' for integration as we work through strong feelings of anger. Such a contemplative stance does not imply or require a cloistered vocation; it is simply a willingness to become ever more aware of what is happening within us and around us. It is furthered by the practice of certain disciplines such as frequent self-examination, centering prayer, and medita-tive relaxation. An image passed on by Suzanne Zuercher OSB expresses the nature of being contemplative very well. Imagine holding a bird in your cupped hands. Hold it too tightly and the bird will be crushed; too loosely and the bird flies away. So it is to be present to ourselves and others. In such contemplation God, divine Mystery, is found truly in all things. All the events of life, without exception, are material for the spiritual journey. There is no need to avoid or suppress dis-tractions or strong emotions; there is only the call to work with them honestly. An ideal, of course, is a distant marker. As with ship and lighthouse, we hope not so much to find ourselves there as to be guided by its light. In the end the stuff of our growth is not found in our perfection, but in our flaws. Stumbling blocks become stepping stones, fissures become our footholds. Honest reflecting on the disruptive emotions that rise unbidden in us, and on our failures in handling them for the good, keep us rooted humbly in the truth of our lives. This truth, however unlovely it may seem, is the sure and only foundation for realizing the power of God working in us, From there we move closer to joy and compassion, holy indiffer-ence and equanimity, and become people for others. We find love. Review for Religious DENISE M. CALLAGHAN On Letting Go l~aan still see you sitting across the room from me, the light of e lamp highlighting your silver hair, your blue eyes still filled with life. You talked of how they were "putting you out," try-ing to get you to come to the motherhouse infirmary. And the best reason they could give you? They were worried about you because you seemed to be forgetful. You were not buying that, you told me. You kept insisting that you knew what you were doing, that you were not forgetful or careless about little matters of safety. I tried to suggest that there could be episodes you were not aware of. If you had been aware, there would be no prob-lem- but not being aware that you were not aware could be seri-ous. I was not just playing with words. I tried to give you examples. I tried to ease your dread of being uprooted. I hope I helped just a little, anyway. I thought of you often after you left. I found myself praying that you would be able to let go. So much of life is a matter of let-ting go. None of us does it lightly or easily. We are clingers by nature, I think. Even as infants we fasten our fingers around lit-tle baubles and hold on with surprising strength. Paul talks about that in some of his Epistles. "When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child . . ." (1 Co 13:11). I think (can we really remember it all now?) that it was not always easy to put aside the things of the child and become the responsible adult. Somehow, however awk-wardly, we did it. Sometimes it is not all pain--if the letting go of the old, famil-iar some thing, or some place, or some one means the reaching out Denise M. Callaghan SSND writes to us from 6401 North Charles Street; Baltimore, Maryland 21212. 1997 Callagban ¯ On Letting Go What a beautiful gift we offer one another when we truly listen! Y6 to some one new, or some place new, or some thing new that sat-isfies and delights us. But there are those letting go's that are just that: all pain. There is no exchange; there is an emptying out, a hollowing out, a hurt, a loneliness, a void. Some of us literally break under the strain of it. Some of us do not break, but we become bitter and withdrawn. Some of us bluff our way through or somehow just bury the ache. Some of us, quietly and with great wisdom, simply let go--and then go on. What a great grace! No matter who we are, no matter how well we do what we do, we will all need from time to time to be able to let go: ¯ the older for the younger, ¯ the familiar for the new and the different, ¯ the surety of the tried and the true for the promise of the untried and the possible, ¯ the mellowed for the freshly cured, ¯ the wisdom of experience for the vision and the dream of the not-yet-chanced. It cannot be done lightly, nor should it be. Wisdom cautions weighing and measuring, reflectively letting go, effectively hold-ing on. We need to pray that the Spirit of wis-dom will inform us. We need to be attentive listeners to the movement of the Spirit in our own hearts and to trust that message. We also need to pray to be good listeners one to another. No one of us is so informed that our own judgment is always best. So we listen and weigh our view again, in light of someone else's wisdom and insight, There is a courtesy we owe one another, and a respect, and an esteem. We listen to each other, not dismissing the line of rea-soning, but attentively pondering it. What a beautiful gift we offer one another when we truly lis-ten! It is rare that we really do this. It can be singularly painful to someone when we do not do it, as when one who over a span of years has been looked up to as wise and judicious, insightful and intuitive, now senses that her views are being suddenly and sum-marily dismissed by younger members of the community. The real pain here is the feeling she has, upon seeing her remarks mentally brushed aside or not even fairly listened to, that she her-self is being discarded. This kind of not listening can go the other way, too. Someone Review for Religious young and presumably inexperienced touches deftly and wisely the very core of the issue and is merely smiled at as though youth's inexperience cannot possibly know anything that is truly perti-nent and helpful. All of us, of course, are painfully aware that most wisdom seems to come only by hindsight. Wisely did St. Augustine pray often for the grace of a "listening heart." We do indeed have to try our best to speak truth as we perceive it. Beyond that, we need the grace to be able to let go and try to pick up the truth in the words of others. Sometimes the need to let go can concern only myself: ¯ the death of a loved'one when I cannot even imagine living my life apart from that person, ¯ the loss of a friend in some painful misunderstanding that somehow cannot seem to be remedied, ¯ the diminishment and inability brought on by serious illness or aging, ¯ the hurt when politics decides who gets the promotion or the credit or the acclaim. One other demand on us individually from time to time will be the letting go of memories. We need never let go of the very heartening memories that enrich us and that are among our most precious treasures. We thank God over and over for those times, those persons, those events that set our hearts to singing at their every recall. But we do need to let go, with God's help, when the memory is painful and the whole episode shouts of injustice or rash judgments or false accusations or just plain dislike. It is right to try to remedy the wrong, particularly if it is done to someone else. Jesus asks each of us to be a speaker of truth. But when every effort fails and every avenue of remedy is sealed off, we need sim-ply to let go and to go on. It is not easy. Yet holding on and nurs-ing the grudge can be utterly destructive. We give the victory to the demon of darkness and we hurt God's cause. Ther

Issue 47.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1988. ; REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X), published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The edito-rial offices are located at Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO. 63108-3393. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus, St. Louis, MO. ©1988 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Single copies $3.00. Subscriptions: U.S.A. $12.00 a year; $22.00 for two years. Other countries: for surface mail, add $5.00 per year; for airmail, add $20.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address, write: REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Philip C. Fischer, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read M. Anne Maskey, O.S.F. Acting Editor Associate Editor Review Editor Contributing Editor Assistant Editors Sept./Oct. 1988 Volume 47 Number 5 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to R~.wEw EOR R~.LtGWOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Rich-ard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 LeRoy Ave., Berkeley, CA 94709. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from REVIEW ~o~t REI.IGIOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major portion of each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write to the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. The Social Dimensions of Religious Ministry Joseph P. Daoust, S.J. This is a slightly revised version of Father Daoust's well-received address on August 13, 1986, to the thirtieth national assembly of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men. He has been his province's assistant for social ministries and higher educa-tion. At present he is on sabbatical in Africa and Asia and has no fixed residence, but he may be addressed at Jesuit Provincial Office; 7303 W. Seven Mile Road; De-troit, Michigan 48221. In a terrifying image of where our civilization is leading us, a prominent Italian writer envisions Western 'man (and woman) becoming like an earth-worm: a simple organism having only mouth, intestines, and anus, do-ing nothing but ingesting, digesting, excreting. ! It is an image of pro-ducing in order to consume, and consuming mindlessly in order to move what has been produced through our societal '.~'gut." Any kind of con-sumption will do, just as the earthworm moves any kind of soil through its intestinal tube. Indeed, that is how the earthworm (and Homo con-sumens) moves ahead in dark, dank, endless underground burrows-- consuming, producing, excreting. When indigestion sets in because of overproduction, war serves as a purgative,°consuming the detritus of ex-cess lives and goods, relieving the constipation of our maniacally pro-ducing and consuming system. Such is one vision of what we are doing to ourselves as a society. There is another vision of what society can become: [God] will reign over many peoples and arbitrate for mighty nations; and they shall beat their swords into pl6wshares,.and their spears into prun-ing hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more. But they shall sit, everyone under his vine and un- 641 649 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 der his fig tree, and none, shall make them afraid; for the mo~th of the Lord of hosts has spoken it (Mi 4:3-4). In this vision, peace comes when each peasant has enough of the earth's goods for simple sustenance and can sit in quiet contemplation of the goodness of a just and beautiful world. All of this is achieved by learning God's ways and walking in God's path.2 Neither of these visions is fully realized in our world today. There are forces at work leading toward the first; the Spirit of God continues the age-old struggle to draw us toward the second. We are called as citi-zens of this age, as Christians, as religious, to invest our lives in help-ing our society make the ancient Deuteronomic choice: "I set before you life or death, blessing or curse. Choose life, then, so that you and your descendants may live" (Dr 30:19). Life is what the reign of God would bring about in our midst; the flowering of a society of justice and peace. The reign of God has profound social consequences. Justice and God's Reign: Scriptural Considerations in Scripture the reign of God is inextricably linked with social trans-formation. When Israel came to know Yahweh, it was as a God who heard their groaning in slavery and delivered them out of bondage (Dt 10:18-19). Remembering their own deliverance by God, the Israelites were bound in covenant not to oppress the poor or weak in their midst (Ex 22:21ff.). For Yahweh is a God who hears the cry of the poor (Ps 34:6). Again and.again Yahweh intervened through the prophets to call Israel back to this elemental demand: Is not th'is the sort of religious p?actice that pleases me?--it is thb Lord Yahweh who speaks--to break unjust fetters and Undo the thongs of the yoke, to let'the oppressed go free., to share your bread with the hun-gry and shelter the homeless poor, to clothe the man you see to be na-ked and not turn from your own kin? Then will your light shine like the dawn and your wound be quickly healed over. Your in.tegrity will go be-fore you and the glory of Yahweh behind you (Is.58:6-8; see also 1: 16, 10:1, 42:5). The religions and gods of the ancient Near East were primarily con-cerned with the legitimation of the established order of things3 (a func-tion still all too current today!), Imperial power, divinely ordained class structures, codes of behavior which reinforced "the way things have al-ways been"--these were the trappings of (eligions whose gods could be captured in images, located in certain sacred places, and therefore con-trolled. The divine power was thus subject to purchase (propitiation), Social Dimensions of Ministry / 64:3 able to be administered and routinized so as to support society's estab-lished ways of proceeding. Israel in the Old Testament is constantly tempted to refashion God in controllable images. Royal leaders and wealthy classes are portrayed as the initiators of this "whoring after' other gods" so as to legitimate their oppression, wars, and sumptuous ways. What distinguishes ancient Israel from surrounding societies is the constant intrusion of an imageless God, who refuses to dwell in temples or in"gold idols fashioned and controlled by the powerful. Yahweh dwells only ineffably on high, and with the lowly (Is 56: 15). Israel's God is dis-engaged from the ways of worldly power and identifies over and over again with the marginal, the dispossessed in society.'~ Indeed the iden-tity of this imageless God cannot be captured in traditional religious ways, but is expressed only by what Yahweh does--primarily acts of so-cial liberation: I am Yahweh . . . who delivered you from bondage (Ex 20:1), who loves j,ustice (Ps 99:4), who sees justice done for the orphan and widow, who answers the poor and needy (Ps 86:1 ), who chooses the weak (Dt 7:7), who reduces princes to nothing, and annihilates the rulers of the world (Is 40:23). Jesus spends his public ministry extending the good news of God's compassion and reign to all. It was a scandal to his contemporaries that he especially~ included suspect classes (shepherds, publicans, tax collec-tors), social outcasts (lepers, prostitutes, adulterers, Samaritans), and the poor. He went to his death coffsciously assuming the role of the Suffer-ing °Servant of Yahweh, knowing that this was the only way to bring about the reign of his Father. Some sought his death because he reso-lutely presented an unconventional, iconoclastic face of God Ioying the outcast, the db'wntrodden, the poor--"He has blasphemed.'~ Others sought his death because' his proclamation of God's justice threatened the social order.5 The Scriptures, then, portray a God who cares passionately about jus-tice, indeed even a "pain-embracing" God6 who acts in solidarity es-pecially with the oppressed and the marginalized. Christ in his ministry and message seals this revelatioh of God constantly acting in the world so as to bring about its transformation. The Gospels close with Christ risen inviting us down through the ages to "Follow me." Justice and God's Reign: Cultural Considerations Down through the ages the Church has wrestled with that impera- 644 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 tive with varying degrees of success. Like the Israelites of old, the Church is often tempted to replace the radical, transforming call of the Gospel with something more palatable to the cultural and social powers that be. Oppressive divisions of wealth and power, wars to protect these divisions, sumptuous living for some and dire poverty for others--these still need legitimation as of old. The idols which legitimate today are ide-ologies, social and economic theories, materialism and consumerism apo-theosized as a way of life. Idolatry in a literate society is more likely to use words than precious metals to achieve its effects. But religion is still being domesticated so as to legitimate and maintain, rather than confront, these idolized patterns of injustice. One hundred fifty years ago, Alexis de Tocqueville visited America and found our culture and social institutions permeated with a new idea: Individualism is a calm and considered feeling which disposes each citi-zen to isolate himself from the mass of his fellows and withdraw into the circle of family and friends; with this little society formed to his taste, he gladly leaves the greater society to look after itself . They form the habit of thinking of themselves in isolation and imagine that their whole destiny is in their hands . Each man is forever thrown back upon himself alone, and there is danger that he may be shut up in the solitude of his own heart.7 This individualism intersected congruently, then as it does now, with the competitive pursuit of self-interest, defined in terms of material well-being. But de Tocqueville found these social "habits of the heart" coun-terbalanced and modulated by a strong tradition of biblical faith, with its emphasis on self'-sacrifice for the common good, supported by the re-publican virtues of our early democracy: public duty and civic equity. Modern commentators have found these modulating forces to be with-ering, and individualism, competition, and rampant pursuit of material self-interest becoming exclusive social preoccupations.8 Individualism, like any other human creation, has much to recommend it, much human value. But when it becomes absolute, unquestioned, unfettered, it dis-torts and truncates human interaction. Its idolization creates and sustains injustice in society on a mass scale. Recent studies of American life and religious values have shown the distortions that unfettered individualism produces ir~ our cultural patterns of faith and religion.9 Historically., the disestablishment of religion America may have helped compartmentalize religious faith away from public social concerns. But religious individualism has been the moving force for the privatization of religious faith and practice. Social and cul- Social Dimensions of Ministry / 645 tural patterns of our society have been immunized from religious critique or challenge in the faith of many. Religion is felt to deal only with per-sonal or family issues; it intersects with public policy only to challenge it if' it intrudes on these narrow issues. Other social policies and struc-tures, individualism itself, materialism, the competitive economic envi-ronment- all are beyond the competence of religious critique. God and faith have no relevance in the marketplace, the business or political world, or anywhere outside the "soft" inner realm of the personal and the familial. In fact, religion blesses "the way things are" in these secu-lar real-world social settings. It legitimates them and the results they bring about, as effectively as the compartmentalization of religion to tem-ple worship and sacrifices did in ancient Israel, with consequent uncon-cern for the oppressed, the hungry, the poor. Religion is seen culturally by most as an idiosyncratic choice, a strictly personal preference or conviction as to which "brand" each per-son would like to "consume." And American consumers of religion largely choose a faith distorted by cultural forces so as to give them res-pite from social chaos and from a sense of social destiny beyond their control. They do this by retreating inward, to focus on the inner self, or by retreating outward, to externally imposed structure coming, they be-lieve, directly from God. The first of these privatized patterns of religion, the dominant U.S. cultural preference, is the retreat inwards to the inner self. ~0 Personal ex-perience of one's inner self is the one secure basis for religious mean-ing. Self-realization, personal growth, is the highest aspiration. There is a great similarity to the goals and language of psychological therapy. Re-ligious practice is spiritual utilitarianism: "What's in it for me?" Spiri-tual experience is primarily individual and prescinds from the world and its problems. The world and even God are seen in terms of their impact on this inner self. Morality is individualistici commitments to others, to the world, are transient: "s(~ long as it feels right or helps me grow." The Church can be reduced to a kind of spiritual Kiwanis Club or psy-chological. therapy group in the individual's pursuit of self-fulfilling ex-perience. The second pattern of religious individualism is no less privatized. It is more prevalent among the less affluent, or among those whose self-image is not strong enough to found religious meaning there. Faith is placed in sources of meaning external to self and the real world. God speaks from "outside'"the ordinary world (and the inner self), directly giving rules and tenets which, if they are rigidly adhered to, will bring 646 / Review~or Religious, September-October 1988 about salvat.ion of the obedient individuai--there is little hope for the world. Fundamentalist adherence to biblical texts, magistral father fig-ures, or traditions gives meaning and some sense of security in a bewil-dering social Order. Morality is personalistic rather than societal; it deals with interpersonal and family relations in clear, simple answers; it leaves unchallenged the sociocultural setting in which these are played out. The world, society at large, is either beyond question or beyond salvation. In either case, faith has little to say to it. ., Both of.these cultural patterns of religion, therapeutic withdrawal to the inner self and sectarian withdrawal to external structure, are the prod-uct of individualism. It is individualism retreating from confrontation with a chaotic, seemingly uncontrollable social environment. Material-ism, competitive pursuit of self-interest, ruthless power pervade the secu-lar realm of business, politics, the media. Recent rapid shifts in social structures and paradigms destabilize a cultural setting already inhospita-ble to traditional religious values. Individuals, frightened, isolated, pow-erless, withdraw from the imperatives of biblical faith which might re-quire them to confront these social forces to work for the new creation of God's reign. A religion of inner escape or outer control seems to of-fer a haven from the heartless world. But both forms of religion lack the ability to integrate the self and/or God with the surrounding society. Per-sonalized religious experience supplants the "mighty acts of Yahweh" as the basis for belief. And such faith is fragile, fading when the per-sonal experience fades. There is only a faint hold on commitments, to faith itself and to the other-centered giv.ing which builds on faith. Church, rather than being the fundamental sacrament of God's insertion into the world, becomes a community of convenience or of protection from the world. In solipsism or sectarian withdrawal, religion stands apart from worldly matters. It is a pale shadow of robust biblical faith: the faith of a people on mission from a world-transforming God. This description of American religious behavior is not just the way millions.of lay believers of all religious backgrounds practice their faith. These are tidal forces affecting the faith life of all of us as members religious orders and congregations. We are equally tempted to withdraw from the fullness of biblical faith into therapeutic blandness or rigid struc-turalism. We too can live more easily with these idolized forms of relig-ion, which neither do justice nor admit the injustice of such unconcern. Religious life itself can become an enclave for self-realization or secu-rity, safely compartmentalized away from the rigors of God's call and mission to a troubled world wracked by social sin. Which one of us has Social Dimensions of Ministry / 64"/ not felt keenly the longing to huddle, Jonah-like, even in the belly of a whale, rather than face Nineveh? Justice and God's Reign: New Directions But also in our lifetimes as religious, we have witnessed a remark-able movement of God's Spirit. It is transforming the Church and relig-ious life, calling us again to our biblical roots. The God who cares pas-sionately about this world, who hates idols and the injustice they le-gitimate, is neither absent nor sitting quietly in a culturally designed com-partment. Embracing the pain of the poor and the marginalized, God broods over our bent world "with warm breast and with ah! bright wings." ~ In Vatican II, the Church chose to position itself as a people in serv-ice to the world, seeking to transform it in the biblical image of God's justice. ~- The 197 ! Synod of Bishops specified this further: J~stice and participation in the transforming of the world fully appear to us ~s a constitutive dimension of the preaching of the gospel, or, 'in other words, of the Church's mission for the redemption of the human race and its liberation from every oppressive situation (Justice in the World, no. 6). The social teaching of the Church has gone~ beyond a reformist long-ing for organic, static society. In ,.magisterial teaching and theological de-velopment there is the commitment to struggle for and with the margi-nhlized to achieve justice. The spiritual is not compartmentalized from the affai'rs of this world, but integrated as a critical, driving force to shape '~'a new earth where justice will abide.''~3 In'theory and in prac-tice, from Medellin to the Philippines, in our inner cities and in recent pastoral letters of U.S. Bishops, we have witnessed the Church exercis-ing the ancient 'special love of Yahweh for the poor. ~4 Our challenging mission is newly clear, as are the many social forces which oppose it. It is the mission of our "pain-embracing" God, it is the mission of Christ see~king the reign of God.' It is fresh and new in our age, and as old as the prophets: "This is wfiat Yahweh asks of you, only this: to act justly, to love tenderly, and to walk humbly with your God" (Mi 6:8). What Justice Requires But what does it mean to do justice'? or to transform the world? or change social structures? The justice which flows :from faith in Yahweh has a dynamic, trans- 648 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 formative quality. Subtle philosophical distinctions may be appropriate for impartial, uninvolved observers. But there is a simplicity and stark-ness to biblical justice questions, which are raised in God's name from peasants (Amos, Micah), slaves (Moses), and exiles. ~5 The royal circles of Egypt, Jerusalem, or Rome are preoccupied with questions of pros-perity (how to get more) or security (how to keep it). The prophetic voices from below demand that freedom, sustenance, places of dignity in the community be given (back) to every one Of God's chosen people. Everyone has a right to these goods, as a birthright from God who cre-ated and gave them all to the community in the ~fi~:st place. God will act to make things right again if those in power will not listen. The primary expectation of God from Israel is the doing of justice, in this sense sharing with or restoration to those on the margin of society: the widow, the orphan, the stranger, the poor. Every other ethical norm or covenan-tal requirement flows from this reading of social reality. There is to be a redistribution of social power and goods to achieve a society where all can sit under their own vine and fig tree, with no one to trouble them. Or as gentle Mary puts it in Luke: "[God] has pulled down princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly. The hungry he has filled, with good things, the rich sent empty away" (Lk 1:52-53). The pastoral letter of the U.S. bishops, Economic Justice for All, contains an eloquent articu-lation of what justice requires in our times. The scriptural section of that letter is especially worth meditating upon, to touch i'nto our faith as the force which moves us to justice. The religious reality described there can be summarized as the community of the human race--the community in which and through which God creates each of us as individiaals-- building community. This community is given all of creation to enjoy, and God's love be-sides. In response, God asks in covenant that the community be com-mitted to care for one another, that they show the same resilient love (he-sed) and solidarity toward each other that God has Shown them, The touchstone of this solidarity, from the time of the prophets, has been whether the community cares for those at the margins of society, those without power to demand a share of what the community has been given by God. This preferential option for the poor is as ancient and as crucial to the covenant as Yahweh's earliest commands to Israel concern-ing the widow, the orphan, the stranger in the land (Ex 22:20; Dt 10:.18). In fulfillment of the covenant, the community needs to do more than distribute food and clothing to the poor~ It has to bring ,them in from the margins, allowing them to participate in the creative life of the commu- Social Dimensions of Ministry nity. Then they can provide for themselves in dignity and will no longer be marginalized. In this, the pastoral letter goes beyond the usual em-phasis, in Catholic practice, on works of charity. These are seen to be insufficient since the poor have a right to a creative place in society, not just to be passive recipients of our largess. Bringing the marginalized into full participation in community life will, of course, build up the community itself. It will then be more able to show solidarity to those still at the margin, bringing them into fuller participation, and so forth. The cycle of response to the covenant is also the cycle of the community regenerating and building itself up as a soci-ety of justice. The ~uli religious insight is that, in this dbing of justice to one another, God is made present, is found, is worshiped at the cen-ter of this communal re-creation. Faith and justice reinforce each other, even merge, as God moves us to transform our society. This cycle de-scribes positively how God cails us through justice to renew the face of the earth. But there is also resistance to the Spirit of God; it creates injustice in the structures of society and reverses the cycle of creating a commu-nity of justice. A community can tear itself apart by denying meaningful participation to the poor, ignoring the increasing masses of the margi-nalized, replacing communal solidarity with relentless pursuit of self-interest. This injustice the Spirit of God calls upon us to confront, for the Spirit "convinces the world concerning sin and justice and judg-ment" (Jn 16:8).~6 A practical example may clarify how social structures can resist trans-formation. Some one hundred fifty years ago, the Jesuits in Maryland owned slaves. When Jesuit authorities in Rome remonstrated with them over this situation, the American Jesuits responded that the slaves were being very well cared for and, indeed, would likelY suffer much worse if they wei'e given their freedom and turned loose in American society. The Jesuits of Maryland missed seeing the social structure--slavery-- which needed to be transformed, and focused on the personal dimension of care the slaves received. It seems so evident now, but to those en-meshed in the toils of unjust social structures, they often seem "natu-ral," "the way things are,", unquestionable and unconfrontable. The U.S. bishops of the last century were also unable to confront slavery as an institution until the Civil War settled the question for everyone. ~7 One wonders if the terrible price of that war would have been paid had the churches and religious .people of the land not resisted, by and large, the call of the Spirit to transform the structure of slavery. 650 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 While it is clear that God can work to bring good even from wars and great social cataclysms, this is not the way in which the Spirit of God desires to achieve the transformation of the world. The model of the Suf-fering Servant of Isaiah becomes normative for us in the cross of Jesus. Justice is a constitutive element of what the reign of God is about, but "suffering with" the poor, the oppressed, the marginalized is the man-ner of achieving God's jus.tice. We are called to follow our "pain-embracing" God, and our crucified Lord, in confr6nting the evil of this world. It is a manner far different from ou~ ordinary human institutions of violence, vengeance, and material power. God's ways are not ours, and God's just,~'ce cannot be fully achieved w. ithout a~lopting God's ways. Principles of Ministry for the Reign of God If I have been at all clear, it seems to me that two principles flow from what has been developed thus far. I would like to make these two principles explicit, go on to a couple practical strategies for implement-ing them, and then conclude with three sets of questions for considera-tion. What God has done for us and what God asks of us create a first prin-ciple. An essential part of the reign of God is justice, specifically the jus-tice which flows from living out a faith in Yahweh, faith in Jesus. There-fore, followers of Christ should have a concern for justice as a central focus of all their ministries. There are not justice ministries separate from other ministries, any more than there can be ministries separated from faith. Faith and justice are the complementary core of all Christian min-istry. Secondly, the "pain-embracing" love of God, especially inclusive of the marginalized in soc.iety, characterizes the ministry of Jesus "even unto death, death on a cross." The followers of Jesus are missioned to work for the reign of God in like fashion: through experiencing the strug-gle for justice "from below," at the sidle of the downtrodden, accept-ing the conflict or defeat which that entails, believing in the way of the Suffering Servant who is the Lord. Practical, Strategies The following suggestions are practical strategies for implementing these two principles. They are not new, but they might be helpful~ 1. Reflection on mihistry, and particularly on the justice dimension of ministry, should be based on experience. We experience the living God in ~'the joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the men [and women] of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way Social Dimensions of Ministry / 651 afflicted.'? ~8 Christ dies and rises again for us in sharing the struggles and visions of real people. Experience draws us beyond ideologies and preconceptions; it energizes us for our quest for the reign of God. But the experience must be reflected upon. Stream-of-consciousness ministry may be personally vivifying, but it does not help us understand the social forces that create what we experience, or how we habitually respond. Social analysis can gradually remove the limitations of our cul-tural blinders and make us more critically aware of the social structures which must be transformed to "make clear the way of the Lord" (Mr 3:3). But so~zial analysis is often sterile, immobilizing, unless it is joined with faith and reflection on what God is saying to us. Relating both our experience and our analysis to the wellsprings of our own faith life en-ergizes us to act, and inspires us to discern how to act, for the reign of God. Our ministry is, then, m~ade reflective and revivifieO. And it gives us. further experience, which can be further reflected upon, leading to fur-ther inspiration and discernment. And so on. Many of you will recognize this process for reflection on ministry. It has been variously called the hermeneutic circle, the circle of praxis, or the pastoral cycle. 19 It is a methodology for moving steadily and re-flectively toward more authentic ministry. It may sound a little ominous at first, with terms like "social analysis" and '.'theological reflection." But it can be done very simply. It has been effective among illiterate peas-ants. 2° All of us ought to be able to do it. As a strategy for ongoing re-flection on ministry, it is.best when done communally, as a form of com-munal discernment. 2. In all ministries, there is the opportunity to experience the joys, hopes, griefs, and anxieties of ordinary people. But at least in orders like the Jesuits, most ministerial settings provide scant opportunity to come into contact with the poor and the marginalized. This should not mean that these ministries are exempt 'from the imperatives of justice-seeking or that they are unable to carry out ministry for the reign of God authen-tically. Ministries such as education or pastoral work with middle- and upper-class publics can seriously commit themselves to the work of con-scientization for the reign of God. These ministries deal with those who exercise power and influence over "the way things are"; their publics can bring about or at least come to tolerate changes in the social order which lead toward justice for the marginalized. It is a crucial element of the mission of all these ministries to communicate the call of the liv-ing God for solidarity, especially with the marginalized, and to urge con- 659 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 sistently that social injustices be transformed to bring about the reign of God. But particularly in these ministries, the lack of any lived experience of the poor or oppressed strengthens ct]ltural-religious tendencies toward therapeutic blandness or conformist externalism. We should attempt to build into these ministries, and into the lives of their publics, some ex-perience of real people living at the margins, victims of unjust social con-ditions. There are immersion programs, social-service projects, inte-grated discussion groups, and other forms of contact between people whom our social structures tend to isolate from each other. Such ex-periences will often be episodic, ephemeral, perhaps even seem voyeur-istic. But they can be honed to a finer edge of reality if they are carried out in cooperation with people who are in consistent, full-time ministry or presence among the poor. Within religious congregations we can leaven all our ministries by missioning some of our best people to ministry among the poor, asking them to share with all of us the insights and challenges of their lived ex-perience. The enlivening experience of God present at the margins can be corporate, shared by brothers or sisters in widely divergent ministries, if conscious efforts are made to foster such sharing. For this leavening to occur, it is important that the religious we mission to ministry among the poor be among our best, mainstream people willing and able to in-teract with a wide range of our corporate membership. My experience has been that we too often allow the lone rangers, the disaffected, the angry, or the difficult to wander off in ministry to the poor. Or we so isolate good folks sent into difficult ministries of social justice that they burn out quickly. As religious communities we can become more effec-tively present with the poor, with consequent enriching of all our apos-tolates, if we will take care to engage in such ministry corporately and reflectively. Mere presence among the marginalized does not guarantee any re-flective stance, in terms of either social analysis or theological reflec-tion. There is ample evidence of religious, ministering regularly among the poor, who never question the social structures which afflict their peo-ple. Or worse, they adopt a benevolent one-way relationship of "giv-ing" to the poor, rather than living with and learning from them about the reality of God. To counter these tendencies, itis helpful to be in con-tact with those engaged in the direct ministry of social change, challeng-ing some aspect of social injustice from an integrated faith perspective. As a full-time occupation, religious ministry for social change is rare Social Dimensions of Ministry / 653 this country. There is every indication that God's spirit is calling us, through the Church, to make it more prevalent. But it is unlikely to be-come a dominant mode of ministry in any religious congregation. That does not mean that a few good men or women could not be missioned, in each of the larger ~ongregations, to engage in this newly urgent min-istry. Not only will this serve social transformation for the reign of God; it can helpail our ministries become more competent to deal with the so-cial and theological questions most pressing in our society. Small or large religious congregations can relate to interreligious social-justice centers in most major cities of the United States. And individuals in any minis-try can become advocates of social change in one area or another, as par-ticipants in coalitions of concerned people devoting time and energy out-side their ordinary works to transforming society.2~ There should be no religious congregation so burdened with maintaining historical com-mitments that it cannot find ways to mission at least some key members to collaborative or part-time work for social justice, so as to leaven the entire ministry of the group. In this strategy, then, every ministry can participate in some level of social action for the reign of God: conscientization of the more afflu-ent and powerful, ministry of presence and social service among the marginalized, direct ministry for social change of unjust social structures. Having all three levels of social ministry within a congregation, if there is communication and cross-fertilization among them, can enrich the mis-sion of all for the reign of God. Even where all three levels are not pos-sible, much the same effect can be achieved by collaboration with other religious and lay people committed to working for the transformation of society. No matter which ministries are present within a congregation, all must become imbued with a central concern for social justice. The reign of God and the love of Christ draw us all to this. Some Questions for Consideration Let me turn now to three sets of questions, for which, I assure you, I have no answers. But they may be worth wrestling with in thinking about the future of religious life. I. Most religious congregations had as part of their founding charism a special concern for ministry among the poor.22 Most of our congrega-tions several generations ago ministered mainly among the poor in Amer-ica: immigrant Slavs and Germans, Italians and Irish, still on the mar-gins of American society. Why now are the vast majority of American male religious working in ministries for the more affluent? Was it a form 654 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 of ministerial "bracket creep," where we drifted up the income ladder along with the traditional publics we served, moving with them in from the margins of American society? If we were to decide anew about where to focus our ministries, what might the Spirit call us to do for the reign of God? 2. Most young men and women coming into reiigious life have been formed by American sociocultural conditioning. They look to religion to foster their own self-realization or to shelter them from the world's turmoil through external authority. Our older veterans of religious life are subject to these same alluring siren songs of American cultural relig-ion. Doour models of early and continuing formation, with their empha-sis on psychosocial development or on external structures of religious life, challenge cultural limitations of religious belief and practice? How much therapeutic self-nurturing or sheltering in external authority do we allow? How can we transcend these tendencies in order to instill full bib-lical faith, which integrates God, society, and self? How form religious for mission, to join our suffering, pain-embracing God in transforming the world? 3. The last set of questions is not mine. They come from Archbishop Weakland when he was asked how Jesuits could help implement the so-cial vision of the Economic Pastoral. :His response went something like this: (a) You Jesuits have a lot of access to the powerful in society. They are your alumni, counselees, fellow board members. You turn to them to support~your own works. Will you use that access to power on behalf of the marginalized and their agenda of justice? (b)You Jesuits have ex-perience of the third world, knowledge of the marginalized. Will you bring that forcefully into the consciousness of the American people, who are so woefully ill-informed about the struggles and attitudes of the poor? (c) There are many good young people, in business, the professions, or factories, who are dissatisfied with what our society offers. They want to remain lay men and women, but long for a way of life, a vision, more consonant with the Gospel. Can you imagine, and then image credible lifestyles and life goals for these lay Christians? Archbishop Weakland's q'uestions are generalizable, I would think, for almost any religious con-gregation. Conclusion ¯ I would like to observe, in conclusion, that fait.h does not seem to be a question at the margins of society. Faith in God is very much alive in the third world and in the inner city. There the overwhelming ques-tions are those of justice. Faith seems most fragile and in doubt in the Social Dimensions of Ministry / 655 sterile, cluttered tunnels of our earthworm society of affluence. Faith with-ers here, though we overnurture it with self-concern, though we fence it in with our fears. But faith in the living God is a wild thing. It thrives at the margins, where struggle and hope for God's justice blaze brightest. If we go there, our own religious life may be rekindled, as we join our God in renewing the face of the earth. Let us go, then, without guilt or rage. Let us go in joy because our God draws us, calls us to join the struggle there for the transformation of the world. There, too, we shall meet the love of our lives, Jesus the Lord. NOTES ~ Alberto Moravia, The Red Book and the Great Wall (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968);' pp. 12-21. -~ Mi 4:2. See Walter Brueggemann, "Vine and Fig Tree: A Case Study in Imagina-tion and Criticism," The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 43 (1981): 188-204. 3 See W. Brueggemann, '~OId Testament Theology as a Particular Conversation: Ad-judication of Israel's Socio-Theological Alternatives," Theology Digest 32:4 (1985): 302-325. This excellent study of the conne~ztion between Old Testament theophany and justice in the social order was the Bellarmine Lecture at St. Louis University in 1985. I am indebted to it for many of the insights in this scriptural section. 4 See Norman Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh (Orbis, 1979), chapter 49: "Mutual Reinforcement of Yahwism and Social Egalitarianism." 5 Jn 11:48-51. See Jon Sobrino, Christology at the Crossroads (Orbis, 1978), pp. 201 ff. 6 The term is Brueggemann's. See his "A Shape for Old Testament Theology: Em-brace of Pain," The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 47:3 (I 985): 395-415. 7 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, first published 1835-1840. Quota-tion is from Anchor Books edition (1969), pp. 506-510. 8 See J. F. Kavanaugh, Following Christ in a Consumer Society (Orbis, 1981), or his address to this Assembly in 1985: "Religious Life and Leadership in the Con-text of American Culture." From a different perspective, see Daniel Bell, The Cul-tural Contradictions of Capitalism (Basic Books, 1976). 9 An outstanding example of such studies is Robert Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart (Univ. of California Press, 1985). I have relied upon it heavily for this section: ! cannot recommend it highly enough. Another recent study of religious and social trends concurs with much of Bellah's findings: see J. Chittister and M. Marty, eds., Faith and Ferment (Augsburg/Liturgical Press, 1983). ~0 See Bellah, op. cir., pp. 235ff. ~ The phrase is from G. M. Hopkins's poem, "'God's Grandeur" (1877). ~2 See especially Gaudium et Spes, nn. I-3 and passim. ~3 Gaudium et Spes, n. 39. See C. Curran, "Catholic Social Ethics: A New Ap-proach'?" Clergy Review (Feb.-Mar. 1985). 656 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 ~'~ On the history of the preferential option for the poor, see D. Dorr, Option for the Poor: A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teachings (Orbis, 1983). ~5 See Brueggemann, Parks, and Groome, To Act Justly, Love Tenderly, Walk Hum-bly: An Agenda for Ministers (Paulist Press, 1986), a fine series of reflections on the Micah text and on justice. m6 See Pope John Paul ll's two recent encyclicals on sinful social structures, Domi-hum et Vivificantem (1986), no. 56; and Sollicitudo Rei Socialis (1988), passim. ~7 See Doris Gottemoeller's talk to this Assembly in 1985: "Challenges to Relig-ious Leadership from a Changing U.S. Church," p. 7. ~8 Gaudium et Spes, no. 1. 19 As developed, respectively, by Juan Segundo, The Theology of Liberation (Or-bis, 1976); by Paolo Freire, The Pedagogy of the Oppzessed (Herder & Herder, 1970); and by Holland & Henriot, Social Analysis (Center of Concern, 1984). The last has a simple, practical treatment in chapter I. 20 See Ernesto Cardenal, The Gospel in Solentiname (Orbis, 1979). 2~ Examples nationally include: Amnesty International, Bread for the World, Catho-lic Worker, Fellowship of Reconciliation, Interfaith Action for Economic Justice, Just Life, Network, Pax Christi, to name only a few. There are countless local and regional grouPs as well. 22 From a brief survey of the self-descriptions of U.S. male religious groups listed in the latest vocation guide, Ministries for the~ Lord: A Resource Guide and Direc-tory of Catholic Church Vocations for Men (Paulist Press, 1985), this seems to be true for the great majority of nonmonastic religious congregations of men. I'd Love to, Lord, But. Paul Wachdorf Father Wachdorf's "Leading People into Prayer" appeared in our May/June 1988 issue. His address remains the same: University of Saint Mary of the Lake; Munde-lein, Illinois 60060. In the Gospel of Luke, chapter 4, Jesus returns to his home town of Naza-reth, goes to the synagogue on the Sabbath, and reads from the prophet Isaiah: The spirit of the Lord is upon me; therefore, he has anointed me. He has sent me to bring glad tidings to the poor, to proclaim liberty to captives, recovery of sight to the blind, and release to prisoners, to announce a year of favor from the Lord (Lk 4:18-19). These words give a tone and a direction to the public ministry Jesus was about to begin. In 1971, the Synod of Bishops meeting in Rome produced a docu-ment entitled Justice in the World in which they state: Action on behalf of justice and participation in the transformation of the world fully appear to us as a constitutive dimension of the preaching of the Gospel, or, in other words, of the Church's mission for the redemp-tion of the human race and its liberation from every oppressive situation (Justice in the World, Synod of Bishops, Second General Assembly, Nov. 30, 197 I). The teachings and the ministry of Jesus and the teachings of the Church have consistently proclaimed that action on behalf of justice is not simply an option, not just a matter of personal preference or inter-est, but is an integral part of the gospel message and the Christian life-style as we are called upon to live it. 657 Review for Religious, September-October 1988 Given the crucial importance of this ministry in the Church and in the world today, I would like to reflect on my own journey into and ex-perience of the ministry of social justice from two viewpoints. First, I will look at some of the common resistances people encounter in them-selves as they hear the gospel challenge of social justice. Then, I want to examine some possible steps which people might profitably pursue to help them break through their resistances and respond more fully to the challenge of social justice. Intellectual Assent vs. Active Participation For the past seven years I have worked with the social justice pro-gram at Mundelein Seminary. Prior to that, I served in a parish for six years. During my years in a parish, I always gave intellectual and verbal assent to the principles of social justice. After all, how could I as a priest do otherwise? But as I look back on those years, I realize that my no-tional assent was not often translated into real and different patterns of behavior. Practicing what I preached about social justice was no simple task, although I did not realize that at the time. Resistances, Excuses, Rationalization~ After my appointment to the seminary, I was elected as the faculty representative for our Peace and Justice Committee. Frankly, I was not enthused about this appointment. But since ! felt somewhat insecure in my new environment and in my new work, it seemed to be an offer I could not refuse. I began to think about my commitment and involvement, l won-dered, "What am I supposed to do?" Soon I recognized within me sev-eral resistances, excuses, and rationalizations. In the past, they had kept me from becoming involved in the ministry of social justice in any sig-nificant way. I wanted to say yes to the Lord and to respond to the call of social justice. But my excuses kept getting in the way. At that point, I realized that 1 would have to critique my resistances with honesty through dialogue and prayer. Otherwise, my resistances would effec-tively block me from ever becoming involved in any way at all. Prophets Are Not Popular Quickly, I recognized the first resistance. Prophets are not popular. From Old Testament times to the present day, men and women who sting the conscience of a nation, a people, or a Church become unpopular. They are often criticized; they have their motives questioned; and they are pushed to the fringes of society. I'd Love to, Lord, But. / 659 ! remember very clearly an incident that happened as I was growing up. In the early 1960s, Dr. Martin Luther King led a march through my neighborhood, a white Catholic stronghold, to Marquette Park. I remem-ber standing on the corner on which my parish church and rectory were located watching the march. There were hundreds of white people lin-ing both sides of the street. Many of them were shouting, cursing, or throwing things at the marchers. Two of the priests came out of the rec-tory and began telling the people to go home and leave the marchers alone. Some of the people responded by cursing at the priests and tell-ing them to mind their own business. I saw a man spit on one of the priests. The following Sunday at Mass, the priests spoke out in favor of the marchers and their cause and spoke against the behavior of the bystand-ers, many of whom were good parishioners, pillars of the church. A few people at the Mass got up and walked out. Those days, I helped count the Sunday collection. That week and for a few weeks afterward, the col-lection went down significantly. I have never forgotten that incident. I still admire the courage of my parish priests. At the same time, I am aware that my later reluctance in seminary and in my initial years of priesthood to become involved in the ministry of social justice or to preach about justice issues was strongly influenced by that experience. In my initial involvement with the Seminary Peace and Justice Com-mittee, I soon came to a basic understanding. ! must be willing with com-plete honesty to critique that part of myself that desires to be popular and to be liked by others. Otherwise, I would never say anything controver-sial or would never speak out or would rarely take action on behalf of issues of social justice. Poverty is Messy and Unglamorous A second resistance for me rests in a simple fact. Poverty is messy and unglamorous. For the past seven years I have volunteered on a part time basis at an overnight shelter for the homeless. Many of the people who come to spend the night there are not "pretty." They are dirty; they smell; they are often sick; some have head lice; some are alcoholics; some belong in a halfway house or mental institution. I have always been fortunate enough to grow up and live in a clean, healthy, and comfortable environment. Throughout much of my life I have been isolated and insulated from the poor and the homeless. I rec-ognized another need for honest critique. I needed to confront that part of myself that wants life always to be nice, comfortable, and pretty. Oth-erwise, I would never become involved. 660 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 Myths, Stereotypes, and Prejudices A third resistance for me consists in myths, stereotypes, and preju-dices. Our culture is filled with them--about racial, ethnic, and relig-ious groups and about the poor and those who work for and with them. "The poor are lazy and would rather be on welfare . If they really wanted to, they could better themselves . They like being poor. See how happy they are . People involved in social justice causes are un-patriotic . All social justice organizations are communist inspired." The list goes on and on. I cannot go to a social gathering without hearing at least one joke that plays upon racial, ethnic, and cultural stereotypes. At times, I have told and laughed at those same jokes. I needed to confront and honestly critique my own myths, stereotypes, and prejudices. Otherwise, I would never become involved. Social-Justice Ministry is Disturbing There is a fourth resistance. I find this ministry disturbing. Working in the area of social justice has forced me to critique my own lifestyle, my attitudes about material possessions and wealth, and my use of the world's resources. I must admit that I like the good life. Conspicuous consumption is the name of the game in American society. In my early years of priest-hood when I was no longer a poor student but had a regular salary, I re-ally enjoyed having nice things. They compensated for my "great sac-rifice" of celibacy. I needed to honestly critique my own desire to live the good life and my tendencies toward materialism. Otherwise, I would never become involved. Fear A fifth resistance for me is fear. I found within myself a whole clus-ter of fears. I believed that if I worked with the poor and on behalf of social justice, I would be injured, harmed, or abused in some way. When I spent my first night at a shelter for the homeless, I was thor-oughly convinced that I was going to get head lice. TV news broadcasts and newspaper articles have always been filled with stories of crime and violence among the poor and in the inner city. When I was in college, I was robbed at gunpoint by two young black men. That experience re-inforced an attitude that had been drilled into me in all kinds of ways in my neighborhood: all black people are dangerous and to be feared. I needed to critique with honesty and courage that part of myself that de-sires security and safety at all costs. Otherwise, I would never take the I'd Love to, Lord, But. / 661 risk of becoming involved. An Overwhelming Sense of Poverty and Injustice in the World There is a final resistance. When I consider the extent of poverty and injustice in the world, I feel overwhelmed. I say to myself: What can one person possibly do to make a difference? My efforts will be futile and a waste of time. The work is innately frustrating. I will continually run into brick walls and have to deal with bureaucratic red tape and unsym-pathetic people and institutions. Progress is often measured in inches. You live with little or no sense of accomplishment. I realized that if I was not willing to honestly critique my own feelings of being over-whelmed and my own desire for instant results, then I would never be-come involved. Overcoming Resistances ~ It was not easy for me to look at my resistances. It is no easier to-day. Life seemed to be more pleasant when I closed my eyes to the re-alities of poverty and injustice as they existed all around me. Even after seven years of working with our Peace and Justice Committee, I find that I can still bring out of my storehouse old and new excuses which warn me to "back off," to rest because "I have done enough." As I con-tinue to come in touch with each of my resistances, I am aware that there are various steps that I have to enter into in order to overcome them. MyNeed for Challenge A first step is to allow myself to be challenged by others. I found myself challenged recently in a way I least expected. My sister who is a registered nurse and a certified nurse midwife recently volunteered to work for two years in Papua New Guinea as a lay missionary. I asked her why she wanted to do this. She told me that she was aware of the many talents, gifts, and blessings God had given her throughout her life. She felt that serving as a lay missionary was one way in which she could best express her gratitude to God. As I listened to what she had to say, I felt a lot of pride and admira-tion for my sister. At the same time, I felt a bit embarrassed as I realized that my own commitment to serving the poor at times looked pale in com-parison. I need people like my sister to challenge me and to keep me look-ing at my resistances. I need people like my sister to inspire me and to keep me in touch with my desire to bring to others the Good News that Jesus proclaimed in the Gospel of Luke as he began his public ministry. They need to say little. Their lives are bold proclamation. 669 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 As important as they are, such challenges are ~not enough for me. I have an amazing capacity to ignore or rationalize away the challenges that come from outside of me. To break through my resistances, I need to pray, to dialogue With others, and to simply begin. MyNeed for Prayer A second step for me is to bring my .resistances before the Lord in prayer. I begin by naming as honestly as I can my fears, my doubts, and my inner resistances. I express to God in my prayer what I am feeling and why I am feeling it. I ask God to break through my denial, to re-move from my eyes the scales that blind me to the,breadth and depth of my resistances so that I can see them for what they are. I place my resis-tances in the hands of God and invite God to respond. Here begins what I call the zone of discomfort in my prayer. To say to God "thy will be done" rather than "my will be thine" is~very fright-ening. What if God reveals to me something 1 do not want to see? What if God asks me to do what I do not want to do? At this point, I must qui-etly and patiently wait for God to respond, trusting that the God who loved me into existence will not abandon me or ask me to do anything that I am not capable of doing. MyNeed for Dialogue Prayer leads me to a third step. I need to talk to another person about my resistances. St. Ignatius in his Rules for the Discernment of Spirits, Week I [326] talks about the evil spirit as a false lover who "acts in or-der to keep his own suggestions and temptations secret, and our tactics must be to bring out into the light of day such suggestions and tempta-tions to our confessor or director or superior" (David Fleming, S.J., The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius: A Literal Translation and A Contem-porary Reading [St. Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1978], p. 213). Resistances need to be brought into the light of day so that they can be seen for what they are. When I do not talk to another person about my resistances, I find that they can gain power to control me, even after I have brought them to prayer. I can easily deny them or sweep them un-der the carpet. In hones( dialogue with another, I am given the gift of freedom of choice. In honest dialogue with another, I find challenge, new perspective, affirmation, support, and the courage to begin. My Need to Begin A fourth step is to begin. At Mundelein Seminary, there is a Spiri- l"d Love to, Lord, But. / 663 tuality and Justice group composed of faculty and students. Each mem-ber of this group has chosen a concrete action to pursue during the school year in some area of social justice. People have chosen to fast, to work at a soup kitchen or a shelter for the homeless, to deaccumulate their pos-sessions and to live more simply, or to pursue the Pax Christi vow of nonviolence. The premise behind this group is that we live ourselves into new ways of thinking, valuing, and behaving. The way to begin is robe-gin. The way to break through and break down our resistances is to be-gin doing something, no matter how small or insignificant. I have chosen the Pax Christi vow of nonviolence as my action for this year. In the sh"ort time that I haqe pursued this, I have already be-gun to experience ways in which my thinking, my attitudes, my values, and my behaviors are changing. I can feel my resistances to living out this vow b(eaking down in the very act of acting. The words of Mother Teresa are most applicable here: I never look at the masses as my responsibility. I look at the individual. I can love only one person at a time. I can feed only one person at a time. Just one, one, one. You get closer to Christ by coming closer to each other. As Jesus said: "Whatever you do to the least of my breth-ren, you do to me." So you begin . ! begin. I picked up one per-son. Maybe if 1 didn't pick up that one person, 1 wouldn't have picked up 42,000. The whole work is only a drop in the ocean. But if I didn't put the drop in, the ocean would be one drop less. Same thing for you, same thing in your family, same thing in the church where you go. Just begin . . . one, one, one. (Source unknown) MyNeed for Support A final step for me is my need for ongoing support. My commitment to working for justice in the world is fragile and tenuous. I find that I need ongoing challenge to help me keep looking at and dealing with my resistances. I also need the support and affirmation of others to keep me going when I experience moments of discouragement and frustration. The Spirituality and Justice group of which I am a part provides me with opportunities for ongoing challenge, prayer, dialogue, and action. At our initial meetings, we spent time praying about the commitment we hoped to make. We broke into dyads to talk to another about why we chose to be a part of this group, about the action we were planning to pursue, and about the fears and resistances we were experiencing inside of us as we prepared to begin. We came back into the larger group to share the fruits of our dialogue. We concluded with shared prayer. At this point, most of us in the group have chosen and have begun 664 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 to pursue an action. We see future meetings as an opportunity for us to take time for solitary prayer as we continue to bring our actions before God. The meetings help us to share in aone to one way and in the larger group the impact that our action is making on our thinking, valuing, and behaving. The meetings offer support and prayer for and with one an-other in our actions. Here we give witness and challenge to one another as we keep looking at and confronting our resistances. Conclusion The journey into the ministry of social justice is challenging, diffi-cult, and painful. There are many ~tesistances that cooe from within and without. There are many starts and stops. It is a journey that cannot be successfully negotiated alone. There can be no authentic journey with-out God and fellow travelers. My experience is that the journey is well worth the effort for my good and the good of others. May the Spirit of the Lord be upon us in our quest to "bring glad tidings to the poor, to proclaim liberty to captives, recovery of sight to the blind, and release to prisoners." Understanding Novitiate Formation Wilkie Au, 'S.J. Father Au has just completed six and a half years as novice director. He is writing a book tentatively titled Acquiring Habits of the Heart: Holistic Religious Forma-tion. He may be addressed at Loyola Marymount University; P.O. Box 45041; Los Angeles, California 90045. Vatican II,s call for the renewal of religious life set into motion a radical reexaminatio.n of the purposes, processes, and structures involved in the formation of candidates for religious life. The aggiornamento of John XXIII required that those responsible for religious formation make the adaptations needed to prepare religious candidates fora lifetime of dedi-cation and service in a rapidly changing world and Church. Because sen-sible adaptation depended on having a clear sense of what objectives were sought, much of the discussion among formation personnel (forma-tores) in the postconciliar years centered on the purposes and goals of the different phases of the formation process. Consequently, the noviti-ate or initial formation in many orders was thoroughly evaluated in light of the renewed understanding of religious life in the modern world, and many dramatic changes followed. Nevertheless, more than twenty years later the question is still being asked today: "What should be the overriding aims and objectives of the novitiate?"~ According to Father Gerald Arbuckle, S.M., a former as-sistant general of his community, many formation personnel today agree that the experience and the efforts to adapt the novitiate program accord-ing to the requirements of Renovationis Causam have not always been as successful as they would have wished. Many are still uncertain about what to do in the novitiate. Many questions remain: "Should there be a one,to-two-year novitiate? . When should the formative apostolic ex-periences take place and what should they accomplish? . How much 665 666 / Review for Religio. us, September~October 1988 separation, if any, from the world around them should novices experi-ence?" In brief, many questions about the aims and objectives of novi-tiate formation persist.2 Today the drastic drop in the number of those entering the novitiate adds further reason for adaptations in novitiate formation. To be accept-able, these adaptations must, however, retain the essential goals of the novitiate. Precisely what these needed changes are and how they are to be implemented will depend on concrete circumstances of place and per-sonnel. But, more importantly, before any sensible adaptation can be made, it is imperative that there be a clear rearticulation of the basic goals of novitiate formation. Otherwise,. there is the danger that our ad-aptations will be misguided and essential aspects of novitiate training be inadvertently°lost. The purpose of this article is to articulate an under-standing of novitiate formation, based on my si'x years of experience as director of novices of the Jesuits of the California Province. It is my hope that this article will stimulate and contribute to a discussion of novitiate formation at a time when formatores throughout the world are attempt-ing to deal with the adjustments made necessary by, among other things, declining numbers. While this article will. reflect Jesuit documents and my ,own experi-ence working within a Jesuit novitiate (with a group averaging between twelve to fifteen,new candidates every year), I am hopeful that other re-ligious groups of men and 'women working with smaller numbers can dis-cover in my comments what is universally true of the novitiate process in general. In a word, I believe that any novitiate program that purports to embody the spirit of Vatican I1 must include three essential aspects: (1) vocation discernment; (2) religious, socialization; and (3) Qngoing in-dividuation. These three overlapping purposes of the novitiate must, in my opinion, be retained no matter what adapta!ions, are made to accom-modate changing circumstances. What follows is a discussion of these three major goals of the novitiate. Vocation Discernment The objective bf vocation discernment in the novitiate is to help nov-ices come to a peaceful awareness and a free acceptance' of God"s will for them in regard to their state of life. Candidates come seeking help in discerning wh(ther God is indeed calling them to a lifelong commit-ment to tile service of Christ with this particular religious group. Sev-eral considerations are helpi~ul in providing this assistance to them: Confirmation of a Call versus "Weeding Out" The nOvmate must be Viewed as a positive process, as a concrete aid Novitiate Formation / 66"/ to those trying to test out their call to religious lif~. The novitiate should not be designed or perceived as a "weeding out" system, something ,like the basic training of an elitist military unit or the strenuous audition for a coveted part in a chorus line. The novitiate process would be vitiated at its core if it were to be seen as a systematic attempt to test candidates by deliberately placing artificial obstacles before them and screening them on the basis of their ability to overcome these obstacles. The de-structive and dysfunctional consequences of this negative view of novi-tiate formation can be documented in the "horror stories" of many older religious. In addition to the regrettable pain and htirt inflicted on peo-ple, a negative approach ~to the novitiate is fundamentally flawed because it encourages fearful and anxious novices to circumvent, rather than in-vest in, the complex process of discernment. Vocation discdrnment requires an openness and attention to one's in-terior movements, especially in prayer, and an honest disclosure and dis-cussion of these movements in spiritual direction. These attitudes of open-ness and honesty cannot exist in the kind of atmosphere of fear and threat which a "weeding out" approach inevitably produces. Furthermore, such an approach focuses too much attention on external requirements that need to be met in order to survive, like ~'hoops one has to jump through" to make the grade. Dangerously distracting, such a pre-occupation with "making it" can seriously jeopardize the integrity of one's discernment process. Good discernment relies heavily on a per-son's ability to hear the voice of the Lord speaking deeply in the soli-tude of one's heart and in the concrete circumstances of one's life. In light of this, the novice director can be most helpful by imitating the posi-tive role of Eli, the priest, who directs the young Samuel to the place where he is instructed to respond to the Lord's summons by saying, "Speak, Lord, for your servant is listening" (1 S 3:1-9). The Dynamic of Election and Confirmation The term "election"' was used by lgna~tius of Loyola to designate the choice made by a person seeking the will of God regarding some con-crete matter in his or her life. For the last four centuries, Christians have found the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius helpful in making an elec-tion, especially when trying to determine how they should serve Christ. For Ignatius, such a determination was best done in the context of prayer, for "prayer is the place where we sort out our desires and where we are ourselves sorted out by the desires we choose to follow. ,,3 The spiritual discernment that takes place in the novitiate results in an election regard-ing the direction one's vocation should take. Besides providing direction, Review for Religious, September-October 1988 however, the election process in the novitiate also seeks to test out the depth and freedom of a person's desire to serve Christ through the life of the vows. The Exercises were designed by Ignatius to help in "preparing and disposing the soul to rid itself of all inordinate attachments, and, after their removal, [in] seeking and finding the will of God in the disposition of our life for the salvation of our soul."4 In a Jesuit novitiate the Exer-cises are usually made in the course of a thirty-day retreat soon after en-trance. This experience provides the context in which the Jesuit novice director helps the individual novice either to make an election regarding his vocation or to reaffirm his previously~ made decision to be a Jesuit. Those who make an election to pursue the Jesuit way of life must then generously engage in the novitiate process with the hope that the Lord will clarify and confirm their desire. Thus, vocation discernment in the novitiate involves a two-year period of' monitoring one's deepest desires and ascertaining whether the desire to serve the Lord as a Jesuit perdures and deepens throughout the course of the novitiate. If this desire per-dures, the novice can then express this desire through the first vows of a Jesuit. Michael J. Buckley, S.J., describes these first vows as an offering, following upon an election, made in perpetuity, very much like the initial election of the Exercises. Like this offering, they are con-tingent upon the subsequent confirmation by the Lord, worked through a human being's personal religious history over the next ten or fifteen years.5 Until he takes his final vows many years after the novitiate, "the Jesuit lives in a period of probation, testing whether the first offering of his life to God [through first vows] is accepted and confirmed by divine providence."6 Buckley summarizes this Ignatian dynamic well by explain-ing "the way in which one moves toward finding and giving his life over to the will of God" within the framework of the Spiritual Exercises. There isthe initial offer of a choice to God our Lord, an offering which is made according to a time for making an election and which is then presented before the Lord . What the dynamic of the election looks for after the moment of offering is the subsequent confirmation'by God. Election as a religious history, as an experience of Providence, devel-ops over time between these two major events: the time of human offer-ing and the period of confirmation by God.7 Clearly, then, the objective of vocation discernment in the novitiate is to help novices determine whether the depth and direction of their Novitiate Formation / 669 heart's deepest desires move them to make a self-offering of themselves through vows. Absolute clarity and certainty regarding the future can-not be expected at the end of the novitiate period, since the person's self-offering must await "the subsequent confirmation by God." As Buck-ley eloquently states, For a man who follows God, who listens to God throughout his serious experience, the future is unknown and mysterious--not unlike God him-self. And he moves into this mystery without prematurely forcing clar-ity because his experience of God directs this movement.8 The Test of Existential Validation Colloquially stated, the test of existential validation asks novices this question: "Does the shoe fit?" This is an important question for voca-tion discernment, and it must be asked on a regular basis. While the Ig-natian election helps novices find God's will for them in the deep de-sires of their hearts, the test of existential validation enables them to dis-cover God"s will in the concrete details of their lives. The method of existential validation is basically very simple. When they first enter, the novices are asked to live the life of a Jesuit as if they have already taken the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Then they are asked to pay attention to the "fit" throughout the course of their novitiate. In other words, they are asked to "try on the shoes of being a Jesuit" and check for the fit as they actually walk in those shoes. In their concrete experience, do they find that living the vows in an actual Jesuit community is life-giving and productive? Do they dis-cover that, with the passage of time, there is an increasing congruence between what they want for their lives and Jesuit ideals? As they grow in knowledge of what being a Jesuit involves concretely in this histori-cal time and place, do they find a match between what they desire and what life in the Society of Jesus offers and requires today? Another aspect of existential validation involves testing the authen-ticity of one's desire. This is done mainly by checking for the congru-ence between what one professes to value and desire and how one actu-ally chooses, decides, and behaves. Although all human beings live with a discrepancy between the ideal and the real, drastic and consistent de-viations from the norms and aspirations of religious life should make one question the genuineness and depth of one's desire to be a religious. Though painful and disruptive, getting in touch with authentic desires can be a liberating experience. Furthermore, while self-reporting is an important means for gather- 670 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 ing data in the process of existential validation, the feedback of the re-ceiving community is also very important in testing out the existential fit between the individual novice and the peculiar charism of a particu-lar religious institute. Vocation discernment in the novitiate must ascer-tain not only if a person desires to take on religious life, but whether he or she has been given the gift and charism to live that life. A realistic assessment of this capability is a crucial aspect of vocation discernment. For example, from the concrete evidence of a person's life, can it be judged that the Lord has given the aspirant to an apostolic religious com-munity the following prerequisites: -- the ability to live in community with relative peace and joy? -- the capacity to love with celibate chastity in a non-exclusive man-ner? -- the.freedom to live with simplicity and detachment? -- the ability to be mobile and available to be sent anywhere on mis-sion? The underlying presupposition of this line of inquiry obviously is that one's God-given abilities, personality, and inclinations can indicate in helpful ways the precise form and manner in which one is being called to serve Christ. Not to pay serious attention to these concrete indicators is to disregard an important aspect of vocation discernment. Vocation Shortage and a ~,ranny of Numbers I would like to make a final comment regarding vocation discern-ment in the novitiate. It seems to me that the declining number of candi-dates c~n create a ,~ituation in which vocation discernment is not engaged in with seriousness and detachment. The disordered desire to keep the few that come can jeopardize and short-circuit the discernment process. At a time of drastic diminishment, external pressures to hang on at any cost to the few that do enter are sometimes exerted by formed members of the community. This pressure, as well as the interior unfreedom of formatores themselves, can impede a thorough discernment process.9 Fur-thermore, unconsciously treating novices with a "precious few" men-tality can lead to a form of coddling that would be unhelpful for relig-ious formation and spiritual growth. Religious communities that have had only a few candidates during the last decade and at present experience only a trickle from year to year are particularly susceptible to this dan-ger. Religious Socialization: "Habits of the Heart" The term "religious socialization" has been popularized by John Novitiate Formation / 671 Westerhoff III in discussing the question of how elements of religion and faith ,~are transmitted from one generation to another. While he does not apply the term to the formation of religious candidates, nevertheless, it seems to capture quite well one of the essential purposes of the noviti-ate, that is, the handing on of a religious tradition and lifestyle to per-sons desiring to enter the life of a religious group as fully participating members. Religious socialization, according to Westerhoff, is a process consisting of lifelong formal and informal mechanisms, through which persons stistain and transmit their faith (worldview', value ~syst~m) and lifestyle. This is accomplished through participation in the life of a tradition-bearing community with its rites, rituals, myths, sym-bols, expressions of beliefs, attitudes and values, organizational pat-terns, and activities.~° As defined by Westerhoff, religious socialization is a lifelong proc-ess and thus does not exactly describe the novitiate, which (to the relief of all involved) is limited to one or two years. Technically speaking, re-ligious socialization is equivalent to the whole process of formation, which more and more is being viewed as a lifelong affair. Because of ongoing liturgical renewal, biblical and theological reflection, and the rapidity of changing conditions of our times, religious have been urged to commit themselveS seriously to "continuing formation." ~ Neverthe-less, the ~oviiiate is the initial phase of the lifelong process involved in the assimilation of members into religious life. Viewed as such, Wester-hoff's notion of religious ~ocialization provides a useful way of under-standing an essential purpose of the novitiate. Adaptations of novitiate formation must be guided by the essential goal of religious socialization. The basic question raised by the task of handing on the tradition Of religious life to new aspirants is this: What is tO be~handed down and how? What values, beliefs, mores, and ways of proceeding has the receiving community judged to be of perennial worth, such that they should remain permanently .definitional of the group? To employ a phrase of Alexis de Tocqueville, the nineteenth-century French observer of democracy in America (a phrase recently popu-larized by a national bestseller), what are the "habits of the heart" that the receiving community deems absolutely essential for maintaining its group life with integrity and vitality'? In "habits of the heart" Tocqueville included "notions, opinions, and ideas that 'shape mental habits'; and 'the sum of moral and intellectual dispositions' " as well as habitual practices with respect to such things as religion. ~- Once the receiving community has come to a clear consensus on the 672 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 content which it wishes to transmit, then it must decide on the most ef-fective means for this transmission. The question of how to raises a num-ber of considerations which every novice director must ponder if the no-vitiate program is to have any intelligible rationale. Some of these im-portant considerations will be discussed below. The Question of Contact and Separation For the sake of effective religious socialization, there often arises the question of what contact novices should have with family, friends, those in ministry, and formed members of their own religious order. Arbuckle has provided a very useful framework to reflect on this question. ~3 Re-lying on anthropological data regarding initiation rites, he proposes three-stage process for the novitiate, which, according to him, is essen-tially an initiation rite: the stages of separation, liminoid, and the incor-poration or reaggregation. Stage I emphasizes separating the novices from the ordinary life they have left behind in order to dramatize the radicality of the transition from lay life to religious life. While this stage may be brief, the separation also symbolic. The symbolism must express to the candidate that in order to respond to the call of the Lord there must be a withdrawal from the world of "or-dinary" living with its roles and interests, its speed, and its distraction. The symbolism must convey the message that to follow the radical de-mands of the gospel message one must be prepared to "leave father, mother, brothers, sisters, and all things" for the sake of the Lord. 14 To convey this new dramatic reality, novices should, at this stage, be separated physically and geographically from other members of the group who have already gone through the passage of initiation. Not to separate them, "when the aims of the initiation process are so different from the aims of postnovitiate training, is to make the realization of the novitiate aims impossible to achieve."~5 The second stage, called liminoid (from the Latin, limen, threshold), requires the kind of seclusion that fosters strong investment in commu-nity building. It is precisely in the context of a vibrant community life that the novices are to experience the "habits of the heart" which the receiving community wish(s to transmit to its new members. This is the time for introducing the novice to the unique spirit of the institute, peculiar charism within the Church, and its characteristic way of proceed-ing. By so inculcating its spirituality, mores, history, and tradition, the receiving community aims to bond the new member to its past and thus Novitiate Formation / 673 to provide a foundation for the novice's identification with the group. According to Arbuckle, this second stage of relative seclusion should last about a year. The third stage is that of incorporation or reaggregation, a period when novices are reconnected with the religious family outside the no-vitiate. This stage should be as long as or even longer than the liminoid stage. Basically a time of "evaluated pastoral experience," this stage is to be seen as an integral part of the novitiate process. Arbuckle ex-presses the aims of the third stage by citing paragraph 25 of Renovationis Causam: Besides gradual preparation for apostolic activities, they [that is, the ex-perimental periods outside the novitiate] can also have as their purpose to bring the novice into contact with certain concrete aspects of poverty or of labor, to contribute to character formation, a better knowledge of human nature, the strengthening of the will, the development of personal responsibility and, lastly, to provide occasions for effort at union with God in the context of active life.~6 In my opinion, Arbuckle's three-stage approach provides a rich and comprehensive understanding of the novitiate process, as Well as a sound basis for determining the question of the amount of separation and con-tact that would be helpful for novices. That there be some kind of alter-nation between separation and contact has also been clearly endorsed by others. For example, the Jesuit decree on novitiate formation states: Although entrance into the novitiate should entail a real separation from the life previously led in the world, superiors should nevertheless pro-vide that the novices, while consistently maintaining a spirit of recol-lection, should have sufficient social contact with their contemporaries (both within and outside the Society). Likewise the necessary separation from parents and friends should take place in such a way that genuine progress in affective balance and supernatural love is not impeded. IV The Arbuckle model is useful because it enables the novitiate to ef-fectively bond new members to the religious group, which is the goal of religious socialization. The bonding is both with the past (the commu-nity's traditions and history) and with the present (its present members and ministries). By means of form'al and informal contact, then, the re-ceiving community links its new members to its group life. The Question of Structure and Nonstructure It is my opinion that both structure and nonstructure have important and different functions in the process of religious socialization. The no- 67'4 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 vitiate process must include times for both. Structured time is important for thi~ development of the habits and skills necessary for sustaining a lifetime of religious dedication. This time of structure is the period tra-ditionally known as "common order" during which the novices's day is regulated according to a schedule with definite periods for communal and personal prayer, for work around the house, for conferences and classes with the novice staff, for individual study, and for apostolic in-volvements. Because the development of habits such as those that con-tribute to a faithful prayer life and spiritual discernment requires regular repetition and practice, structured time for such training is important in novitiate formation. Equally important is time for more freedom and less structure in the novitiate learning process. These times of nonstructure provide an op-portunity for the novices to test out to what extent, they have internal-ized and appropriated what they have sought to learn during times of struc-tured learning. For example, has the individual novice found himself or herself able to faithfully sustain a regular prayer life when away from the structural supports of the novitiate? To foster personal responsibility among novices for their own development, the Jesuits' 3 i st General'Con-gregation stated that "a necessity is that the no~,itiat~'s way of life be not so rigidly determined that the novices, lacking in all initiative, can hardly ever practice spiritual discernment, or even obedience itself, ex-cept in the form of a passive and impersonal submission."~8 The non-structured periods of the novitiate allow the novices as aspiring religious to find out truthfully and behaviorally what changes in their lives and at-titudes have actually taken place as the result of their training in the limi-noid stage. Therefore, I believe that a rhythmic alternation between struc-tured and nonstructured time is an essential dynamic of the novitiate learn-ing process. The Question of Experience and Reflection Another important learning dynamic in the novitiate involves the com-bination of experience and reflection. This mode of learning, variously called experiential learning or praxis, calls for the novice's active engage-ment in learning experiences and a subsequent reflection upon those ex-periences, with an eye to what insights and knowledge can be.,gleaned from them. This form of experiential learning is applicable to many ar-eas in which novices are called to grow, that is prayer,t9 interpersonal relationships,2° and ministerial effectiveness. The goal sought through this mode of learning is, in the words of the Jesuits' 33rd General Con-gregation, "a transformation of our habitual patterns of thought through Novitiate Formation / 675 a constant interplay of experience, reflectipn, and action.' While experiential learning can be a powerful form of learning, there is always the danger that it can lead to anti-intellectualism, if it is not carefully applied. Experience is the indispensable raw material of expe-riential learning. But it remains unprocessed--that is, raw material-- without the equally important process of reflecting on the experience. The danger is effectively obviated when serious effort an~d sufficient time are devoted to dwelling on the experience in such a way that ideas and principles are abstracted out of it and feelings are symbolized. In addition'to serious reflection, there is a further requirement of ef-fective praxis. To be used intelligently, experiential learning must be grounded in a well-thought-out theory of experience. As John Dewey warned in 1938, "The belief that all genuine education comes about through experience does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative. Experience and education cannot be directly equated to each other."zz Mere insisten~ze on the necessity of experience, there-fore, is notenough. In Dewey's words, "Everything depends on the qual~ ity of the experience which is had."z3 Therefore, to use the experiential mode of learning in the novitiate effectively,formatores must ensure (!) that the quality of the learning experiences engaged in by novices be se-riously evaluated and (2)that the novices, with the assistance of a skilled facilitator, give sufficient time and attention to follow-up reflection on their experiences. The Ongoing Process of Individuation The third major aspect of novitiate formation calls for the ongoing fostering of the personal growth of candidates. While the agenda of the receiving community is stressed in the process of religious socialization, the individuation process respects the agenda of persons in their individ-ual growth process. Since it is the case, more and more, that candidates enter the novitiate at such diverse ages and at such different points of p.er-sonal development, novitiate formation must seriously recognize individ-ual differences and aid individuals to move ahead, not regress, in the de-velopment of their selfhood. After all, the ability to give of oneself in self-donation presupposes that one first possesses a self. According to Carl Jung, the process of individuation is a gradual growth toward whole-ness and harmony, involving the progressive differentiation and detailed development of all parts of the human personality. Since individuation is a lifelong project, entry into religious life cannot halt its progress with-out stunting the healthy maturation and development of religious as hu-man beings. 6"/6 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 Since Vatican II, religious have been strongly ehcouraged to take con-tinuhl human growth seriously and to take care that their commitment to religious life does not impede their prior responsibility as human beings to a~tualize their God-gi~,en potential. In the eyes of an increasing num-ber of c,~ontemporary theologians, the motivation for continuous human growth is clearly a religious one. Human life'is seen as a gift fr6m the Fi~ther. At the same time, God couples the gi~ft of life with a challenge to person~s to be cocreatorsof their lives, freely fashioning their lives into "something beautiful for God." In this ongoing process of human de-velopment,~ the Lord of creation and the human works Of his hand col-laborate. Therefore, for the person who seeks to respond to God's in-itiative, a commitment to continuous growth'is not only a choice, but requirement. To deny the inner impulse t.oward continuous growth is tan-tamount to not responding to God, because, in the words of Gregory Baum, "as d.estiny, as summons, as love., God is present in man's mak-ing of man."~-4 John Haughey, S.J., states that the refusal to take seri-ously one's vocation to be a cocreator with God also takes on a moral dimension. When the refusal to choose leaves the work of God's hands unfinished, then this peculiar kind of inaction takes on a moral dimension. Why.'? Because the unique way of manifesting some aspect of the fullness of God that every person is born to manifest remains potency. Refusal to come to the point of decision, choice, or commitment can leave some-thing of creation itself unfinished and hence God's glory incomplete. This constitutes evil at the level of:being itself. An individual thwarts the purpose of God's creating him by refusing to exercise the cocreator-ship that he could exercise. That which is called forth by God is ren-dered void by man.25 Consequently, religious life and novitiate formation must reinforce among no'vices the importance of continuing their commitment to the proc-ess of individuation as they are simultaneously socialized into the group. Growth in spiritual maturity depends heavily on integral human devel-opment. This truth has long been captured in the Scholastic adage that "grace builds on nature." Leo P. Rock, S.J., a former novice director, applied this truth 'to novitiate formation in a pithy way: "Grace does not substitute for nature, but fulfills it. Healthy, sane personality develop-ment is the most fertile soil in which grace can take root and grow. Growth in religious life can best happen in the situation which best fos-ters personal human growth.''26 The following considerations may be helpful toformatores as they consider how to best foster such prerequi- Novitiate Formation / 677 site human growth in the novitiate: The Developmental Nature of Human Growth Human growth takes place in stages, with each stage presupposing and building on preceding ones. As deveiopmentalists put it, these stages are. invariantly sequential. A person cannot, for example, go from stage one to stage four by skipping the intervening stages. This principle thus requires t~at every individual novice be met where he or she is on enter-ing the novitiate, and then helped to proceed ~forward, stage by stage, from tha.t personal starting point. This is especially important because per-sons entering religion today .vary so much in age, background, and de-velopment. An undifferentiated treatment of novices would prove to be an unenlightened and eventually frustrating appr6ach. Another key consideratibn is that, as a Jesuit formation document puts it, "human development does not proceed at the same pace in eve-ryone." z7 This fact calls for adaptation of the process to individuals. Therefore, in. fostering growth in the novitiate, it seems important that the focus be kept on the individual and the particular~areas of his or her life that stand most ready for development at any particular time. Force-feeding of any kind not only risks dging violence to people, but will ul-timately be countbrproductive in leading to any kind of significant, long-term learning. Personal Responsibility and Religious Obedience The renewal of religious life since Vatican II has certainly challenged men and women to understand and qive the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in ways that do not impede personal maturity and psycho-logical health. Twenty years ago Jesuit John Courtney Murray spelled out this challenge in a talk to fellow Jesuits. He warned that religious obedience poses a real danger to personal maturity if it fosters the abdi-cation of personal responsibility for one's life and choices. Obedience is a perilous"path to personal maturity, according to Murray. This is be-cause the vow of obedience, if poorly lived out, produces people "who to a degree are purposeless, their lives not consciously and strongly pat-terned, not inwardly directed toward a determined goal with all the or-ganized power of the whole self.' ,28 Religious can succumb to the trap posed by obedience by being pas-sive and overly submissive to authority figures in order to gain accep-tance and approval or to enjoy a kind of infantile dependence free from the anguish of personal decision-making. Those who manifest these and othe'r forms of immature behavior often rationalize their way of acting Review for Religious, September-October 1988 in spiritual terms, thus disguising and denying what they~ are actually do-ing. When they say that they "just want to follow God's or the supe-rior's will," it is sometimes simply a rationalization to justify their to take responsibility for themselves.29 This becomes obvious when the superior clearly has no strong feelings or particular preference about wfiat should happen and in fact would like the religious to assume some independent initiative and to indicate a clear preference. Realizing this threat to maturity, ihe document on Jesuit formation makes clear that "the more the noviceg are stimulated to assume respon-sibilities with prudent and discerning charity, the more successfully will .they acquire Spiritual maturity and the more freely will they adhere their vocation."3° A correlative document on Jesuit obedience states that mature obedience is unattainable apart from the constant cultivation a spirit of initiative and responsibility.3~ A Discernment Model to Develop Responsible~Obedience To foster personal responsibility within the framework of religious obedience, I have used the following eight-step model to teach novices a way of practicing dis~zernment: Step 1" Identify the decision to be made or tl~e issu~ to be resolved. Step 2: Examine the underlying values or concerns (human, Chris-tian, religious, and Jesuit) involved. Step 3: Take time to pray over the matter, paying attention to how one is being drawn or led in prayer. Step 4: Discuss the matter with a spiritual director. Step 5: Dialogue with the superior and engage in a mutual search for God's will in the matter. Step 6: Strive for a state of lgnatian "indifference," that is, a state of inner freedom and equipoise which allows one to accept whatever decision or resolution would be for God's greater glory. If a person is unable to achieve "indifference," discussing the matter in spiritual direction can bring valuable self-knowledge and clarity about how best to proceed in the search for God's will. Perhaps, more prayer and dia-logue with the superior regarding conflicting values and perspectives may be needed before a peaceful closure and decision can be arrived at. Step_ 7: Accept the superior's decision with ,trust in God's. provi-dence at work within the dynamics of religious obedience. Step 8: Stay open to the emerging data of ongoing experience to check for confirmation. In a study of lgnatian obedience, John Futrell, Novitiate Formation / 679 S.J., states that "the principal means of confirmation of the decisions of the superior., are the mutual contentment of himself and his com-panion and the proof of living experience.' ,32 If there is serious doubt "that the superior's decision truly reflects God's will, the process of ,prayer, consultation, and dialogue must begin again. This discernment process promotes personal responsibility and growth because it requires the full engagement of the novices. In com-ing to a decision, they must work with.their religious superior, rather than have things fully decided or resolved for them from above. Step I requires them to invest in the process of defining the parameters of the issue from their personal point of view. Step 2 involves a process of val-ues clarification in which they state the values that are at stake in the de-cision. Steps 3 and 4 give them the chance to critique these values, both alone in prayer and together with a spiritual director. Steps 2, 3, and 4 press them to ask an important twofold question: "Am I free to pursue my values.'?" and "Are my values worth the pursuit?" By requiring them to come to some kind of tentative stance or decision before dialogu-ing with the superior, these steps promote their sense of selfhood, which is largely shaped in the process of personal decision-making. Finally, if attained, the spiritual attitude of Ignatian indifference provides them with the inner freedom which guarantees that their act of autonomous choice can be integrated with religious obedience. For, in the end, indifference allows them to accept whatever is decided with a sense of adult respon-sibility and commitment to the way of evangelical obedience. Summary Reflections Before ma~king a concluding recommendation, it might be helpful to summarize what has been proposed here: I. Adaptations in novitiate formation must always be guided by the three, essential goals of the novitiate: vocation discernment, religious so-cialization, and ongoing individuation. 2. Novitiate formation as it relates to vocation discernment must be seen as a positive aid concerned with the confirmation of a call, rather /han as a negative process of "weeding out" candidates. The process of election monitors the will of God being expressed in the heart's deep-est desires, and the process of existential confirmation searches for the will of God manifested in the concrete circumstances of one's life. 3. Novitiate formation as it relates to religious socialization is the proc-ess by which a religious community receives new members and bonds them to the community's past and present by (a) sharing with them its tradition, spirituality, mores, and "habits of the heart" and (b)welcom- 680 / Review for Religious, September-October 1988 ing them to its current fellowship and ministries. 4. Novitiate formation as it relates to ongoing individuation is the process by which the, personal growth and development .of individual nov-ices are fostered, even as the novices are being socialized into the com-munity. Towards this end the novitiate attempts to promote individual initiative and personal responsibility within the context of religious obe-dience. In light of what has been proposed above, I recommend-~that, wher-ever and whenever possible, communities with small numbers of nov-ices (for example, five or fewer) join together with,other compatible groups ~to form a larger formation community, Examples of compatible groups might be novices of different provinces of the same religious or-der (for example, an interprovinciai Jesuit or Dominican novitiate) o con-gregations with the same founding spirit (for example, Franciscans, Bene-dictines, Mercy Sisters, St. Joseph Sisters). In my opinion, the goals of religious socialization are. better accomplished in larger groupings and are very difficult to achieve with just two or three novices ~ibsorbed into a regular apostolic house. This is especially true of the liminoid phase of religious socializa-tion, which relies heavily on an experience of community. During period, novices are meant to acquire the religious values,mores, and spiri-tuality of the group by experiencing daily life in a vibrant community, whose central ministry is the socializing of novices into religious This regrouping for the sake of forming larger formatiow communities can be on a full-time or part-time basis. A very successful example a full-time merger has been Loyola House in Berkley, Michigan, which houses the joint Jesuit novitiate program of the Chicago and Detroit prov-inces. Part-time collaborative programs have taken various forms. For example, for two straight years the Jesuit novices of the California and Oregon provinces joined together for two months to experience the Ig-natian Exercises together. Last year three Jesuit novitiates'pooled their resources and spent five weeks together to study the history of the or-der. Another example of such successful collaboration is the intercom-munity novitiate experience in such places as Los Angeles and Denver. Large and autonomous formation communities can provide S'everal very important dimensions of novitiate training that communities of or two novices cannot provide. Briefly, they are the following: Peer formation. In my experience, peer formation is an important as-pect of religious socialization, As novices experience together the dif-ferent aspects of religious life and share theirjfaith and religious experi- Novitiate Formation / 681 ences with each other, they are supported and "edified," in the best sense of the word. Spiritual conversation among novices regarding the story of their vocation, their experience in prayer and ministry, their strug-gles with the vows and with community living can provide much needed support and insight. Liturgical formation. Larger, autonomous novitiate communities are more likely to have a well-planned, coordinated liturgical life, which can be very important in the spiritual formation of novices. When there are only two or three novices living together, chances are that there will be no orga0ized liturgical life in the community. Instead, the novices may merely join in a convenient parish liturgy. When this occurs, the peda-gogical function of liturgy within formation is greatly diminished. Staffing and programmatic advantages. Because of the growing short-age of active members in practically every religious community in the United States, the search for qualified personnel for the various apostolic works of a community often invites a subtle competition among the vari-ous ministries. As a result, there is a danger that novitiate formation will get short shrift because of the very small number of novices being min-istered to. A larger group of novices in some kind of interprovincial ar-rangement would provide a stronger claim for greater investment by the community (a) in qualified formation personnel whose work is given full-time status and assured of some continuity and (b) in some regular and relatively fixed program of instruction for the training of novices. With-out this kind of investment, it is hard to expect that a person asked to be a part-time novice director for one or two years will devote the time and energy needed to understand the complex process of novitiate for-mation and to develop the skills and knowledge needed to do a good job. When left to function on their own, communities with just a trickle of novices tend to create a makeshift, ad hoc arrangement to handle the for-mation of the few. It seems that having several ongoing, large-group, com-mon novitiate programs which could accommodate novices from vari-ous communities that share the same charism or spirit of a founder would be helpful for meeting the need created by the drastic drop in recent years. None of this would be complete without a word about the inherent, not to say mind-boggling, paradox of religious life and growth. While we are called upon to use all of the knowledge and expertise at our dis-posal, it is the Holy Spirit who effects growth, who gives life, and whose gifts shape the soul--a Spirit who, much to the surprise, despair, and con-fusion of our best-made plans, still blows where it will. This does not Review for Religious, September-October 1988 relieve us of the responsibility of bringing what expertise we can muster to fostering human, spiritual growth. But it reminds us that it is the Holy Spirit, whose ways transcend all our human expertise and wisdom, often confounding them, who effects and shapes the growth we hope to facili-tate. NOTES ~ See Gerald A. Arbuckle, S.M., "Planning the Novitiate Process: Reflections of an Anthro.pologist," in REVIEW FOR REL~6~Ot~S (July/August 1984): 532-546. , 2 Ibid., 15.~ 532. ~' 3 Ann and Barry Ulanov, Primary Speech: A Psychology of Prayer (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982), p. 20. '* Annotation # I, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, translated by Louis J. Puhl, S.J. (Chicago: Loyola Upiversity Press, 1951). 5 Michael J. Buckley, S.J., "Final Vows in the Society of Jesus," in National Jes-uit News, vol. 10, no. 7, April 1981, p. 8. 6 Ibid., p. 9. 7 Ibid., p. 8. 8 Michael J. Buckley, S.J., "The Priesthood as a Religious Event," in The Berkeley Jesuit, spring 1970, p. 7. 9 "In all selection and testing of seminarians, necessary standards must always be firmly maintained, even when there exists a regrettable shortage of priests. For God will not allow his Church to lack ministers if worthy candidates are admitted while unsuitable ones are speedily and paternally directed towards the assuming of other tasks and are encouraged to take up the lay apostolate readily, in a consciousness of their Christian vocation." Paragraph 6, Decree on Priestly Formation (Optatam Totius), in The Documents of Vatican !I, ed. Walter Abbott, S.J. (New York: Amer-ica Press, 1966). ~0 John Westerhoff III and Gwen K. Neville, Generation to Generation: Conversa-tions on Religious Education and Culture (Philadelphia: United Church Press, 1974), p. 41. ~ Nos. 138-140, "The Spiritual Formation of Jesuits," in Documents of the 31st and 32nd General Congregations of the Society of Jesus (St. Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1977), pp. I I 1-113. See also no. 23, "Companions of Jesus Se~nt into Today's World," Decree # I, Documents of the 33rd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus (St. Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1984), p. 50. ~2 Quoted in Robert N. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Com-mitment in American Life (San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1986), p. 37. ~3 Arbuckle, op. cit., pp. 540-545. ~': Ibid., p. 540. ~5 Ibid. ~6 Quoted ibid., pp. 542-543. t7 No. 22, Decree 8, "The Spiritual Formation of Jesuits," Documents of the 31st and 32nd General Congregations of the Society of Jesus, p. 104. Is Ibid., no. 19, p. 103. 19 For an explanation of how praxis or experiential learning is applied to prayer, see my "Teach Us to Pray," in Company: A Magazine of the American Jesuits, vol. Novitiate Formation / 683 I, no. 3, April 1984, pp. 8-10. 2o For a discussion of the experience/reflection dynamic in learning about interper-sonal relationships, see my "Particular Friendships Revisited," in Human Devel-opment, vol. 7, no. I, spring 1986, pp. 34-38. 2~ Decree I, -#40, Documents of the 33rd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus. 22 John Dewey, Experience and Education (London: Collier-MacMillan Company, 1938), p. 25. 23 Ibid., p. 27 (emphasis in the original). 24 Gregory Baum, "Reply and Explanation," in Ecumenist, vol. 9, Nov.-Dec. 1970- Jan.-Feb. ! 971, p. 18. z5 John Haughey, S.J., Should Anyone Say Forever: On Making, Keeping, and Break-ing Commitments (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1975), pp. 23-24. 26 Leo lb. Rock, S.J., "The California Province Novitiate: What We Do and Why," an unpublished paper, September 1973, p. 4. 27 No. 24, Decree 8, "The Spiritual Formation of Jesuits," Documents of the 31st and 32nd General Congregations of the Society of Jesus, p. 105. 28 John Courtney Murray, S.J., " The Danger of the Vows," in Woodstock Letters, fall 1967~, p~ 42 I. 29 For a discussion of obstacles to mature religious obedience, see my "Dealing with Projection: Recognizing and Removing a Common Obstacle to Mature Religious Obe-dience," in Human Development, vol. 6, no. I, spring 1985, pp. 6-1 I. 30 No. 23, Decree 8, " The Spiritual Formation," in Documents of the 31st and 32nd General Congregations of the Society of Jesus, p. 105. 31 Nos. II and 12, Decree 17, "The Life of Obedience." Documents of the 31st and 32nd General Congregations of the Society of Jesus, pp. 164-166. 32 John C. Futrell, S.J., Making an Apostolic Community of Love: The Role of the 'Superior According to St. Ignatius of Loyola (St. Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1970), p. 143. Some Thoughts on the Vocation to Celibacy Clifford Stevens Father Stevens has been, over the course of many years, a Trappist, a parish priest, an Air Force chaplain, an editor of The Priest, and a small-town pastor. He has pub-lished a novel, Flame Out of Dorset, about St. Stephen Harding, twelfth-century Cis-tercian. Last appearing in our pages in 1986, he writes from the monaste(y he founded: Tintern; Monastery Road; Oakdale, Nebraska 68761. The very foundation of the vocation to celibacy must be the complete free-dom from compulsion with which the choice of celibacy is made. Free-dom from external compulsion, in that no one can be forced by external pressures to choose the celibate vocation, and freedom from internal pres-sures, ascetic, moral, spiritual, which would make the choice of celibacy anything but a conscious, free choice, based on something within the vo-cation to celibacy itself. The choice of celibacy is not a rejection or de-nial of the excellence of marriage. ~ It is rather an affirmation of realities that transcend sexuality and marriage.2 This "anthropological" base of the choice of celibacy is a critical factor in celibate happiness, and that celibate happiness is based precisely on the facts that [ could find happiness in marriage, that in choosing celi-bacy3 ! am just as free to choose marriage, and that marriage has a good-ness and nobility all its own. There is a profound reason for this complete freedom from compul-sion based on the specific excellence of celibacy itself, and not in com-parison with something else. The profound reason is this. The gift of sexuality and its directedness toward intimate expression'~ in marriage comes, with our very creation, from God's goodness, his wis-dom, and his benevolence. It is an integral part of our humanity and our 684 Thoughts on Celibacy masculinity, and no power on earth can deprive us of it because it comes with the~very blueprint of our nature. (This article looks at celibacy from a masculine point of view, not because the feminine viewpoint is not im-portant, but becduse it is outside the author's experience.) The ,gift of sexuality, in fact, is the root reality of our bodily exis-tence and of our masculine nature, and has a power and a goodness that enriches human life immeasurably. However we want to describe it, you and I, men endowed with all the gifts of a masculine nature, are shaped and fashioned by every ripple and nuance of our living flesh for physi-cal intimacy with a woman. To hide this from ourselves in the name of celibacy would rob the choice of celibacy of half its meaning. The choice of celibacy can never be based upon a denial or ignoring of the inherent goodness of sexuality or the preeminent goodness of sex-ual intimacy in marriage,s Moreover, it is possible to possess one's sexu-ality in this full awareness of its essential goodness, in complete inno-cence, with a wholesome sense of dignity, freedom, wonder, apd joy in its possession and, with the same complete innocence, to look forward to and experience its joyous expression in marriage; or, if one is a celi-bate, to be profoundly appreciative of its joyous expression in marriage, with the same complete innocence.6 The choice of celibacy is not based upon a lack of appreciation for sexual intimacy in marriage or upon any conviction that the experience of marriage is in any way displeasing to God. These are simply unsound anthropological bases upon which to build a vocation to celibacy and, unwittingly, they can plant deep in.the recesses of one's motivation a time bomb ready to go off. It is unfortunate that in the history of Christian spirituality the voca-tion to celibacy has often been explained in terms that denigrate the value and beauty of sexual love in marriage. The impression is given that the choice of celibacy is somehow a flight from something radically unspir-itual and that the celibate looks upon conjugal intimacy as something be-neath his dignity, something that would mar his perfect purity. The choice of celibacy, if it is genuine, has nothing of this motivation about it, but is based solidly and squarely upon something more positive and something more exhilarating. Celibacy must be based on a profound appreciation for the gift of sex-ual intimacy as personal gift and endowment from God and as an inte-gral part of one's masculine inheritance. Nobility of soul does not fail to plumb and to appreciate the riches of masculine possibility which is the natural inheritance of an awakened and full manhood. Review for Religious, September-October 1988 This possibility, with all its splendor and enrichment, does not ex-haust the human possibility, but it does enshrine some of its noblest in-stincts, of the feelings and of the mind, and an intimacy that mirrors the very passion of God himself. As a celibate I set aside intimacy with a woman, with all its rooms of joy and beauty, only for a greater intimacy and its even more won-drous rooms of beauty, and its universe of joy. But in doing so, I will not deny the power, the significance, or the magnitude of the masculine expectancy that I set aside and turn away from. This intimacy, by what-ever name it is called, is riveted into my very flesh; the lineaments of this passionate preoccupation are traced and interlaced in the warp and woof of my very biology. The gift of manhood with all its passionate possibilities is one of the richest gifts of God. I set it aside freely, not with no appreciation for its beauty, and not with regret, but because I have stumbled on a greater beauty, a more powerful intimacy, and a more earth-shaking encounter. In the shadow of that intimacy and in the tremor of this expectancy, every other human possibility fades into insignificance. I do not hide from myself the shattering loveliness and singular beauty of the sexual intimacy that could be mine, but celibacy reaches out to something greater, fully as rich, fully as valid, and as fully a com-plement to my manhood as the rich experience of love in marriage. This is the sound anthropological base upon which the vocation to celibacy is founded. It may not be part of one's original motivation since, in the beginnings of a vocation, you are simply too busy and too taken up with the excitement of a new direction to reflect upon every element of your motivation. But ultimately what is implicit in your choice must be made explicit by thought, reflection, and personal exploration, and there must not be in the root motivation of celibacy anything resembling spiritual or moral snobbery or looking down on marriage. The choice of celibacy must be based upon some excellence in the vocation of celibacy itself, and not in mere comparison with something else. Only then can the specific excellence of the vocation to celibacy become part of your own life,~and--I am sure I do not have to repeat--thespecific excellence of celibacy is not the fact that you do not have a woman in your life or that you sleep alone. This is a necessary condition, but if that is all that celibacy means to you, you could end up being the most miserable of men, deprived of the crowning act of your masculine nature, the finest and noblest expression of your manhood, with nothing to take its place. That would be a deprivation of singular magnitude. Thoughts on Celibacy And this is something that we should never forget: As celibates we deprive ourselves of this crowning act of our masculine nature, the fin-est and most genuine expression of our masculinity that is sexual inti-macy in marriage. If that terrifying vacuum were not filled with some-thing that touched with joy the very roots of our manhood, the dep-rivation and emptiness would be almost too much to bear. This is one of the consequences of celibacy that has not often been touched upon, but it certainly explains some of the strange aberrations of clerical and religious life and some of the tragic consequences of an ill-motivated and immature commitment to celibacy. One of the major problems in the vocation to celibacy is that many celibates have not through deep personal reflection made explicit in their own minds what was implicit in their choice of celibacy and have ac-cepted, quite uncritically, an evaluation of sexuality in general, and of their own sexuality in particular, that is based on tenets of a Neoplaton-ist and Stoic anthropology embodied in an older type of spirituality. This evaluation notonly placed no value upon sexuality itself, but tended to denigrate as totally unworthy of the spiritual person the inti-mate expression of sexuality in marriage, thus negating the very mean-ing of sexuality and placing a negative judgment on the very possession of one's sexuality. Really, it all starts and ends there: What evaluation and judgment do you place upon the intimate expression of sexuality in marriage? If that judgment is a negative one, you can never really be com-fortable in the possession of your own sexuality. The true Christian evaluation of sexual intimacy in marriage, based upon the vision of sexual love embodied in the Christian revelation it-self, is that the intimate expression of sexual love in marriage is (i) the crowning act (in fa~zt, the primary and unique act) of one's manhood, (2) the finest, noblest, and most genuine expression of one's masculinity, (3) the unique expression of love between a man and a woman, (4) God's crowning gift to one's bodily existence, and (5) the gr,eatest earthly gift that God has given to the human race. This is implicit in the very choice of celibacy, even though that evalu-ation may not have been part of the conscious motivation when the choice of celibacy was made. Historically, the negative sexual tenets we have mentioned are part of a North African phenomenon that included Neoplatonism in Alexan-dria, the monastic movement in the same area, the spirituality of Eva-grius Ponticus, Tertullian, and St. Augustine (and the ascetic movement in the West), and the monastic spirituality of John Cassian, who reflected Review for Religious, September-October 1988 in his writings the sexual anthropology of the Alexandrian monastic move-ment. A healthier anthropology can be found in the robust passion for life in the classical Greek tradition, reflected in the best of Plato and the monu-mental work of Aristotle, later embodied in the Spirituality of the Greek Fathers and in the philosophical achievements of Saints Albertus Mag, nus and Thomas Aquinas. That anthropology recognized the inherent goodness of our senses and our sense life, the inherent goodness of hu-man sexuality, and the innate and preeminent goodness of the intimate expression of sex in marriage. This view, however, was never embod-ied in "traditional" spirituality and had little influence on spiritual doc-trine. The work of Aquinas, however, bore fruit in many areas over the cen-turies even though some of his basic tenets were condemned by an older "Augustinian" sChool soon after his death in 1274. In the documents of the Second Vatican Council, particularly, Gaudium et.Spes, the Aqui. nas view was recovered, and we have in the council documents a posi-tive and wholesome anthropology of sexuality7 which should have a pro-found influence on future spirituality. NOTES ~ "Students should have a proper knowledge of the duties and dignity of Christian marriage, which represents the love.that exists between Christ and the Church." Op-tatam Totius, Decree on the Training of Priests of the Second Vatican Council, ed. by Austin Flannery, 0.P~., no., 10, p. 715. 2 "They should recognize the greater excellence of virginity consecrated to Christ, however, so that they may offer themselves to the Lord with fully deliberate and gen-erous choice, and a complete surrender of body and soul." ibid. 3 Celibacy seeks, on the basis of personal:experience and personal judgment, a con~ tinual intimacy with God and with divine things; it provides that personal solitude without which, for this p_articular individual, such continual intimacy with God would be impossible or unlikely. Celibacy is not chosen because there is any value in mere sexual deprivation, but because it is a natural step towards a lifestyle totally or domi-nantly preoccupied with the eternal and the divine. Celibacy bears witness in one's own person to the eternal dimension, to the reality and significance of the eternal in human life. '~ For the purpose of this article, sexuality and sexual intima~3, have these meanings: Sexuality is a gift of God that comes with the act of creation, a personal endowment that should be borne with a certain masculine dignity and yet worn joyfully~ and lightly. Our sexuality is inherent'ly good, and so, too, is the intimacy with a wdman to which it leads. Sexual intimacy is a gift of God that comes with the very blueprint of our nature, Thoughts on Celibacy in the sense that the pattern of that intimacy is molded into our very bodies. Sexual intimacy is part of our human and masculine inheritance, and its expression in mar-riage the very crown of masculinity and femininity. But while sexual intimacy is a gift to our person and our nature, its expression is meant to be embodied in a personal choice based on love, embedded in the marriage covenant, and to be the setting and inexhaustible source of the deepest human hap-piness. Sexual intimacy comes with our nature and our personhood. It is the living expres-sion of the noblest human love and is itself the image and mirror of God's own love for human beings. By celibacy we freely deprive ourselves of this most enriching gift,'this crown of our masculinity, for the simple reason that we, called by God, have other plans for ourselves. 5 The nature of the vocation to celibacy is not a denial of the inherent goodness and sublimity of married love, but an affirmation, the affirmation of something beyond the sexual and beyond the earthly, the affirmation of another relationship and the cul-tivation of that relationship as the main occupation of one's life. Celibacy is a dep-rivation, but it is a freely chosen deprivation of something seen to be part of one's own human inheritance and something preeminently good. St. Thomas links celi-bacy to the virtue of magnificence, a certain exuberance in living, a bursting of the bonds of the ordinary to reach out to the extraordinary. It is based on a hunger for the eternal and for an intimacy as real and as stunning as the intimacy of man and woman in marriage. See Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues (University of Notre Dame Press, 1966), pp. 145-180.' 6 Celibacy is part of the virtue of sophrosyne, touched upon in Aristotle's Ethics, with a fuller treatment in the Summa Theologiae of St. Thomas Aquinas. The object of sophrosyne is the body, and those things that are of the body (soma, somatos). There are several levels or kinds of sophrosyne: (I) joy and pride in bodily being itself (simple sophrosyne), (2) joy and pride in bodily well-being (dignity), (3) joy and pride in bodily senses (liveliness), (4)joy and pride

Issue 19.3 of the Review for Religious, 1960. ; Councils in Lay Institutes Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. THE LAW of the code and especially that of the constitutions confers an important role on the councils in religious institutes. Almost all constitutions describe thoroughly the duties of tho general council but are unsatisfactory in their treatment ~f the provincial and local councils. This article is an effort to explain simultaneously"th~ principles that govern all councils in lay in-stitutes. The more common name for this office in such institutes is councilor; but many others are found, e.g., assistants, discreets, and consultors. 1. Necessity of councilors (c. 516, § 1). This canon obliges-all superiors general, presidents of federations and confederations, provincial and local superiors at least of formal houses to have councilors. A formal house in a lay institute is one in which at least six professed religious reside (c. 488, 5°). The canon recom-mends that superiors also of smaller houses have councilors. From analogy of law and the enactment of the particular constitutions, superiors of vice-provinces, quasi-provinces, regions, vicariates, missions, and districts should also have councilors.~ The canon does not specify the number of the councilors. From the practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, there are four general councilors, although a few lay congregations have a greater numberi four or two provincial councilors; two councilors in a formal house, but a few congregations have a larger number; and more frequently one councilor in a smaller house. Monasteries of nuns ordinarily have four councilors. Federations and confederations of nuns have four or six councilors, and regions within such a confederation have two. ~ 2. Manner of designation and requisite qualities of councilors. The general councilors of a congregation and the councilors of a con-federation, federation, region, or monastery of nuns are elected in the respective chapters. The provincial councilors of a congregation are appointed by the superior general with the consent of his council, but in a small number of congregations they are elected in the provincial chapter. Local councilors are appointed by the ILarraona, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 9 (1928), 418. 129 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious superior general or, if the institute is divided into provinces, ordin-arily by the provincial, with the consent of the respective council. The constitutions sometimes enact that this provincial appoint-ment is to be confirmed by the superior general with the delibera-tive vote of his council. The quality universally demanded by constitutions for all ex-cept local councilors is that they be professed of perpetual vows. The age usually required for general councilors of a congregation and those of a confederation, federation, or region of nuns is thirty-five complete years; thirty years is the more frequent norm in monasteries of nuns; and thirty or thirty-five years are often prescribed for provincial councilors. The constitutions rarely enact a determined age for local councilors, and very many do not affirm that perpetual vows are necessary. A few make it clear that perpetual profession is not an absolute requisite by stating that the local councilors are, if possible, to be professed of perpetual vows or that such vows are required at least for the first local councilor. It is incongruous that a religious still in the state of probation and formation should be the councilor of a house. 3. Residence. According to the practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, all the general councilors should reside with the superior general; but two of them, with the exception of the as-sistant general, may live elsewhere for a just reason, e. g., because of their other work. These must be stationed in houses from which they can .be readily summoned and can attend the meetings. The evident purpose of the practice is that the superior general may have no difficulty in consulting his councilors. Many constitutions contain no prescriptions on the residence of the provincial counci- .lots. At least the assistant provincial and the provincial secretary should reside with the provincial. Some constitutions have the same practice for a provincial council of four members as that described above for the general council. If there are only two provincial councilors, the constitutions frequently state that both or at least one of the councilors must reside with the provincial. The councilors of a confederation, federation, or region of nuns reside in their respective monasteries. 4. Incompatible duties. The general principle of the practice of the Holy See forbids a general councilor to be assigned any employment that would prevent the proper fulfillment of the duties of a coun-cilor. The present practice forbids in particular merely that the first general counc.il0r be bursar or secretary general. The former practice forbade any general councilor to be bursar general, and 130 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES the Normae of 1901 extended the prohibition to the master of novices (nn. 285, 300). Some constitut!ops~ ~ave the same pro-hibition with regard to the offices of provincial or local superior, any bursar, local councilor, and master of junior professed. A provincial will rarely in fact be a general councilor; but, outside of the case of the assistant general, it is difficult to see how the offices listed above are necessarily incompatible with that of general councilor. A general councilor is very frequently the local superior of the generalate. The judgment of the incompatibility is to be made on facts, i. e., the amount of work in each of the offices and the ease or difficulty with which the other office would permit the religions to be summoned and to attend the ordinary and extraordinary sessions of the general council. Few constitutions mention incompatible duties with regard to the provincial coun- .cilors, but some forbid the uniting of this office with that of pro-vincial bursar or master of novices. 5. Nature of a council (c. 516, § 1). In the constitutions of pontifical lay congregations, the general council is nsually stated to consist of the superior general and the four general councilors. Other parts of the same constitutions repeat frequently that particular matters requirethe consent or advice of the general council. All such expressions are ambiguons. The superior alone governs the con-gregation, province, or house; the councilors as such have no authority. Canon 516, § 1, makes it clear that a councilor is only an adviser of a superior, not an associate in authority. The superior votes in a council but he is not a member of the council; he is the superior, or sole possessor of authority, who has councilors or advisers. In a general chapter the authority is that of the collective body; the chapter itself and as such possesses the authority. All the members of this chapter are on the same level; all are co-possessors of the same authority and co-authors of the enactments of the chapter. Not the presiding superior general, but the general chapter places an act. A council is not a governing body; it possesses no collective authority. The councilors are not co-authors of an act. It is not the council but the superior who places an act, with the consent or advice of his council. It is possible for a particular canon or law of the constitutions to prescribe that the council is to act in the same manner as the general chapter. This mnst be certainly proved, since the contrary is the general principle of canon law. The only canon of this type that can affect lay religions is canon 650, which treats of the dismis-sal of a male religions of perpetual vows. If the majority of the 131 JOSEPH F. CrALLEN Review for Religious council vote for dismissal, it is probable that the superior general must issue the decree of dismissal in a pontifical congregation or forward the matter to the local ordinary in the case of a diocesan congregation. Therefore, the act in this case would be of the general council, not of the superior general. However, this sense is only probable; and it is at least equally probable that the wording of the canon is merely another way of expressing the deliberative vote of the council. Consequently, since it is not certain that canon 650 is an exception, this case also would in fact be handled in the same way as that described above (cf. also n. 16). These same principles apply not only to the councils but also to chapters of monasteries of nuns in the cases for which law demands that the superioress secure the consent or advice of the chapter (cc. 534, § 1; 543; 575, § 2; 646, § 2).2 6. Duties of councilors (c. 516, § 1). The primary duty of the councilors is to cast a deliberative or consultive vote when these are demanded by canon law or the constitutions. When asked to do so by the superior, they are to express their opinions with all freedom, courage, respect, sincerity, and truth (c. 105, 3°). They are likewise to bring to the attention of the superior whatever they sincerely consider to be to the good or detriment of the institute, province, or house. The superior, not the councilors, decides the matters that are to be treated in the council, as is clear from the principle stated in number 5. Councils were introduced to prevent what could degenerate into arbitrary government on the part of the superior. An equally evident purpose was to satisfy the need that all, and perhaps especially those in authority, have of securing advice and obtaining information. In an age that emphasizes ren-ovation and adaptation, the councilors should also be the principal source of progressive ideas to the superior. 7. Obligation of secrecy. According to the practice of the Holy See, an article of the constitutions states that the general councilors must observe secrecy concerning all matters confided to them as councilors in or outside the sessions.3 Another article is usually included that extends this same obligation to all others who have attended any session of the general council. A secret is the know-ledge of something that at least ordinarily should not be revealed. ~Cf. Vromant, D~ Bonis Ecclesiae Temporalibus, n. 39; Vermeersch, Per-iodica, 15 (1927), (61)-(63); Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, I, 183-89; Michiels, Principia Generalia de Personis in Ecclesia, 494-95; Larraona, Commentariurn Pro Religiosis, 6 (1925), 429-30; Bender, Norrnae Generales de Personis, nn. 376-77,1; Jone, Comrnentarium in Codicem Juris Canonici, I, 121. ~Normae of 1901, n. 280. 132 May, 1960 COUNCIL~ IN LAY INSTITUTES A natural secret arises from the very matter of such knowledge, since its revelation would cause injury or at least sorrow and displeasure to another. A promised secret has its source in a prom-ise, made after the matter was known, not to reveal the matter, whether or not this matter of itself demands secrecy. The confided or entrusted .secret arises from an agreement, given and accepted before any disclosure, that the matter will not be revealed. The agreement may be explicit or implicit. The latter is true of all who possess a confidential office, e. g., doctors, lawyers, priests consulted outside of confession on things appertaining to their ministry, religious superiors, novice masters, councilors, etc. There are degrees in the confided secret. The lowest is the revelation made to a private individual from mere friendship. The next is the revelation to a private individual to secure counsel. The third and highest is the official secret, i. e., a revelation made to a person possessing a confidential office, such as those listed above, and made to him because of this office or learned in the practice of the office. Matters confided to all councilors thus constitute official secrets and are often also natural secrets. Even the official secret may be revealed to prevent a serious injury to the institute, province, or house, or to any individual. The councilors may also reveal such matters to a prudent and learned or experienced person for the purpose of consultation, e. g., to a confessor, a priest skilled in a subject such as canon law or moral theology, or to another prudent and experienced religious. In seeking counsel, the identity of the person concerned is always to be concealed as far as possible. Even if the matter becomes public, the councilors may not reveal what occurred in the council with regard to it, e. g., the opinions or votes given by individual councilors. They are to acquiesce, at least externally, in the judgment of the majority and in the action taken by the superior. This is necessary for the efficient functioning of the council and for effective and peaceful govern-ment. They are not to imply or hint to others that they disagreed with a decision made in council. This is a shirking of the responsi-bilities of an office. The article inserted in constitutions by the Holy See adds that a general councilor who violates this obligation of secrecy is to be seriously admonished by the superior general. If he does this repeatedly, he is to be given a severe admonition and a penance. A violation of secrecy is not in itself a sufficient reason for de-position from office; but, if the violations are very serious, flagrant, a source of lack of confidence, discord, or scandal in the corn- 133 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious munity, the councilor may be deposed from his office.4 These principles apply to all other councilors. Canon 105, 2°, empowers the superior, if he believes this prudent and demanded by the sbriousness of the matter, to oblige the councilors to take an oath to preserve secrecy on a particular matter. ~. Frequency of sessions. The almost universal practice of the Sacred Congregation in approving constitutions is that an or.dinary session of the general council is to be held every month. The article adds that more frequent sessions are to be convoked when necessary. A very small number of constitutions prescribe less frequent meetings, e. g., every two or three months. It is very difficult to reconcile such infrequent sessions with the obligation of having all the councilors reside in the motherhouse and with the insistence that they be free of all duties incompatible with the office of general councilor. An ordinary session every month is decidedly the pref-erable norm. An extraordinary session should be called by the superior general for any matter of greater moment. He should consult his councilors frequently, since the practice of the Sacred Congregation places marked emphasis on the office of councilor. These principles are true of all other councils. A monthly ordinary session is also the usual norm for the councils of provinces, houses, and monasteries of nuns. 9. Convocation of the council (c. 105, 2°). When either the delibera-tive or consultive vote is required by canon law or the constitutions, canon 105, 2°, commands the superior to convoke ~11 the councilors who can be present.5 He must therefore, sufficiently ahead of time, inform all the councilors of the place, day, and hour of the session. A convocation is not obligatory when the constitutions or customs determine the place, day, and hour of the meetings. Obviously all other sessions that the superior institutes on his own authority must also be convoked. The secretary may and often in fact does convoke the council at the order of the superior. The councilors should at the same time be given a list of the important matters to be discussed, so that they may properly prepare for the meeting. Unprepared sessions are usually both unsatisfactory and unduly prolonged. 10. Number of councilors required. (a) By the code (c. 163). By the code, a superior has the right to act when at least one councilor is present after all have been properly convoked (c. 163). The 4Cf. Vermeersch, De Religiosis, II, n. 121; Battandier, Guide Canonique, n. 466; Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 324. sCf. Vromant, op. cir., n. 40; Jone, op. cir., 120; Michiels, op. cir., 530. 134 May, 1960 COUNCIL~ IN LAY INSTITUTES superior may not act when he alone is present, since there would then be no consent or advice of the council. Therefore, if the constitutions do not demand the presence of a definite number for a session of the council, the superior may act validly and licitly when only he and another councilor are present, The same is true when the president of a session is the assistant or vicar in virtue of a provision of the co~.~titutions or delegation from the superior. It is clear that a session should ordinarily be postponed when only one of four councilors is present. According to the law of the code, the superior has no obligation to substitute other religious for absent councilors. It is not certain: that he may do so licitly or even validly, since the rights of the council devolve after convocation on those~ who are present and these are to be considered juridically as a full council.~ However, because the code does not expressly nor certainly forbid substitu-tion, it is probable that the superior may summon such substitutes. 7 He may use an analogous norm from the code (c. 655, § 1) and select the substitutes with the consent of his council; or he may follow one of the norms of substitution admitted in the practice of the Holy See, explained in (c) below, e. g., by taking the local superior as the first substitute and then, with the consent of his council, selecting the other substitutes from the professed of perpetual vows of the house in which the session is held. (b) By the general law of constitutions. The constitutions of lay congregations very frequently demand the presence of the superior general and two councilors for any session of the general council, and a few require a unanimous vote when only this number is present. Other specifications are also found, e. g., two-thirds of the general council, and three general councilors. The Normae of 1901 (n. 273) seem to suppose that the superior general and at least two councilors are present at any session. These constitutions do not demand that the absent councilors be replaced by substi-tutes, i. e., outside of the matters listed in the following paragraph; and substitution is accordingly regulated by the norms given above. It is not the practice to summon substitutes in such cases. (c) By the law of the constitutions [or appointments and other de-termined matters. Most constitutions of lay congregations, following the Norrnae of 1901 (n. 273), require a full general council for ap- ~Cf. Can. 163; 165; Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 47-48; Quaestiones Can-onicae, I, 26-27; Bastien, op. cir., n. 327; Schaefer, De tteligiosis, n. 586; Pejska, Ius Canonicum Religiosorum, 233. 7Cf. Coronata, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, 658, note 3. 135 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious pointments to offices. A small number extend this to other matters, e. g., admission to the noviceship and first and fihal profession, dismissal of professed religious, matters that require recourse to the Holy See or the local ordinary, and even for all matters that demand a deliberative vote. Full membership is required in such constitu-tions for the liceity, not for the validity, of the superior's action. If all the members of the council are not present, the ap-pointment, if possible, should be postponed. If it cannot be deferred, the substitutes prescribed by the constitutions are to be summoned. The most common norm of substitution is that the local superior is to be called and, if a second substitute is necessary, the superior general, with the consent of the councilors present, is to choose him from the professed of perpetual vows of the house where the session is being held. If the local superior is already a general councilor or cannot attend, a religious of perpetual vows is to be chosen in this same way as first substitute. Many other norms of substitution have been admitted by the Holy See. For example, the second sub-stitute need not be of the house where the session is held; the first substitute is the secretary general, or the secretary or bursar general; the superior general, with the consent of the councilors present, chooses as substitutes religious professed for at least ten years; one or two professed of perpetual vows; and, finally, a pro-fessed of perpetual vows, preferably the bursar general. It is pos-sible to find constitutions that demand a full council for determined matters but do not provide any norm of substitution. In such cases the superior is to summon substitutes according to one of the norms given above (c. 20). Constitutions rarely mention the necessity of the presence of a minimum number of provincial councilors, of a full council for determined matters, or give norms of substitution for this council. Such provisions, when found, follow those described above for the general council. (d) Non-councilors" attending sessions. The constitutions usually state, at least of the superior general, that he may summon religious who are not councilors to sessions of the council to give information or advice but that he is forbidden to grant a vote to anyone who is not a councilor. Any superior has this same right. Those most likely to be called are the bursars, masters of novices and of junior professed, and supervisors of schools, hospitals, and studies. It is evident that no one has a right to vote in a council or to act as a councilor unless he is such by election, appointment, or by a provision of law. Some constitutions contain the strange provision that persons summoned as above "have only a con- 136 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES sultive vote." The same is more frequently said of the secretary general, e. g., "If the secretdr~y general'is,not a councilor, he has only a consultive vote." All such persons give information or advice only when requested and merely to help the superior and the councilors to form their opinions, and this may be the sense of the constitutions in question. They do not vote nor act as councilors; this appertains only to the superior and the councilors. Further-more, a secretary of a council is not by that fact a councilor nor should he act as such. He is in the same position as any non-councilor who is summoned to a session. Therefore, he has no right to give an opinion in a council unless this is at least implicitly requested by the superior. 11. Common deliberation (c. 105, 2°). The proper and primary canon on the obligatory consent or advice of a council or chapter is canon 105. The literal translation of this canon is that the coun-cilors or capitulars "are to be legitimately convoked and to manifest their opinions" (c. 105, 2°). The evident translation of the sense of this clause is that "they are to be legitimately convoked and to manifest their opinions in a common deliberation." The canon thus commands absolutely that the councilors or capitulars are to express their opinion in a common deliberation. It is therefore difficult to understand the reason for the statements of some authors that canon 105 does not forbid a councilor to vote through a proxy or by letter or that these are forbidden only for a canonical election (c. 163). From the wording of canon 105, 2°, it is illicit, but not certainly invalid, for a superior to secure an obligatory consent or advice outside of a common deliberation, e. g., through a proxy, by letter, or by interrogating the councilors or capitulars individually and separately and securing in this way their oral consent or advice. 8 The obligation of a common deliberation ceases and the consent or advice may be requested separately when the matter is urgent and a common deliberation is impossible or at-tainable only with unusual difficulty. It is possible for an institute to have a privilege from the Holy See permitting an obligatory vote to be asked separately, 8Vromant, op. cit., n. 40; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome Iuris Canonici, I, n. 229; Wernz-Vidal, Ius Canonicum, II, De Personis, n. 33; III, De Religiosis, n. 155; Coronata, op. cir., n. 154; Ojetti, Comfnenta}'ium in Codicem Iuris Canonici, II, 182-83; Fanfani, De Religiosis, n. 66; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, 82; Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, I, 180-82; Cappello, Summa Iuris Canonici, I, n. 201,'4; Pejska, op. cir., 233; Bender, op. cir., n. 417; Bergh, Revue des Cdmmunautds Religieuses, 20 (1948), 78; Chelodi-Ciprotti, Ius Canonicum de Personis, n. 102; Brys, Juris Canonici Compendium, I, n. 296, 2; Sipos, Enchiridion Iuris Canonici, 82. 137 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious e. g., by letter. Several authors maintain that the particular law or custom of an institute may permit separate voting.9 The opinion of these authors may be followed, even though it is not easy to perceive the foundation for the opinion. Canon 105, 2°, does not contain a clause permitting the continuance of contrary laws or customs, and it is difficult to see how a contrary immemorial custom or one of a century's duration could not-be prudently removed in this matter (cc. 5-6). The attempt to prove the same doctrine by recurring to canon 101, § 1, 1°, is equally obscure. It is true that this canon explicitly permits particular law to prevail over the common law, but it is a canon that only secondarily and analogously applies to an obligatory consent or advice of a council or chapter. The primary and proper canon is canon 105, 2°, which demands a common deliberation absolutely. The value of the com-mon deliberation is that the reasons and facts adduced by some will clarify the issue in the minds of all. A common deliberation also lessens the difficulty in proposing an opinion Contrary to that of the superior. The superior proposes the matters for discussion. He should give an objective description and explanation of each case, without revealing his own opinion. He then asks the opinions of each of the councilors. It is sometimes enjoined by the constitutions and is often customary for the last in precedence to speak first. The superior is to strive to secure a sincere and complete expression of opinion from all the councilors. Canon 105, 3°, obliges the councilors to express their opinions respectfully, sincerely, and truthfully. The superior should take care lest any more aggressive and vocal members dominate the council. These are not necessarily the most able or prudent. The councilors are to consider all matters objectively; they are not to be motivated by partisanship, faction-alism, anger, pride, stubbornness, or blind adherence to their own opinions. The councilors have full liberty to express their opinions. Their norm is the objective merits or demerits of the question, not what the superior wants. To assure this liberty, it is better for the superior to give his opinion last. The superior must be careful lest his attitude intimidate or discourage the councilors from a sincere expression of opinion. He may never consider the council as a mere "rubber stamp" for his own ideas. ~Maroto, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, 556, note 1; Michiels, op. cir., 530; Jone, op. cir., 120; Schaefer, op. cir., n. 582; Cocchi, Commentarium in Codicern Juris Canonici, II, 44; Geser, Canon Law Governing Communities of Sisters, n. 395. 138 ~VIay, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES The amount of time given to each matter will evidently vary with its importance and the :ease or difficulty in reaching a decision. The superior determines the duration and the number of times each councilor is to speak. Some constitutions state that an interval is to be allowed, at least on the petition of the majority of~the council, between the session in which a matter is proposed and that in which it is to be decided, unless the matter is urgent. This will o~dinarily occur only in important matters, but it is a norm that prudence itself will frequently demand or counsel. Some constitutions specify the interval as of one day or more, three or more; and three or eight days. 12. Manner of voting. Canon 105 does not impose any determined manner of voting, i. e~, orally, in writing, publicly, or secretly. The code requires a secret deliberative vote for alienations and the contracting of debts and obligations (c. 534, § 1) and for the dismissal of professed of temporary vows in pontifical congregations of men or women (c. 647, § 1). Very few constitutions of lay institutes contain any provision on the manner of voting, even though the Normae of 1901 stated that the deliberative vote was to be secret (n. 273). The varying provisions on the necessity of a secret vote in constitutions are: for all matters; whenever the deliberative vote is required; only for appointments; councilors may request it for an important matter; and when demanded by canon law, the constitutions, or requested by two councilors. The preferable norm is a secret vote whenever the deliberative vote is required. A secret vote is ordinarily taken by means of black and white beads or beans or in some similar manner. 13. Necessity of voting. Whenever the deliberative vote is required, the councilors are actually to vote; and the result of the voting is to be announced to the council. Otherwise the superior could not be certain that he had the consent of his council. The superior also votes. Actual voting may be done but is not necessary when only the advice or consultive vote is demanded. The superior is not obliged to follow even a unanimous consultive vote and he can reach his decision merely from the opinions proposed by the councilorS.1° 14. Number of votes required (c. 101, § 1, 1°). Unless the constitu-ti0ns specify a different norm, the votes are computed according to canon 101, § 1, 1°, i. e.~ a matter is settled by an absolute ~°De Carlo, op. cir., 82. On the fact that the superior also votes, cf. Bastien, op. cir., n. 326; Battandier, op. cit., n. 453; Lanslots, Handbook of Canon Law, n. 394. 139 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious majority, which is any number thdt exceeds half the valid votes cast. The constitutions do not contain, either for affairs or ap-pointments, the norm of canon 101, § 1, 1°, that a relative majority suffices on the third balloting. In appointments one person is voted for at a time; and all affairs are so proposed that they can be voted on affirmatively or negatively. Since the superior and the councilors ordinarily constitute an uneven number, a tie is scarcely possible unless one of the members is absent. Canon 101, § 1, 1°, commands a superior to break a tie after the third balloting, and this norm is to be observed when the constitutions are silent on this matter or do not contain a different norm for breaking a tie. In the former practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, The superior was given the right or was commanded to break a tie after the first balloting. The recent practice gives this right or imposes the obligation only after the third balloting. In breaking a tie, the superior merely declares which side he favors; and he is not obliged to break the tie in favor of the side for which he had already voted. If the constitutions command the superior t~o break a tie after the first or third balloting, he must do so. He is not permitted to put the matter to another vote. The constitutions almost universally demand a full council for appointments and deny the superior the right of breaking a tie in this matter. In this case, a tie proves that the person concerned has not secured the vote of the council. 15. Appointments to office. The council should have a list of those qualified for office. This list is to be renewed at fixed intervals, e. g., every two or three years. Such a method will expedite the selection of superiors and officials and will also help to prevent the constant appointment of the same religions as superiors. In making a par-ticular appointment, the superior proposes the names for discussion. He decides when the discussion is sufficient and then proposes the names individually for voting. 16. Deliberative and consult~ve vote (c. 105, 1°). (a) Deliberative vote. There is no ambiguity in the expression of this vote. It is required whenever the code or the constitutions demand the consent, de-cisive or deliberative vote of the council. The necessity of the vote is also perfectly clear from canon 105, 1°, i. e., a superior acts invalidly when he acts without or contrary to the majority vote in any matter for which the deliberative vote is required. The 140 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN ~.~AY INSTITUTES consent of the council is a necessary positive element for the validity of the act of the superior.~1 Two important distinctions are to be kept in mind. Let us take as an example the erection of a new house, for which the con-stitutions require the deliberative vote of the general council. The superior general is not obliged to propose or to admit the proposal of this matter, since it appertains to the superior to determine whether a particular matter is to be submitted to the council. If he does propose it, the superior general must have the consent of his council validly to erect the house. If he secures this consent, he may erect the house; but he is not obliged to do so. He may abstain from such an action. The law commands him to have the consent of his council to erect the house; it does not oblige him to act according to the consent of the council.12 The second distinction is that canon 105, 1°, commands consent for the validity of an action of a superior when the consent is that of an inferior or inferiors, not when the law commands the consent of a higher authority, e. g., of a higher superior, the local ordinary, or the Holy See. The consent of a higher authority is required for validity only when this is expressly stated in the law in question; otherwise it is demanded only for the liceity of the superior's act.13 (b) Consultive vote. Consultive vote means that the superior is to listen to the opinions of his council. It is clearly stated in the following expressions: with the consultive vote, or with the advice, of the council; having consulted or heard the council; and according to the counsel or advice of the council. The expressions "with the council" and "with the vote of the council" are ambiguous but are to be interpreted in themselves as demanding only a consultive vote. Since the necessity of a vote is restrictive of the rights of a superior, it is to be interpreted strictly. Therefore, if it is doubtful whether any vote is necessary, no vote is necessary; if it is doubtful whether the vote imposed is deliberative or consultive, it is only consultive (c. 19). In constitutions it is preferable to use uniformly ~Can. 1680, § 1; Vromant, op. cir., n. 45; Michiels, op. cir., 504; Larraona, op. cir., 9 (1928), 422; Naz, Traitd de Droit Canonique, I, n. 367. Cf. De Ritibus Orientalibus de Personis, can. 35, § 1, 1°. 1~Michiels, op. cit., 500; Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 47; Quaestiones Can-onicae, I, 185; Jone, op. cit., 118-19; Larraona, op. cit., 9 (1928), 422, note 686; 424; Bender, op. cir., n. 377, 1; Berutti, De Personis, 58; Abbo-Hannan, The Sacred Canons, I, 153; Beste, Introductio in Codicem, 167. ~aMichiels, op. cir., 495; Berutti, op. cir., 56; Jone, op. cir., 118; Bender, op. cir., n. 377, 2; Regatfllo, Institutiones Iuris Canonici, I, n. 206; Scho.enegger, Periodica, 31 (1942), 120~21. 141 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious the expressions "with the consent" and "with the advice." Both are clear and brief. 1° An act placed without consultation, i. e., the act requires the advice of a council and the superior does not even request this advice. Such an act of a superior is almost certainly invalid from the wording of canon 105, 1°;~4 but it is still solidly probable that the act is merely illicit, not invalid, until the Holy See has author-itatively decreed otherwise. Therefore, a superior acts validly but illicitly if he acts without seeking the advice of his council when this is required by law. The previous consultation is required for validity whenever a determined law demands the consultation under the expressed sanction of invalidity. This is true of some canons, e. g., 2152, § 1; 2153, §.1; 2159; but no such canon is found in the section on religious. The same sanction is possible but in fact is not imposed by the law of the constitutions of lay institutes. 2° No obligation to follow the consultive vote. The code does not oblige a superior to follow even the unanimous consultive vote of his council; but it is recommended and he is counselled ordinarily to do so, i. e., he is to consider seriously and should not depart from a unanimous vote unless he has a reason that prevails over the vote. The superior is the judge of the existence and weight of such a prevailing reason. It is evident that a superior is always to give due consideration to the advice of his council, especially but not only when it is unanimous; otherwise the office of a councilor and the obligation of seeking advice in such matters would be mere formalities. 17. Matters that require the deliberative or consultive vote. The con-stitutions contain an article that lists what are called the more important cases in which the deliberative vote of the general council is necessary. This article is usually unsatisfactory. It does not list all nor the more important or practical cases of such a vote. The constitutions most rarely include a list of the matters that demand the consultive vote. The list below is based on the present practice of the Holy See and is intended to be complete. This prac-tice is not invariable. In different approved constitutions, the same matter sometimes demands a deliberative vote, a consultive vote, or no vote at all. The list therefore will not be in complete agree-ment with all constitutions, even if they have been recently ap-proved by the Holy See. Some of the matters listed below demand 14Cf. De Ritibus Orientalibus de Personis, can. 35, § 1, 2°. 142 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES the deliberative or consultive vote from. the law of the code, but in most cases the vote is imposed only by the law of the constitu-tions. It would unnecessarily complicate the question to include this distinction in the list. Some also require recourse to the Holy See or the local ordinary, but this is stated in the chapter of the constitutions that treats of the particular maiter. (a) The superior general must have the deliberative vote of his council in the following cases. 1° The condonation in whole or in part of the dowry of those having degrees or compensating abilities, if such a faculty is contained in the constitutions. 2° The investment of the dowry. 3° Dispensation from an entrance impediment of the constitu-tions. 4° Admission to the noviceship and first profession. 5° The establishment or transfer of a novitiate. 6° The dismissal of a professed of temporary or perpetual vows and the sending of a professed religious immediately back to secular life. 7° The convocation of an extraordinary general chapter for reasons other than those specified in the constitutions, the designation of the place of a general chapter, and the forma-tion of groups of smaller houses for the election of delegates to the general chapter. ' 8° The transfer of the permanent residence of the superior general or provincial. 9° To give a formal precept of obedience to an entire house, province, or to the entire congregation. 10° To appoint a. visitor for the entire congregation or an entire province, at least if the visitor is not a member of the general council. 11° The choice of a substitute for an absent general councilor. 120 The acceptance of the resignation, removal, and deposition of a general councilor, secretary general, bursar general, procurator general, and the appointment of a si~ccessor in these cases. 130 The appointment, transfer, and removal of provincial, regional, and local superiors, their councilors, secretaries, and bursars, of a master or assistant master of novices, the master of the junior professed, instructor of tertians, supervisors of schools and studies, principals of schools, and administrators of hospitals. 143 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious 14° Approval of the accounts of the bursar general. 15° The imposition of an extraordinary tax, the alienation of property, contracting of debts and obligations, the making of contracts in the name of the congregation, extraordinary expenses, and other matters of a financial nature according to the norms of canon law and the ordinances of the general chapter. 16° The erection of new provinces; the union, modification, or suppression of existing provinces; the formation, change, and suppression of regions; and the erection and suppression of houses. 17° All matters for which recourse to the Holy See is necessary. 18° All matters remitted to the deliberative vote by the general chapter. (b) The superior general requires the Consultive vote of his council in the following cases. 1° The dismissal of novices. 2° The prolongation of the noviceship and temporary profession. 3° Admission to renewal of temporary profession, to perpetual profession, and exclusion from the renewal of temporary profession or from perpetual profession. 4° The declaration of fact for the automatic dismissal of a pro-fessed religious. 5° Approval of the quinquennial report to the Holy See. 6° Approval of the reports of the superior general to the general chapter. 7° To give a practical interpretation of a doubtful point of the constitutions. 8° All matters remitted to the consultive vote by the general chapter. There is very little in many constitutions on the part of the provincial superior and his council in the acts listed below. There is even more variety in the constitutions that do treat this matter. The admission to the noviceship and professions, the dismissal of novices, the appointment of local superiors, local councilors and bursars, and of the master and assistant master of novices are often made by the provincial with the consent of his council but require the consent or especially the confirmation, ratification, approbation, or approval of the superior general with the deliberative vote of his council. (c) The provincial superior requires no vote of his council for admission to, prolongation of, or dismissal from the postulancy. 144 .May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES (d) The provincial must have the deliberative vote of his council: For the following acts: 1° Investment of the dowry. 2° Admission to the noviceship. 3° To send a professed religious immediately back to secular life. 4° The designation of the place of the provincial chapter and the formation of the groups of smaller houses for the election of delegates to this chapter. 5° To give a formal precept of obedience to an entire house. 6° To appoint a visitor for the entire province, at least if the visitor is not a provincial councilor. 7° The appointment of local councilors and bursars, principals of schools, and administrators of hospitals. 8° Approval of the accounts of the provincial bursar. 9° The alienation of property, contracting of debts and obliga-tions, the making of contracts in the name of the province, extraordinary expenses, and other matters of a financial nature according to the norms of canon law and the ordinances of the general chapter. 10° Other matters according to the enactments of the general chapter. For the following requests to the superior general and his council: 1° The condonation in whole or in part of the dowry of those having degrees or compensating abilities, if such a faculty is contained in the constitutions. 2° Dispensation from an entrance impediment of the constitutions. 3° Admission to first temporary profession. 4° Dismissal of a professed of temporary or perPetual vows. 5° Erection and transfer of a novitiate and erection and suppres-sion of houses. 6° The removal, deposition, and replacement of a provincial councilor, secretary, or bursar; and the appointment, transfer, and removal of local superiors, the master and assistant master of novices, the master of the junior professed, the instructor of tertians, and provincial supervisors of schools and studies. 7° All matters for which recourse to the Holy See is necessary. 8° Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter. (e) The provincial superior requires the consult~ve vote of his council: For the following acts: 145 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious I° Prolongation of and dismissal from the noviceship. 2° Admission to renewal of temporary profession. 3° The declaration of fact for an automatic dismissal of a professed religions. 4° Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter. For the following requests to the superior general and his council: 1° Prolongation of or exclnsion from renewal of temporary pro-fession and exclusion from perpetual profession. 2° Admission to perpetual profession. 3° Other matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter. The treatment of the local council in constitutions is far more varied and unsatisfactory. Canon 653 states: "In the case of grave external scandal or of very serious imminent injury to the com-munity, a religions may be immediately sent back to secular life by a higher superior with the consent of his council or even, if there is danger in delay and time does not permit recourse to a higher superior, by the local superior with the consent of his council and that of the local ordinary." This extraordinary case is the only one in which canon law demands the consent of the local council in a lay institute. The following typical article is a practical summary of what is found in constitutions at the present time. The local superior shall convoke his council every month, or oftener if necessary. Outside of the extraordinary case of canon 653, the local councilors have only a consultive vote except in matters for which the general chapter or the superior general with the consent of his council has decreed that the vote mnst be deliberative. The superior is to discuss with his council the appointment of religions to the local offices and duties not :reserved to higher superiors, the monthly approval of the accounts of the local bursar, financial matters according to the ordinances of the general chapter, the ~material condition and all important matters of the house and its works, the observance of the constitutions, the progress of the religions spirit among the members of the house, and the means to be used to correct abuses and defects that may have crept into the house. Several constitutions impose a deliberative vote for all financial matters. 18. Monasteries of nuns. A monastery is different from a congrega-tion in that the superioress may be obliged to seek the vote of either the council or the chapter (cc. 534, § 1; 543; 575, § 2; 646, § 2). To give again merely a practical summary of what is stated 146 May, 1960 COUNCILS IN LAY INSTITUTES in constitutions, the vote of the chapter is deliberative for ad-mission to the noviceship and temporary profession and consultive for admission to final profession, solemn or simple, and in some monasteries for all the more important affairs of the monastery. The vote of the ,council is deliberative for the dismissal of a novice, investment of the dowry, dismissal of a professed of temporary or perpetual vows, the sending of a professed religious immediately .back to secular .life, appointment and removal of officials of the monastery, alienations, the contracting of debts and obligations, extraordinary expenses; and in some monasteries there is a de-liberative vote previous to that of the chapter for admission to temporary profession. The vote of the council is consultive for the dismissal of postulants; the prolongation of the postulancy, noviceship, or temporary profession; all other important matters of the monastery; and' in some monasteries there is a consultive Vote previous to that of the chapter for admission to perpetual profession, solemn or simple. 19. Federations of nuns. The mother general (president) requires the consent of her council in such matters as the designation of the place of the general chapter; the convocation of an extra-ordinary general chapter; acceptance of the resignation, deposition, and appointment of a successor of a general official; and the erec-tion and suppression of monasteries. The regional mother is obliged to consult her council on such matters as the erection and suppres-sion of monasteries and the possible erection of a common novitiate. It is evideat that the council of a confederation, federation, or region should also be consulted in other important matters. 20. Minutes. There should be a council book, in which the minutes of each session are recorded by the secretary. These are to contain the date, names of the absentees and of any substitutes, all affairs that were discussed, the decisions reached, and the number of votes for and against each decision. The minutes are read and approved by the council at the beginning of the following session. The secretary should add a notation of the vote by which the minutes were approved. The minutes are then signed by the superior and the secretary or, according to some constitutions, by all the councilors. In many congregations the minutes are signed by the superior and the secretary before the approval of the council, and there are also congregations in which this approval is not prescribed. The reading and approval of the minutes are an or-dinary practice in both secular and religious bodies of this nature. 21. The assistant and vicar. The constitutions of lay institutes 147 JOSEPH F. GALLEN ordinarily determine that the assistant takes the place of the superior, whether general, intermediate, or local, when the latter is absent or for any reason whatever is unable to exercise his office. They prescribe with equal frequency that the assistant, as vicar, succeeds immediately but provisionally to the office of superior on a vacancy by death, resignation, removal, or deposition. A vicar has all the powers of a superior, as has also an appointed acting superior. The right to convoke and preside over a council appertains to the superior, vicar, and an acting superior. A few constitutions enact that the general or provincial assistant con-yokes, and presides over the council when the respective superior is sick, absent, or otherwise impeded. Unless expressly forbidden by the constitutions, any superior may also give even general delegation to his assistant to do this (c. 199, § 1); and this power is explicitly stated in some constitutions. It is not the practice of constitutions to make provision for sessions of the local council in the absence or incapacity of the local superior. Any vicar or acting superior, whether general, intermediate, or local, should hold the sessions prescribed by the constitutions, sinve he pos-eesses the authority of a superior. Because his office is provisional and temporary, he should avoid innovations of moment unless these are demanded by the urgency of the matter. 148 The Dictionary of Spirituality R. F. Smith, S.J. THE DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY (Dictionnaire~ de I spiritualit~) is a French reference work devoted exclusively to matters concerned with spirituality. The Dictionary is still in process of being published; three volumes have already appeared, and a large part of the fourth volume has been issued in separate fascicles. The purpose of this article will be to give some idea of the contents of the latest fascicles (nos. 26 and 27; Paris: Beau-chesne, 1959). No attempt will be made here to indicate all the articles included in the two fascicles, but a number of them will be summarized so that readers of R~.v~Ew Fo~t RELm~OUS may have some knowledge of the type of subject matter treated in the Dictionary. As is evident, statements of fact or of opinion are the responsibility of the authors of the various articles in the Dictionary and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editorial staff of the REw~.w. Elevations English spiritual literature does not as a rule use the term elevation as the name of a certain type of meditation book, but both the name and the type have been popular in France; the history of this form of spiritual writing is detailed in the Dictionary from column 553 to 558. The term elevation is actually an ancient one in the history of thought, going back to Plato and other pagan Greek philosophers, the aim of whom was to secure the ~a¢~, or the a~a~7~ (both words mean equivalently elevation or ascent) of the soul to God or at least to spiritual realities. These words were then taken over by Christian writers, and all the more readily since parallel ideas are found in the Bible (see Ps 123:1; 141:2; Col 3:1-2). Hence it is that the traditional description of prayer has always been that of an elevation (or an ascent) of the mind to God. Since the seventeenth century, howev.er, the term elevation has been used in French spiritual literature to denote meditations in which the beauty of the thoughts, the ardor of the feelings, and a certain magnificence of style join forces to lift the soul more easily and gently to the thought of God. Passages of this kind of 149 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious writing are to be found even among pagan writers (for example, the monotheistic hymn of. Aton, some of the passages in Plato and Plotinus); and large sections of the Bible also partake of the nature of elevations (see Jb 36:22-39:25; Tob 13; Is 60-62; Jn 17; Rom 8). So too throughout the course of Christian spiritual literature elevational passages have not been absent, but it was not until modern times that elevations became a separate and self-conscious type of spiritual writing. Cardinal B~rulle gave the greatest impetus to the new form with his frequent elevations, the purpose of which was to bring the spirit of the liturgy into private devotion, The greatest example of elevations is Bossuet's work, Elevations to God on All the Mysteries of the Christian Religion. This type of writing is still frequent among the French, Vandeur and Guerry being, two of the foremost exponents of it today. Elijah Two Carmelite authors (col. 564-72) examine the validity of the traditional association of the prophet Elijah with religious life and with the Carmelite order in particular. The first section of the article remarks that although the Carmelite- tradition of~ the prophet Elijah as the father of monastic life has. not always been based on the soundest reasons, yet the intuition incorporated into the tradition is basically sound; for Elijah is presented in the Bible as a remarkable combination of contemplation and action. Thus, for example, in his dispute with the priesis of Baal on Mount Carmel there is manifested the zeal of Elijah for the worship of the one, true God, even at the possible danger of his. own life. So, too, Elijah shines forth as a man of action in his constant and frequent opposition to the kings whom he regarded as a source of moral corruption for the Israelites. The contemplative aspect of Elijah is shown in the scriptural presentation of him as a man of mystery, removed from other men. His appearancesand disap-pearances are sudden; he lives in solitude, nourished by food pro-vided for him in a supernatural way; the distance between Elijah and other men is strikingly accentuated by his final ascent in a fiery chariot. Finally Elijah is presented as a man who has spoken with God and to whom God has spoken in that small, still voice which is a symbol of God's intimacy with him. The next section of the article considers Elijah and the mo: nastic life. Before the foundation of monastic life, .Greek and Latin fathers rarely referred to Elijah as a model for Christian living; 150 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY but the fathers of the desert found in him a forerunner of their own way of living, It is in fact in the Life of St. Anthony that is found the first explicit appeal to the example of Elijah as a model of a life lived in the presence of God. This linking of Elijah and the life of perfection continued to grow in the Eastern Church; and in the liturgical feast which was finally accorded Elijah he was hailed with the title usually given to a monk-saint: "terrestrial angel and celestial man." In its beginnings western monasticism did not appeal to the example of Elijah. Later, however, St. Ambrose and St. Jerome expressed the opinion that Elijah could be legitimately considered a forerunner of monastic life; and gradually the monks of the West came to see in the prophet a model for their own virginity, purity of heart, solitude, and life of prayer. Nevertheless there .are but few indications of a liturgical cult to the prophet, and even among the Carmelites the feast of Elijah was a late introduction. It is to be noted that the new preface approved for the feast of the prophet says of him that "he laid the foundations of monastic life." The last part of the article examines the relationship between Elijah and the Carmelite order. During the crusades of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, not a few of the crusaders were drawn to a life of preyer; and some of them settled on Mount Carmel in pursuit of this aim. In 1209 a group of monks living on Mount Carmel re-ceived a rule of life from Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem; later the rule was confirmed in 1226 by Pope Honorius III. These monks became the Carmelites. It is not certain, however, that the monks had come to Mount Carmel out of veneration for the prophet; and their rule does not refer to the prophet as a source of inspiration. It seems more probable that the monks' presence on Mount Carmel gradually led to a devotion to Elijah which eventually became an integral part of the traditions of Carmelite spirituality. The legend of a continuous eremitical life on Mount Carmel from Elijah to the crusaders is alluded to in the Constitutions of the Chapter of London of 1281; and in the fourteenth century the figure of the prophet was linked with the strong Marian tradition of the Carmelites. Elizabeth of the Trinity and Anne Catherine Emmerich Sister Elizabeth of the Trinity (1880-1906) and her life lived in the praise of the glory of the Trinity have been of considerable interest to modern spiritual writers; the Dictionary's brief article 151 R. F. SMITH Review for ReligiOus on her (col. 590-94) delineates the stages of her spiritual progress, At nineteen she found in the writings of St. Teresa of Avila the central orientation of her life: intimacy with God living within her. From that time the aim of her life was to live always in the "cell" which God had built in her heart and one of the most characteristic phrases of her spirituality became that of the "heaven of my own soul." Later the Dominican Father ValiSe taught her to realize the Trinitarian aspect of the divine presence within her, and the reading of the works of St. John of the Cross gave her a full awareness of the transforming effects of the Trin-itarian presence. Meanwhile God Himself had been directing her, leading her through a long, continuous period of aridity and de-pression meant to purify her soul for its final ascent to God. At the end of this period on November 21, 1904, she was led to compose her famous prayer to the Trinity that synthesizes her entire spiritual doctrine. For Sister Elizabeth the fundamental condition of the spiritual life was the ascesis of silence and recollection, a separation from all things that could prevent one from praising God. The essential duty of the spiritual life was to believe in the God who is love and to give Him an adoration of love expressed in an absolute fidelity to His least desire. The model of this life she found in the Incarnate Word, for He is the perfect praise of the glory of the Father. And her final desire in her spiritual life was to join the unceasing praise of the blessed in heaven as that is described in the last chapters of the Apocalypse. Anne Catherine Emmerich (1774-1824) is known today chiefly for the lives of Christ and our Lady attributed to her, but she was also a stigmatist; it is this latter aspect of Anne Catherine that is first discussed in the Dictionary (col. 622-27). Although she possessed a partial share in the stigmata as early as 1799, it was not until 1812 that all the stigmata became apparent in her. Soon after their appearance she was given a full medical and ecclesiastical investigation. The wounds of Anne Catherine, however, yielded to no medical treatment; moreover' continuous medical surveillance established the fact that she fasted from everything except water. Later a governmental examining, board investigated the case and could find no evidence of deception or fraud. In the opinion of the author of the article the stigmata of Anne Catherine must be judged to have been of supernatural origin; a.n.d he quotes with approval the remark of Alois Mager, O.S.B., that the records of the stigmata of Anne Catherine constitute "a rare source for the 152 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY psychological, religious, and medical study of stigmatisation and other analogous phenomena." The case is not quite so clear, however, with regard to her visions. At the command of her spiritual director, Anne Catherine related her visions from 1818 to 1824 to Clement Brentano; from the notes he took from his almost daily interviews with her, he later published three works on the lives of our Lord and our Lady. Although Brentano himself admitted that Anne Catherine never attributed more than a human value to her experiences, he himself insisted on the historical accuracy of every detail in the works, claiming that Anne Catherine in her visions was actually present at every scene described. Critical study, however, has proved that Brentano actually incorporated into the works he published ac-counts borrowed from other writers. Accordingly in 1927 the Congregation of Rites refused to accept as the writings of Anne Emmerich the volumes published under her name. With regard to the visions actually experienced by Anne Emmerich, the author of the article concludes that it is impossible for anyone today to say whether or not they had a supernatural origin. Devotion to the Infant Jesus The Dictionary's article on devotion to the Infant Jesus (col. 652-82) details the history of that devotion from the earliest times down to our own day. The patristic period of the Church did not in general possess what we would call today a personal devotion to the Infant Savior. Even the liturgical feasts of Christmas and Epiphany did not express such a devotion, for they were primarily instituted to stress religious ideas "and dogmas, and not to com-memorate historical events in the life of Christ. In the earliest history of the Church, the closest thing to a manifestation of a devotion to the Infant Jesus is to be found in the nun~erous pil-grimages to the Holy Land and especially to Bethlehem. With the Middle Ages, however, devotion to the Infant began to grow and to flourish; medieval man, with his taste for the con-crete and his desire for affectivity in his religious life, was led quite naturally to a display of ardent devotion to the appealing figure of the Infant of Bethlehem. The devotion received its first major impulse from St. Bernard; it is in his sermons on the Nativity cycle that are given the first detailed contemplations of the Infant, and there for the first time is His charm described at length. Afterwards St. Francis of Assisi, with his predilection for the 153 R. F. S~I Review for Religious mystery of the Nativity, continued and enlarged the popularity of the devotion to the Infant Jesus. This Franciscan love for the Nativity scene also marked a step forward in the technique of meditation; it was at this time and on the occasion of meditations on the Nativity scene that the Franciscans introduced the method of entering into and becoming a part of the scene meditated on, The ardor with which the devotion was practiced during the Middle Ages can be judged by various indications. It is then that for the first time in the history of Christian sanctity., saints and mystics are given visions of the Infant Jesus. Painters began to depict the adoration of the Infant, thus making the Babe the center of their artistic works. At the same time the use of individual statuettes of the Infant came into existence. Finally, towards the end of the sixteenth century, the Carmelite Francis of the Infant Jesus became the first known person to choose the Infant as his special model. Tl~e frequency with which this title was afterwards used is a dear sign that devotion to the Infant Jesus had assumed the role of an orientating point for the conduct of the spiritual life. The seventeenth century saw another great growth in the devotion. The Infant Christ was a special object of devotion for Cardinal B~rulle who loved to insist that a person interested in the spiritual life could learn from the Infant innocence, dependency, humility, purity, and especially silence. Under B~mlle's influence, the French Carmelite nuns became advocates of the devotion; it was these nuns who popularized the notion that a person must become an infant in order to honor the Infant Word. St. John Eudes introduced a special feast of the Infant (February 6) and composed the oi~ce for it. Olier received a vision of our Lady bidding him to honor the infancy of her Son, and from him the devotion spread throughout the Sulpicians. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, however, devo-tion to the Infant began to decline, possibly because of the con-demnation of Madame Guyon, who had practiced an extreme form of the devotion. In the eighteenth century the devotion was not very prominent, though there was a growth throu~ghout the world in the devotion to the Infant Jesus of Prague. The religious revival of the nineteenth century, however, led to a new growth in the devotion; the extent of this growth can be judged from the number of congregations of religious who placed the name of the Infant Jesus in their official title. The devotion to the Infant Jesus con, tinues to be prominent in the modem Church. St. Teresa of Lisieux practiced the devotion as did the spiritual writer, Dom Vital 154 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALI~ Lehodey, whose whole spirituality was centered around the Infant of Bethlehem. Spiritual Childhood The article that is devoted in the Dictionary to a consideration of spiritual childhood or infancy (col. 682-714) is chiefly interesting for the scriptural data that it provides. Spiritual childhood is defined at the beginning of the article as an act of abandon into the hands of the Father made by a soul conscious of its own smallness and radical powerlessness. It is composed accordingly of humility and the consciousness of the divine fatherhood with all the limitless confidence implied by these two elements. This concept of spiritual childhood is to be found in the Old Testament but expressed in different phraseology. It is expressed first of all in the Old Testament theme of poverty. In the early books of the Bible poverty means only the lack of possessior&; but with Isaiah and Sophoniah it adds to this a spiritual meaning, denoting an attitude that is the opposite of pride. This poverty is the theme of some thirty of the Psalms where the poor man is shown to be one whose only wealth is God and who regards himself as an infant in the hands of God. The spiritualisation of this concept of poverty re-ceived its final form in the sapiential books, where the idea of spiritual poverty is completely isolated from its sociological mean-ing and made into a moral-ideal applicable to all, whether rich or poor. This poverty of spirit is a voluntary and total submission to Yahweh with a special emphasis on the smallness and powerlessness and misery of man with regard to his Creator. Poverty in this sense became an essential element in the Jewish religious attitude; it is to be noted that Zechariah (9:9) presented the coming King- Messiah as one who is poor in spirit. The constituents of spiritual childhood are also to be found in another major theme of the Old Testament, that of the father-hood of God. The idea of a divine fatherhood had deep roots in Semitic history; all Semite peoples regarded their national god as the father of the nation. Hence too Yahweh is the father of the Israelites, but in a special sense; since Yahweh is not a national god, but the Ruler of all peoples, His fatherhood of Israel is a special favor given to the Israelite people. Accordingly the prime duty of the Israelites is to honor Yahweh as their father, and He on HIS part must love and protect HIS sons. This loving relationship between God and the Israelite nation is emphasized by another figure of the Old Testament, that of God as the Bridegroom of 155 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious Israel; this figure accentuates the tenderness and intimacy of the union of God with Israel. When we come to the New Testament, it is to be noted that all the elements of spiritual childhood (including the vocabulary) are to be found in Christ's own personal teaching. He makes poverty (in the sense of the Old Testament) the fundamental attitude of His disciples; they must be joyfully aware of their own radical powerlessness with regard to the kingdom and must expect their salvation only from God. At the same time they must address God in their prayers as their Father, and their love for God as their Father demands of them an absolute confidence (see Mk 11:34; Mt 7:7-8; Lk 11:9). Christ also introduced the word child into the vocabulary of the spiritual life. In Matthew 11:25-26 Christ thanks the Father that He has made His revelation not to the wise and prudent, but to little children. The term "little children" is a translation of a Greek word meaning an infant still unable to speak; the doctrine of God, then, is given to those aware of their helplessness and receptive to help from outside of them-selves. Again in Mark 10:14 Christ says that the kingdom of God belongs to children; in this passage Christ's consideration is not directed toward the innocence or simplicity of children, but to their humility, receptivity, and confidence. The kingdom of God is a gift and a grace, and it must be received in the same spirit of de-pendence as the child receives his natural needs from his parents. It is to be noted that in the Gospels two groups of persons are said to possess the kingdom of God: the poor in spirit (Mr 5:3) and children (Mk 10:14). Thereby is made an identification of the poor man of the Old Testament and the way of spiritual childhood.' The poor man of the 01d Testament becomes the child of the Gospel. In the Pauline epistles there is given a sort of negative com-mentary on the word child, as Christ understood it. In his writings St. Paul always gives the word child a pejorative sense, implying childishness and lack of maturity. By so doing, St. Paul is not to be understood as rejecting the way of spiritual childhood, but as forcibly underlining the fact that spiritual childhood or infancy must be carefully distinguished from infantilism, which is not worthy of a Christian. The rest of the article on spiritual childhood or infancy does not add much to the above scriptural teaching. Three things from this section can, however, be noted here. First, growth in the understanding and practice of the way of spiritual childhood 156 May, 1960 DICTIONARY OF SPIRITUALITY developed in the Church under the impulse of devotion to the Infant Jesus. Secondly, it is again emphasized that spiritual child-hood is not childishness but is rather full Christian maturity. And thirdly, the way of spiritual childhood is but the development of the grace given in Baptism by which man is made into a son of God. Education for Sanctity The article (col. 714-27) on the spiritual life of the infant and the pre-adolescent child points out that a child becomes capable of exercising the supernatural powers that were given him in baptism when he reaches the age of reason, that is, when he is capable of an attitude of love and adoration towards God and hence of moral discernment. In many cases, says the author, this period may come quite late, but in well-endowed children who have received good training the age of reason may be reached at the early age of two and a half or three. The presence and growth of the spiritual life in the child can be judged by three signs based on the teaching of St. Thomas in Summa theologiae, 1-2, 112, 5c. These signs are: the child's aptitude for silence and interior recollection; his aptitude to do things for others without expecting a recompense .for himself; and a certain quality of peace and joy in the child's way of acting. The author next considers the various modes in which the child exercises his life of grace. The first way is that of a conversion process, as indicated by St. Thomas in Summa theologiae, 1-2, 89, 6c and ad 3. So St. Teresa of Lisieux experienced a conversion to God at least by the age of three; and Anne de Guign~ at the age of four experienced a conversion from a life of jealousy, anger, and pleasure to a life of love for her neighbor and intimacy with God. Generally this process of conversion takes place on the occasion of the symbols of God that are presented to it. Gradually the child begins to sense the presence and reality of a mysterious Being who is at once very powerful and very lovable and whose name is always uttered by his parents with respect and reverence. The life of grace in children is also expressed in contemplation, and the beauties of nature may well be the means by which the spirit and exercise of contemplation is aroused in them. Children also experience vocation, that is a particular orientation of their life as intended by God. Frequently the exact goal of this orienta-tion remains closed to them, but their life begins to take on a special comportment in accord with God's designs for them (for example, interest in thinking about God or in helping others), and 157 R. F. SMITH they develop a special spiritual climate (for example, joy or com-punction). Finally in this section the author inquires into the possibility of sin. in the infant and small child, concluding that grave sin is rare and practically impossible in children until they reach the ages of seven or eight. In the next part of the article the author considers how a child may be trained so as to allow him to develop the gifts of grace within him. The first requirement is to provide the child with a climate of silence and peace; hence in those training the child there must be calmness and a lack of nervousness, haste, and febrile agitation. The child must also be given a climate of joy, and this will be best achieved if he perceives that those around him regard their Christian life not as a burden but as a privilege. Hence too all religions duties must be presented to the child in a context of gladness. Parents and educators cannot afford to forget that the spiritual life of the child develops largely out of imitation of them. He knows God in the resemblance of those who speak to him about God. From the love of his parents he derives his first idea of the love and providence that God has for him; and the way in which parents and educators pronounce the name of God will be the child's first initiation into the mystery of God. From the beginning the child must be introduced to the fundamental and central truths of the Christian religion: God is great, and He loves us as a father. The communication of religious truth to the child must be made concrete and personal, for the child must be introduced into a living world of reality. Finally the child must be introduced to prayer and must gradually be made a participant in the prayer of his parents and educators. He should be taught the Our Father from the beginning and then other prayers -- short and dense -- drawn principally from the Bible and the liturgy. It is hoped that the above pages will furnish some indication of the kind of article to be found in the Dictionary of Spirituality. The work will be found useful both on the level.of information and on that of inspiration. It should be noted in conclusion that each article of the Dictionary provides bibliographical references for further study and investigation. 158 The Director of the Retreat Hugh Kelly, S.J. ANY PRIEST who has a tree understanding of the Spiritual Exercises will feel a movement of resentment, a desire to protest when he hears himself described as "preaching" a retreat. He can accept "giving" a retreat because the phrase carries the traditional meaning, but he knows that to consider him as preacher is to misunderstand the nature of the Exercises. He has, of course, to deliver conferences; but he must not be merely the preacher. He knows that if he is to be tree to the essential conception of that most distinctive ministry, he must be a director and director even more than preacher. But here a difficulty presents itself to the modem retreat master. There are certain circum-stances in the modem retreat which reduce -- if they do not suppress -- the role of the director. If these are not considered and countered, there is a grave danger that the director may be entirely replaced by the preacher and as a result the value of the Exercises seriously diminished. Before considering the problem presented by modem retreats, it will be necessary to have a clear idea of the role of the director in the Exercises as St. Ignatius understood them. It can be said without exaggeration that the place and function of the director are indicated or supposed in every stage of the retreat. A detailed page-by-page proof of this assertion would occupy too much space ¯ and moreover is not necessary. It will b~ sufficient t9. refer to those parts where the work of the director is most clearly indicated. First of all in position, and even in importance fdr our purpose, come the twenty Annotations, which are a set of practical instruc-tions meant to indicate what. the Exercises are and which are intended t~ help both the director and the exercitant, but chiefly the former. By far the greater part of these twenty are meant for the director. From the beginning they make it clear to him that he is in charge of the retreat, that he is to conduct and control it to such a degree that it can scarcely be conceived without him. He is given detailed instructions as to the manner in which he is to give The Reverend Hugh Kelly is presently stationed at Rathfarnlmm Castle, Rathfarnham, Dublin, Ireland. 159 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious his conferences, to propose the spiritual truths. He is instructed that he is to watch the exercitant so as to get to know his interior reactions, that he is to visit him every day to find out how he is following the meditations, that he is to protect him against those temptations or illusions that will trouble him at certain stages, that he is to impart to him some criteria that will enable him to deal with spiritual experiences, like consolation or desolation. He is also to enlighten and encourage and comfort him. In all this we are very far from the idea of one who merely preaches a set of spiritual conferences; we have a very definite sketch of one whose work is not at all finished when he has ceased to address the exercitant. It is made quite clear that his more important function is to see to it that his message has been received, that it has produced a definite fruit, and that it is carrying the hearer forward on a planned line. Moreover, throughout the course of the retreat, the work of the director is indicated. He is to administer the doctrine ac-cording to the capacity of the exercitant. He is to control the elaborate method and system which constitute a great part of the whole process of the retreat; he has the duty and power to modify, change, omit, retard', hasten, according to the needs of his hearer. This watclfful attention is especially commanded in the business of the election which is the chief work of the whole retreat. The preparation for this decision is the most subtle and delicat~ part of the director's work. He must shepherd the exercitant to this decision in such a way that the latter will be in the most favorable condition, spiritually and psychologically, to make the decision which is most for God's glory. He must enlighten him gradually and skilfully; he must guard him against illusions and errors; he must submit him to strong selected influences; he must dispose him, as it were, in every department of soul; and finally he must instruct him how to manipulate the complex method of election. But in all this elaborate, delicate work the director is, if he is to be true to his proper function, not to impose himself; he is not to urge nor drive nor even to lead. His work is essentially to bring it about, by his skill and prudence, that the exercitant is in the most favorable condition of soul to know the will of God, to feel most surely the attraction of grace, to be freed from inordinate affections in his choice. Hence the director must keep himself in the background; he will arrange the setting, regulate the tem-perature, so to speak, ward off interruptions, induce a suitable 160 May, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT atmosphere. He will then leave the soul face-to-face with God; he will not enter the ring when the decision is being made. This role of the director is clear in the genesis of the Exercises. We know that they record the process and method of St. Ignatius as he passed through the different stages of his conversion and vocation. When he was convinced that he was called to be an apostle, he set about that work in a characteristic way. He was not a preacher, either in natural gifts or with canonical authority. His method was to converse simply with a few hearers in a con-versational tone, to show forcibly and concretely what they were to do to live good Catholic lives, His talks were quite practical: how to examine their conscience, how to distinguish mortal sin from venial, how to make the commandments a living influence in their daily lives. He was concerned that his hearers should apply what he had said to their individual needs. He was primarily a director and not a preacher. When he. came to write down the fruits of his experience, he maintained the chief features of his apostolate: he gave the director the place he himself had played in his work for souls. That distinct place was recognized from the beginning;, and several manuals expounding that role -- called directories -- were composed, one of them by St. Ignatius himself. The chief official directory was drawn up at the desire of Father Aquaviva within forty years of the death of St. Ignatius and was meant to gather up and make permanent the practice and tradition of those who had learned from him. Its purpose is -- as its name indicates -- to lay down what is the function of the director. It is a practical manual, a method of procedure, a set of rubrics, for the conducting of the retreat. Thus the place of the director is fixed as an essential part of the Exercises. The director thus understood has been accepted in the tradi-tion and practice of the reinstated Society of Jesus as well as in the old. But with the lapse of time has come a new kind of religious retreat which does not seem to afford such a place to the director. The type of retreat specifically envisaged by St. Ignatius is one of thirty days, made by a man who probably had no previous exper-ience of spiritual things, for the purpose of coming to a decisio~a about his state of life -- an individual vocation-retreat. The place of a director in such a retreat is obvious and has been described. But the almost universal type of retreat in our time is something quite different; it is given to a religious community, as a prescribed periodic exercise, to those who may have long ago given themselves 161 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious to the service of God and who may well have considerable experi-ence of the spiritual life. The question then arises immediately, Is the traditional role of the director possible or how far is it possible in such aretreat? The question is one that cannot fairly be evaded. We are convinced of the value of the Exercises for the modern apostolate; and this conviction is strongly reinforced by the com-mendation given by Pins XI --' the most splendid testimony given by the Holy See to them. We are convinced of the place the director, that it is something substantial in them. But is a place possible in the modern retreat? The very considerable differences which mark. off the modern retreat from that envisaged by St. Ignatius must inevitably to considerable differences in the manner of giving the Exercises. There will be some obvibus modifications demanded by the conditions. For instance, some of thedoctrines proposed, especially in the beginning of the book, are of an elementary nature --how examine one's conscience, how to prepare for a general confession, and so forth. In our modern community retreat more mature deeper instruction will be expected. In the Directory in Chapter Nine, a considerable freedom is allowed to those who are practiced "in spiritual things." They are allowed to meditate on the subjects which they think useful for themselves or for the purpose they before them in the retreat. In his book La Spiritualit~ de la Com-pagnie de J~su, Father de Guibert discusses some of the changes which the new kind of retreat involves. He points out that those who make a retreat every year the Exercises must be quite familiar and that there is a danger of tedious monotony. overcome that mood of overfamiliarity in the audience and present the Exercises with some measure of freshness, a retreat giver of our day will need to introduce certain "adaptations enrichments." These will generally be the development of basic spiritual ideas of the Exercises, which are capable of hfmite application and development. The question of the director is no less important a problem. The measure and kind of direction prescribed by St. Ignatius an individual inexperienced in the spiritual life and seeking will of God about his state of life would not be appropriate: modern community retreat. That is at once obvious; the problem is to find out how much direction can be given in such a retreat and in what form. The retreat master is dealing with people who have been religions for many years and who may have reached high level of prayer and union with God. The first point to 162 ~Iay, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT noted then is that such people do not need the direction of be-ginners. There could be no need for detailed step-by-step direction, of constant inquiry into" the movements of grace, of warning against temptations and illusions. The stage for such treatment has passed long ago. The second point to be made is that direction need not be continuous. A soul finds itself perhaps at a minor crossroad, about to make a decision which may have considerable consequences; or it may feel attracted to some new method or degree in the spiritual life. Or again a soul needs confirmation, assurance, and encouragement. Such a soul knows that the mere fact of manifesting one's aims, attractions, failures to a sympathetic and competent director will bring light or a warm sense of gratitude and security. The situation of such souls can be easily explained to an experienced director and valuable help derived from such a procedure. That is a true and fairly normal process of direction with souls well advanced. These do not feel the need of constant direction; they will get the help they need with such occasional interview, s. How often does one hear a priest or religious say that a certain retreat marked a stage in their life; and on inquiry it would be explained that the 'deciding influence did not come from what was said at the conference table but from an interview in the confessional. The priest giving the retreat was a trained director; he understood the situation, the needs and capacity of the soul; he gave the advice and enlightenment which the occasion demanded; his help constituted direction in the truest sense. It follows from this that in a retreat according to the method of the Exercises the place of confession is of great importance. It is through the confessional that the director will. do his work; it is there that the general instructions of the conference are applied to the needs and dispositions of the individual. We may have heard retreat masters say that all their work was done at the conferences and that consequently the retreat confession meant for the exer-citant merely the usual weekly confession of rule or at most a brief review of the year since the last retreat. Such an opinion shows a very naive idea of the complexity of the individual soul. It also shows that the director has been replaced by the preacher and that the traditional way of giving the Exercises has been abandoned. That this traditional view is not merely a venerable tradition but still very much a matter of practice is clear from recent works on the Exercises. One article begins by correcting a mistaken view as to the strong point of the whole scheme of the Exercises, the view 163 HUGH KELLY Review for Religious that the value lies primarily, if not entirely, in the rigorous con-nection, the studied progress of ideas. The author points out that such a view takes no account of the interior activity which is suggested and controlled by the director.~ Another article describes in detail the work of finding the will of God pursued by the com-bined efforts of the exercitant and the director. This treatment is not merely historical, but obviously envisages the modem retreat.2 We may take it then that to secure the tree distinctive fruit of a retreat a certain cooperation with the director is generally nec-essary. The soul that is responding more sensitively and generously to the interior movement of the Spiritual Exercises will see the value, ff not the need, of some contact with a skilful director. That contact may be brief, just one or two interviews in the confessional; but such briefmeetings will be truly helpful. They will be sufficient to give assurance about the general direction of the spiritual life and also perhaps sorely needed encouragement to continue to struggle against the paralyzing monotony of fervor maintained. No doubt the experienced soul will be quick to see the application of what the director says in his conferences; but if the troth is one which may have a considerable effect on the spiritual life, then it will be grasped more firmly and fruitfully if discussed with the director. In such a situation it is clear that the preacher has not taken over full control. The influence of the director is felt; it permeates all the stages; it is discreetly active behind the conferences. The director has not merely preached spiritual doctrine; he has tried to apply it. He has not merely instructed; he has actually guided. He has kept in touch with the individual exercitant -- at least with those who have realized the need or benefit of direction. He has a certain idea of how the Holy Spirit is working in that section of his audience, of how His inspirations are being received. In the sixth Annotation St. Ignatius points out that the entire absence of spiritual movements might constitute a suspicious sign. It might well indicate that the exercitant is not doing his duty, is not cooperating by his fidelity to the conditions of the retreat. Consequently he should be questioned with a view to discovering if his aridity is the result of negligence or is due to the action of God. If a retreat consists of a series of lectures, then the work of the preacher is done when he stands up from the table. He is 1Jean Laplace, "L'Expdrience du discernement dans les Exercices de Saint Ignace," Christus, 4 (1954), 28-49. 2Charles Jacquet, "Le rSle de l'instructeur de la retraite," Christus, 10 (1956), 208-24. 164 May, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT not expected to interest himself in the effect of his words on individual hearers. But in .such a situation there is no meaning in the Annotation of St. Ignatius. From what has been said it is clear that in a retreat according to the tradition of the Spiritual Exercises the confessional will play an important part because the work of direction will be done there. From the beginning then the director should make that fact evident. He should do what he can to get the exercitant to speak freely about his interior life. Whether .because of a certain natural reserve or because of a want of practice, many people find it very difficult to open their souls. The skilled director should have acquired means of dealing with these inhibited souls who have been locked up in themselves. There are certain leading questions which may help to split or melt the shell of reserve they have built around their interior life, questions which may set them thinking that the occasion may mean more than the telling of their sins and that there might be some benefit in revealing their state of soul to the gaze of a skilled and sympathetic director. "Are you satisfied with your progress after so many years .of religious life? Do you realize practically what your vocation de-mands of you? Have you been disappointed with religious life? Could you describe your way of prayer? Have you noticed a change in your prayer since the noviceship? What do you think is the strongest attraction which God exercises on you? Are you satisfied with living the daily routine superficially without much advertance to the general purpose of your religious life, which is perfection? Do you realize that perfection consists in charity? What is your idea of being a saint?" Questions like these will often come with a kind of revelation to certain souls. These questions are perhaps a new approach to the spiritual life; they may show a fresh aspect of what had seemed dull and uninteresting. They will often loose tongues which have been atrophied and open up interiors that will benefit greatly by light and air. We may take it that every religious is interested in his spiritual life, that he is prepared to talk about it if he knows how to do so and if he sees that another is taking an interest in him and is prepared to help him. This power of unlocking consciences is a part of the endowment of the director. It will, of course, be possessed in unequal measure; but every priest who gives the Exercises should try to cultivate it. There is another aspect of this attention to direction in a retreat which is worth emphasizing. The obvious handicap which the giver of the Exercises has to start with is the fact that they 165 HUGH KELLY Review [or Religio~8 are well known to his hearers. Most of these have made the Exer-cises before, perhaps many times. The foundation, sin, the kingdom, the standards -- they have been over that road before and know every step of it well. The strategic value of surprise, so sought after in warfare, must necessarily be sacrificed; there can be no surprise -- substantially -- in the Exercises. One who gives a retreat not based on the Exercises is free from this disadvantage. His hearers live in an atmosphere of expectancy. They troop to every new lecture as travelers to a mystery tour. Such a retreat may well be a series of unexpectancies and even surprises. The director of the Exercises, who has to forego this strategic pedagogic advantage, must try to compensate some other way. What he loses on the swings he must make up on the roundabouts. He will, of course, try to give what freshness he can to his meditations; but it is the Exercises he is giving, and for all his ingenuity most of what he says will be well known to his hearers. But he has another resource in his difficulty; a resource that may well make the retreat something really personal and appealing. He must remember that he is a director. He must try to bring the Exercises home to the needs of the individual soul. He must see to it that the retreat is not merely a set of entertaining instructions; but that the exercitant cooperates with the light and grace that are offered. This is the work of direction which, if skilfully per-formed, can more than make up for the familiarity of the matter. The truest benefit and even interest of a retreat will not come so much from the originality of the conferences as from the degree in which the truths have been assimilated and experienced. This statement is but a free translation of the well-known second Annotation of St. Ignatius which states a principle of the highest importance for prayer: "for it is not to know much, but it is to understand and savor the matter interiorly, that fills and satisfies the soul." This savor or taste of spiritual truths, this personal appreciation of the ways of God, does not come as a matter of course with the hearing of a discourse; it presupposes a distinctive personal effort. It will come from a sensitiveness of the exercitant, to which the action of the director will greatly ~ontribute. When it comes it is the true measure of the value of the retreat. It has made new and fresh some truths which were thought to be old and worn. The truths which St. Ignatius strung together in the pattern which constitutes the Spiritual Exercises and which had such an astounding effect on men like Xavier and Faber and Canisius 166 May, 1960 DIRECTOR OF THE RETREAT were not new truths; they belonged to the general Christian tradi-tion. The originality of St. Ignatius is that by means of the pattern and system he has given to these truths he can communicate to others something of the force and power that he himself got from them. His presentation of these truths presupposes the cooperation of the director. A person might read the book without feeling any particular enlightenment or enflaming of soul. The Exercises, if they are to produce their effect, must be given, administered; delivered, not merely read or heard. If that cooperation which St. Ignatius and tradition assigned to the director ceases to be forthcoming, then the Spiritual Exercises will lose one of the chief conditions of their efficacy. Without the work of the discernment of spirits in which the director has a necessary role, the Exercises are nothing, says P~re Laplace. "They will perhaps furnish an occasion for prayer in silence, for learning how to examine one's conscience and make a good confession. These advantages are not to be despised, but it is not necessary to go ~o St.~ Ignatius to get them.''~ The Exercises promise a greater, rarer spiritual benefit, but on condition that they are made in their true conditions. 80p. cir., p. 48. 167 Survey of Roman Documents R. F. Smith, S.J. THIS ARTICLE will give a survey of the documents which appeared in the December, 1959, issues of Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS). All page references throughout the survey will be to the 1959 AAS (v. 51). Encyclical on the Missions Under the date of November 28, 1959 (pp. 833-64), John XXIII issued the encyclical Princepspastorum. The new encyllcalwas occasioned by the fortieth anniversary of Pope Benedict XV's apostolic epistle on the missions, Maximum illud; to a large extent the encyclical of the present Pope is a reiteration and confirmation of the mission principles laid down in Benedict XV's document. The first principal division of the encycEcal is concerned with the need of a native hierarchy and clergy in mission lands. John XXIII recalled with gratitude the great increase in native clergy since the publication of Maximum illud. The Pope noted that the first Asian bishop was consecrated in 1923 and that Vicars Apostolic were taken from the native African clergy in 1939. Up to the year 1959, 68 Asian bishops had been consecrated and 25 African bishops. Statistics re-garding native clergy are even more impressive. In 1918 there were 919 native priests in Asia; by 1957 that number had increased to 5,553. In the same year, 1918, Africa had 90 native priests, while by 1957 their number had increased to 1,811. John XXIII then went on to urge the present members of the native hierarchy and clergy in mission lands to exercise their priesthood faithfully. He exhorted them to preach to their people about the dignity and greatness of the priesthood and to urge them to pray the Lord of the harvest to send more laborers into the field. The Vicar of Christ also noted that missionary lands stRl need the help of priests from other countries; such priests are not to be regarded as strangers, because every priest finds his fatherland wherever the kingdom of God is beginning or flourishing. The second principal part of the encylical emphasizes the necessity of a thorough training for the native clergy of missionary lands. This training, the Pope insisted, must first of all provide for the sanctity of the native clergy, for it is chiefly by sanctity that a priest becomes the light of the world and the salt of the earth. After sanctity, the most important thing is a solid and complete intellectual training of the native clergy. In this connection the Pope noted that the seminary training should not take place in localities too distant from the society of other 168 I~OMAN DOCUMENTS men, for the native clergy must be led to understand their people and should be trained to take over their leadership. The seminary training of the native clergy should give adequate time to the study of missiology, according to the wishes and directives of Benedict XV and the following pontiffs. The native clergy should be encouraged to baptize the native culture; like Matthew Ricci, they should be so educated in an under-standing and appreciation of the native culture that they will attract their countrymen to the truth of Christianity. The native clergy should be trained to use all means of mOderu communication for the spread of Christianity, and they should be given studies of social matters so that they will be equipped to establish a Christian social order in their countries. In concluding this part of the encyclical, John XXIII warned the native clergy that like all priests their first love must be for the whole world and not for their own country; otherwise they will be tempted to love their earthly fatherland more than their heavenly one. The third part of the encyclical is concerned with the native laity of missionary countries. It is not sufficient, the Holy Father emphasized, to convert and baptize large numbers of persons; they must also be trained to work for the present and future increase of the Church. The number of Christians, he said, is insignificant if their quality is low and if they do not bear fruit. Christian education must show the laity the greatness and grandeur of their faith so that they will be inspired to the practice of virtue and of the apostolate. A true Christian must realize that his first and fundamental duty is to be a witness to the truth that he believes and to the grace which has transformed him. It is in the light of this, remarked the Pope, that one must understand the words of St. John Chrysostom: "No one would be a pagan, if we were worthy Christians" (Tenth Homily on i Timothy, Migne PG, v. 62, col. 551). This testimony of the laity, the Pope added, must be given not only by individual Christians but also by the Christian community as such. This will be done especially by a manifestation of that Christian charity which surpasses all distinctions between nations and languages and embraces all men, whether friend or enemy. The fourth principal part of the encyclical considers the training of the laity in the apostolate. This training, the Pope said, should begin from the earliest moments with special emphasis on it at times like the occasion of the administration of the sacrament of confirmation. The Pope praised the work of lay catechists, saying that their work is perhaps the most important apostolate exercised by laymen. He also called for the establishment of Catholic Action on the missions, but warned that it must be adapted to the conditions and necessities of each country. He also noted that Catholic Action does not exclude the possiblity that laymen themselves have varying degrees of direction and administration in it; indeed members of the laity who show signs of leadership should be educated for such direction and administration. The laity must be taught that the influence of Christian doctrine must be manifested in 169 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious the area of public questions, especially those concerning schools, as-sistance to the poorer classes, and the administration of public affairs. The Pope also called for the formation of lay groups in missionary countries to study doctrinal, social, and apostolic matters. In con-cluding this section of the encyclical the Pope urged laymen of the entire Christian world to give serious consideration to means and methods of helping their fellow laymen of missionary countries who have just been converted; and he exhorted bishops to give adequate care to laymen from the missions who may be studying in their dioceses. In the fifth and concluding part of the encyclical, the Holy Father asked the entire Christian world to continue and to increase their aid to the missions. He also urged bishops to allow priests who have a vocation to the missions to follow their desire, even when there is a scarcity of priests in the diocese. In the same way bishops should be ready to let outstanding laymen of their dioceses go to the missions. The final paragraphs of the encyclical are devoted to encouraging missionaries in those countries which are presently persecuting the Church. Allocutions and Messages On November 22, 1959 (pp. 903-7), the Holy Father addressed a gathering of Italian seminarians. In the course of his speech to them the Pontiff offered them a three-point program of life. As future priests they must be characterized first of all by purity of heart. This, he said, has an attractiveness that is irresistible for souls. This purity ofheart, he continued, is the atmosphere in which every serious vocation lives. It is an indispensable conditon for a disinterested service of one's neighbor; .it prepares the incomparable joy of long periods of prayer at the foot of the tabernacle; and it adorns the priest with the attrac-tiveness of Christ Himself. The second need for the priest, the Pope continued, is strength of character. The priest, he pointed out, requires a steellike quality of character and will, for he must engage in a con-tinuous struggle against his passions and his egoism. Future priests must be able to resist the attractions and seductions of the world, and they must be masters of themselves in every situation. Finally, the Pope said, the last mark of a priest must be the ardor of his charity. Charity, he noted, is the fulfillment of the law; hence it is necessary for the faithful fulfillment of one's daily duties, whether these be large or small Charity sustains a priest's obedience to his bishop and makes him Serve his diocese without thought of earthly and human returns. It is also this charity, he told his audience, that will keep a seminarian from giving way in the face of the difficulties he finds in his life of prayer and study. On November 18, 1959 (pp. 867-70), John XXIII add~ressed a gathering of ecclesiastical censors of books. He told them that their work was directed to the discovery of genuinely human and Christian 170 May, 1960' I~OMAN DOCUMENTS values and to the rejection of error and the danger of error. Accordingly their work is a real .pastoral: occupation, participating in the solicitude of the Church to guide and instruct her children in truth. The Pontiff told his listeners, that they must possess a sane realism as well as an apostolic sense and told them to avoid an intransigent severity which scourges but does not encourage. Finally he'suggested to them that their motto in their work should be the ancient phrase: Unity in necessary things; liberty in uncertain things; charity in everything. On NoVember 29, 1959 (pp. 909-11), the Vicar of Christ radioed a message~ to the First National Congress of Cuba and the General As-sembly of the Catholic Apostolate. He told his listeners (who had just received Communion in a body) that since they had just taken the Bread which is Christ, they must have but one heart and one soul, being conscious of themselves as the sons of the one Father. The face of the earth, he continued, would be changed if true charity reigned in the hearts of men. Hatred, he added, brings only the bitter fruits of death, while love establishes social peace. On November 10, 1959 (pp. 865-67), the Pontiff addressed members of the Food and Agriculture Organization. He told his listeners that they were engaged in a true work of mercy, for their purpose is to assist the most unfortunate of human beings -- those who are hungry. He also told them that theexistence of their organization is one of the great signs of the awakening of social consciousness and responsibility in the modem world. The Pope concluded his allocution by praising the combination of realism 'and optimism that marks the work of the organization. On December 6, 1959 (pp.' 908-9), the Pope gave a short address to President Eisenhower, then visiting the Vatican. Miscellaneous Documents Under the date of May 29, 1959 (pp. 871-74), the Sacred Congrega-tion of Rites approved the introduction of the cause of the Servant of God, Guido Maria Conforti (1865-1931), archbishop-bishop of Parma, founder of the Pious Society of St. Francis Xavier for Foreign Missions. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of the Council issued on Decem-ber 3, 1959 (p. 918), the privilege was granted to all Catholics to change the fast and abstinence of December 24 to December 23. On November 23, 1959 (p. 921), the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary announced that a partial indulgence of three hundred days could be gained once on the wedding day only (cf. 1960 AAS, v. 52, p. 62) by married couples who with contrite heart kiss the marriage ring 6f the wife and say the follow-ing prayer or one similar to it: Grant, O Lord, that loving You we may love each other and that we may live in accordance with Your holy law. On August 8, 1959 (pp. 915-18), the Sacred Consistorial Congrega-tion published the list of faculties and privileges which have been granted to the Church in Latin America and in the Philippine Islands. 171 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Review for Religious The privileges and faculties listed in the document will be in force until December 31, 1969. On November 17, 1959 (p. 920), the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Studies declared that a university entrusted to the diocesan clergy or to a religious family depends on the same congregation, even if the university has not been granted canonical erection. Finally the Secretary of State issued on November 16, 1959 (pp. 875-76), the statutes which are to regulate the activity of the newly founded Vatican Film Library. The purpose of the library will be to collect movies and television films concerning the following topics: the Pope, his representatives, and the Roman Curia; apostolic and charitable activity in the Church and cultural works promoted b~ Catholics; the religious life of the world; all works of high artistic and human quality. Views, News, Previews Correction: Missionary Servants AN,V, EieDwIsT, ONRewIAs,L P EreRviReOwRs, ,p iang teh 2e 8J,a oncucaarsyi oisnseude t hoef tfhoell oRw~i.nvgx ~in.w- , formative letter from Fathe~ David O'Connor, M.S.SS.T.: "Surprise and laughter, mixed with a little downright masculine indignation, was the response to our Congregation being referred to as the Missionary Sisters of the Most Holy Trinity! Actually, our oi~cial title is Missionary Servants of the Most Holy Trinity (M.S.SS.T.). We have 230 priests and brothers engaged in missionary works and activities in fourteen states (mostly in the Southern dioceses), the District of Columbh and Puerto Rico. Our motherhouse is now in Silver Spring, Maryland. Our sisters community, Missionary Servants of the Most Blessed Trinity (M.S.B.T.), has its motherhouse in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Over five hundred sisters labor in missionary, hospital and charity work throughout the United States, Puerto Rico and Cuba. They have a modern, distinct habit without the customary veil. The sisters have charge of the charity bureaus in many dioceses and arch-dioceses in the eastern section of our country. It was never the inten-tion of the founder, Father Thomas A. Judge, C.M., to establish two religious congregations. His interest and attention were given to foster~g the lay apostolate among souls who wished to dedicate themselves to this type of work for the Church. When some of these began to live a community type of life, they asked him to petition the proper ec-clesiastical authority to erect them as a religious community. Along with his two religious communities, the lay apostolate group in our Missionary Cenacle family continues to grow and expand. There are well over 1,500 members active in many sections of the country." 172 May, 1960 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Summer Institutes and Courses Catholic University of America: The Mari~logy Program will be offered for the fourth time in the 1960 summer session. Registration dates are Jtme 22 to 25; classes begin June 27 and end with examinations, August 4 and 5. Courses are open to both undergraduates and graduates, with credits applicable towards degrees inthe field of religious education. A certificate is awarded those who complete a full two-summer program in the theology of our Blessed Lady. The lectures are under the direction of the Reverend Eamon R. Carroll, O.Carm, assistant professor of sacred theology at Catholic University and past president of the Mariological Society of America. Scheduled for 1960 are: "Advanced Mariology" (two credits) covering privileges of the Virgin Mary such as freedom from inherited and personal sin, fullness of grace, assumption, queenship, and the current question of the Mary-Church relationship; and "Marian Doctrine of Recent Popes" (two credits) covering analysis of papal statements of the past century, such as the Ineffabilis Deus of Plus IX, on the Immaculate Conception, the major rosary encyclicals of Leo XIII, the Ad diem illum of St. Pius X on spiritual motherhpod, the LUX veritatis of Plus XI on divine maternity, the Munificentissimus Deus of Pius XII on the assumption, and the Grata .recordatio of John XXIII on the rosary. A folder with full informatioK is available from the Registrar, The Catholic University of America, Washington 17, D.C. Dominican College, San Rafael, California: Registration for the summer session will take place on June 25 and 26. The session will close on August 3. An extensive undergraduate program leads to the Bachelor of Arts degree. The degree of Master of Arts may be gained in the fields of education,_ English, biochemistry, history, and religion. The graduate program in theology is under the direction of the Domin-ican Fathers of the Holy Name Province. The classes are open to grad-uate students who wish to benefit from them as well as to those who are taking the full program. For the summer of 1960, Father P. K. Meagher, O.P., S.T.M., will give a course in the Epistles of St. Paul; Father J. P. Kelly, D.P., S.T.M., courses in liturgy and ascetical theology; Father John Fearon, O.P., S.T.L., a course in canon law. Four courses will be available for those interested in the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine. Workshops are planned in drama, children's literature, music, and physical education. Religious who wish an M. A. degree from the Catholic University of America may take courses and satisfy all requirements at the Pacific Coast Branch on the Dominican College campus. Three large dormitories are available for sisters, and a new dining room for sisters, priests, and brothers. For the summer session announcement, write to Sister M. Richard, O.P., Dominican College, San Rafael, California. For~lham University: The Tenth Annual Institute on Religious and Sacerdotal Vocations will be held on the campus of Fordham University 173 VIEWS, NEWS, PREVIEWS Review for Religious on Wednesday, July 13, and Thursday, July 14. Priests, religious, and the laity interested in stimulating, encouraging, and promoting voca-tions to the priesthood or religious life are invited to be present. The Fifth Annual Workshop for the Mistresses of Novices, Postulants, and Junior Professed will be held from Monday, July 18, until Friday, July 22, inclusive. The lecturers will be the Reverend Martin J. Neylon, S.J., Novice Master, St. Andrew-on-Hudson, Poughkeepsie, New York; Reverend Edmund J. Hogan, S.J., Chairman of the Department of Theology, Fairfield University, Fairfield, Connecticut; Reverend Joseph G. Keegan, S.J., Department of Psychology, Fordham Uni-versity. The topics to be discussed will be: The Adjustment of the Novice, Prayer, Emotional Maturity in Religious. The Fourth Annual Workshop for Local Superiors will be held from Monday, July 25, until Friday, July 29, inclusive. The lecturers will be Reverend Edmund J. Hogan, S.J., Reverend Joseph G. Keegan, S.J, and Reverend John F. Gilson, S.J., Vice-Chairman, Division of Educational Psychology, Measurements, and Guidance, School of Education, Fordham Uni-versity. The topics to be discussed will be: Prayer, Emotional Maturity, The Spiritual Ideal of the Local Superior. Address all communications to: Reverend John F. Gilson, S.J., Director of Institutes and Workshops, Fordham University, New York 7, New York. Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington: The summer session for 196o will include three two-week institutes for sisters: "Writings of St. John of the Cross" conducted by Fathers Louis Haven, S.J., and Michael McHugh, S.J., from June 20 to July 1; "Understanding Human Nature," by Fathers Van Christoph, S.J,, and John Evoy, S.J., from July 5 to July 15; "The Last Things," by Fathers Joseph Conwell, S.J., Leo Robinson, S.J., and Vincent Beuzer, S:J., from July 18 to July 29. There will also be a two-week institute for priests from July 18 to 29 in the mornings, on psychological guidance, conducted by Fathers John Evoy, S.J., and Van Christoph, S.J. 'For information about the second year of the Master of Arts program in Sacred Theology (five summer cycle) write to the Reverend Joseph Conwell, S.J., Chairman, Gonzaga University, East 502 Boone Avenue, Spokane 2, Washington. Immaculate Conception Seminary, Conception, Missouri: A pastoral institute will be held this summer for priests and clerics in major orders, both diocesan and religious. The full coursewill'run for eight weeks, June 19 to August 14; however, any number of two-week periods may be attended. The institute is designed to furnish instruction beyond the regular four-year course in theology. For the religious who attend, the days of class may count toward the days of formal instruction required by the apostolic constitution Sedes sapientiae and the annexed Statuta generalia. For information on the institute write to: Director of the Pastoral Institute, Conception Seminary, Conception, Missouri. 174 May, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Saint Joseph's College, Rensselaer Indiana: An Institute of Liturgical Music, largely modeled after,the Corso Ordinario of Gregorian Chant of the Pontifical Instittite 6f Sacred Music in Rome~, has been initiated. The institute will be held every summer; this year, from June 20 to July 30. The program is open to priests, brothers, sisters, seminarians, lay men' and lay'women. It will offer a comprehedsive program of theory, chant, polyphony~ organ, and so forth, leading to the Bachelor of Arts d'~gree in Liturgical" Music for those students Who have a bachelor's degree from a recognized college or university, or to a Certificate in Liturgical Music for tho~e who do not have a bachelor's degree. All courses in chant and polyphony will be taught by instructors who have been schooled in the Pontifical Institute of Sacred Music in Rome. The faculty Will include Fathe~ Lawrence Heiman, C.PP.S., of St. Joseph's College and chah~nan of the Institute;, Father Eugene Lin-dusky, O.S.C,, of Crosier Seminary, Onamia, .Minnesota; and Mr. Noel Goemanne, choir director and organist'at St. Rita's Church, Detroit, Michigan. Fathers Heiman and Lindusky hold degrees from the Pon-tifical Institute in Rome, Mr. Goemanne, a former student of Flor Peeters, holds a Laureate from Lemmens Institute in Mechelen, Bel-gium. Further',Inform~tion may be obtained by writing to Father Lawrence Heiman, C.PP.S., St. Joseph's College, Rensselaer, Indiana. ( uestions and Answers [The following answers a~e given by Father Joseph F. (~allen, S. J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.I The following questions and ariswers are a continuation of the series on local houses and local superiors which was begun in the March, 1960, issue of the RsvI~.w. 15. We are a clerical exempt order. We have a parish, high school, and'college under the one religious superior. Therefore, there is only one canonically erected house and only one moral person. What permissions do we need to transfer the college classrooms to a location two miles distant from the present location but within the same diocese? Must we have a further permission later when the college faculty begins to reside at the new location while re-maining, however, under the authority of one and the same local superior as at present? This is a question of a separated establishment (c. 497, § 3). Sep-arated establishments, whether built or opened, that is, to be constructed or used as such in a building already constructed, demand for validity the special written permission, of the ordinary of the place of the estab-lishment. For validity, the permission must be in writing; and the argument is the same as that given in Question 11. This permission 175 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious of the ordinary is sufficient for any institute, even if exempt (cf. Question 13). The permission is special in the sense that it must be distinct from that given for the canonically erected house to which the establishment is attached. These establishments may be for any purpose whatever, for example, all types of schools; hospitals; clinics; orphanages; homes for the aged, the poor, or delinquents; recreation centers; places for the education of candidates for the institute, and so forth. Their two distinctive notes are that they are separated from and are part of the canonically erected houses to which they are attached. If they are not separated, for example, to be located on the same grounds, no permission of the local ordinary is necessary, unless such a work was excluded in the permission for the religious house. Separation was defined in Ques-tion 2. If they are to be canonically erected houses, all the formalities described above in Questions 11-13 are necessary. All strictly filial houses obviously come under the. present heading, since they are merely separated establishments in which the religious reside. Authors frequently presume that all such establishments are filial houses, that is, that the religious reside in them. This is not always true, for example, as in the present question, religious have begun colleges at a distance from their house without residing in the college for a considerable period after its opening. No added permission would be necessary to begin residence in such a case, since this is not a formal external change in the establishment nor in itself anything that demands an immediate change of the establishment into a canonically erected house. If a small school is opened by a parish or diocese and sisters residing in another house are engaged simply to teach in it, the special permission of canon 497 is not required, because the institute itself did not build or open this establishment. The special permission will be necessary if and when the sisters are to reside in the small house as a filial house. It is more probable that a separated establishment or filial house should be located at least within the same diocese as the canonically erected house of which it is part, since the canon demands a special written permission for either of these, that is, one distinct from that given for ,the canonically erected house, and thus appears to state that the same local ordinary is to give both permissions. Several' authors exclude a long distance between the canonically erected house and its dependencies. They argue that otherwise the dependence would be apparent rather than real and that the members of the filial house would not be able to exercise their rights in the canonically erected house (cf. Question 6). Neither of these arguments appears to be certain. The dependence of the filial house is less when the authority of the one in charge is delegated by a higher superior, as may be done and is the practice in centralized institutes. It is certainly the practice of religious institutes to locate especially filial houses at a distance and in other dioceses, and constitutions approved by the Holy See contain no general 176 May, 1960 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS norm contrary to this practice. When a separated establishment or filial house is to be located in

Issue 12.3 of the Review for Religious, 1953. ; Bellarmine and t:he Queen ot: Virgins John A. Hardon, S.J. ST. ROBERT BELLARMINE is widely known in theological circles as the great champion of the Papac, y. At the Vatican Council, h~s Controoersies.were the principal source from which the assembled fathers formulated the definition of papal infallibility. An.d in 1931, when the Holy See declared him a Doctor of the Church, he was described as "The Prince of Apologists and Strong Defender of the Cathoiic Faith, not only for his own time but for all future ages." But Bellarmine has another title to glory, seldom pointed out, which should endear him in a special way to priests and religious who are directors of souls. St. Robert was for years the spiritual counsel-i " lor and confessor of St: Aloysius Gonzaga, to the day of the latter's death in 1591. So attached was Bellarmine to his spiritual son that he was largely responsible for his early beatification, which he lived to see, and asked to be buried near the body of his "caro Luigi" as a perpetual remembrance of their mutual affection. Pope Benedict XV was sufficiently impressed by this circumstance that he proposed, "for the imitation of confessors, the prudence of that 'wisest of spiritual directors, Robert Bellarmine, who moderated ev'en the' penitential ardor of St. Aloysius Gonzaga." St. Aloysius is the heavenl~ patron of Catholic youth, ahd the chosen exemplar of heroic chastity. We should 'not be surprised, therefore, if his spiritual director was personally so much devoted to the Immaculate Mother of Virgins that be drew from her life and example the inspiration which he transmitted to Aloysius. Bellarmine once wrotethat, "Every great man in the Church has been most de-voted to the Blessed Virgin Mary: Ephrem, Bernard, Dominic, Fran-cis of Assisi"--and we may now add, as the following sketch will show, Robert Bella~rmine, the spiritual father of Aloysius Gonzaga. Bellarmine's Personal Devotion to the Mother of God . St. Robert w~is devoted, to the Blessed Virgin fr6m his earliest years. According to his schoolmate, later Canon Vincent PatiucheIli, as a young boy Bellarmine used to recite daily the Office of the Bles- 113 JOHN A. HARDON sed Virgin, often in company with Vincent as the two of them walked slowly ~long the road. Bellarmine retained this custom of reciting the Ottice of Our Lady throughout life. In the same way he kept the custom to his old age of ~aily saying the Rosary. ,~Iexander Jacobelli, who was the cardinal's almoner for twenty years, testified at the beatification process that, "He ~never omitted saying the ~OfIice and thd Rosary of the Blessed. V!rgin Mary, during which he. was often found melted in tears." " HOwever, Robert .was not satisfied with only a single recitation of the.Rosary. The beads were Iite~a!ly his constant companion. In the words of his chaplain, "when fatigued with study, Bellarmine would find recreation in reciting the beads wiih uncovered head:'.' And again, "his relaxation was to say the Rosary of O~r Lady.". On his frequent journeys as Archbishop of Capua, attendants noticed that he always followed the same "ritual: celebrate Mass, say the Itinerarium,' and, rosary in hand, enter the carriage for the journey. Juan de Serayz, a close friend of Robert, has left some interesting details on bow Bellarmine would say.the Rosary. It was June 14, 1618, the feast of Corpus Christi, th~it Bellarmine and Juan were returning from a procession at St. Peter's Basilica-. "As we got int9 the carriage," relates Juan. "he told me that he was ablb to say the third part of the Rosary exactly three times, from the time the pro-cession left the Sistine Chapel to where it finally ended at the Altar of Exposition in St. Peter's When I asked him, out of curiosity, hbw he said the Rosary, he told me that he separated the decades of the Angelic Salutation with an Our-Fathe.r, adding to eacB decade a short prayer corresponding to the different mysteries, .and preceding the decades with a short meditation on the following mystery. Then with emphasis he said that he recited the Hail Mary's sJow.l~l, s!owl~l. When I observed that this did not leave much time for keeping his partner company, he answered that during the whole procession he did not say a single word to his~ cardinal companion." We can understand, therefore, how painful were the doctor's Or-ders during Bellarmine's last illness, when he was forbidden not only to say the Breviary but also the Rosary. . For, as his brother explained, the doctor knew with what ardor and devotion he applied himself to these prayers: Finally, the doctor was moved by ~he dying man's pleas an.d mitigated the orders first given to the servant, allowing'the sick man "a moderate use'of the Rotary," although everyone knew that, "his intense application to this prayer would'be a great strain 1!4 'Ma~/, 1953 BELLARMINEAND MARY upon him." To the Office and the Rosary, Bellarmine added the Saturday fast in Mary's honor. He fasted th'ree days a week with the same. rigor that he kept the Lenten fast, that is, most strictly. According.to a syllogism which he wrote on the subject, he argued in this way: Our justice should be greater than that of the Pharisees. Matt. 5/20. But the Pharisees fasted two days a week. Luke 18/12. Therefore, I should fast at least three days a week! So besides the fasts for the vigils and the Lenten fast, and besides the whole of Advent, he kept a sacred fast on Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday of each week. That he kept the Saturday fast in honor of Our Lady is clear from the Sermon which he gave on one occasiofi for the feast of the Immaculate Conception, when he said that among the practices most pleasing to the Blessed Virgin and her Divine Son, and most useful to grow in their, love and friendship, is the daily recitation of the Rosary and the Saturday fast in Mary's honor. It was only under express orders,from hi~ confessor ~o fas~ only twice~a week, that in his old age Bellarmine relinquished ~he Saturday fast. Bellarmine and the Immaculate" Conception According to available evidence, Robert Bellarmine was the first bishop of the Catholic Church to have formally petitioned the Holy See for a definition of the Immaculate Conception. It was made while he was serving as cardinal member, of the Congregation of the Inquisition. The petition is dated August 31, 1617, and carried two main questions: Is the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin definable doctrine; and is it expedient at the present ,time to define this doctrine? Then follow three thousand words of careful theoiogical exposition and answering of objections, calculated to break down the resistance of ~ertain critics in the Roman Curia. One of the reasons whch Bellarmine gives in favor of the defini-tion is especially revealing. "It is possible," he says, "for a mere creature to be without an~i sin. Such, .for example, a~e the good angels in heaven. Consequently, the ~ame must be true of the Virgin Mother of God, who is more .pure than the angels. Otherwise she would be less pure than the angels, at least by the presence of sin. For tru.e purity consists of two qualities: absence of sin and nearness to God." The point is that if Our Lady is more pure than the angels in closeness to God, which all admit, then she is also as pure as they 115 ,JOHN A. HARDON Review for Religious in the absence of sin, since purity comprehends both qualities with-out discrimination. St. Robert's devotion to the immaculate Conception is also at- . tested by the number of sermons which he preached on this preroga-tive of the Mother of God. Besides other testimony, there are two extant letters which Bellarmine wrote on the subject i one in 1617 to an English priest, and another in 1618 to Philip III of Spain, in both of which he promised to do everything in his power to promote the defense of the Immaculate Conception. Juan de Serayz, previously quoted, testified at the Beatification Process that Bellarmine bad a singular devotion to the Immaculat~ Conception. After this general statement, h~ added that, "his de-votion was manifested in all the Roman Congregations on which the Cardinal served. And relative to. this question, he often told me that he would not rest until the doctrine was defined. ' 'There is no. need of convoking a General Council in this matter,' he said, 'since the Pontiff can easily pronounce the definition by means of a papal b~ll.' " It is significant that when Pius IX defined the dogma in 1854, he did so without convoking a General Council and by means of a papal bull, exactly as BeIlarmine had suggested. It was Bellarmine's mind that the definition of the Immaculate Conception in his own day was not only opportune but even neces-sary, as he wrote to King Philip, "to remove the terrible scandals which are daily committed against the 1donor of God and with such danger to the the souls of the faithful." Only two months before his death, Bellarmine was still 'urging the cherished definition. On August 1, 1621, says the chronicle,. St. Robert engaged the Holy Father in a long conversation, and frankly told him that if he were Pope he would not hesitate immedi-ately to define the Immaculate Conception, s~eeing no obstacle what-ever standing in the, way. st. John Berchmans died on August 13, 1621. Shortly after his death, Bellarmine heard of the vow which John had made, signed with his own blood, and declaring: "I, John Berchmans, unworthy son of the Society of Jesus, promise thee and thy Son . . . that until death I, will ever declare and defend thy Immaculate Conception." When the aged cardinal was informed of this "fact, he exclaimed: "What a marvelous act of devotion! What aningenious expression of love, written in his own blood! What he says is most certainly true; I am sure he was inspired to this action by Our Lady herself. 116 MaR, 1~53 BELLARMINEAND MARY For just now in Flanders, while others ,are attacking Mary's honor, this young man from Flanders has been chosen by the Mother of God to defend her." Bellarmine was referring to the forerunners of 3ansenism at Louvain, who were teaching that, "No one except Christ is without original sin. Consequently the Blessed Virgin died because of the sin which she had contracted from Adam." Bellarmine and the Annunciation Cardinal Orsini rec'alled that one year he happened to stop at the Jesuit Novitiate in Rome on March 25th, where Bellarmine' was making the Spiritual Exercises. That.morning, the latter's medita-tion had" been on the Annunciation of Our Lady, and when Orsini called on his friend, Bellarmine immediately began to talk about the sublime'mystery .with such fervor and clarity that his visitor was convinced "he had received a special illumii~ation from God that very morning/' It may be noted also that all his life Bellarmine delighted to mention that he was ordained to the priesthood on Holy Satur-day, ,March 25, 1570, and therefore had the privilege of celebrating his first Mass in honor of Our Lady's Annunciation. Since one of the main points of opposition by the Protestants was clerical celibacy and religious chastity, Bellarmine 'took every occasion to defend this traditional practice of the Catholic Church. There are tl~ree complete sets of sermbns which Bellarmine preached for the feast of the Annunciation, and in several of them he took as his theme the Virginity of the Mother of God, stressing the sublimity of this privilege and the example it affords for our imitation. Thus on one occasion he is commenting on the words, "And Mary said to the angel: 'How shall this be done, because I know not man?' " and explains: "The obvious implication of these words' is that Mary had not only chosen to be a virgin but that she had confirmed her choice by vow. According 'to St. Augustine, the Blessed Virgin would never have spoken this gray to the angel unless she had already vowed her-self as a virgin to God. "Can we imagine a greater courage than Mary's, when she made this choice of a virginal life? Even in our own day, it is no small thing to preserve oneself i'n untainted virginity after we have been taught the dignity ofthis state of life by Christ Himself, after St.Paul has clearly recommended it to us, after the Fathers of the Church have given it unstinted praise, and after so many thousands of people 117 JOHN A. HARDON Re~ietu [.or Religious of both ~exes have embraced the life of,celibacy and kept it inviolate until death. How. remarkable it is, therefore, that the Virgin Mary should have aspired to the palm of this virtue although she had been given no precept to that effect by God, had received no counsel, and the only example" she had to follow was the disrepute in which vir-ginity was held by everyone around her." Bellarmine and the" Assumption Among the lon,gest sermons that Bellarmine preached are three for the feast of the Assumption, which he gave at Louvain in St. Michael's Church: In Rome at the titular Church of Our Lady of the Way; and in the Cathedral Church at Capua, as Archbishop, in t 1604. It is worth noting tfiat the fifteenth of August was one of the six feast days each year ~vhen all the servants and attendants of Car-dinal Bellarmine were obliged to go to Confession and receive the Hol~r Eucharist. St. Robert would himself distribute Holy Com-munion to his cardinalatial family, at the Mass'which b~ "said~ for their intention. Two other of these six days "of.precept" were March twenty-fifth and December the eighth. In,the first of his sermons on the Assumption, Bellarmine returns to his favorite theme in relation to the Mother of God: her spotless p,urity. Contemporary witnesses record thht many of his listeners at Louvain were English Protestants, who crossed the Channel to Bel-gium just to hear him speak. ' "The Mother of Jesus," they were told, "was the first woman in history to have consecrated her virginity to God. She was the first to have pointed out the path of chastity which leads to the highest sanctity. It is common doctrine that no one, either man or woman, bad ever taken a vow of virginity before the Blessed Virgin Mary. ~ "Add to this the ~act that Mary, alone of all others before or after, united the state of virginity with the holy state of matrimony, in the truest and fullest sense of the word. For other virgins may be said to contract marriage only in a restricted sense, in that they be-come spiritually espoused to the Person bf Christ. "But most remarkable of all, she alone joined virginity of body and soul with true progeny, and such progeny as ~vould make her the Mother of God. Other virgins, it is true, are also not without chil-dren, when, by their example, prayers and exhortations, they bring sinners back to God and thus increase the number of the elect. And it not infrequently happens that the unmarried in God's'Church are 118 May, 1953 ~BELLARMINEAND MARY more fruitful in this regard than those who are married, as witness St. Catherine of Siena, St. Clare, and others. However,' with the sole except.ioa of the Blessed Virgin, none of them could at the same ' time remain virgins and also give birth to a natural offspring. All"of which must finally be attributed to a special ~race of God, and also, let us not forget, to the free choice of Mary, who chose to take a vow of virginity, to take a human spouse, and who chose to become the Mother of 'God." The Blessed Virgin in the Apostolate Bellarmine instinctively apl~aled to the virtues of the Mother of God, whenever he urged consecrated religious to the more faithful f~racti.ce of their profession. ~While he was Archbishop of Capua,,for example, a convent, of nuns which he had reformed, was accused of receiving only applicants of noble birth. When. investigatibn showed that the charge was true, St. Robert addressed .to the Sisters of San Gi'ovanni one of the longest letters Which he ever wrote. Following the lead of St.Augustine, Bellarmine praised the Sis-ters for 'consecrating their virginity to Almighty God. He implied that in so doing they were admirably imitating the, chastit~y of the Blessed Virgin Mary, becoming "the affianced of the Lord." But he also suggested that chastity is not enough, unless it is coupled with true humility. "Religious life," he told them, "cannot'co-exist with the spirit of the world, nor can ,it be ruled by it, bu~t by the Spirit of God aloiae. The spirit of the world makes accbunt of nobility and wealth, but the Spirit'of God esteems virtue and holin~s~ of life above everything else." Taking this for granted, he continues: "I thought that the nuns of San Giovanni would have really laid aside the spirit of the world, and have gone out from it not less in body than in soul." NOw (he pointed shaft: "If the Blessed Virgin were on earth and wanted to become a nun, she would never be able to get itito ~;our convent, being a carpenter's wife . This will show you in what favor you will be with the Queen' of Heaven and her "Divine Son, if you persist in such a spirit of worldly'vanity." And he con, cl'udes that, "We must nbt try' to impose our ideas on the.Holy Ghost, debarring Him from calling to His service those whom He pleases," seeing that He chose the humble Virgin Mary to become the Mother of God. Also when exhorting his own religious brethren in Rome t6 the practice of perfect chastity, he counselled them'to "be vigilant over 119 JOHN A. HARDON Review for Religious the first movements of the senses, which is easy~ because then the pas-sions are still weak and a man is strong and able to resist."' Undoubt-edly this means a constant war on our concupiscence, literally. "bearing the cross in our bodies." But in this. religious have the ex-ample of the saints to imitate, notably St. Luke, "whose friendship and familiarity with the Blessed Virgin Mary made him an ardent lover of Christ,~' for whose sake, and with the help of whose Mothe~ he was able to carry the cross faithfully until death. Also outside the cloister, on at leastone occasion, Bellarmine ap-pealed to the purity of the Mother of God in asking for a favor from the Pope himself. In the city of Ro~e, nea'r the Cardinal's titular church of Our Lady of the Way, was a public house of ill repute, which Bellarmineconsidered an insult to the Church. First he tried to do something privately, and when that failed, he wrote a letter to the Sovereign Pontiff, in which he begged, "by the love which Your Holiness has fob the most pure Virgin Mary," to see that this nui-sance was re_moved. Needless to say, his request was promptly granted. Bellarmine's Hymn to Mary the Virgin Among St. Robert's extant writings there is a short poem of twenty stanzas ~;hicb he composed in the nature of a Litany to the Blessed Virgin. The text was first published in Italian some fifty years ago, and to th6 best of l~he writer's knowledge, has never been translated into English. Each verse-line begins with the name "Virgin,~" joined to a title and petition to Our Lady, starting with the letter "A" and going down the Italian alighabet to "V". Tfius the first seven verses begin with the invocation: "'Vergine adorna . . . Vergine bella . . . Vergine casta . . . V.ergin( degna . . . Vergine eletta Vergine felice,. . . Vergine gradita . . ." A free translation of this tribute to the Virgin Mother reads as follows: "Virgin Virgin Virgin Virgin Virgin adorned and clothed with the sun, grant me thine aid. most beauti'ful, mystical rose, take abode in my heart. most chaste, all undefiled, grant me true peac~. deser;cing of all honor and praise, give ine thy love. elect and full of all grace, lead me to God. Virgin most .blessed, star of the sea, dispdl the storms .besetting ' me. Virgin most virtuous, holy and swdet, show me the way. Virgin illustrious, with thy burning light, enlighten thou my mind. 120 May, 1953 BELLARMINEAND MARY Virgin more precious than jewels or gold, make reparation for me. Virgin most worthy of all praise, mother, daughter, and im-maculate spouse. Virgin and Mother, make me more pleasing to Jesus thy' Son, Virgin most innocent of any stain or fault, make me more worthy of God. Virgin enriched with every gift and grace, obtain the remission of my sins. Virgin most pure, grant me" to enjoy the bliss of hehvenly love. Virgin, thou lily ambng thorns, I pray thee for the grace of a happy death. Virgin more rare than the rarest dream, bring joy to my heart, Virgin so great there is none like thee on earth, bring peace to my soul. Virgin most true, loving Mother too, Virgin Mary." ST. CLARE PLAY BY A POOR CLARE Candle in Umbria is the story of Saint Clare of Assisi told in a verse play by a Poor Clare Nun. The play of four acts, eight scenes is suitable for production by college students or by high schools with.special direction. The play was writt¢~l to honor the fohndress of the Poor Clares on the seventh centenary (1953) of her. death. The author is a regular contibutor to Spirit magazine. $I.00 per copy, including the music for the "Canticle of the Sun" which is embodied in the play. Those interested in obtaining a copy of this production should write to: Poor Clare Monastery, Route I, Box 285 C, Roswell, New Mexico. SUMMER SESSIONS Loyola University of Chicago announces several courses in theology scheduled expressly for Sisters during the coming summer session, Jtine 29 to August 7. Th'e Rev. James I. O'Connor, S.J., a canonist from West Baden, Indiana, will conduct an institlate" on Canon Law for Religious (Theol. 298). The Rev. Edward J. Hodous, S.J., a professor of Scripture at West Baden, will give a course on the Letters of St. Paul (Theol. 216). An authority on St. Joseph and author of several books on the saint, the Rev. Francis L. Filas, S.J., is giving a course on the History and Tbeology of the Devotion to St. Joseph (Theol. 253). For further information write to the Rev. L, J. Evett, S.J., Loyola Univet;sity, 820 N. Michi-yah'Ave., Chicago 26, lllinois. 121 Canonical Visi :at:ion ot: t:he Local Ordinary Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. ONE of the many obligations imposed on bishops is that,of vis-it! n.g their dioceses. Canon 343. § 1 commands a bishop to visit all or part of his diocese each year in such a way that the entire diocese is visited at least within every five-year period. The importance of the visitation is evident from the fact that a metropoli-tan is to. report to the Roman Pontiff: a suffragan bishop who has gravely neglected his duty of ,i.sitation. In such a case, the metro-politan himself, after obtaining the approval of the Holy See, may make the v.lsitatio.n.1 The Ordinary's visitation of religious is significant part of .'this general visitation. At least one author states absolutely that his, obligation of making the canonical visitation religious is serious.~ All religious are subject to the visitation except those that are exempt, who are to be visited only in the cases expressly. mentioned in the law.3 The specific legislation on the Ordinary°visitation of religious is found in can~ 512, It is more oractical confine this articld to his visitation of the religious community, distinguished from! its works, and to lay institutes, that is, congrega-tions of brothers a~nd sisters and orders of nuns. 1. Congregations of Brothers and Sisters . 1. Person of.the uisitor. Canon 512 prescribes that the visitation of religious is to ble made by the local Ordina'ry personally or through a delegate. The term local Ordinary includes a residential bishop, vicar or prefect apostohc, and an abbott or prelate nullius. Unlike the law on the ghneral visitation of the diocese, can. 512 gives the'l Ordinary full liberty to make the v,sitation personally or through" delegated visitors;'| The vicar or delegate of the Ordinary for reli-g, ous has vls~torial powers only if these have been expressly assigned to h~m by the O~dmary. When many priests are delegated for the visitation, it appears to be the prefeiable and more efficient practice to assign houses of the-same institute to a particular delegate, as far as lCan, 3431 § 3: 27~4;'4°, 5°. ZToso, 48; Cf. Coronata. p. 654. nora 5. SCan. 344, § 2. VISITATION OF ORDINARY this is possible. This lightens the delegate's burden of familiarizing himself with the life of the house be visits. He should study previ-busly the Rule, constitutiong,, directory, c'ustom book, book of com-mon prayers, and ce.remonial of the institute. 2. Frequenc~t of the visitation. Canon 512 enjoins the Ordinary; to visit every house of lay congregations, pontifical or diocesaia, of men or wpmen, every fifth year. Again unlike the canon on the gen-eral visitation of the diocese, can. 512 does not command the Ordi-nary to visit some of the religious houses every year nor to visit all of them at least every five years. The obligation of the Code is com-pletely fulfilled by one visit in five years, and it is perfectly licit to confine the visitation of all the religious houses to one year. The further question arises as to whether tile Ordinary may make a can-orfical visitation of these houses more frequently than once in five years. He may certainly do so in diocesan instituteR, since cart. 492, § 2 subjects these houses completely to the jurisdiction of the local Ordinary. It is the more probable opinion that the Ordinary may not make more than fine canonical visitation in five years in pontifical congregations of men or women,a A canonical visitation constitutes .an Intervention in the religious life of a pontifical congregation, and can. 618, § 2, 2° forbids such an intervention t6 the Ordinary ex-cept in the cases expressly mentioned it, law. These statements are based on the law of the Code. It~is~not impossible to find diocesan congregations and much more exceptionally pontifical congregations that prescribe a greater frequency of visitation in their constitutions. 3. Visitation of places in pontitfcal congregations. The places that the'Code subjects to the visitation in the houses of these congre-gations are: "the ~hurch, the sacristy, the public oratory, and the c!onfessionals.''s Churches and public oratories are practicall3; never iittache'd to the houses' of lay congregations in the United States. All chapels, whether principal or secondary, in the houses of these insti-tutes are classified canonically as semipublic oratories.6 Canon 512 subjects only public, not semipublic, oratories to the visitation of the local Ordinary. Since it is the intention of this c~non to define the persons, places, and things in a religious house that are subject to the visitation of the Ordinary, it is at least probable that he possesses neither the obligation nor the right to visit the semipublic oratories 4Farrell,, ~01-102; LarraonaTCpR, VIII (1927), 444; Toso, 49. sCan. 512, § 2, 2% 3°. 6Can. 1188, § 2, 2°; 1192, § 4. 123 JOSEPH F. GALLEN of lay pontifical co confessionals erected the religious and of sory to the oratory¯ 4. " Visitaffon of Review [or Reliqious gregations. The same principle is true of the in the semipublic oratory for the confessions of the sacristy, which is to be considered as acces-persons in pontifical congregatiot~s, a) General-ate arid provincialat ;. The general and i~rovincial house, superiors, officials, government, and administration of temporal matters of pon-tifical congregational are not visited by the Ordinary. Canon 512 assigns to the Ord~nary the right and the obligation to visit only houses, not provinces or institutes; can. 618, § 2, 2° foriaids the Or-dinary to intervene .~n the .internal government and .discipline of pon- ¯ tifical congregations except in the cases expressly mentioned in the law, and no particu, lar canon gives the Ordinary the right to visit the generalate or proviricialate as such. The dowries are the only matter of general administration that fall under the canonical visitation Otherwise the gene, ral and provincial house, .superiors, and officials are subject to the ~isitation only as a local house and as members of a local community. IT.he same principles are true of. such intermediate divisions as vice,prbwnces, quasi-provinces, visitations, regions, mish sions, districts, and vicariates. b) Imernal'qoloernraent. The internal government of pontifical congregations is exempt by law from the visitation of the Ordinary? Therefore, th~v .,s,tor does not inquire directly ihto the government of local, provincial, other intermediate, or general superiors. .Both [anons 5 2 8 2 3',° and 618, § 2, 2 ° restrict the Visitation of persons XC1 s, on in the latter canoh, in which both government ano a~sctptme are mentioned but the~ intervention of the Ordinary is imm.ediately re- " stricter to &sc,phne. Internal government :includes not only the gen-eral~ elation of subject's to superiors but also the admission of sub- 7De Carlo,.n. 93. 4°, Ib) ; 5°; Larraona, CpR, VIII (1927), 447, and nora 501 448; Reilly, 99, I I2;[Slafkosky, 96-97; Vromant De Personis, n. 177, IL2),a). For the contrary opmton, of. Farrell, 104. Cf. also Ciacio. 60; Coronata, p. 655, ~ota 2; Goyeneche, C'pR,'III (1922), 335-336; Schaefer, n. 560; XVernz-V~dal, p. 123, nots 91.550 ' SCan. 535, § 2; , § 2. . 9De Carlo, nn. 64, III, b) ; 93, 5°, b) ; 404, c) ; Fanfani, IfDiritto Detle Rehq~- ose, n. 60, 2 , c) ; De Reliqiosis~.n. 70, d) ; Larraona, CpR, IX (1928), 100, and aota 505; Pruemmer! qq. 187, 5, c): 242, 2, c). Cf. Abbo-Hannan, ~. 512, Bastien, n. 141; Bryn, n. 616, 6°: Ch°elodi, ~. 281,~b~: Cocchi, pp. c5)2, 183, Goyeneche, De Rehg~ps~s, 169; Jorabart, I, nn. 827, 2, e); 890, 2, ; Raus, n. 178, 4); Regatillo, n. 746; Schaefer, nn. 560, 1285; Vermeersch-Creusen, nn. 631; 778, 2. 124 May, 1953 VISITATION OF ORDINARY jects into the congregation' and to the professions, their education and formation, appointment t_o various offices and employments, and transfer from house to house. c) R~liqious discipline. The right and the duty of the Ordinary to inquire into religious discipline is specified by can. 618, § 2, 2° as follows: 1 ° "The observance of discipline according to the constitutions." The Ordinary is not a religious superior in canon law. His office in this matter is that of the vigilance of external authority and not of direct government of the religious life. He does not inquire into re-ligious discipline in the detailed and rather individual manner of a higher superior. His right and duty is to ascertain the general state of religious discipline in the house and especially the existence of abuses in discipline. Inquiries bearing on an individual should, not be made unless, there is at least a rumor or founded suspicion of the misconduct of the individual.1° The Ordinary is not obliged to in-terview all tbe religious but only the number and the particular indi-viduals who because of their office, employment, or other circum-stances will be sufficient to enable him to discern the general state of discipline.11 Religious dlsc~phne includes the observance of the laws, decrees,' and instructions of the Holy See except those on government. Prac-tically all of these that are pertinent are or at least should be con- .rained in the constitutions. Inquiry sh6u!d also be made as to whether these lay religiou, s are informed on such important canonical legislation as the duration, continuity, and laws on absence of the canonical year of noviceship; the limitation on the application of novices to external works of the congregation during the second year of noviceship; the necessity of the reception of all juridical profes-sions and especially of the renewal o'f temporary professions; ind the observance of the canonical prescription of three full years of tem-porary vows for the validity of the perpetual profession. A direct investigation is to be made on such matters as the observance of the Code and the instructions of the Holy See on begging and on the canonical prohibition of electioneering. The more proper field of religious discipline is the observance of the vows and of the articles of the following sources of obligation: the Rule, constitutions, legitimate customs, ordinations of the general 10Chelodi0 n. 194, c). nCan. 513, § 1. 125 Review for Religious JosEPH F. GALLEN chapter, an~i regula.tions of higher superiors. The most apt norm of inquiry that can be suggested here is the list of questions of the quin-quennial report to ,the Holy See, especially those contained in Chap~ ter II, Article II of this list. The observanc~ of the vow of poverty demands the pe'rmission of the superior fo~ the disposition of material things, but both the ancient and modern abuses in poverty are in the neglect of common life, for example, ~he possession of money that th~ religious' disposes of dependently or independently for his' own necessities; .the frequent or habitual obtaining of necessities from externs; the failure of the institute to supply these necessities adequately and generously; the absence.of the pres, cnbed and reasonable uniformity among the reli-gious in material things, especially in such matters as trips and vaca, tions; and ¯imprudent and excessive demands on parents for these ne-cessities, particular!y during the postulancy and noviceship: ' The external ~afeguards of chastity are subject to the inquiry of the visitor. Thes~e include the avoidance of familiarity and sensual friendships, care ih reading, prudence in the use of the radio, tele-vision, and in thelchoice of the moving pictures shown to the com-munity. The observance of cloister falls under this heading but it is mentioned individually later in the canon. Tile OrdinarY inquires about fidelity to the prescribed religious exercises: Mass, meditation, Little O~ce of the Blessed Virgin Mary, examen 'of conscte, nce, rosary, spiritual reading, visits to the Blessed~ Sacrament, etc. ¯ The spirit of i cooperation, peace, happiness, charity, the general spiritual Ievel in the house, and the obstacles to all of these come un-der the scrutiny of the Ordinary. The canon orl the purpose of the general visitation 6f the diocese directs the Ord, i!nary aiso positively to promote the welfare of the pkrsons and place~ he visits,t2 His counsels can be of value to 'insti-tutes that are la~'king in initiative, manifest a most unsatisfactory rate of increase o~ membership, have a constricted mental outlook, or live so much. in ~he traditions of the past that they refuse to face modern times in ,their lives in general, their work, spiritual forma-tionl and' educat.~gn of subjects. He can give a sympathetic hearing and even effectivei aid to representations on the universal lack of suf-fici'ent financial r~sources in lay congregations. This fact is the cause l~Can. 343, § 1. 126 ) May, 1953 VISITATION OF ORDINARY of overwork, of some of the weakefied health, df much of the loss of the full fervor of the religious spirit, of inadequate education of sub-jects, of the failure to provide sufficient material necessities and suit-able vacations, and, finally of annoying and undignified ways of raising funds. The whole matter of overwork in its relation to the ~observance of religious discipline should be thoroughly studied. The daily schooltwork of brothers and sisters is more than sufficient labor in itself. Added burdens can readily result in the contradiction of the unprepared teacher and the natural' religious. 2° "'Whether sound doctrine and good morals have suffered in. any way." This clause expresses an~application of subjection to the Ordinary not as religious but in the manner of the ordinary faithful. The local Ordinary is the guardian of the purity of faith and morals in his diocese. Misu'nderstanding of matters of faith and erroneous moral principles can be avoided by a competent course in Christian doctrine during the postulancy~ and noviceship and by further and highly desirable theological courses after first profession. 3° "'Whether there have been any violations of cloister." The Ordinary has the 6bligation of exerting .vigilance that cloister is ob-served in all religious congregations and of taking appropriate meas-ures to correct any habitual, notable, or scandalous Violations.13 Canon law imposes cloister on all congregations of men or women. This law places in cloister the parts of the house reserved for the ex-clusive use of the religious and determined by higher superiors. It forbids the entrance into the cloistered section of any person of the opposite sex except for a reasonable cause. The particular law of some .congregations forbids the entrance likewise of those of the same sex. The law of cloister also demands the observance of the pre-scriptions of the constitutions on going out of the house and 6n the rec~eption of visitors. 4° "'Whether 'the sacraments are, dul~t and regularlt.t received." The Ordinary is to inquire whether the religious receive the sacrament of Penance weekly, as universally prescribed by the constitutions. This is also the appropriate occasion for an investigatibn into the following canonical matters: the competence and regular fulfillment of their duties by the ordinary and extraordinary confessors; the-availability of supplementary confessors; abuses in the matter of special confessors; interference in 'internal and external government by confessors; interference with the rights of subjects regarding the 13Can. 604, § 3. 127 JOSEPH F GALLEN Reweto for Rehfltous suplblementary and occasional confessors and also the confessors of re-ligious women who are seriously ill; the exercise" of these rights in Conformity with right .reason, prudence, and religious discipline; the important directive of the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments on the opportunity for confession before daily Mass; and any violation of the prohibition of obliging to a manifestation of conscience. The frequency of the reception of Holy Communion is not prescribed by the constitutions but is left to the devotion of the individual ~eh-gious. It is not beyond the power of the Ordinary to inquire about the general frequency of the reception of Holy Communion. If he finds a situation unusual in a religious house, he may be able to sug-gest o'r actually to effect a solution that will render the 'situation normal. 5° Remedial action of the local Ordinary. The defects in reh-gious discipline of lesser moment that the Ordinary has discerned and judges worthy of mention should be communicated to the siapiriors It will be sufficient to advise the local superior of such matters, unless , he judges that an effective correction can be attaihed only by inform-ing the superior general or provincial. If he has found abuses of serious moment, that is, continued or repeated violations of the laws o~ God, of the Church, or of.religious discipline in matters of greater importance, he is to admonish the superiors to correct the abuse. The gravity of these matters will frequently demand or at least cdu,.nsel that the higher superior be informed. If the abuse is not corrected within a reasonable time, the Ordinary himself is to take means to eliminate it. If he has discovered any serious matter that demands immediate correction, the Ordinary himself is to take direct corrective action but in this case he is obliged to inform the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious of his action.14 5. Financial matters in pontitical congregations. Cation law here asserts the practical restriction of the authority of the local Ordinary to the two following matters:XS a) Dowries. The dowries, which are proper to institutes of women, are under the vigilance of the Ordinary of the habitual resi-dence~ of the higher superioress who is administering them. This right of vigilance demands that the consent of the Ordinary be obtained 14Can. 618, § 2, 2*., lSCan. 618, § 2. 1 °. Only the two financial matters here listed.are ordinarily found in constitutions approved by the Holy See. Cf. can. 533, § 1, 4"; 1515-1517, 1544-1551. 128 Mag, 1953 VISITATION OF ORDINARY for any investment or change of investment of the dowries; he is also to exert care that the dowries are maintained intact and invested in safe~ lawful, and productive securities; finally, he is to exact an ac-count of the dowries un'der these headings at the time of the canonical visitation or even oftener, if he thinks the latter necessary,lg A state-ment should be prepared for the visitor sho~ving the number of dow-ries, their 'value when given, the securities in which they are invested,' and the current value of the securities. b) Funds for divine worship or charitg~. The rather obscure and complicated funds here intended are those: (1°) donated or be-queathed to a house of a religious congregation; (2°) and motivated at least primarily and directly for divine worship or works of charity in favor of externs and to be carried out in the same. village, town, or city in which the religious house is located. Money given for main-taining a scholarship can be an example of such funds. The consent of the local Ordinary must be. obtained for any lnvestment or change of investment of these funds, and he also has.the right of inquiring into their administration. The manner, frequency, and time of the inquiry are left to the decision of the Ordinary.lz The canonical visitation is an opportune tim~ for this inquiry. These same rights of the Ordinary do not extend to such funds given to a province or congregation, nor tO those given solely or pri-marily and directly for the benefit of the religious, nor when the di-vine worship or works of charity are to be performed outside the lo-cation of the religious house or when the choice of the place of their performance is left to the religious. The primary and direct purpose of the gift of funds for a scholarship may be to provide an education for a poor youth or to bestow a gift on the religious who conduct the school; only in the former case would these funds be subject to the norms of vigilance quoted above. 6. Visitation of diocesan cofigregations. The general principle of canon law is that diocesan congregations are completely subject to the local Ordinaries. However, the Code immediately limits this sub-jection by stating that it is such as is described in law.is The prin-ciples that restrict the jurisdiction of the Ordinary over these congre-gations are as follows: (a) he must observe the particular canons that limit his power, for example, the higher superiors of the institute, 16Can. 549; 550, § 2; 533, § 1, 2°; § 2; 535, § 2. 17Can. 533, § 1, 3°; § 2; 535, § 3, 2°¯ ISCan. 492, § 2. 129 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Reoietu for Religioas not the Ordinary, are competent tb admit to the professions; (b) his authority must be exercised according to the apprgved constitutions; (c) the Ordinary of the motherhouse enjoys no primacy of author-ity, since the Code subjects the houses in each diocese to the jurisdic-tion of the Ordinary of that diocese; (d) a diocesan c~'ngregation is a legitimately erected moral person in the Church, with its own proper internal life and field of action: the superigrs possess independent au-thority and are obliged to recur to the Ordinary in matters of inter-nal government only when this is demanded by the Code or the con-stitutions; (e) the Ordinary is not to be considered as a religious su-perior who directly governs the congregation but as an external ec-clesiastical superior, whose authority is that of vigilance over the proper observance of the Code and the const~itutions, of correcting abuses, supplying for defects, and of guiding and aiding the co'n-gregation during the relatively brief probationary period of acquiring the strength and stabili_ty necessary in a petition for pontifical ap-proval. The Ordinary thus acts as an external ecclesiastical superior in the canonical visitation of these congregations. The Code places no limitation on the Ordinary's right of visitation of the houses of congregat!ons. He visits these houses'in everything, internal government, the whole field of discipline, all financial matters, per-sons, and places. Here also the Ordinary is obliged to interview the individual religious only to the extent that he judges necessary for the attainment of the purpose of the visitation.19 The visitation of the semipublic oratories and sacristies of dioc-esan institutes includes an examination into the fgllowing matters: cleanliness; freedom of the oratory from profane uses and its security against sacrilegious thefts and profanations; the conformity of the altar, the t~bernacle, and their furnishings with canonical and litur-gical legislation; the cus, tody of the Eucharist; obedience to instruc-tions on the custody .of the tabernacle key; all the sacred vessels; tl~e sanctuary lamp; the conformity bf the vestments and other furnish-ings with liturgical law, ecclesiastical tradition, and the laws of sacred art; observance of the laws on divine worship and sacred music; fidel-ity to the list of days on ~hich Exposition and Benediction bf the Most Blessed Sacrament are permitted; the admission of priests to the celebration of Mass; and the proper custody of the holy oils. The confessionals in these institutes are examined in the follow- 19Can. 513, § 1. Cf. 4. c), 1° above. 130 Matt, 1953 VISITATION OF ORDINARY -ing respects: their location in' institutes of women in an open and conspicuous place and generally in the chapel: suitability and per-manent accessibility of the place of the confessional; the danger of being overheard, especially ih a confessional in the chapel: a suitable place for the ~onfessions of the deaf; the presence of a narrowly per~ forated grating between the confessor and the penitent; and observ-ance of the law that forbids the confessions of women outside the confessional except in cases of sickness or for other reasons of similar import. The Ordinary always has the right of taking direct and imme-diate action to correct defects and abuses that he has discovered in di-ocesan congregations. However, for the efficacy of the government of superiors and the peace of the members of the institute, it would be better to follow the order of correction described above for pontiff-cal congregations. A diocesan generalate or provinciaiate and the general and pro-vincial superiors and officials, even if the institute or province has houses in several dioceses, certainly fail, under the quinquennial visi-tation of the Ordinary as a local house and members of a local com-munity, The administration of all the dowries i~ also' subject to this visitation of the Ordinary. It is certain that the Ordinary is not obliged to make a ~canonical visitation of the general and provincial houses, superiors, and officials as "such, nor of the general and pro-vincial government and material administration, even if all the houses of the congregation or province are located in his diocese. The argu-ment for this statement is found in the law on the canonical visita-tion, which speaks only of the visitation of houses, not of provinces or institutes.~° It is likewise certain that the Ordinary may make such a visitation, provided all the houses of the province or congrega-tloia are located in his diocese. This right follows from the general subjection of diocesan congregations to [he Ordinary and is in con-flict with no canonical principle. It is more probable that the Ordi-nary may not make such a visitation when the congregation or prov-ince includes houses located in other dioceses, unless he has been com-missioned to do so by the Ordinaries of all these other diocesesl- The principal arguments for this doctrine are that sfich a visitation would affect the entire congregation or province, would contravene the can-onical principle that the Ordinary of the motherhouse enjoys no primacy-of authority, and would thus be obstructive of the rights of 20Can. 5 1 2. 13 t JOSEPH F. GALLEN Reoieu~ for Religious the other Ordinaries. Some canonists oppose thi~ doctrine and hold with solid prob-ability that the Ordinary may make a canonical visitation Of such a generalate or provincialate. Their position is founded on the general subjection of diocesan institutes to the local Ordinary and they deny that this visitation, whose purpose is to promote the observance of the Code and the constitutions, would of its nature conflict with the authority ~r rights of the other Ordinaries.22 In this diversity of opinion, the Ordinary may licitly maintain the right of visitation, since the exclusion of the visitation of such a generalate or provi'ncial-ate from the general principle of subjection to the local Ordinary has not been certainly proved. The controversy should now have a. negligible practical applica-tion. The Sacred Congregation of Religious stated clearly in the new quinquennial report that a diocesan institute actually divided into provinces should have petitioned the status of a pontifical con-gregation before such a division. The Sacred Congregation also ex-plicitly affirmed that any diocesan congregation should.~petition pon-tifical approval as soon as the necessary conditions are verifiei:l. These are practically alwa~rs verified in a diocesan congregation that has spread beyond the diocese of origin. It cannot be repeated too fre-quently that the .diocesan status of a religious ifistitute is not per-petual and definitive but only temporary and probationary and that pontifical status, when the necessary conditions are verified is not optional but mandatory according to the practice of the Sacred Con-grega tion~. ~ II. Monasteries of Nuns Not Subject to Regular Superiors Canonically. nuns are the members of an institute of religious @omen in .which solemn vows at least should be taken according to the prescription of the particular law~ of the institute. Only simple vows are still taken in most monasteries of nuns in the United States, but the injunction of the apostolic constitution Sponsa Christi should soon reverse this condition,24 Some orders of nuns, for example, the 21Bastien, n. 137; Jombart, IV, n, 1323, 7, but cf.'I, n. 827, 2, a); Larraona, CpR, X (1929), 368-377: XIV (1933), 417, and nora 777; 418; Muzzarelh, nn. 145-147; Quinn, 842'90; Schaefer, n. 744, d), but of. n. 745. 22D'Ambrosio, Apollinaris, I (1928.), 417-422: Reilly, 91-97; apparently also Brys, n. 631, IV, 3°; De Carlo. n. 206, III: Vermeersch-Creusen, n. 660, 3, Vromant, De Bonis Ecclesiab Ternporalibtts, n. 238. 23Review forReligious, March, 1950, 57-68; January, 1951, 22; January, 1952, 13-14. z4Statuta, Art. III, § 2. 132 May, 1953 VISITATION OF ORDINARY Carmelites and Dominicans, are subject by the law of their constitu-tions tothe supeiiors of orders of men; others, for example, the Vis, itandines, are not. Monasteries of only simple vows are most rarely in fact subject to order~ of men, even though their constitutions pre-scribe such subjection. The first category of nuns with regard to the canonical visitation of the local Ordinary is of monasteries of solemn or simple vows that are not in fact subject to orders of men. The local Ordinary is obliged to visit all such monasteries every five years35 He may do so more frequently, since these monasteries are subject to him also with regard to the religious life. The consti-tutions also may prescribe a greater frequency of visitation. He viS'its these monasteries in everything, as described above for diocesan con, gregations. All monasteries of 'nuns, whether of solemn or simple vows, are now to have papal cloister.~ The local Ordinary or his " delegate, accompanied by at least one .cleric or religious man of ma-ture age, enters a papal cloister of. women only for the-visitation of places. The rest of the visitation is carried out at the grille37 III. Monasteries of Nuns Subject to Regular Superiors , The distinctive note of this category is that th~ monastery is in fact subject to an order of men. A~ stated above, it may be of sol-emn or'simple vows. The local Ordinary is obliged to visit such a monastery "every five years concerning the observance of the law of cloister and he may make such a visitation as often as he judges it opportune.~ On the occasion of his q~inquennial visitation he also inquires'into the administration of the dowries,a9 The Ordinary alsb has a suppletory duty with regard to a monastery, of this category. If the monastery has not been visited within five years by ~he regular superior, the 1,ocal Ordinary is obliged to visit it in everything, as ex-plained above for diocesan congregations.3°, Other Pertinent Canons abd Principles Canons 513; § 1 and 2413, as also the principles on the. field of c6nsciende, denunciation of the conduct of another, and use and se-crecy concerning.matters learned in a visitation, explained in the pre- 2SCan. 512, § 1, 1" 26Sponsa Christi, Statuta, Art:'IV. 27Can. 600, 1" 28Can. 512, § ~, 1". 29Can. 5 5 0. ~30Chn. f!l2, § -2, 1". 133 JOSI~PH F. GALLEN vious aiticle on the visitation of higher superiors, a~ply similarly the canonical visitation of the local Ordinary.3',32 31Concerning the subject of the penalty of can. 2413. cf. Jombart, Larraona. Muz-zarelli, and D'Ambrosio. as cited in notes 21-22. and Reilly, 173-176. 3ZThe authors cited are: Abl~o-Hannan. The Sacred Canons, I: Bastien. Directo~re Canonique; Brys. duds Canonici Compendium, I: Chelodi, lus Canonicum De Per-sonis: Ciacio, De, Oratodis Semipublicis: Coccbio Commentarium In Codicem lur,s Canonici, IV; Coronata. lnstitutiones luris Canonici, I: D'Ambrosio. Apollinar,s:. De Carlo. dus Religiosorum; Fanfani. ll Diritto Delle Religiose, De lure Relioioso-rum: Farrell. The Rights and Duties of the Local Ordinar{l Regarding Congrega-tions of Women Religious of Pontifical Approtml; Goy6neche. Commentadum Pro Religiosis, De Religiosis; JomlSart. Traitd De Droit Canonique, I. IV: Larraona, Commentarium Pro Religiosis; Muzzarelli. De Congregationibds furls Dioecesam; Pruemmer. Manuale luris Canonici; Quinn. Relation of the Local Ordinart, t to Reh-gious of Diocesan Approval; Raus. Institutiones Canonicae : Regatillo. lnstitutiones luris Car~onici; Reilly~ The Visitation of Religious; Schaefer, De Religiosis; Sl~f-kosky, The Canonical Episcopal Visitatiori of the Diocese; Toso. De Religios~s, Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome furls Canonici, I: Vromant. De Personis: De Bores Ecclesiae Temporalibus; Wernz-Vidal. De Rdigiosis. "10,000 GOLD FRANCS" MEANS "S,000 DOLLARS" AcCording .to a decree of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation, duly 13, 1951, religious institutes need the permission of the'Holy ¯ See t6 alienate property or to incur a debt when the amount exceeds 10,000 gold' francs or lire. In an article in-this REVIEW (November, 1952, pp. 301-304), we att'empted to translate this amount into American dollars, and we reached the~ tentative conclusion that the approximate amount would be 7,000 dollars. Our estimate was based on sound economic calculations; hence, we suggested that 7,000 American dollars Could be taken as the norm until some more specific norm would.be given by the Holy See itself. On danuary 29, 1953, the Sacred Congregation of Religious pub-lished the official equivalents of 10,000 gold francs or )ire for the principal countries of the world. The equivalent for the United States is given as 5,000 dollars; for the equivalents in other countries, see page 150. As matters now stand, therefore, the permission of the Holy See must be obtained to alienate property or to incur a debt when the amount exceeds 5,000 dollars in our ordinary currency. It should recalled that this permissidn may be obtained through the Apostohc Deldgate, in Washington,if the sum does not exceed 500,000 dollars 134 Conl:ession before Communion Gerald Kelly, S.3. '~N THE FIFTEENTH of Jun, e, 1520, in a memorable docu- . ~ ment which begins with the words, Exsurge Domine (Arise, O Lord), Pope Leo X condemned a multitude of errors of Martin Luther. Among these errors was Luther's teaching on the preparation, required for Holy Communion. According to him, pr~yers~and other pious works, as well as contrition for mortal sin and even confession itself, are useless; all that is required is to .be-lieve, to have confidence that one will obtain grace in the sacrament, and this alone will make one pure and worthy. Thirty-one years later, fin its thirteenth 'session' (October 11, 1551), the Council of Trent considered this same errdneous teaching, and,stated the true doctrine in a chapter and a canon. Chapter VII, "On the preparation to be given thht one may.worthily receive the sacred Eucharist," runs as follows: "If it is unbeseeming for anyone to approach to any of the sadred functibns unless he approach holily; assuredly, the more the holiness and divinity of this heavenly sacrament are understood by a Chris-tian, the more diligently ought he to "give heed that he approach not to receive it but with great reverence and holiness, especially as we read in the Apostle those words full of terror: He that eateth and drinketh unworthil! , eateth and drinketh judgment to himself, Wherefore, he who would communicate ought to recall to ~ind the precept of the Apostle: Let a man proue himself. Now ecclesiastical usage declares that necessary proof to be, that no one, conscious to himself of mortal sin, how contrite .soever he may seem to himself, ought to approach to the sacred Eucharist without previous sacra-mental confession. This the holy Synod hath decreed is to be,in-variably observed by all Christians, even by those priests on. whom it may be incumbent by their office to celebrate, 16rovided the opportun-ity of a confessor do not fail them; but if, in an urgent necessity, a priest should celebrate without previous confession, let him confess as soon as possible." (Waterwotth, The Canons and,Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumen&al Council of Trent, pp. 80-81.) " The eleventh canon :of the same session makes explicit reference to the Lutheran error. It reads: 135 GERALD KELLY Reoiew for Reli~lious "If anyone saith, that faith alone is a sufficient preparation for receiving the sacrament of the most. holy Eucharist; let him be anathema. And for fear lest so great a sacrament may be received unworthily, and so unto death and conddmnation, this holy Synod ordains and declares that sacramental 'confession, when a confessor" may be had, is of necessity to be made beforehand, by those whose conscience is burtl~ened ,with mortal sin, how contrite even soever they may think themselves. But if anyone shall presume to teach, preach, or obstinately to assert, or eveh in public disputation to de-fend the contrary, he ~hall be thereupon excommunicated." (Water-worth, p. 84.) The foregoing teaching of the Council of Trent is the principal source of our present canon law: namely, canon 807, which concerns the celebration of Mass, and canon 856, which concerns the reception of Holy Communion. .An English translation of the latter canon runs as follows: "No one, whose conscience convicts him of mortal sin, no matter how contrite he thinks himself, may approach Holy. Communion without l~revious sacramental confession. If there is urgent neces-sity, and no oppoitunity of finding a confessor, he must first elicit an Act of Perfect Contrition." (O'Donnell, Moral Questions, p. 270.) This law is of the greatest moment. It should be clearly under-stood by religion teachers, catechists, and frequent communicants. Properly to understand it, one must have a grasp of these three propositions: (I) It is always, necessary to be in the state of grace When receiving Holy Communion. (II) It is ordinarily necessary to confess before receiving Holy Communion if one has committed a mortal sin since one's last good confession. (III) In certain extra-ordinary circumstances it is sufficierit to regain grac~ by a'n act of per-fect contrition before receiving. Holy Communion. The purpose of the present article is to explain these three propositions and (IV) to call attention to some precautions to be. taken in order to safeguard the ordinary observance of the law and, to avoid sacrilegious Com-munions. I. It is alwol~s necessary to be in' the State of grace when receiving Communion. One reason for this is that the Holy Eucharist is a sacrament of the living. A sacrament of the living supposes its recipient to be already supernaturally aliventhat is, living the divine life of grace--- 136 Ma~, 1953 CONFESSION BEFORE COMMUNION and its function is to increase this divine life in the soul. A second reason is found in the special purpose of the Eucharist, which, is to r~ourisb. We do not speak of nour.ishing a corpse; nourishment sup-poses that life ~lready exists. The conscious receptiOn of Holy Communion while in the state of mortal sin is a grave sacrilege. It is to receive the source of sal-vation unto one's own condemnation. No one, therefore, should receive this sacrament unless he has a reasonable assurance that he is in the state of grace. I say "a reasonable assurance," because when there is question of our interior state of soul it is not possible for us, apart from ~ special divine revelation, to have an absolute certainty that we are in the state of grace. All that God. expects of us in this and in similar matters is a practical, or working, certainty that we fulfill various conditions established by Himself or the ChurCh for His honor and our own spiritual welfare. For ordinary people there is no difficulty in this.matter. They go to confession; do what they can to fulfill the requisites of a good confession, and leave the con-fessional in peace, sufficiently confident that their sins are forgiven and that they are in the state of grace. And the same is true of them when they make an act of perfect contrition: they are reasonably, or practically, sure that through this act they are restored to God's friendship,' in case they had lost it through mortal sin. (Contrition, said the Council of Trent, is perfect through charity. Hence, perfect coritrltion is sorrow for sin based upon a motive of charity, that is, sorrow because one has offended God, who is the supreme good and worthy to be loved above all things. It is not difficult for those who are accustomed to think of God to make an act of perfect contrition and to mean it. The formula for the act of contrition, as ordinarily taught in catechism classes, contains both imperfect and perfect contrition. This is appropriate, because sorrov~ for the perfect motive does not exclude sorrow for lesser motives.) Some people, such as the scrupulous, have great difficulty in these matters. They alw.'ays feel spiritually insecu~re. No matter what their reason might tell them of their state of soul, its calm judgment is stifled by their fear; and this fea.r makes them feel that they are not, or,may not be, in the state of grace. If such people were to follow their feelings, they would very likely never receive a sacrament of the living, especially the H61y Eucharist. For them~ it is necessary to fol-low sound direction in spite of their feelings--lall the while working towards the goal of being able to make quiet judgments for them-selves, judgments based on facts and not on fea~. 137 GERALD KELLY As is the case with other sins, one must realize what he is doing in order to be guilty of a sacrilegious Communion. Consequently, one who is actually in the state of mortai sia but does n~ot advert this when he receives Holy Communion does not commit a sin: fact, it may be that he receives sanctifying grace through the Eucha-rist itself. Many erfiinent theologians hold that. a sinner (i.e:, in the state of mortal sin) who receives Holy Communion ifi good faith and with imperfect contrition for his sins is restored to grace through'this sacrament. Knowledge of this opinion may be a con-solation to those who are apt to worry about being deprived of grace because of unsuspected unworthiness when they communicate. The case of receiving Holy Communion without adverting the fact that one is in the state of mortal sin can hardly be very common. But it is certainly not an impossibility, especially for some people whose devotions' aie governed by routine. For example, sup-pos~ that a layman is accustomed to receive Holy Communion first Sunday of every month and to go to confession, the day before It might happen that something unforeseen.would prevent his going to confession, and then, following his routine pattern, h~ would communciate Sunday morning without realizing at the time that had been unable to make his usual confession. If he had committed a mortal sin and had made only an act of imperfect contrition'he would still be in mortal sin at the time of communica_ting. Being unconscious of this, he would be in wh~t is called "good faith Communion would proba.bly have the same effect for him as an of perfect contrition~namely, give him sanctifyi.n.g grace, though would still be obliged to confess his sin.' II. It is ordln~rily necessar~.l to confess before receiving Communion ~f one has committed a mortal sin since one's last good confession. To say that one must be in the state of grace when receiving sacrament of the living is not the same as saying that a sinner must go to confession before receiving one of these sacraments. It is pos-sible to regain sanctifying grace either through actual confession through perfect contrition, which includes the intention to co,nfess the proper time. Nothing in the nature of a sacrament of the living makes actual confession a necessary prerequisite; nor is there any special law which makes confession necessary, except for the Holy Eucharist. For instance, if a young man who is to be confirmed tomorrow commits a mortal sin today, he is certainly obliged regain sanctifying grace before receiving confirmation, but an act 138 ¯Ma~, 1953 CONFESSION BEFORE COMMUNION perfect contrition would suffce for ¯thpis rup !o s e .~ A . nd this would" be true also of matrimony, holy~orders, and e~xtrem¢ unction if these sacraments were received apart from Holy:Communion,or the cele-bration of Mass. | ~ . . The Holy Eu~charist, therefo.re, is govern~ed by°an entirely special law~. As we learn from the Council of "l~rent arid the Code, the regaining of grace through perfect contrition.is not normally suffi-cient for the reception of this sa~cramsaecnrat;m Ie ~ntal confession' is ordinarily required. The reason for this seems to be the entirely special .character of the Holy Eucharist. it is the most excellent of sacraments, and it is to be safeguarded as much fis is humi~nly possible against the clangerof abuse. ~ ] Is this law prescribing confession beforle Comrfiunion a divine law or a law made by the Church? The answer to this question is not clear. Some of the greatest of'post-Tr~dentine theologians ex-plain it as a divine law promulgated through St. Paul: St, Alph'onsus Liguori, writing in the eighteenth century, ~dheres. to this explana~ tion as being by far the more common and th~eonlv true one Never-thele. ss, eminent modern theologians express ~lissa~isfa~tion with the arguments that the law is of divine origin arid hold that ~he words of the Council of Trent are sufficiently verifi~ed if the law is consid-ered to be of ecclesiastical origin. In either case--whether divine or merely ecclesiastical the law is strictly binding, and the only excep-tion to it is offcially declared by the Church[ to be a case in which Communion is necessary and confession is impossible, as will be ex-plained in our next section. ~Who are obliged by this law to go to cofenssion before receiving Communion? Only those u:bo are certain tb ~at tbe[j.have committed a mortal sin since their last gUod confession. T~erefore, one who inculpably failed to tell a mortal sin in an otl-lerwise good confes~io~h is ~iot obliged to abstain from Communion u~nti~ he makes another c~nfession. ~'He bus already regained grace thr~ough co~nfession. It is true, of course, that the omitted sin must still be confessed; but it is not necessary to advance one's ordinary time of confession in order to do this, and in the meantime one may receive Holy.Communion even daily as long as ~he commits no further m~0rtal sin. " , It is clear that- if one who knows he forgot to tell a mortal sin in. confession may receive Holy Communion, then one who merely doubts whether be forgot to tell a sin has the~ same privilege¯ BUt what of one who knows be committed a mortal sin and doubts 139 GERALD KELLY Reoieto for Religious whether~ he has been to confession at all since then (not a yery com-mon case), or~,.of one who doubts whether he has sinned mortally (e.g., by sutficient reflection or full co.nsent) since his last confession~ Regarding these cases there would be some difference of opinion among xheologians; but a sound practical rule covering all .such doubts is this: th~ sole obligation is to take some available means of removing the doubt so that one will be reasonably sure of being in the state of grace when receiving HolyrCommunion. ¯ Sometimes what is called a doubt is not a doubt at all, but merely a scruple or a sort of hazy" fear. The best treatment for such ~orries is to pay as Iittle heed as possible to them, even though they accompany the holiest of actions. In other instances, a doubt is a sort of temporary state of mined that can be corrected by the applica-tion of a sound rule of presumption. For instance, one who Wonders whether he gave full consent in some very disturbing temptation, mig~ht' realize in his calmer moments that in similar' situations he never, or practically never, gives in to the temptation. Thus the presumption of not consenting favors him, and he may use this pre-sumption to dispel his perplexity and to form the practical judgment 'that heDis still in the stare of grace. In such cases neither confession nor r~erfect contrition is strictly required before Holy Commun.lon But it may happen occasionally to anyone that his doubt whether he has committed a mortal sin is too solidly-founded to be ignored and that the circumstances of the temptation are so unusual that the ordinary presumptions are not helpful. In other ~ ords. one might have a really sincere and insoluble doubt whether he is here and now in the state of mortal sin. Even in this case confession is not obliga-tory; but if one does not wish to go to confession one should make an act of perfect contrition before receiving Communion. Ac~ording to some good authors even the act of perfect contrition is not str_ictly necessary; but it is hard to find any sound reason for this opinion and I viould-not sponsor it. On the. other hand. many, if not most. authors think that confession is generally advisable in these cases of insoluble doubt. For myself. I would be very slow to recommend the special confession of doubtful sins except to persons who might need this'as a means of corr.ecting a proneness to laxity. III. In cdrtain extraordinary circumstances it is'su~cient to regain grace before receit)ing Communion by making an act of perfect con-trition. A problem proposed to Father Michael O'Donnell (Moral Ques- 1:40 Meg, 1953 tfons, p. ,2,70) can aptly introduce the pCrOeNs~eEnSt$ 1sOecNt BioEnFO. TREh CeO pMrMobUlNeImON concerns a person who d d an impure action and was heartily sorry for doing so, and wanted to keceive Our Ble'~ssedLord the following morning," This person evidently had no opportunity to go to con-fession: hence be made an act of perfect cqntrltlon 'and promised Our Lord he would go to confession'at the first opportunity and tell that sin of impurity and fulfilled that promis~e a few days later." He now wants to know whether he did wrong an going to C6mmunion. This is a very human problem. One can almost feel the anxiety of the questioner. Father O Don-_ewl rlgbtllv sets b~ m:nd at r~st by saying that. since he acted in good faith. He has n6 need to worry. It is one thing to decide wh&her one has beech guilty of sin, another thing to tell one what to do in the future. I~ cannot be repeated too . often that past actions arenot to be judged by present knowledge. Many of us have done things in perfectly gobd faith which we later learned were forbidden. In acting thus we ~ere not guilty of sin: in fact we may have been highly pleasing to God because we ~lid what we thought was righf under the circumstadces. So, too, we may have done things in a sort of perplexed state i~n which .we did the best we could to decide what was right and then d~d it. but with a sort of vague anxiety. This is not ,what aut, bors referIto when,, they coffdemn acting "in practical doubt.' The °practica1~lldoul~ter is not merely troubled by a vague worry or perplexity; he is one who has a serious reason, for questioning wh~tber what he is about to do is sinful and then, witl~out forming his conscience, be does' it Xnyway. I call attention to this principle that pas~ acti6ns are n~t to be judge.d by present knowledge, because it is n~t entirely unlikely that some readers of this article may have had an experience similar to Father O'DonnelI's questioner. Lacking a ~lear knowledge of the law of confession before Communion, they may have received Co}n-reunion without previous confession in some. instance in which, ac-cording to the explanation given here, they were not justified in doing so. Let them be content to use the new knowiedge as a guide for the future and not make it a cause of anxiety abou~t~tbe past. Many laws admit of exceptions by reason of some extraordinary circumstances or combination of circumstances[ Thus, a mothek who must care for a sick child is excused from Slunday Mass; the "poor who live on what they receive from others are excused froin tb~ law of abstinence; and so forth. The law pr~scri'bing cbnfession before Communion also admits of exception; but the" Church considers ~bis 141 GERALD KELLY Reoteto [or Rehgtous matter of such importance that she officially declares just what cir-cumstances constitute the exception. For a legitimate exception there must be a combina~tion of two extraordinary circumstances: (1) im-possibility of going.to confession; and (2) necessity of receiving Communion. Both conditions must be verified. And both need some expla~nation. 1. Confession lmpbssible. Authors generally illustrate this matter with the example of person who is0 already kneeling at the Communion rail before he realizes that he should have gone to confession. It is clear that if he is to receive Communion now (whether 'that is necessary will be ¯ treated later), then coflfession before Communion is impossible. He ~annot stop the priest.at the altar rail and say: "Will you please bear my confession before giving me CommuniorL" " F~ther Edwin F. Healy, S.2., in Christian Guidance (p. 105), uses the example of a father of a family who has planned on receiving Communion with his children on their mother's anniversary. ,He intends to go to confession before Mass, but when they reach the church they find that the onlh, priest of this parish is already begirt-ning Mass. As Father Healy points out, it would be out of the question for the man to leave the church and go elsewhere to con-fession if he is to receive Communion with his family at this Mass'. Example~ of inability to get to confession are not limited to these last-minute cases. The impossibility might last for some tihae, espe-cially in a small town when the pastor is absent and when inclement weather or lack of time would prevent one from going to another town. Moreover, there can be cases in which a priest can be reached yet, confessi6~ is impossible: _for example, if the priest Would not hear the. confession, perhaps because of scrupulosity. Or the only available priest might be one without tl'ie faculties to hear confessions. This would not be very common in our country; but it could happen, for instance, in the case of'a priest who would be outside his own dio-cese. And it would be more common in some countries where it is customary to,limit the jurisdiction of young priests to a certain class of persons. At the time of the Council of Trent the limitation of confes-sional faculties was not at all uncommon: hence cases in which an available priest migh~t b~ able to hear one's confession were not rare This seems to be one reason for the rather strange wording used by the Council in declaring the law of confessing before Communion 142 May, 1953 CON~ESSION BEF(~RE COMMUNION / Confession is necessary, it says, if one has a i'co/~ia confessoris." The Code preserves the same expression, "copia ~onfesarii?' The literal meaning of copla is 'a plenty, an abundanc~e," an,d the very use of the expression implies that it might be possible to have a priest pres-, ent, yet no confessor would be available, VaI r.ious authors try to press this idea by saying that confession is neIcessary: if a confessor is present to whom one is obliged to confess: if a suitable confessor is present: if there is an available priest to wh6m one could go to con-fession without grave inconvenience. The foregoing are various ways of sayin~ is present or can be reached confession may bility. I have aI~eady cited two examples cannot hear the confession, and the priest Another example of this practical impossibil case in which confession cannot be made privacy. Still another case, very clear in tF. that,even when a priest be a practical impossi-af this: the priest who who will not hear ~t. ity of confessing is the without the necessary eory but not nearly so clear in its application, is that in. which the very going to confession would create suspicion in the minds of others that one had s~nned seriously. I say this is clear in theory becaus~e such a danger to one's reputation is certainly an extraordinary inconvenience that would, make confession morally impossible. And I ladd that Jr'is not clear in its practical application bechuse the dangelI is more likely to exist merely in the minds of,certain oversensitive in~lividuals than in actual fact. It is sometimes said that this kind of sltuat~on is not uncom-mon in communities of Sisters, so that a Sister1 who would go to con-fession before Mass would be open to suspicion. Perhaps there~are some communities in which such gross unkindness and injustice pre-vail, but we can at least h'ope that they a.re ~ery rare and that they will soon reform. " I Theologians discuss and dispute over what they call "invincible repugnance') attached to goin~ to con~fession to a certain individual. All agree, of course, that the mere d~flicultyI of confession, or the mere humiliation of confessing a serious sin-~iifficulties inherent in "confession to some extent for most people~,w.ould not constitute a moral impossibility of going to confession. The debatable case con-cerns repugnance or embarrassment that arises ?from some kind of special relationship with the confessor. This might be blood rela-tionship.: for example, the confessor 'is one's son or brother. Or it might be a relationship of work: for example, the confessor and peni-tent are working intimately together day after day. Or it might be a 143 GERALD' KELLY Review for Religipus relati0nshipZwif I may use the term--of dislike., For instance, sup-pose that a certain priest clearly dislikes me and loses no opportunity of~showing it l~y bein~g rude,.ridiculing me, and so forth. It is easily seen that I might have a repugnance to confessing a serious sii~ that priest which would be entirely special, entirely different from the difficulty ndrmally experienced in confession. No one holds that these relationships always create "invincible repugnance." But many theologians believe that this psycho!ogical effect is experienced in some cases and,that in these cases there is truly extraordinary inconvenience which amounts to a moral impos-sibility of confessing to that priest. Hence,,the~r wo~Id say that such a priest were the only one ~vho could be reached, confession would be a practical impossibility. I am convinced that these theo-logians are c~orrect: and I believe that St., Thomas. Aquinas would agree with them, too. With reference to a similar question--the ne-cessity of making" the annual confession "to 6ne's own priest"-- St. Thomas recommended great liberality in alldwing people to to other confessors, "because," he said, "many are so weak that they would rather die without confession than confess .to that priest." (Suppl., q. 8, a. 5, ad. 6.) A few otheb cases generally cited by authors as constituting impossibility of confessing are these: the danger of scandalizing t, priest: the danger that confessional secrecy will be abused; the danger of revealing one's accomplice in a sin. Granted that such ~onditions existed, they would make confession morally'impossible: but I think their actual existence would be rare. 2. Communion Necessarg Because" of the variety of situations which mak~ confession moral impossibility, the first condition for the exception to the .of confession before Communion is not entirely uncommon. But second condition is also required--necessity of going to Communion --and this is seldom gerified. To illustrate this condition we might reconsider three of the cases previously mentioned. In the problem presented to Father O'Donnell the questioner apparently had no opportunity of going to confession. But his only reason for going to Communion was that" he "wanted to receive Our Blessed Lord the following morning." This desire, though it may be very strong and though it is very laudable, does not. make Com-munion a necessity. There is a necessity of going to Communion Ma~, 1953 CONFESSIO,N BEFORE COMMUNION' only when abstinence from Communion would be accompanied by' some very extraordinary incorivenience. Another case is that of the person who is. already kneeling at the Communion rail when he realizes that be should have gone to Con-fession. Clearly, as we pointed out, confession is now impossible. And if he could not leave the rail without exposing himself to suspi-cion, there would also be a necessity of communicating: that is, ab-stinence from Communion would be akcom13anied by the extraordi-nary inconvenience of danger to his reputation." Granted that this circumstance existed he could legitimately receive Communion after having made an act of perfect contrition. A third example was taken from Father Healy's Christian Guid-ance. Since Father Healy uses this particular example primarily to illustrate a necessity of communicating, it may be helpful to quote it in its entirety: "It has been the custom for some years, that the whole Baxter family receive Holy Communion on December 12, the day on which Mrs. Baxter died. Mr. Baxter had received Holy Communion the d~ay be, fore at the Sunday Mass and now he comes to church with his grown children. Unfortunately, he committed a serious sin ~he pre~ vious afternoon, and he i~ counting on going to confession before Mass. However, when' Baxter arrives he finds that Father Treacy, the only priest at this church, has already begun the prayers at ~he foot of the altar. Baxter cannot pretend that he violated the Eucha-ristic fast, for his children know that he did not. ' He cannot feign sickness, for he is obviously in the best of health. Unless he receives Holy Communion, his family will conclude that he is in the state of mortal sin." Father Healy comments: "Given these circumstances, Mr. Baxter may make an act of perfect contrition and licitly go to Holy Com-munion at this Mass." I believe that theologians would generally agree with this solutidn because the drcumstances all build up to an entirely exceptional situation--a situation which not only excludes the possibility of confession but also .makes abstinence from Com-munion a source of extraordinary inconvenience. And if the case were changed so that the children were young, instead of grown up, there might be the added factor of danger of bad example if the father were to abstain from Communion in the cir~umstances de-scribed. A case in which similar circumstances might prevail would be a wedding, when the bride and groom had planned on receiving GERALD KELLY ~ Review for Religious Co.mmunion together it the NuptialMass. It may be taken as a sound working 15rinciple that if abstinence from Communion would jeopardize one's reputation or give bad example, then Communion is necessary, in the sense of canon 856. But as I suggested,with reference to confession, it is easier to enunciate a principle like this thin to-judge its practical application. It is sometimes said, for instance, that these inconveniences are apt to ex-is't in a convent, or when Sisters go to Communion daily in the parish church, or when they receive Communion with the children on special occasions, such as the First Friday. We are dealing here with a question of fact, and I certainly would not want to be dogmatic m affirming or denying the existence of the conditions. If they exist, they constitute a necessity of communicating. But clearly the Church d6es not want them to exist; and there is no valid reason why they should exist, because occasional abstinence from Communion is cer-tainly not a ~ound basis for either suspicion or scandal. All theologians say that the mere desire to receive Communion does not rfiake Communion a riecessity. In other words, the sorrow felt by a devout person who is deprived of Communion is not an extraordinary inconvenience in the sense of canon 856. This is un-doubtedly true when the omission of Communion would be required foronly a day or two. But I think there is room for an easier judg-ment in the case of a devout daily communicant, e~pecially a reh-gious, who might have to omit Communion for a rather l~ong time. I am thinking 15art~cularly of an earnest religious who might very rarely commit a serious sin and who on one of these rare "occasions might be in circumstances in which confession would be impossible for a week or so. I believe that abstinence from Communion during all that time would constitute an e~traordinary hardship for such a religious a hardship of such an exceptional nature as to constitute a justification for receiving Holy Communion after regaining grace through perfect contrition. This case is admittedly rare; but it can happen, especially in some rural districts. Throughout this present section I have tried to~ stress two points: first, that the combination of circumstances demanded by the latter part of canon 856 ~should be seldom ~erified; and secondly, that it can be verified occasionally, even in the case of religious. But when-ever a religious finds that these exceptions are frequent, there is some-thing radically wrong a situation which should not exist andwhich must be corrected. In this regard, I should.like to refer to a question 146 ! May, 1953 ~ONFESSION BEFORE COMMUNION answered inan earlier number'of this REVIEW (V, 70-71) that con-cerned a young Sister with aproblem that called for frequent con-fession. She was in a islace where such frequent confession was prac-. tically impossible and she thought that "frequent abstaining from Communion. especially as this might often be for several days a~ a time, would enable others to suspect her trouble." I believe that the answer we published at that time bears repetition here! "It is not easy to answer a problem like this in a few words; but we can give a general idea of the points that must be considered. An occasional emergency when Communion is judged necessary and con-fession is impossible is understandable and might occur in the life of almost anyone. But a state of affairs that makes such emergencies more or less habitual ought to beremedied. Ii~ the case referred to in the question, the religitius should ask for a change of reside~ace that .would enable her to confess when necessary and to obtain competent dire. ction concerning her problem. If she cannot bring herself to ask for the change and is unabld to cle~ar up the problem, she ought seri-ously to consider whether she has the requisite qualities for leading the religious.life. Decisions like this ought to be made while religious are still young. If some problems are not faced, and settled in the early years of the religious life they can eventually reach a point where a satisfactory solution is practica'lly impossible." , The change of residence suggested in this answer can hardly be made jtidiciously unless thesuperior is given some information as to the nature of the problem. (Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, VI, 242- 47.) Humility, therefore, is a requisite for the ~eligious: but need-less to say a religious who is unwilling to practice such humility when salvation itself might be concerned has lost his sense of values. On the other hand, the superior should be approachable, sympathetic, and very careful to observe, strict secrecy. IV, Precautt'ons to be taken to avoid the unnecessary use o[ excep-tions to the ordinary law o[ con[ession be[ore Communi, on and to guard against sacrilegious Communions. Under date of December 8, 193 8. the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments issued an instruction for local ordinaries and majo~ reli-gious superiors which called attention to the fact that frequency of Communion could le]d to diminished esteem, for the Blessed Sacra-ment and that reception in groups could lead to sacrilegious Com-munions. The purpose of the instruction was to outline a number of steps tobe taken to preclude these evils. There is a complete English 1417 GERALD KELLY version of this instruction in Canon Law Digest, II, 208.-15; an out-line in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, III, 268-270. In the same number of the REVIEW (pp. 252-67), is a commentary on the instruction by Father I~mile Bergh, S.2., together with some notes by the editors and some references to other commentaries. Since these various ref-erences cover the matter completely, I shall conclude the present article with only brief references to some of the main precautions. The first precaution is t~ give proper doctrinal and ascetical in-struction regarding the Holy Eucharist. This kind of instruction should engender a profound esteem for the Blessed Sacrament, a de-sire to communicate frequently arid worthily, and a wholesome abhorrence of sacrilege. Through such instruction one would see that daily Communion is a great privilege, but not a necessity Moreover, though Communion is not reserved to the saints, it does suppose a minimum disposition of freedom from mortal sin, and nothing justifies its conscious reception in this state. And although One need not have tl~e most perfect motive, such as disinterested love of God, one should have a supernatural .motive, such as the desire to avoid sin, preserve grace, grow in grace, and so on. Should instruction be given, not only about the necessityof re-gaining grace through confession, but also about the exception which permits .the reception of Communion with only an act of perfect cbn-trition? If one were to judge from some of the religious texts I have seen, one would conclude that the faithful are to be told only about the necessity of confession, and nothing about the exceptions men-tioned in canon 856. This does not seem ~air. If the faithful are obliged to keep a law, they are entitled to know what the law means, how seriously it obliges, and wh~t are at least the more common legitimate exceptions. I admit that this has to be adapted to the age of the people. Yet surely even a child can be taught that if he com'- mits a mortal sin he should go to confession before receiving Com-munion, but if he cannot avoid going to Communion and cannot get to confession, then he should make an act of perfect contrition before Communion. He migh~ also be told that if ever he should have to do this, it would be well for him to explain the case in the next confession and see.whether the confessor would want to 'give him some advi~ for the' future. A second precaution is to provide ample opportunity for confes-sion before Communion. For religious in particular this means safe-guarding the liberty of confession as granted in the canons: and for 148 May, 19~3 CONI~SSION BEFORE COMMUNION parishes, schools, institutions, and religious houses,, it means that whenever it is feasible a confessor-should be available before Mass. This latter provision should certainly be very helpful in larger con-vents, but I do not clearly see how it would be either convenient or effective in some very small convents. A third precaution is to avoid practices that make it difficult for individuals to abstain from Comfiaunion. It is ordinarily not pru-dent, for instance, for ateacher to say to a pupil, or a superior tb a subject: "What's the matter--are you ill? I noticed you didn't go-to Communion this morning." Also, if a "general" Communion is bad, it should be in such a way that no one feels obliged to go or tl~at no attention will be called to those who do not go. So, too, prizes are not to be given for frequent Communion, and contests that highlight ¯ the reception of Communion by individuals should not be had. As regards circumstances that make it difficult to abstain from Communion, the instruction, referring especially to the effect of these things on young people, said there should be "no rigid and quasi-military "or~ter in coming up, no insignia to be worn by those who receive Communion, etc." Some commentators have inferred from this that communities of religious women ought to abandon their custom of approaching the Communion rail in a certain order. Some have put this rather strongly, ~as if the instruction demanded it. One of the milder comments runs as follows: "It would certainly be praise-worthy and accord.in.g to the spirit of the Instruction if the rigid and almost sacrosanct order of aproaching, the communion rails (Mother Superior, the Assistant, the senior nuns, etc.) were abolished: in con-vents human respect may do more mischief than in men's communi-ties." No doubt, good might come from dropping the order of preced-ence; but I do not shar the great enthusiasm of some writers about its possible good effec.ts. For one thing,1 a large number of otir ~reli-gious are' in small communities, where abstaining from Communion wouldbe noticeable no matter what order or lack of order prevailed, And even as regards larger communities, I wonder how long it would take, after the prescribed order of precedence had been dropped, for the religious to establish their own order. Most. of us are confirmed routinists. Give a community .enough time--and I doubt whether much time would be requ.ired-v-and one would note that the same ones go to Communion first, the same ones go las~, and of course the" same ones are'in the middle. Perhaps I am wrong. But if I am 149 GERALD KELLY .right, then the best precaution is notin the "mechanics" of going Communion, but in the general cultivation of a mental attitude which allows everyone liberty of spirit, both in going to confession and in abstaining from Communion. NATIONAL EQUIVALENTS FOR."I0,000 GOLD FRANCS" According to the announcement of the Congregation of Religious (see p. 150) the official equivalents of l O,O00 gold francs or lire for the principal countries are North and Central America 5,000 American dollars Argentina 100,000 Argentine pesos Belgium 250,000 Belgian francs Brazil 150,000' Cruzeiros Canada 5,000 ~ Canadian dollars Colombia 15,000 Colombian pesos Egypt 2,000 Egyptian pounds France 2,000,000 Franch francs Germany 20,000 German marks Great Britain' 2,000 Pounds sterling India 25,000 Indian rupees Italy 3,000,000 Italian 1ire Netherlands 20,000 Dutch guilders Philippines 15,000 Philippine pesos Portugal 150,000 Portuguese escudos Spain 200,000 Spanish pesetas Switzerland 20,000 Swiss francs Turkey 20,000 Turkish life Uruguay 15,000 Uruguayan pesos Venezuel~ 15,000 Venezuelan bolivars Countries not listed above should take as their norm the value of a neighboring country which is found to be in analogous conditions. :PROCEEDINGS OF CATHOLIC THEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 'At the seventh annual convention of the Catholic Theological Society of Amen'- ca, which was held at Notre Dame, Indiana, 3une 23-25, 1952, the following sub-jects were presented: "On the Essence of the Sacrifice "of the Mass," by Emmanuel Doronzo, O.M,I.; "The Common Good and the Socio-Economic Order," by Ger-ald Kelly, S.3.; "The Problem of Theology for the Laity," by Charles E. Sheedy, C.S:C. : "The Physician's Duty to Preserve Life by Extraordinary Means," by ,John A. Goodwine; and "The Current Protestant Critique of Catholicism in the Umted States," by Msgr. Thomas 3. McCarthy. Copies of the Proceedings are available to clerical non-members at $2.00 per copy. Older from: P. O. Box 24, 3amaica N.Y. 150 The Mys!:ic l Pr yer ot: h' argaret: Mary . A. Herbst, S.3. ST. MARGARET M~RY is one of the great mystics, oi i'fiodern times. On the visions and the revelations she received from Qur Lord is based, historically speaking; Devotion to the Sacred Heart in its modern form. This article will try to illustrate each of the degrees of mystical prayer from her own life and. writings. It should be noted that it is not easy to do this in such a precise manner that the quotation might not also apply to the other degrees. Let me preface a few remarks. ,In the first place, we ought not look askance at, be suspicious of. or afraid of the mystics.There really is nothing wrong with them nor with mysticism.'. Those who are humble and obedient, and keep in touch with their spiritual director need have no fear of becoming_psychopathic or of being deceived by the devil. Secondly, visions, levitation, and the like are merely acci-dental phenomena of the mystical life. They are not at all necessary to a life of infused prayer. Thirdly,, one who has lived a fervent re-ligious life for a.period of years ought to be ready for infused or mys-tical contemplation if God chboses to raise him to it. It is the "logi-cal," but not the necessary, sequence of acquired contemplation. Father Poulain, the author of the well-known work, The Graces of Interior Pra~ler, defines infused contemplation: "Those supe~- natural: acts or states which no effort or labour on our. part can suc-ceed in producing, even in the'slightest degree or for a single inst~lnt, are called mystical." They are.infused, poured into the soul as a pure gift of God, without our being able to attain them by our own efforts. 'This .is higher, ex, traordinary contemplation. We cannot soar to'these heights without the wi,ngs God furnishes. He determines when, how, and for how long it is to be given. It is passive prayer: the soul no longer takes the initiative, but God fastens its attention lovingly onHimselfl The s0ul is not idle though. It is intensely active under the operation of grace. It is a special kind of knowledge of God which lies somewhere between the knowledge of faith and the b~atific vision and shares in faith's obscurity. It really baffles descrip-tion and has in it mysterious suffering and intense happiness. It is an intellectual experimental knowledge of God. 151 C A HERBST Reotew for Rehg~ous St. Margaret Mary describes it: "I felt Him always near me, as one feels himself near another at night but cannot see him because of the darkness. The pdnetrating eyes of love make me see and feel Him in a most loving and certain way, and under various aspects . .This infinite grandeur encompasses me with its power and so takes posses-sion of mine and of my whole body and soul that I think I can say that I no longer have any power over myself." (Letter 1~3.~) The first degree or state of the mystical union is the Prayer of Quiet. Here God takes over the higher faculties of the soul, the will and the understanding, but leaves the imagination and the exterior senses free. Therefore there can be distractions. The soul experiences God's presence and reposes joyously in it, but only f.or very brief pe-riods of time. As an initial stage of this prayer of quiet there is the First Night of the Soul, or Night of Sense. In this the one domi-nating thought or idea of the prayer of simplicity is intensified, there is habitual aridity and a great, anxious y~arning for God. The dis-taste for things of sense grows and God works gently and almost un-noticed on the soul in a special way. A characteristic of this Night is inability to follow set forms of prayer. St. Margaret Mary says: "I did my utmost to follow the method of pray, er and other practices which were taught me, but I was not able to retain anything. It was in vain that I read my points of meditation, for all variished from my mind, and I could neither learn nor retain anything except what my Divine Master taught me." (Autobiography, No. 47.) The second degree of mystical prayer is the Prayer of Full Union. Now God takes over not only the will and the intellect but also the imagination and interior senses. Therefore there are no more dis-tractions. The soul is fully occupied with God. St. Margaret Mary describes it well when she says that God "presented Himself to me in the mystery in which He desired me to consider Him, applied my mind so closely to it, and kept my soul and all my powers so ab-sorbed in Him that I felt no distraction . . . being then so absorbed in prayer that I never felt weary" (Ibid., No, 12). , Any doubts or fears of being deceived are gone now. God's presence is ?xperienced "in a manner so real and sensible as to be beyond all doubt, by reason of the.effects which this favour produced in me, fearful, as I always am, of deceiving myself, in anything that I say of what passes in me" (Ibid., No. 53). .In this degree there is "profound peace, joy, and satis{action" (Letter 133). It is sometimes called the semi-ecstatic union. The exterior senses continue to act and one can, therefore, 152 Ma~ , 1953 PRAYER OF MARGARET MARY though with great effort, cease from prayer. Th third state of infused contemplation is the Ecstatic Union or Spiritual Espousals. Now not only the interior faculties are absorbed in God but the activity even of the exterior senses is suspended. .The whole person, body and soul, is taken over by God. The body be-comes fixed and rigid as though dead. ,Communication with the ex-terior world is all but severed. The power of voluntary movement ¯ is gone. One cannot emerge from this state at will, but only when God determines or at the command of a superior. Since St. Margaret Mary was a great ecstatic, she can describe this state for us. "I felt myself wholly penetrated with the Divine Pres-ence, but to such a degree that I lost all thought of myself and of the place where I was, and abandoned myself to this Divine Spirit, yielding up my heart to the power of His love" (Ai~tobiography, No. 53). "On orie occasion . . . feeling wholly withdrawn within myself by an extraordinary recollection of all my senses and powers, Jesus Christ, my sweet Master, presented Himself to me" (Ibid,, No. 55). "After such a signal favour which lasted for a long time, I remained for several days,.as it were, on fire and inebriated (with divine love) and so completely out of myself, that I had to do my-self violence in order to utter a single word" (Ibid., No. 54). "I lost all cor;sciousness during that time and I no longer knew where I was. When they came to withdraw me, seeing that I could make no reply, nor even stand except with great difficulty, they led me to Out Mother. On seeing me thus, as it were, completely beside myself, all burning and trembling on my knees before her, she mortified me to the utmost of her power, which pleased me and filled me with incred-ible joy" (Ibid., No. 58). Let it be remarked that the Pray.er of Quiet, the Prayer of Full Union, and the Prayer of Ecstatic Union are but three degrees of the specifically same grace of supernatural prayer. In the Prayer of Quiet the .union is incomplete, weak, doubted, obscure. Inthe Prayer of Full Union there are no distractions and the whole interior is taken up with God. In the Prayer of Ecstatic Union even the exterior man, the senses, are captured and absorbed in God. These are three degrees of infused contemplation: weak, medium, energetic. The transitions b.~tween them are imperceptible, much like the colors in the rainbow. It is different with the fourth and highest degree of infused prayer, the Transforming Union or Mystical Marriage. This differs 153 C. A. HERBST Reoieto for Religious specifically, not merely intensively, from the other three. Before entering it the soul must go through the Second Night, or the Night of the Spirit. ' Since mystical marriage is permanent whereas the th~ree preceding stages are transient, thesoul must be profoundly and ~adi- . tally purified from all its habitual, and actual imperfections. The poor, weak soul is dazed and pained by the bright light of God much ag the eyes of the body are by looking into the sun. Green wood must be dried out and blackened by fire before it itself will become inflamed. The sufferings of this Night are terrible. St. Margaret Mary says: "His sanctity is in~xorabl~, and it seems to me there is no suffering more exquisite than that through which He makes a soul pass when'He wants to purify it in order'to corn-, muica.te'Himself to it" (Letter 132). Yet the soul is not disturbed and is perfectly conformed to God's will. ""Yet I suffer all this with perfect serenity, content to cling to His holy will. If only He is con-tent I am satisfied" (Letter 135). The mind and will, the whole soul, even the body, is in anguish. "My whole being, body and soul, is plunged jn suffering., desiring only what is pleasing to my Sovereign Who is sacrificing me, before Whom I am a sighing victim immolated to divine justice" (lbid). But the soul has a great Sense of security. "I sometimes think that all hell is let loose against me to annihilate me, so fiercely am I attacked on all sides. But I am not afraid, deeply intrenched as I am within my strong fortress which is the divine Heart of my divine Master" (Letter 136). The soul is strong, too, and all aflame with the love of the Divine Spouse. But to return to the Transforming Union. Being a mystical marriage, it is most intimate. "I felt myself .wholly penetrated w~th that Divine Presence, but to such a degree that I 'lost all thought of myself and of the piace where I"was, and abandoned myself to this , Divine Spirit, yielding up my heart to the power of His love. Her made me repose for a long time upon His Sacred ~Breast, where He' disclosed to me the marvels of His love and tbe inexplicable secrets of His Sacred Heart, which so far He had concealed from me." (Auto-, bioqrapby, No. 67). The soul is serene in its perfect enjoyment of, God. "My heart is so centered there that it finds repose only if it can enjo, y Him continually: [ was made just for that" (Letter 133). .And, like marriage, this union is indissolul~ie. "And when you com-mit some fault, I shall purge it away with suffering if you do not do 'it yourself with penance. I shall never.deprive you of My presence on that account, but I will make it so painful for you that it will, M~, 1953 take the place of every other torment" (Ibid.). These are the char-acteristics which put thi~ highest degree of infused contemplation in a class by itself. Habitual imaginative visions of Christ may occur in this state. St. Margaret Mary narrates one. "Feeling wholly withdrawn within myself by an extraordinary recollection of all my senses and powers, Jesus Christ, my sweet Master. presented Himself to me. all resplend-ent with glory, His Five 'Wounds shining like so many suns. Flames issued from every part of His Sacred Humanity especially from His Adorable Bosom. which resembled an open furnace and disclosed to me His most loving and most amiable Hefirt, which was the living . source of these flames. It was then that He made known to me the ineffable marvels of His pure (love) and sho(ved me to what an ex-cess He had loved men." (Autobiographg, No. 55.) Visions'of the Blessed Tr.inity are in place here, too. "The Three Persons of the Adorable Trinity presented themselves to me and filled my soul'with inexpressible'consolation. But I cannot well explain what then occurred, except that it seemed to me the Eternal Father presented, me with a very heavy cross beset with thorns and sur-' rounded with various instruments of the Passion and said to me: 'See, My daughter, I make thee the same present which I made to My Beloved Son.' 'And I,' said Our Lord Jesus Christ, 'will fasten thee to the crbss as I Myself was fastened to it and will bear thee faithful company.' The Third Adorable Person then said that, being Love Itself. He would purify and consume me thereon. My soul was filled with unutterable peace and joy, and the impression made upon it by the Divine Persons has never been effaced." (Ibid., No. 59.) This highest form of prayer here on earth brings with it an in-satiable thirst for suffering. St. Margaret Mary had this, too. "I will only sa~; that it has given me such an intense love of the cross that I cannot .live a moment without suffering, but suffering in si-lence, without consolation, alleviation or compassion, and in fine dying with the Sovereign of my soul, overwhelmed .by the cross of every kind of opprobrium, of sorrow and of humiliation, forgotten and despised by all." (Ibid., No. 50.) To sum up. After purifying the soul b~r habitual aridity and an anxious yearning for ,God in the Night of Sense, God takes over the highest part and makes it repose joyously' in Himself in the Prayer of Quiet. In Full Union the imagination and interior senses are also 155 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS l~eotew ~or l~eltgtous taken so that ~here are no more distractions and the soul is fully oc-cupied qcith Him. In E.cstatic, Uriion the outer senses, too, are wrapt in God, and the whole person, body and soul, is united with Him Finally comes the indissoluble bond of Mystical Marriage, in wh,ch the soul enjoys the mbst intimate union with God possible in this life, a foretaste of the beatific vision. II In an institute in which the. novitiateiasts for two years~ may the first profession be made on the recurring date (two years later) of admission to the novitiate, or must it be postponed for an additional ,day7 For example, a novice is admitted to the novitiate on August 15, 19S3. May he /hake his profession on Au~cjust IS, 19SS, or must he wait till August 16, 19S57 I understand that if there were question of a one-year novlt[ate, profession could not be made till the lapse of one year plus one day. If the same rule does ;not hold in the case "of the two-year novitiate mentioned above, what is the reason for the discrepancy7 A general rule is that the provi.gions of the constitutions are to be observed. Sometimes a provision touches upon the validity of an action. If the constitutions explicitly require two complete years of now-tiate for t~alidit~, then such provisiqn 'would have to be observed for the validity of subsequent profession. In that case, if the novitiate is begun on August 15, 1953, first vows could not be taken until Au-gust 16, 1955. The reason is that entrance to the novitiate is not made at midnight. Consequently, according to canon 34, § 3, 3% since the day of entrance is not counted, the two years of novitiate .would be completed (provided there had been~no canonical inter-ru]~ tion nor suspension of the novitiate) only at midnight between August 15 and 16, 1955. Hence first vows could not be taken until the day following the anniversary date of entrance to the novitiate. Aside from such particular law, the common law as expressed m canon 555, § 1, 2° of the Code, requires only one complete, unin-terrupted year of novitiate for validity. ,Just as in the supposition above, first profession therefore cannot be made onthe anniversary of entrance to the novitiate, but the novice midst wait until the follow-ing day, under pain of an invalid profession. 156 Ma~, 1953 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS If the constitutions of an in~stitute prescribe more than one year of novitiate, the extra time is notrequired for the validity of the pro-fession, unless the constitutions expressly declare otherwise (canon 555, § 2). The added time (in Our case, one year) would be for licitness but not for validity of subsequent profession. Custom and superidrs then would' be the best interpreters of the requirements of the constitutions on the point of whether first profession is to be made on the recurring second anniversary of entrance to the novitiate or not until the following day. In either event in this last supposi-tiom neither ~ractice would affect the validity of the profession. This explains why first profession after a two-yea,r novitiate often'might be made on the anniversary of reception into the noviti-ate, while it cannot be made thus after a one-year novitiate. --12m Some religious are of the ol~inlon that certain community prayers, such as the rosary, meditation, and the like, are to be interrupted to say the Angelus as soon as the Angelus bell is rung. Must this be done, or would not the mere recitation of the Angelus prayers three times a day suffice to gain the indulgences? The 1952 edition of the official collection of indulgences, the Enchicidion Indulgentiarum: Preces et Pia Opera, states that the faithful may gain the indulgepces attached to the .recitation of 'the Angelus if 'they recite the prayers at dawn, at noo~n, anal at eventide, or" as soon after these times as they can (no. 331). It is not necessary to~interrupt the rosary, meditation, and the like, in order to say the Angelus as soon as the bell is rung. Is it proper to seat the st,',dents at Mass according to whether they will receive Holy Communion or not? It has been the practice to designate certain sections for those who are going to. Holy Communion and other sections for those who are not. Thereason for such procedure is to obtain order. In its reserved Instruction on precautions to be taken against abuses in the daily reception of Holy Communion (the complete English text is in the Canon Law Digest, .II, pages 208-215), the Sacre~d Congregation of the Sacraments in 1938 remarked that "the danger ofreceiving Communion unworthily.is increased when the faithful, especially the young, approach the Holy Table; not singly but generally and in a body a.s. .happens.frequently 157 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reuteto [or 'Rehgto,,s in colleges and institutions for the training and education of Chris-tian youth." (Canon Law Digest, II. 209). Again, "When Holy Communion is being received, all those things are to be avoided which create greater difficulty for a young person who wishes to abstain from Holy Communion, but in such a way that his absti-nence will not be noticed: hence there should be no express invita-tion, no rigid and quasi-military order in coming.up, no insignia to be worn by those who'receive Communi6n, etc." (ibid., 214). The observance of order is, of course, a worthy motive. How-ever, the purpose of the Sacred Congregation, as manifested in its Instruction, is to safeguard the worthy reception of Holy Commun-ion by discouraging anything which would make communicants con-spicuous. Seating communicants in a special place makes them con-spicuous. ml4-- "The Mother General holds the first place in all the houses of the Community. Then follow the Members of the Council in the order of their election; ~hen the Secretary General, unless she is a member of the Coun-cil, and the Adminlstratrix General, in the Motherhouse: in other houses these latter take their rank after the Superior ,of the house." What is meant by these latter? Does it refer to the last two Offices mentioned, or does it refer to the Council Members also? Ira Council Member visits one of the houses where the Sisters are stationed, does she take .precedence over th'e Local Superior who is only an appointed person while the Council 'l~lember was elected? In part canon 106 says that: 1. One who represents another enjoys the precedence that per.son has. But anyone who is in a council or similar me~ting as a proxy yields precedence to those of thesame rank wh~ are personally present. , 2. A person who has authority over other physical or moral persons has right of precedence over them. These are general norms. The highest superior of the institute, therefore, always and everywhere has precedence over all his subjects If someone represents him, that person likewise enjoys the precedence of the superior represented. Provincial and local superiors have pre-cedence in their territory or houses, unless a higher superior or h~s proxy is present. In regard to other officials, there is great divergence among different religious,institutes. "In ~ach case the constitutions or else legitimate custom will have to be considered. 158 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS In our specific case, the general councillors are being considered in their proper role, and not as proxies. Do the constitutions give them precedence over local superiors in the latters' houses?' It is not clear that.they do, since the ouestioned words these latter might be inter-preted as ~ivin~ or denying such precedence. (As a matter of fact, in some institutes b~r a clear provision of the constitutions general coun-cillors have such precedence, especially in more recent congregations; in others they do, not.) Since the constitutions do not seem t6 settle the matter clearly, the solution would be sought in legitimate cus-. tom, which in this case~ would mean the way in which the,disputed phrase of the constitutions has been habitually interpreted, If 'no such consistent interpretation exists, it seems that the" words these latter refer to the secretary general and theadministratrix general, so that councillors general would take precgdence over local superiors even in the farters' own hoi~ses. ! Is it absolutely necessary that the entlre'concjrecjatlon turn and face each station of the cross in order to obtain all of the indulcjences attached to that pious exercise? Ordinarily a person making the stations of the cross must movg from station to station ai part of the requirement for gaining the in-dulgences attached to that exercise. When t.here is question of a large group of people, however, confusion or disorder might result from so many moving about. The Sacred Congregation of Indulgences on August 6, 1757, decided that in that case the method proposed by St. Leonard of Port Mafirice for making the stations is to be used. According to this method the people remain'in their places, while a priest.with two acoly'tes moves from station to station, stopping ~it each to recite the customary prayers to which the faithful reply. This decree was reaffirmed in a response from the Sacred Penitentiary, March 20, 1946.(A.A.S., XXXVHI [1946], 160). In connection with the foregoi.ng method of making the stations, the Subsecretary for the Section on Indulgences in the Sacred Peni-tentiary, Serafino de Angelis, in his book De lndulgentiis (1946): n. 341 b, remarks that the' people are to be advised, while remaining in their places, to face each station, rise, genuflect, and recite the pray-ers. From this one would conclude that, when the way of the cross is being made according to the method of St. Leonard of Port Mau-rice, it is not absolutely necessary for the.entire congregation to face each station in order to gain thedndulgences. 159 . QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS The use o~ St. Leonard's method has b~en extended by several official pronouncements (one of these: the reply of the Sacred Peni-tentiary mentioned above) to the members of religious institutes in like circumstances in their chapels. In such circumstances only'one religious, man or woman as the case may be, moves from station to station. By its response of March '20, 1946, the Sacred Peniten-tiary recognized this method also for use in boarding schools and the Will you kindly tell me how many votes constitute an "absolute major-ity" in a house of thirteen vocals7 Also how many votes constitute a "rda-tlve majority" in the same house? When there are thirteen valid votes, seven of them constitute an absolute majority, since such a majority is effected by any number exceeding one half the number of valid votes. A relative majority is had by a candidate who receives more vahd votes than any other candidate, but less than all the others taken to-gether. Thus in our case if three'candidates received respectively six, four, and three votes, the candidate with the six votes would have a relative majority over the other two candidates. What five scapulars comprise thefivefold scapular? The following scapulars are popularly known as the "fivefold scapular" or the "five scapulars." 1) The brown scapular of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel: proper to the Carmehtes, the best known of all the scapulars. 2) The wfiite scapular (with a blue and red cross) of the Most Holy Trinity: proper to the order of Trinitarians. 3) The red scapular of the Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ: pr6per to the Congregation of the Mission (Lazarists) 4) The black scapular of the Seven Dolors of the Blessed Virgin Mary: proper to the order of the Servites of Mary. 5) The blue scapular of the Immaculat~ Conception: proper to the order of Cler,cs Regular (Theatines). HOSPITAL CONFESSION CARD A plastic-coated Confessio'n Card for the sick, with prayers before and after ,I confession, has been designed by the Rev. Thomas Sullivan, C.S.V., chaplain of St. Luke's Hospital, Aberdeen, South Dakota. It is similar in size and design to the Communion Card (REVIEW, Sept., 1952, p." 248) by the same author, now m use in more than 250 hospitals. Both cards bear the i.mprimatur of Bishop liam O. Brady of Sioux Falls. Each sells at 20 cents and may be ordered from the Presentation Sisters, Aberdeen, South Dakota. 160 Book "Reviews THE SACRED CANONS. By John A. Abbo, S.T.L., J.C.D., and Jerome D. Hannan, A.M., LL.B., S.T.D., J.C.D. Pages in Volumes: I, xxll -k 871~ II, 936. B. Herder Book Company, Sf. Louis, 19S2. Two-volume set, $19.00. "Amon~ other objectives, the work, was begun to answer in some degreeothe spontaneous demand for a better knowledge of ecclesiastical law that has arisen in English-speaking countries among religious who are not clerics and among laymen, especially in the professions.'.' It is from this standpoint that this book is reviewed. After a brief his-torical introdtictioh the learned authors give a statement of the law as contained in the canons of the Code, together with a running commentary. The order of treatment and the division~ of the work are identical with that of the Latin Code, and the numbers of the canons are used instead of paragraph numbers. In the distribution of the matter the authors have made their book especially .useful to non-clerical religious and to the laity. Of the 1800 pages of text con-rained in the two volumes, over 1500 are devoted to the commentary on the three first books of the Code of Canon Law, whereas books four and five of the Code, which are of lesser interest to non-clerical readers~ are taken care of in little more than one hundred pages. Of particular importance is the treatment given tothe seven sac-rament~, which is usually omitted in whole or in part in treatises on Canon Law and transferred to the writers on Moral Theology. 209 pages are devoted to the canons dealing with "Religious" and will" be of great use for religious Brothers and Sisters. All the latest decrees of the Holy See are reported, and there are numerous references to American civil law/especially in the titles concerning church property, An index with over 4500 references, which makes it easy for the reader to find any particular subject, concludes the work. The publisl~ers plan "to keep this commentary up to date by adding, at each reprinting, a supplement containing decisions of the Holy See issued subsequent to the first edition, and these will be available' to purchasers of earlier printings at a nominal cost. The only defect in the book is the lack of a table of contents. While the clerical reader~ will easily follow the canon numbers with which he is familiar from the Latin Code, ,the non-clerical reader has no way of getting a bird's-.eye view of the entire field in order to b~- 161 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ' Re~Jieto fbr Religiou~ come acquainted with it, so that he may choose certain parts for reading and study. Su~ch a table of contents should be added to the next printing, and copies made available to all purchasers of this first edition. , We recommend this book to all religious---especially to religious Brothers and Sisters who will find it a great help in solving personal problems as religious, as well as a source of information in preparing classes in. religion and church history. Not only higher superiors, but every religious communify should have a copy of it. --ADAM C. ELLIS, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS [For the most part. these notices are purely descriptive, based on a cursory examina-tion of the books listed.] BENZIGER BROTHERS, INC., 6-8 Barclay St., NewYork 8, N.Y. The Burning Flame. By Francis Beauchesne Thornton. The story of Guiseppe Sarto, the peasant boy who became the saintly Pope Plus X, told in popular style by Father Thornton, an associate editor of the Catholic Digest. " Pp. 216. $3.00. BRUCE PUBLISHING CO., 400 N. Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisc Dear 8istec. By Catherine de Hueck, Brief letters to help Sisters train lay leaders. PI~. 80. $2.00. BIBLIOTHEQUE DU SCHOLASTICAT, L'Immacul&-Conception, 1855,, rue Rachel Est, Montreal .34, Canada. La Virginitd Chrdtienne. ~ By Francois Bourassa, S.J. A full treatment of the subject of Christian virginity, showing its oppor-tunities for full ahd harm6nious development of persgnal perfection. Pp. 174. $1.25. CATECHETICAL GUILD, St. Paul 1; Minnesota. Pocket book editions of You Can Change the Worl

Issue 3.5 of the Review for Religious, 1944. ; Review :for Religious SEPTEMBI~R 15, 1944 Forestalling Pains of Purgatory . Clarence McAu]|ffe. A#ostolate of the Cross . Robert S. Bten ¯ Sanity and Sa ,nctity . G. Augu, sfine Ellard ~Bur~s~r General of Religious Institute . Adam C. Ellis. ~ Are You Sbrry for Your Sins? . Gerald Kelly~ I~ooks Receiged Communlca÷ions Questions Answered~ D~ci~ions of the Hbly See NUMBER-5 " REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ~ VOI£.UME III ;EPTEMBER 15, 1944 NUMBER CONTENTS FORESTALLING THE PAINS OF PURGATORY-- Clarence McAulit~e, S. 3 .-. ~. 289 BOOKS RECEIVED ',. " 296 THE APOSTOLATE OF THE CROSS Robert B. Eiten, S.J. 297 DECISIONS OF THE HOLY S~E OF INTEREST TO RELIGIDUS366 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 306 SANITY AND SANCTITY--G. Augustine Ellard, S.J . 307 BOOKLETS ON VOCATIONS . 325 COMMUNICATIONS (On Retreats) . , . 326- THE'. BURSAR GENERAL OF A RELIGIOUS INSTITUTEm Ndam C. Ellis, S.J . 329 , ARE YOU SORRY FOR,,YOUR SINS? Gerald Kelly, S.3 ~.3.3.5. BOOKLETS . 348 BOOK REVIEWS (Edited by Clement DeMuth, S.J.)-- St. Dominic and His Work: Father Tim; The General Who Rebuilt the Jesuits; My Father's Will; A Key to Happiness; The Eternal Priesthood; An ~Introduction to Philosophy; JummariUm Theologiae Moralis ~. 349 QUESTIONS AND ANSW'ERSm 30. Entrance into Novitiate after lapse from Faith .". 357 31. Meaning of "Patrimony" . . 357 32. Excommunicated Persons and Sunday Mass . 35~ 33. Asking Pardon after an Offense . 359' *" 34. Quality of Benediction Candles . 360 35. Position of Candles and Flowers on Altar . 360~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1944. Vol. III, No. 5. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.3., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kel!y, S.3. Copy?ight~ 1944, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotation.s of reas, onable length,: provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U.S.A. Before writing ,to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. '-~i'~Y GIVING the rock a double strike in order to'prodh(e, v;'ater for the Israelites._'(Numbers 20:11, !2), Moses '~ ~oPAINS OF PURG.~TORY "~" :~. .~, "~Granted these cioOnn d.i.t S, .how~ can e levee ,lm " un- -t~.in21of ~emporaLlSunishment thai: ~asts ,its shado.w upon.,, our lives? First of all, by indulgences. These favors granted ~-" by~.~he-Church aim directly at'the deletion of temporMpuia ishment. A ~in~le ple.nary in.d, ulgence, gained by one who . has,had all his venial sins forgiven, annihilates ,at once eirery ~.-, l~it'of this punishment, r~gar~lless of the ~iumber or grav{ty "of his past offenses. As ~as-pointed out by, Father-Thomas A."~O'.Connbi; ~S.J:, in this RI~VIEW (November, 1942,. ":PP" 3-82~389)~dvery religious ~and priest may: easily gain five such plenary in~dulgen~es every day, ~6qcever, even ~if we n~eglect these opportunities, we. 'very likely ~gain~,~ucfi ~pl~nary indu~.gences perio~dically during the year, for in-~ stance, a~ yhe. c0nclusion.0f our annual retreat and, during .the, Forty Hours. If some past venial sin still lingers on o~r soul so ~;that the. plenary indulgence cannot produce its full eit'ect~, it nevertheless remits a part o,f our t~mporal punish-ment. . Besides plenary indulgences, all of us gain many paifial one~; especi~alfy by~ use. of aspiratiofis. These. accord.i.ng to ;their-designated value may i~emove hs mu~h temporal p.u~n-i~ shrrient as was taken away by fifty dr a hundred or five "hundred days of rigorous canonical pen.ance in the early ChurcH'.° When we reflect h6w, severethese penances:w~ere,. ' W~ must admitthat an indulgence, even of fifty days, must :' make,deVastating inroads on our sinful debt. But indulgences are not the. only-means~at our disposal. t~v~ry _fime.~ tha~t'we approach "the Sacrament'of Pen ask .God., fo~? many other ~pirittial bles,~ings: in i]Sra.y~ers. In the same+ way we may ask this fiivor+and it ;will be'granted. -- ~Finally, we should remember that ~ome other living d> person may be offering satisfaction for us'and so b~ reducing ~" our t~emporal punishment. I~ is impossible, of course; for_. Other p~ople t6 apply their indulgences for us. It is also impossible, for them to transfer to Us the au~om~tic.r~emoval .of tempora! punishment proceeding from their assistance at ~Ma~ss; their;reception of the Sacraments of Penanc.e, and Of Extreme Unction.~ But they may give us the satisfactory ~ 'valge _of their unsough'~ suffe_ring~, of" their "prayers, fasting; almsde~ds and Other Works of piety,", and of all theit other good a~tions,of each day~ We on our part can ~\i-'~e~r~Srm.an act of charity by surrendering the Value ~f so.me of Our own satisfactory works for the °benefit of others.~" " Faced by such an array Of evidence,_, we must co~ncludi~- Ythat.it is quite possible for any ~onsdcrated' .person to die ¯ with all .temporal punish~ment for past' forgiven sins removed. ' In fadt~, it is highlyprobable that many religious' ~do ~o die. It is even likely, that many religious contribute generously-to the~ spiritual treasury of the Church by ~ acquiring much 'more expiatory wealth thin they them: o selves need. These thoughts should non-induce;any remiss-ne~ ss on ou~r-part in ou'r efforts, to gain such wealth, since we do nbt know precisely the size of our sinful.debt. In addi-~ ~. tion, every one of the satisfactory works mentioried also has a-nieritorious aspect, s~o that their perfo~rmance necks_-." sar~ily results-in a greater degree of glory in heaven. Ma,y we then say that rn'ost~ consecrated .persons nearer dday in purgatory at all? Not necessarily. The ~videhce~. ,adduced in this article sirhp!y indicates that Such persons; ;~can escape purgatory.as far as their temp.oral debt for past -~ _ 295 CLARENCE MC ULIFFE °~ ~ forgiven iins is conc~rned~ -But.pu'rgatory. may;open.its doors on ariother score. We may. have on our souls a~ i:leath;~ .many venial sins. ~hat have never been-forgivdn. Sii~cetheir ~uilt yet remain's, tiaeir temporabtSuni'shment will havei6 be,undergone in purgatory,, because temporal punishment may.never be, ex.piated previous to the remission of guilt. N~vertheless, solid evidence could be adduced to prove that ~religious can die° with every t~ace, of sinffil guilt rembved so. that they would enter with6ut any delay into the of heaven. ¯Book~ Received (From dune ZO to August~ 20) B. HERDER BOOK CO. St. LoUis. T~d Philosopht, l of-St. Thomas Aquinas. By Hans Meyer. T~anslated ~b th~ Reverend Frederic Eckhoff. $5.00. The Ascetical Life. ~By the R~,erefid ~ Pascal P. Parents, S.T.D., Ph. D., J.C.B. $2.50. The ,8ouls. By the Reverend Wendelin Meyer. O.F.M. ~nd Others. Translated~by ~he Reverend Andrew Green. O.S.B. $3.00. =Deaconship: Conferences~. on ihe, Rite o~ Ordination. By the Reverend Aloysius Biskupek, S.V.D. $°2.50. Molders of the Medieval Mind: The Influence of the Fathers of the Church ~on the Medieval Schoolmen. By the Reverend Frank P. Cassidy, Ph.D. $2.00., THE- BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee. ¯ A ~,Vorld to Reconstruct:-Plus XII on Peace and Reconstruction. By Guido Gbnella. Translated-by the Reverend T. Lincoln Bouscaren, S;2. ,under the ¯ ausI~ices of The Bishops' Committee on the Pope's Peace Poifits.~ $3.50. ~ The General Who Rebuilt the desuits. By the Reverend Robert G.- North.: S.d. $3.00. THE NEWMAN BOOKSHOP,,Westminster, Md. Humiliql of Headt. By Ft. Cajetan Mary da Ber'gamo, O.F.M.~ap. Translated by Herbert Cardinal Vaughan. $2.50. " Abridgment o~ the Interior Spirit "o~ tb~ Religious of the Visitation of Hol~l Maql. Explained by Saint F~rancis de Sales. Revised translation from the French Edition of 1914. ~ $1.25~ THE MARlST BROTHERS. St. Ann's Hermitage, Pougbkeepi~e, N. Y. "Oar Lafly's Praise. (In poetry'). Compiled by Brother cyril Robert of,the' Marist Brothers of the Schools. $2.25 . _ THE ABBEY PRESS, St. Meinrad, Ind. ~,~Do 1 Reall~l Believe?: Meditations' 6n the Apostles" Creed. By the Re~'erend Henri Lebon. S.M. T~anslated by the Rever'end~Peter Resch, S.M. $2.25. FIELD AFAR PRESS. New York. Mar~kn611 Mi~'aion'L~tters: Volume 1. 1944. $.50. " . , 296 " " heApos :o!h e of Cross Robert B. Eiten, S.J. C~UFFERIN~'andthe cross are bard for all of us. ~ pine u~nder their weight. ~vre are constantly forced to seek ne~w and striking motives for bearing them. ~t : one ,time perhaps the motive of self-preservation or , " "keeping spiritually-fit" made a ~trong appeal t0~us. Agair~ ~we might have turned our eyes to the p?~st and" seen -° ~p.~rso.nal.siffs.~ Right order demanded that these sins. be ~-~ expiated; hence the motive of expiation for our person.ai mental,health is a matter 0f~'developi.ng rational habit~. o- Given~sani_ty and grace, spiritual perfection depe.nds upon '- ~-buiiding up supernatural habits. ,° -. ¯ Analgsi~ of the Irrational Of both'health of mind and ascetical perfection the dbadly enemy is unreason, or better, irrational emotion. .What St. Augustine writes of sin is true ,also of every ,unsound habit. "It is not wrong to say thaLevery sin i's a falsehood. For eve.ry sin is commited only.with the inten- ~ fion that it sh6uld-be well'with us, or that it Should not be evil with ~s. Therefore there is the falsehood that, although . so.methingfis" done that it may b~e well -g-ith us, it is ~hence , really rather evil with us, or that, although something is done that it m~iy be better with us, it is thence ~eally rather worse with u.s" (De CiuitateDe/. xIV, 4).ludas's experi-ence, partkularly his disappointment with the thirty p.iedei -6f silver;, is a good illustration. Accordingly, in "every unwholesome habit, as well as in every sin, there is a cer-" taih sel~-contradiction', ~elf-deception, and self-frustra'tio~. One seeks satisfaction and gets d~ssatisfaction, or at least if /he doesget a certain satisfaction, he also. suffers a greater ~ dissatisfaction. He looks for the truth and finds an. untruth : he'inten~ls good and brings evil upon himself: 'What :is fals~ can be accepted only under the guise bf truth, andevil . .-can-be willed 0nly under the fallacious appearance .of g_oo.d. Bgth in unhe~ilthy and in sinful habits two esi~ntial ,,.elements are discernible: a false judgment,, giving diiec.tibn, and an emotional force, fundamentally go_od., but mis-directed, an_d" moving to action: If there were no erroneous judgment, one would b~ acting ~in accordance ~with trfith ~nd goodness, and hei~ce rightly. If there were no emotion, there would not be any action at all. It is as if a business::" 309 man invested money to make a profit and sustained aloss~_ or astir a sick man meant to t~ke a medicine and ~drank a~ poison. .Thus the scrupulous man seeks to please God anff by his irrational behavior does what is objdctively dis-: pleasing to Him,~ of~he strives.to make his salutation mdfe' secure and~ at the, same time by-his wrongheadedness really' renders it less certain, or he tries to fulfill the tiniest jot and -~tittle, of tl~e.l"aw and violates the fundamenfal principle~o~f la~ that one should 15e sane and rational. Mor~eover, in both~ the psychical and ethi~a,1, spheres it is mogtly t~he same-emotional forces that ~ause'the trouble: namely, the ego-instinct orpride, the sexual urge, fear, and sadness.° "- ~ _. Fivg Wags of~ Meeting Problems Functional psychic- disorders commonly originate conflict with 0some.~u._nplea~sant reality Which frustrates' br .threatens tO frustrate_~one in s6me way. There are eraL possibilities. "Some m~ke the right and in ouk,case; it would b~e the ~religious Yeaction: they face the ,facts -squarely, . see what is to be doneabout them, and then d0it promptly and courageously. Other are not so happy. Some "take to flight. A soldier who is afraid to. fight and also to °admit it, conveniently becomes blind or paralyzed, and is excused; thus he saves both himself and the respett in which. he is held by himself and others. Another man withdrav~s into a dream-w0rld of his own creation. A third over-" ~whelms himself with external distractions: A third group ~ of people [ightltheir dit~iculty, but not in the normal way. ¯ , A man who is overtimid before other men, intimidates a~d browbeats his family, and~thus compensates. An indication . of this t~endency in human nature is observable in the fact that oftentimes the ,less one's authority, the greater.~.the show. that one makes of it. ~A'ma;a who is fearful of his ° ability to rCsist the attractions of women, may. carefully 310 ~ September)' 1944 ~ ~" , ,~ .9 ,SANITY AND SANCTITY -cultivate a dislil~e and ~ontempt for ~ll the fairer h~lf"of the "~hUman r~c~e, and never miss a chance to disparage them. A ~po~ential drunkard may become a rabid teetotalist.'- wh~o tAri efso utor tshe rcvlea stsw oof m paesrtseorns,s c, olrinkper othmeis em wain.~ ihnt htehier ~G doisffpie:l .~ulty. -An ambitious young priest sets out t~make. tinguished career for himself;~dne~that is rather high for limitations. ° Gradually he yields before great flifficulfies. But he doe.s.not give up hi'aim nor,the ~atisfaction that the - thbught of it brings. He concentrates attention ~on all the \~obst~iCii~s in his way, exaggerates them, perhaps adds a few. ~'of his own niaking; and finally reaches the c6mf6rting~ on-clusion that, alth6ugh now he cannot.reach that goal arid thus show his worth, still, if it were not for all those unfor-ti~ nate circumstances, he could have distinguishdd himself. His s~If-'safisfaction~, is saved. The fifth group simply ~ive up in defeat. Then they may fret ii~way t~heir lives in worry 6r anxiety or sink into the dark depths 'of melan- _~choly and despair.- ' The Influence of Habits With organic psychoses and neuroses, that~is, major and minor mental diseases due, foi instance, to an injured '~.o~'dition of the brain, we are 'not at all concerned in. this ilrticle. Functional psychoses and neuroses have rio demonstrable organic basis. It seems to,~be ciuite" true--all .preventive measures and hopes rest largely upon-this pr, em- ~i~e.--A-~tha~ many persons who have c_ontracted these f.unc-tion~ al disorders could have avoided them if they had intelli . gentler and earnestly disciplined their habits.of thinkihg ~ and f~dling, or, in other words, if they had striven to see and e~valuate'things as they_ are and to modem.te their emotiofis accordingly. But they did not; ;ind the cumulative~effect of .lon~-continued carelessness and drifting leaves~ them m_ore "~ -~3. AUGUSTIN~ ELLARD* -or Iess d~ranged. Reoieu) for~Reli~iqus.; There is nobody .who_ is pe)fectly :n6r- , mal, th~ abnormals being like the rest of us, only mor~ So. ¯ Every_one ha~ some habit or. 6ther which he wou~Id, do wel, I to coriect, both for the health of "' his soul. "No excellent soulis exempt from some admix-f~ lure of madness" (Aristotle). It is with these habits that ~-tBis article is ~oncerned, not with those of persons who are. ~ _ al_ready neurotics or woi~se. Extroversisn anal Introversion Before we discuss'particular l~abits,it may be well:oto °notice two general tendencies of attenti0.n and interest, which, if carried too" far, can become very harmful both to personality and to-the spiritual life, namely, extroversion :and introversion. Extroversion, an inclination:to occup~,, "~neself with what is outside of oneself, may lead to ignor ance of self, thoughtlessness, shallowness of character,: and ~a n~glect of all the greate'r and better things. It is naturally apt to end in that excessive giving of oneself to externals which is a'special failing of ma.ny m6dern religious priests and-is so 6ften #ep~)ecated now by ascetical writers. It is contrary i_n tendency to all-that the interior fire'implies. .RecolleCtion would be reduced to a .point approaching zero. Turning to external things is a favorite means of esc.ape frbm the unRleasantn~ss of living with ~3ne's own imperfedt self and from the goadings of grace when on~ is not on the~ best of speaking terms with God. A~y"religious who is so Vehemently and incessantly busy talking o~ working exter-~- nally°tbat he can hardly think of anything else, would "illustrate v(rhat is meant by the extroverted pers6nality. Extreme extroversion as seen in certain demented persons is often termeffa "flight into reality.-" Introversion, a propensity to keep the ~nind turned - inwa'rd upon itself,-involves the dangers c;f-morbid intro 3 12 ~ ~sp~cfion and0f ge~fing to0 far away from-~rhe "real wo~ld.1 ::Th~ Jn~rover~ may be¢6me ~bsorbed or even lost Jn ~labyrJn~h 0f ~is ow~ ~hou~h~s, fe~1~ngs,. ~nd fa~cJ~s. ~He ~s more apt ~o be brooding, m~dy, and anx~0us: Morally, " be ~S ~n grea~er danger ~f being too self-centered, a~d of'all. ~e.evts ~ha~ go wi~h ~ha~ m~d~fion. He ~ends ~o become unfi~ m l~ve ahd, work w~h o~hers. ~he worst form Jn~r6v~rsJon Js exemplified by ~ose pafiems Jn asylums ;~o~ completely w~dr~w Jn mind from all external reM~ Jry. The Jn~e~rare~ person, ~nd ~be good relJ~Jou~ will Cs~ve r~ S~rJke a ha~py balance ~b~ween extroversion and Unwholesome Intellectual Habits '. ~Am~ng particular bad habits that-call for. discipline, as the psychologi~ would say, or for m0rt~cation, to u£i ~. the ascetical term, the ~oll0wing may. be instanLedf Those . ]in_which self-deception seems more prominent ,will be con 3jdered first, and then those in which the emotional element " has a certain predominance, Of the many ways described ]-by psychoJogist~ in wIich'people deceive, themselves, these'-- ~-~ five seem to be the most significant for our pu~ose. , ~ ~ -: Since sanity consists in contact with reality, it is evident" , thht:~vasion of unpleasant tr~ths is, no part of it.- A certain .amofint of evasion is Vffy.-comm0n'and ~ithin th£.timits of . "the normal. But it.tends to grow from bad to worse,.?nd hence it is excellent material ~or disciplih~ or mortifica[ion. ._. ThoSe who evade disagreeable truths are the persons whgm - ~e hear likened to ostriches hidin~ their heads in the sand~ . .:Simply ~urnin~ away may bring relief for a time;, but :may also ha~ten disaster, ._ . " One may dissimulate or suppress the truth of a dis-tressing fact inone's situation or condition. Fo~ instahee, a man is told by his.physiLian.that his blood-~r£ssure is -=313 Gi AU.~3USTINE ELLAR~. ~ . . o Reaiew t:or Reiigi6us" gettifig. too',high. In.stead'~of a~ep'ting th~ diagnosis an~ r~gulating his life according!y:, ~he thi'nks as little-as pbssi-ble .of the matterYand acts all the more strenuously as if in an efforl~ td prove to hi'self ahd to others that there is nothin°g~ ,wrong with him, and. least of all; high blood-pressure. Similarly, a devout .man is wa~ned by his confessor, pos-sibly by a succession of confessors, that he is s~rupulous." ~.Not only does he not ac,quiesce, but he goes on to do all thSt he can to convince himself and his confessor that he is noi~ scrupulous. If he fail~with one, he pro.ceeds to anoth4r. And meanwhile he is.getici~g farther and fa~the} awffy from reason and religion. . - -~ , . Sometimes people dissemble to themselves the fhct that~ great obstaclds stand in their way. Before they meet them, - they dc~ r~ot lose their courage, but neither do ~they take~ the necessary steps to cope; with them. Thi~y seem to think-that ~ by shfftting their eyes to tlSem, minimizing them~ or, as .it were. laughing them .off, they will-somehow overcome= them.Lady Luck may take care of them. A pious rnan~- -might. say "Providence!' will do it.Sr. X's difficulty is a -qUick and Sharp tongue. Instead.of considerin, g her prob-lem., understanding it, arid seeing what is to be "done about it~ she givesherself up to a va~ue hope that somehow'God's "grace ~vill solve, it, and thinks: no more about it. There~a-re others who manage, to blind l~hemsel¢c~s ~to their Failures-or at least to acknowledge them to thee least-p6ssible extent. "D6n't worry abgut spilt milk." ~ommon and idjurious mode of evading the.truih about. ¯ ,one s deficiencies is to blame .other persons or unfavorable circumstances for them. They are like the football fans-who gladly take all the credit for victory when t~ir team wins, arid who, whenever~& loses, have a multitude- of~ excuses and explanations, ";without, - however, ever gi~ing credit to the other'side forsimply being superior. A teacher 314 Septer~Ber, 1944° ~- "- .SANITY. AND SANCTITY "whose w0'rk is n.bt,tip the-the mark m~y explain~i~- all by refe~rring to the poor qUali(y of the class,~interferences fro~ the principal, un.satisfactory textbooks, a noisydassroom, and so 6n--anything; in fact, except personal deficiencies. - Akin to evading unpleasant truths is-the d~d~lin~.l ?esponsibilitie~. When a man frankly, that is, without_ ielf-deception, refuses to do whavhe knows he ought, to do~ t.he fault is moral. When the mind is so deranged, that therb is no lor~'ger an.y moral imputability and one,shirks~a the fault is merely psychic. .In between these two extremes there ar~ infinite gradations-and combinations of both moraband psychi~ failures, 6f illusions arid bad will. of the corrimonest means of escaping a disagreeable dUSty ._ .and of avoiding embarrassment at the same tinie is to develop, more or less-unconsciously, Or to ~magnify~ a-~'- physicid disability of somekind. No doubt every-ieligious superior"who ,has had much.experience, knows of subjects ~who shirked disagreeable obligations or assignments on the ,plea.of illness or incapacitati_on'that was psychic ratherthan physical. Recourse t6 prayersometimes appears to,be an. example Of dodging, a practical i~sue. Sr. Y comes t6 rea~lize tha~. fhere is a considerable degree of disobedience in-her life. She recalls tl~e magnificent promises of results to those-who pray. Then, instead of clearly formulating to her~ self-what is wrong, what She should do abou~ it, why. she ~boul.d do it, and _by what means, she plans a novena, to :St: 3oseph, so m~any Memorare~s to ~he Blessed Virgin, ~ _such and such prayers to,the Little Flower, and so on. Thus she distracts herself from what she ought- to do. hdrself~ P~ously and comfortab_ly she goes on; so.does the disobedi-ence, !ess piously, but comfortably.- , Rationalization is the proce.ss of making action_that :is unreasonable seem reasonable. PrObably it is thecommon-est- of all the mental distortions pointed out in these pages.- 3.15 G. A~2.G'USTINE ELI~ARD -~Retyiew,[or Religious There is hardly a humah being who d~es not resort to it at times aiad in some measure. Vdry.powerful and ~ersistenk urges impel, us todo thirigs that are r~ot quite right, and at the same time twist our thinking just sufficiently~toenabl~ u~ to feel more or l~ss justified in doing them. On the one hand, those impulses are extremely:strohg, and on the oth.er, we ekperience a certain necessity of being,,or at least -of, appearing to be, rational/both in our own eyes and~.~ .espec.ially in the.estimation of Others. Rationalization su~-~ plies the way out of the difficulty. '~The"rationalizer dab- 6rates- convenient and reassuring, deceigtions,° for himseli~, and Often. alsd deludes-himself into believing that other~' do not see throtigh his fiction. Extreme forms of rationaliza~- -tion are found in. the insane.Rationalization is probably exemplified every day in ev~ery religi6us house. It is the favorite meahs of-taking the edge off the exacting principles of asceticism and the int~rnvenient obligations' 6f the rules,. -and~of making life under them more agreeable. ). One of the worst forms of flight from reality-is day-~ . drearning.~ - It octurs in all degree~ from that which is nor-mal. to that of the utterly insane. It is especially liable to develop "in persons who are inclined 'to remain shut:in within them.sel, ves, whose surrou;adings are dist~ressin_g, and .who have lively-imaginations. If. things are painful "~Well, at least," one may say, "I. can create a world 6f my own where there will be some sort of satisfaction for me. In" fa~t, there, in fancy, ! can have any pleasure that.I Wish." As daydreaming grows.,-it takes one further and furthe~ from real life : hence, its evil aridHanger. Idle reverie in a r~ligious is at best just so miach energy, a;ad, time diverted from his own sanctification and tlse accompffshment of the task ~ assigned to him by God~- M6rtifying the" propensity° to,it would contribute to integration of personality, .to greater holiness, and to haore, efficient usefulness to others. 316 "Septembir~,',1944 - " ~ - - SAIqlTY AND sANcTIT-Y ' A, marked tendency.to, suspiciodsness is- not,a'good stgn. df rob~st~and depe_ndablehealth of mind~ .it'involves~:fte,°o q{aerit~ deceptions of self, engenders e'ver'y sort of dhrk.affd blister fe£1ing, and lessens ol{e's fitfiess to live and work w.i~th -~others. In a religious,, suspiciousness 0fsuperiots can gb so far a~ to become positively pathological. There are religious who easily ,develop a martyr- omp'lex. Brother X, a man of v~ry good ~will but poor 'judgment, has often had to be corrected bj~ his shpefio~s. He is fully conscious of his good faith. After~a tim~, he notices that although behas beentrying very earnestly.to°~ d9 the right thing, he has-ndt met with approbation and "_erfcouragement, but rather, as i~ seemed, j~st the contrary. He ~recalls. that God often allows His l~est servants to b~. persecuted. Finally,. he concludes that be'must be-in that class. ,From then on every unpleasantness met in his rela- - tions~with, others and particularly every admonition given~ by superiors is'interpreted'.as one m6re indication that he is beingperse~uted and thathe_ must.be a ,great°favorite-wi~h 'Heaven.~ . Wha'tever i~ done ~o make him see~the light ts taken to be so much more molesfation. ' Another bad habit of mind is found in many people ~. ~ who, are b0tl~ered, with irisistent,, umvelyome, .thoughts. Some of the best igeople are distressed in this way with the~ ~orst thoughts: - Ideas of the most repuls~v.e:nature force-fully~ obtrude themselves into'.the mind, even at the most-sacredo- mom(nts or places. They are utterly out 'of keeping~ ~Twith the character of the person whom they aftlict, and are felt, as if by some external force, to be imposed upon one "-._ They are not ordinary temptations, hnd should" not ~be ~resis~ed as ifthey were n~tural movements of resentment:o'r. o~ncupis~enc.e: Fear and autosuggestion may be factors in b.ringing;them ~ibout. .Recognizing them for what they~ are, avoiding fear of the~, ignoring~them, andan effort tO 3i7 .~- ~. o ~-" --. ~ ~. ~ L~",,~- ~.~ '~ o ~t ~AUGUSTINE ELLARD~ ~ , "~ ~, R~ie~ for'R~ligious remain indiff~)rent ~toward them ¯while preserving ~;ne's, self- 'possession, a~e more effective, o_ -~_~ Unwholesome Emotional Habits The se'cond, and perhaps the more'important,-eleme~t in every,irrational, and also every irreligioud, reactign,., is ~affective or emotional. It is this that adds power, some-times compell'ing pdwer, to them, and leads to action. Cer- ¯rain cases, out- of many, will be indicated in the f611owing ' paragraphs ~ Nowadays we.are always hearing about int:eriori't~t [eelings.,and their injurious consequences. Obviously, sense o]~ inferiorityis humil!ating and.embarrass!ng: B~- sides, when not-well borne, it begets depression, fearful-ness, discouragement, and a disinclination to exert orieself. --So may fal~e humility, tn these dispirited states of soul. some people~ m.ay stick: But others undertake io do some-" o rising about it, though they are not in the.best condition-t0 judge what should be done,, and then dissatisfaction with ~ "- one's !nferiority and the desire to.be rid of i~ or even to-secure a certain, elevatidn over othe_rs, may lead to a great ~. garie.ty ofpersonality.fa9lts. ~These efforts may be of two general kinds: disguise or compensation. ~ Attempts. to con-ceal ohe's inadequacy .involve; falsity ~and duplicity, not 0co, nducive to the unity thatcharacterizes an integratedper-son. If they be kept up for long,.they may ,bring about~ stra!n and unnataumrOacl~ a.h.t.y. Moreo~'er, the cha_nces.are' that-they~ v~ill be °unsuccessful, and ~leave the~hypoc.rit~2 feeling more inferior than ever. Unsound.forms of comp~fi sation that occur are, for example, exaggerated aggressive- -.ness, fan~aticism, blustering, excessive reforming ze.al: unrea~0n~ble c.ritic~ism Sf others, extremes of conduct, d~: ~" matism, rigorism, tyrannical domination, and a hos~ - 31'8 September, 194'~I~ ~" ~ " " " SANITY,ANI~ SANCTITY A~sense of .l~ssene~d worth neednot,.bemJ.U. rzoys" ' . ~' to one's pers0n~lity. Of all p~ople?the Saints felt thifir worthless- -. ness~'most keenl~ and acknowledged it most Openly. CerZ tainly some of them r~garded themselves as-the wo]:st of all fiu~an beings. But their ge~nuine, not false, humility, t.oge.th'er :with other virtues which balanced and Suppl"e- ~mented it, was an antidote that prevented them fr0m~ °requiring a psych, iatrist~s attention; in fact,~it-became one of[the foremost reasons for their superior exci~llence.- The "healtlSy-minded and sensible man will take himself as he is,. , acknowledge 14is,,limitations, and,,intelliger{tly and courdge- 0usly make the mo~t of his potentialitie,s. He will not 6v~errate himself and thus. deceive himself, nor b~y. futile at~empt~ to rise higher, render himself_, still more inferior than he. really is. True Christian humility, accompanied l~.y~ confidence in-God and magnanimity, is the sovereign remedy fgr a depressing sense of inferiority, Sex is. also a most fertile hotbed of psychic and moral troubles.° Here especially the right ideas and the right attiv ifudes of will are of supreme importance for those Who would advance in sanity.and sanctity. If one's views are too broad, the'moral life ~it least will suffer, and the mental "may. If they are too narrow, too puritanical, the tumul-tuous currenl~'of"sexual, impulse may demolish the :dikes unnafurally restraining it and wreck everything~ As Horace remarked long,ago, you may.chasenature out with a fork, , ut it v~ill alwa.ys return. This is true in a special way of/ sexu~il~nature. If it is unnecessarily repiessed, sooner or -,later it ~ill emerge again, perhaps in a ,disguised,,and mor-bid form. and with.increased .~violence. Too mueh repres- 1. s~on:would involve the danger of making one a neurotic,. and then What about his chastity?~. Temptations would be multiplied and at the same time one would have less than the normal ability to cope with them. - 31~9 G: AUGUSTINE-EI~LARD - " ° ? R'e~ieW ~o~ Religious The right ~iew of se~ di+ine view of it. It would not .regard ~ everything aboat se~ as bad and ugly. Nor would it ,be-too negative. the contrary,, it would-look upon sex as an integral element in human nature and a divine+creation, and as such, g~od:'. . In the practice of cha+~ity, whether conjugal or celibate, a person would seek, by the e~pression.oP all that is noblest . in him rather than by repression,-to achieve the pbsitive +purpoSes of the law, to develop and perfect one'elf, to beg~t offspring, whether ih the literal, or .the m~taphoric~ ~ense, and to increase o e s love for Him who~ is qnfinite -loveliness and beauty. The.-sexUal instinct, whichr as?a matter of fact, is so destructive to divine love[ can-and~3 ~hould' be integrated with it, ~nd become a most .~o~n~ ~promoter of it. Lack of su~cient instruction can haye tragical" ~onse~ quences. These days there seems to be need of much information in such matters than in the good old Victo~ian~- d£ys, especiall7 from books or the spoken word, The amount that one -should.have will depend upon individual needs find the hature of one's work. Suppression of the desire todearn wfiat one ought to know[-or legitimately might well know would seem to be a good example of the kind of.ihe sup--~ " ~ression that is injurious; beside~;,it .would be a persistent source bf. unnecessary temptations, .anxiety, and strain. Instruction shoul~ extend b6th to the facts and.to one',s obligations. The minor mental disease of scrupulo~F~,~ often thrives on sex-ual ground: .-,_ .An exaggerated conception or ideal tity may mislead .some. Properly-speakifig, the highe~ .chaptiF~ that-is possible for us is-human,, such as, for example, is exemplified in ChriSt or the Blessed ~irgi~ Even they, since they did not experience temptations, can- 320+ ~not be~prox~ma~e mo~ls ~n thi~ ~espect. But'marly of t~e ~rg~n and confesso~ saints went through furious and pro- ~ 1onge~ sie~es ef temptation w~th an inviolate lustre of purity. -~here is mhch in the ~h~story of religion ~and mys- .[~cism to confirm the saying of.~ascal t~at one who unin-telligently seeks to become an angel becomes~a beast. After self-assertiveness and sexuality, f~ar seems to be the most deleterious emotion. ~ople whose personality is ~ore or less maladjusted b~ reason of~fear or anxiety are very numerous. One manifestatio~ ~f it t~at we can con~ s~der briefly is Scrupuios~ty. ~A full treatmenL~how~Ver, of this Specifically religious ~ental malady is quite impossible~ here. Profane analogues of scrupulosity are seen in per-sons who can hardly assure themselves su~ciently that they have, ~or instance, turned off_the gas, or locked the door; or written an address cor[ectly. In a scruple, that is, an irra- ~tiofial fear of sin, the emotional' factor, anxiety, seems to ,be'mu~h more important than the error of judgment. ~hiS~ can be ~emoved efisily by-instruction,~but the anxiety is stili ~here, and not so easily expelled. The first and most e~ca-cious rule for the scrupulous is, according to all huthorities~ to seek competent direction and tO follow it most exactly, ~' li.ke a docile patieht obeying the doctor's prescriptions. - If ~ this is done, the fear will Vanish, or at least gradually a~fophy. Additional means of dispelling it are: not to yield to it by actin~:tq obtain greater security, heartily t~ 59cept the assurances gixen by one's director, .to consider his-judgment safer than ofie's ~wn .disordered fancy, to duiti-vate insight~ into the groundless~es~ of one's apprehen-~ sions, to proceed ~irectl# to do what is feared, to notice that it does not hurt other people, to be careful, not to n~glec~ one's .real obligations, like the Pharisees who strained gnats and swallowed camels, and. finally to ~develop that filial trust and confidence in God which He desires. Cultiva,tinig . ~3,21 G. ~AUGUSTINE,ELL.~.RD, ~ ° ~ " ,~ Revietoffor; Religi6u~ ~ a sense~of-humor nd.the abit of seeing the ridiculdusness- Of one's'sc.rupulous fear is also.an effectiVe remedy. - - A neurbsis that is not Unknown in religious communi-tiesis h.qpgchondriasis, tha( is, a morbid anxiey about~ one'S h(alth. The patient, is perpetually thinking hboul~ it, -noticing.and magnifying in imagination all possible~symp-toms, anticipating_the worst, seeking and using remedies ~alLsorts, watching for their effects, ~comparing his condition today with yesterday, and so on. Meanwhile he is really-making himself.sick, or :aggrav.ating any reaFailments that he. ma~y have. He could cure himse.lf, of his unhealtl~y~ worry if he would follow a course like that recommended o for the scrupulous: or if he would concentrate'on the major, things in life, espe.cially in the spiritual' life. Distracting work-would bep~irficularly good for him.' If he Were more.~ solicitousabout his mental and spiritual well-beiiig, his "health of b~dy would take care of Jtself. " ¯Depression ¯ --Another emot~bn that iblays havoc with the minds an~ :.~ :souls qf-many i~ "sadness. It~ran~es all the way frog"slight ¯ and ~ransi~nt low. . spirits in nbrmal person.so to a leffdi~ag "symptom in some of,~the psychoses. When. due to physi~a!: -conditions that cannot-be remedied, it-should be bo/ne. patiently, like the re~t of'one's cross. Insight into i~ho~e °causes will help to relieve it, and'for the rest, of all people_ the good religious has the least reason for being depressed.~ ¯He should kriow a~d realize tha(God's wh91e plan.for him, ~hough it does'contain 'suffering, is from beginning ~to end_ - ,~ d.esign for'peace and ineffable beatitude. ""W~ know that -o-forthem that love God he worke~h a.ll things toge}her unto, : g0b,d" (Romans 8:28). .find it enlightening and -322 Some depressed religious might encouraging to: read a ~chapter September, 1944 SANITY AND SANCTITY "_"eXplaining St. Teresa~;s ,psychiatry of. melancholy i~ l~er- Foundations (chapter VII). Ps~lchotherap~l o " -- To cure an unwholesome habit (people who have developed neuroses are referred tb the psychiatrists), three .general methods are available: psychagogy, analysis and synthesis, and a combination of both. Ps~tch.agog~ First, one can simply go to a competent counselor,. explain one's case. and carry out the pres~riptions~ as ,a patient does with his~physician. Besides efllight~ening,, per-suading, and using suggestion, a'~counselor can give a~ .troubled p~e~son a, good 6pportunity to talk. It is a fact that in some cases a man caff talk himself out bf a neurosis. No doubt the explanation is that thus the patient sufficiently= clarifies his own mind, gets insight, and reaches emotional" equilibrium. A, nal~/sis arid Sgntbesis Secondly, one may, preferably with the.help of a court-s~ lor, take the~ following procedures. - , . I. Inoestigation. What are;the origin and" nature of the trouble? When and where did the faulty habit begin? ¯ ~What elements in one's external situation or in one's inter; -nal condition could have given rise to it? What factors in one's experience (for example, shocks or frights) or in one's training, help to explain it? What ideas have been guidi_~l~ one?- What emotional forces have been at work? What has one been seeking orshirking? Wil~h.what results? II. Insight. If the investigation has been-successful, insight should follow,.but it may need to be deepened, broadened, and heightened bY much reflection. A maia has " '-'.insight" y~hen, say, he has an irrational notion or impulse~ 323 for ReHpiou_ s ~ _.and recognizes~it as such. W~iters on the discernment spirits would say that he i~moved by an. evil sp!rit, ,hUman of diabol, ical, and realizes that fact. If he can understhnd~ how it came about and its nature,~ so much.the better." If the insight gained be dear and f~Ull, he will then be prepared to treat the notion or impulse as if'it were a sffggestion~ from a ocrazym~in or'a swindler. Insight can ,be suflicientfy--clehr and strong to effec't a complete cure at once: It does awa.5; with the false ideas or °illusions at least. "III. Release of Em'otional Tension. Next one must see ~and feel by all' possible considerations, and work aL it till one really does see and feel, the fol, ly, futility, and:frus-trations of what he has" been doing, and this in,contra~st to the val~uds, positive and negative, of thecontrary rati6nal ~-~,~abits. He must bring himself to realize, .for example, that he hasbeen fearing ,where. in finality there was riothing, tp fear, or desiring what really was-not desirable. Thus the perverse inclination will dissolve like ice before the hot,sun. The secorid element of the irrational, namely, misd~rectedl emotion,, i~s thus remedied. Other means of. reducing unsalutary hffectivet~nsions are i avoiding the.objecys-that~ stimulate them: eschewing thoughts of those objects; ~ expelling~a lesser fear or love by agreater fear d'r love, fear of,h!an, for instance, by- fear of God; arousing in oneself the" contrary emotiori, fbr instance, hbpe against despair; throwing oneself .int~o some absorbing.~external, action; pro-ceeding tO do what. One fears, or to-do the opposite of what, one. feelsimpelled tO.; quiet and rest. Even if a man c~n- ¯ not discover b~r analysis why he has this or that inclination, he is ~ti11 free, if his mental integrity has not been damaged too-much, not to adt on that impulse.~ The a~m is always, not to darri up'the forces of human nature, but to give ttiem wise direci:ion and .wholesome outlets. Here ratib'nal com- 'pensati~n-and:sublimation, that is,:guiding one's instinctive 324 ~ Sep~ember~'lg~ ~ ~ ~" ~, ~ . SANI~ AND SANCTITY "urges toward somethifig equally good of better, ~are emi-nently in~place. 0necould, for-example, seek" eventual ex~ftation throughhumility, ot the grat~cations of love in ~divine charity. IV. Re-educa?ion, Rd~te~ra~ion. 1. Specific }emedial habits are to be ascertained, their adavantages adequately" apprefiated, and then put into practice. A scrupulous per- :son for instance, should avail himself of what. are called ".th~ privilege~ of the ssrupulous." 2. The basic defects in the.personality-which are at the root 6f the diNculty sEould be uncdvered if possible and treated in ~ore or le~s thesame_ wag, with a ~iew to building hp that unity and fullness,; and balance which constitute intdgration of personality. In a scrupMofis)erson.the defect ~ay be a deep-seated timid- ~ To conclude, insight into one's unbalanced emotional p$opengities and control of tbem will give one sanity; a high degree 6f such insight .and~self-control will add sagac- -itE; and, if supernaturalized by graqe, it will bring sanc-" ~tity~ and thus ultimately a rich participation ~n the beat~c .~ision and love arid ~njoym~nt of God. ¯BOOKLETS ON VOCATIONS Halt! Hearken to.the C~{/ of the Children. A PamPhlet of 28 pages, by Fathers Rumble and Catty. The pamphlet was written originally by an Australian nun for Australian girls." Its purpose is ~to give an appreciation of the. work of the tegching Sisterhoods. Price: 10 cents. Write to: Radio Replies Press. St. Paul 1, Minn. "What Would You Like to Be? Aft interesting brochure explaining the-life the Marianist Pries-t, Teaching Brother, and Working Brother. Contains well-chose~ pictures and clear explanations. Write to: Rev. Father Superior, Mount -St. John. R. D. 2, Dayton 10, Ohio. ¯ The Making7 oF, a Man: A pocket-size pamphlet, explaining in general'the ~ ,-vocation'of the Mhrianist, and in,particular t_he life of the "postulate" at Maryhurst, ~ Kirkwodd, '/v~issouri. The "postulate" in this instance is not merely th~ postu~ lan.,cy which immediately precedes entrance to the novitiate, but an entire high school course for~prospecave candidates fo~ the Society of Mary. Write to: Maryhurst~ Kirkwood, Missouri. Reverend Fathers: , When I give a retreat in a hospital-convent, I decidedly do not wish to replace the chaplain H~ may need a vacation: but thai is. no reason why his work ~hould be-added ~to.the burden of the retreat~ master, who must give pe_rhaps four conferences a day, hear confes-sions, keep himself available for private con.sultation, and perform his own spiritual exercises, besides. If.the chaplain must go away just at that time, why not engage another"priest to take his place, so thht the. retreat master can restrict his attention to his own exacting work? I am w~illing to have, and even insist on having, the cgmmunity Mass in the morning and the Benediction in the evening for the retreatants. But I,wa~t nothing more of the chaplain's regular wgrk. Imagine distributing Communion to who l~no~s" how many. patients befor~ M~iss; then, :whewhardly back in the chapel with the Blessed Sacrament, being called to administ_er the last rites to'-a dying persoff~ while the community waits: then after Mass, while ~akiiag the thanksgiving, being called out in a hurry to give Extreme Unction to one who has" suddenly died in a ward; then, after a hasty breakfast, going to say the ritual prayers for the ~lying over a patient; and then rushing to the chapel to give the retreatants theif morning con~er-- ence!' Or imagine.a Sister rushing up to the table in the sanctuars; whil~ you are. giving-a~ consideration ~nd asking you to "Come. quickly; somebody is dying!" But it isn't as bad as alFthat, some may objest. , Oh, but it often is. I. ha.ve experienc~ed it. And. if it isn't, you know that it can be at any moment. A Priest , Reverend Fathers: After each of the three annual retreatS, we discuss the various, points that have been, noticed by different novices. Here are a few. We don't like to have the retrea.t master tall~ right past us to the .few.older. religious who are also on retreat. They've heard mostof it, anyway. The retreat master ought to talk so that we Who have. not passed twenty can get something out of it. .326 ¢ " " CO~UNICATIONS ._- "Let'-tl~e~,~etreat master leari~'something, about our community. "before talking on the "Holy Rule': in general arid making com~ments -on prescriptions_that aren't even in our rule. " We are poorly impressed when tile retreat master comes up the aisle.with a strong scent of perfUrfie trailing after him. He ought t~ let us see ~hat hi~ actions and bearing correspond with 'what he is telling us to do. Let him forget the affectations of speech. Even thofigh he talks ~oorly, a re-all~" good religious priest (you can see the hdliness of his life) is far better liked than an easy-going but powerful speaker. The former is a sermonin himsel£the latter is, too, but in a different way.~ We have a copy of the text of St. Ignatius' Spiritual_Exercises; too. If we want to read it, we can do so; and we do not" like to have a retreat-master me~ely read th~ text and a.dd_ practically nothing of his:own. We0never like to be read at; even .when the retreat mas-ter begins almost every conference or meditation with the words:_ "St. Ignatius next says . A little story once in a while helps .to keep things alive and nbt all fire and brirristone tales, but something practical and forceftil. ~ We're young; and we enjoy a joke .wrapped up in the conferences o now and then, But not one that is completely irrelevant. Brother Novices Reverend Fathers: The foll~wing remarks on tiae retrea~ question ~epresent th~ result ¯ o~ a question~naire.given a n.ur~ber of Sisters two years~ago: Desirable length ~of retreat: 6 full days. ~ Desirable length of conferences and medi~ations: 40-45 .minute_s. ~'uggestions for Retreat program: 1) Have four or five conferences daily. 2) Allow sufficient ti~e after dinner for a rest,-so thfit retfeat-aiats will be better able for mental exertion. ~ 3) Allow time at 11:45 for exame~. 4)'Have commun!ty prayers (espedally the Office) said p~i- ~ately, so that the retrea~ants will have more time for private reflec, tion. : 5) Begin confessions" no'later than the third day. S[zggestions concerning sequence of subject-matter: 1) Have a definite sequence, so that one conference is.a prdpa_r.a-tion for~ the next. ~ "COMMUNICATIONS " " ~ ' 2) But- do not" follow th~ Ignatiansequence so'closely tha~ one " will know exa~tly~what meditation is'to follow. ~u~gestions concerning subject-matter: -1) Give practical examples illustrating 'the ideals of re.ligious life, rather than a vague generalization. 2) Make examples positive rather than negative. 3) Center the entire retreat around a certain virtfie, such as conformity to the Wi[l of God or lo~;e of God. - 4)"A~zo[d relating personal experiences and stories of scandals in other communities. ' 5) Arrange the subject matter so that, if some I~roups are men-tioned, all will be mentioned; for example, superiors and inf.eriors, or nurses, teachers, and house-sisters. .6) Repeat a definite theme again and again d~uring the retreat. 7) Give conferences on the methods of. mental prayer and have. the meditation on prayer early in the retreat. 8) Give practic.al meditations on the love of God, emptying ~of ~lf-love, etc. 9) Stress" the Indwelling and" the Mystical Body, as means of living in uniofi with God. 10) Discuss the three ways in the Spiritual' Lif~, putting special emphasis on the unitive way. 1 1) Develop the life of Christ according to the mysteries of the rosary. ~ , Other .points: 1) Be straightforward and s'~ecific in the treadnent of the reli-' gious life. 2) Conduct the retreat in the presen'~e of the Blessed.Sacrament. 3.) Use simple and cleat, ratlSer than flowery, diction. ~) Ask of each penitent in the confessional the subject-matter:. of her particular examen, or question her on prayer. 5) "Talk" the conferences instead of~ reading them. 6) Avoid throwiffg jibes~ at women. Z) Use tile word "Sister" frequently for emphasis. 8) Put the Sister at ease in the donfessional by givilag l~er time, showing an interest in her spiritual advancement, by encouraging her in her good resolutions, etc. A Sister .~ ~ - -~ _ . _ ~ ~ ~ " ~ T~-~ ~ a Religious Insfi u e _ Adam C: Ellis, S~J.- .]:o~r al! p~ovinc~s, houses; and m~mb~rs of th~ insti-~i. . ~ tut~ (canon 502).- H~nc~ it is obvious that h~ has. authority owr th~ t~mporal affairs 0f tfi~ institut~ as wall as o#~r'spiritual and disciplinary matters. But sinc~ it imp~ssibl~ for on~ p~rson to car,-for all th~ d~tai~s of"go~-~ ¯ ernment by himself, the law-of=the Church pr~yides for 'helpers 6f various kinds-who are to assist the superior in ¯ ~hi) government of the institute. Thus canon 516 6f the Code of Canon Law provides for couficillors and bursars for~ all~)eligious superiors. The pu~ose of the present grticle is"to definet~e duties o(th~.bursar g~neral of'a r~li- ~gious institute. .- Appointmen~ "1~ ~h~.¢~nsfi~u~s nre ~ilen~ ~n ~he mnHer ~ deefin9 ~. The Code alloGs the constitutions to determine hdw the ~-.~ursar general is to be chosen. Usually the~:pro~ide forhis =election in the general chapt~. ~ It~i~ oMg whe~ the constitu-tions are.silent in the matter t~at the=superior g~neraI ~s gwen the power to appoint the bursar general with the consent.of his council. No definite term of office is laid down in_the Cod~ for. bursars~ They may" b.e reappointed-or elected again indef!-i nit~ly. Nor is'the office of bursar general incomp_atible.with. that of a general councillor as far as tile common law of the C]aurch is concerned, but to unite~ the~e offices in 6ne pe.rso11.i~ usually considered inexp_e°dien, t and is not infrequently for: - bidden by the.constitutions. .o 32.9 ADAM C. ELLIS :, ~ ': -- " Ret~iqto for Religious -_ r - Limitations of Power~ ~: ~° "They are t~ exercise .their office under fhe°d~recfion of their respec-tive superiors" (canon S 16,§ 2) but "the superior himself may net ,d!schargb. tl;e office of bu~'sar 9eneral or provincial 'bursar" (canon SI6, § 3). By forbidding the s~perlor genera) to act as bursar and by ~subjec~ ting the bursa'r general to the direction ~f.~the SUl~e- -rior, the law providhs a safeguard against maladminis~tra-tipn. " The superior must exact an. account of'hisadministra-tion froth the bursar, who cannot dispose of tempor.al-goods withoutthe permission o~ i0is superior. Nor may the sup.e: rior grant him unlimited permission. Us.ually the details of these matters ar~ determined by theconstitutions. " Constitutions sometimes provide forthe appointment oi: sev.eral administratorS: one for the general care bf the; teinpor.alities of-the ~nstitute or" province, others for . t.icular kinds of work, such as the administratiQn of pub-, lications, printing presses, and various offices. ., Whateqer the relations may be, the funds of each indi-- vidual mo'ral personality--institute, province, house "mFst be keptseparate; and are not to be heaped into 6he common% fund. Extent of Powers "Besides the superiors, those officials also who are so empowered b~ the constitb'tions can, within the limits of their office, validly incu'r expenses. "and perform juridical acts of ordinary administration" (canon 532, § 2). Normally, then, the bursar has the power to incur' expense~ and perform theoju~idical .acts of o;dinarg "admini~- ~tri~tion: ~ By ordinary administration is meant everyth'ing which p'ert.a~ns to the everyday needs of the i.nstitut_~;e~. or community. Such Would be the purchase of food, clothing,- - and fuel, the repla.cement of things worn out. or brdkeh. ordinfiry repairs on-buildings, and"the like. To.sell the~ ~superfluous products of the farm, dairy, and poultry yard,, 330 ~@ September, 1944 ; THE BURSAR GENERAL~OF,A RELIGIOUS INSTITUTE w~ould~iikewise come und~:-the head of.o'rd~fiary adminis-~[ tration. ' It,is" customary to entrust this ordinar.y administratioq~. ~ entirely~ to ,the bursar and' his )issist~nts. Hovgeve~r,~ sup~-~ -.riors retain their own powerl of juridica!,administratiOn; ~ : hffd°if they ~place any acts of such administration, these acts~ ~ ; are valid.~ ¯ , Qualities.of Good Administration '-'~'~" Canon 1523~ lays down rules for all administrators, including religious. It .Begins by telling them" that th@,° ~, should fulfill their '.office With the diligenc9 of a good, -'"paterfamilias" or head of a household, which implies two qualities: care and. prudepce. ~ It then descends ~o the ¯ ~ ~ following details: ~ -- - 1. Vigilancelest any temporal, goods spoil" or per.ish. The superior may prescribe certain defini~te ways of,pro2- ~ ~ture, andmay forbid others:, : " " " Z :'~ 2.-Observance ,o~ th.eprescriptions of bo~h ~anon and~ ' civil law: It is evident that the p.resc'r, ipt~ions of Canon Law ¯ : must,, be observed/ especially those of canon-~534," which govern the alienati6n of goods belongi.ng to religibus com-munitie~ s as .well as the incurring of debts. Th~ prescrip-hans of the civil law Sh6uld also ,be observed, lestthere be ~ darigerof losing 3uch gob_ds thro~igh neglect of, the requiie- " men.is of the civil la~. This applies especially to all kinds '"~'Of contracts'and the i.ncurring.of debts, because th~ Code tias "canonized" the civil law in ~his matter:, "Thb presc~';pfions of the civ.il law of the place r~garding contracts b~th ~n cjen~ral and°in particular, whether'nomlnate o~ ;nhominate as well as recjardin9 payments,'shall be obse~rve'd by the same right in. eccles;astl-cal matters, unless they. are contrary to the natural law'~or special pre-. scr;pt~ons are found in canon law" (ganon 1529). ., ,3. Incc~me of goods ghoutd be accurately demar~ded "at ° [egular intervals:. Income thus collected should ,be care- fu, lly,. guarded and (i-n:~s~ ~,~bf foor~lations)o sh~ould, be .expended according .to th,e mind ~f the donor. 4. Income sho~tld-, be invested for the benefit of.' the, Church." The',,term "church" in the gener~il canons ,,on temporalities-means the individual moral personality of who~se, temporalities there is question (canon !,498). For~ us it means the religious institute. " -_- All income acquired~from temporal goods is considered - as.free-capital until it is invested. Hence it may for ordindry _expenses and for the payriaen.t ,of debts. °'But ifit is not needed for these purpose's, it should be inves(ed. Once i~avested, it becomes "capi_tal" or eccelesiastical goodsTM and is subject to, the" norms of canon law regarding aliena-, I~ion. 5.~ Books of mon&s received and expended should~be-cqrefully kept. This is sound business sense. It is*also, -iequired-in" order that the administrator may give that _ periodic account to l~i~ superiors required b~r the canon law. 6. Documents and business papers, should be kept in order and karefully gtiarded. This includes all kinds of- ~documents and p.apers, such as deeds to property, founda-. _ tions, donatibns,, contracl~s, and so forth. Canon -375',/ § 2 obliges bishops-to see to it that an inyentory or cata-logue- Of all documents in the'diocesan arcl-iivesbe mad.e. This inventory' includes a brief synopsis of the-content-~f,, each documen[. : Such a catalogue.- makes it e~sy to._find documents and-lessens,the danger of the.ir being lost. Reli-gious i~dministrators will do well to observe thi~ canon. °-. Such, in gener~il, are the ordinary powers and duties of. an administrator of ecclesiastical goods; in ourcase, of the-bursar general with-regard to the goods of his instltute. . Superiors should not interfere in the ordinary" administra-tion of the bursar, but should receive reports from him-and o examine~his accounts from time to time. The ~ao-rmal func-" 332 ~pternber, 1944 ~ ~ THE BUI~$AR~(3ENERAL OF,A RELIGIOIJS INSTITUTE ti6n;of the si~perior inthisregard is ttiat of~direction. The iminediat~ and" actuM ordin~ar~r administration is generally ~tenied to superiors by, the Code, and should be left to the bursar and his assistants subject to~ the direction 'of the superior. Thee coristitutions usually,, pr~scribe in detail 'the rela- ~ tions between superiors ahd bursars in regard to. temporal-administration, and should be' faithfully observed. " - " Extraordinary.! Administration -~y .acts of extraordina.ry admin.istration a~e m~,ant ~hings which are more rare and.of a more important- nature,¯ Such as the inv_estment of-money, excha~nge of securities, buying and selling of real estate, exti)aordinary repairs of 15uildings and equiPment, and the building of a °new stru~-. ture~, Fo~ all such actions the bursar must obtain the vari- "ous pe~rmissions required by the common lawa~s well as by the constitutions of his instittite. According to the general law of the Church, '~not only every .institute, but e~very p~ovince, and every house is capable of acquiring and possessing property w, ith fixed ~r fotinded revenues, unless the capacity to do so be excluded or restricted by its rules and constitutions" (canon 531). Some constitutions provide for" but one subject of. owner- ,ship, in the entire institute, so that there is only one.a~lmin-istration of temporalities. In this case it is usual for the constitutions to prescribe that the bursar general ~keep ~eparate accounts at least of the income and.expenses of the ,iridiiridual ho(~ses. This will show whether or not the ~individual houses are self-supporting. .: When each house has itsown~ local'administ_ration, it is 9sually prescribed that a certain portion of,the net in, come remaini_ng at the. end of the year after all bills liave" b~en paid,should" b~sent to the'motherhpuse foXthe su~pp0rt of .333 o~. ADAM C, ELLIS th.~:novices, Sisters in studies, and the like.~ The' N~cmae of 1~901 pres(ribed that well-to-do houses should-con, tribute one third of the .net~.cash on hand year, after all bills had been paid presen.t, practice of the Sacred Congregation ~f Religiou.s is t6 allow th~ .constitutions to prescribe that the genei~al c~hapter wiil decide the amount that should be ~contribut~d annually to the motherhouse .for the needs of the institute a whole.' The amount may thus be increased or lowered in each general chapter, according to the needs ~f the times. It "is" the dhty of the bursar general to collect t.hese contribu-tions at the pr0i3er time, as Well as~o examine the-financial statements of t/fie individual l~6uses which are sent to him periodically, according to the consti~utions. If these accounts are-not satisfactory, he ~should report the °det~- ciencies to ~the superior, whose duty it is to rePrehend those responsible. , To vindicate and defend o-rie's ~:ights in court is an act oFnormal adm~nistration: but religious superiors may not go to courtin the' name of their community excep.t in con-~,~ fo.rmi.ty'with theconstitutions (d~anon 1653, § 6). - " 'Conclusion ._ Administrators,of church 15roperty, b9th~superiors and other officials, should., remember° that they-are not the owners of the property which they administeL hence_they. ma.y riOt dispose of the temporal goods of the institute'as they please; but only in accordance with the prescriptions of canon and civil law. All administrators are obliged to give-an account of their stewardshiE~th~ .bursar general to-the superior general, the superior general[to the Holy See in the quinquennial repb~t in the case of mstttutes approv.ed by-the Holy See, to the local Ordinary in .the case of a~ diocesan congregation. . # 33'4. ' ~re:~ou Sor~yfoi YOur-Sihi? Gerald Kelly, S.J~ ~HE.Council of Trefit oNciall~-declardd: that true con- ~.~ ~rigion consists in a detestation o~ one's sins, .with grief ~'of soul, and a purpgse~0f sinning n0 more. According to~ the same Council; contrition is so-necessary that God never 'forgives any persona~ sin, even in the Sacraments of~ ~ Baptism and Penance, unless the sinner genuinely repents. ~ Perhaps it is this doctrine of the necessity'of contrition that makes the subject ingeresti~g. ¯ At any rate, it is inter, .~sting. Anyone who has taught th~ Subject, whether in ff ~theology elass or .in an advanced religion class, knows that. ~And we all know it from personal experience, too.; We want to b~ rid of our s~ns; therefore we want to be sorry for ~t~em~.and we wan~ to be sure we are sorry for them. Perfect Contrition ~' Per[ect,contrition is a. subject of .special intereit because .it sometimes happens that perfect contrition affords the~ "only possible means of saving o~e's soul. The baptized person who is i~ the state of,mortal sin and is dying with~ 6ut the oppor~unity.of~going to cdnfes~ion or ~f receiving E~tre~e Unction is faced ~ith the grim alternative of making an act of perfect contrition or of going to hell. The unbaptized sinner who is dying w~thout th~ opportunity -of receiving, actual baptism faces a similar alternative. No one can sa~ that ~eff~ct.contrition will neve~ be a matte'r of ~trict necessity for him, becau~ ~ortal sin is ~ ';possibility for.everyone, and death ~ithout a pfiestqs ~Is~ a possibility: Yet, even if it were never of Strict necessity, ~the,act of perfect Contrition is a beautiful prayer and should be £afd often. It i~ certainly.the best kind of contrition?for".-" ~ .~. ~ ~ GEI~LD KELLY - Revievd/or veni~l sins;-and,, withr~eg~rd to m~rtaI~in~, it hdst~e spe.~ ~ .cial p~wer.of restoring sanctifying grac~ to the sodl imme: diately,-thus makin~ it unnecesary to wait. ~or the oppor-tunity of gging~,to~cgnfession .in order~to 'regain God's friendship, to be able to ~erit eternal life, and to.be pre; pared for suddeh ~eath, ' InstrUcted CatholiCs usually know the ~adt that ~er: fect contrition immediately ~lots out mortaI sin, but not ikfrequently t~ey misunderstand "the reason for this special power of p~rfect c6ntrition. In fact, only recentlE,' ih'a bbok otherwisd sound and excellent, thd statement was madd.that in the case of a baptized person who has com-mitted a mortal sin, perfect contritionrestores grac~becausg. it"contains a desire for the Sacrament of Penance. Thii' is-,. not.the correct explanation. It is true, 0f cogrse, that, in~ the case ~eferred to, perfect-Contrition must cbntaih at ldast an.~ implicit intention of, going tO ~onfession; otherwise it would be a means 0f salvation entirely independen~ o['the sacrament and would excuse us entirely from God's pre-. cept. of confessing ,the mortal sins committed after baptism. But this intention to receive the sacrament is not th~'dispp-sition that gives perfect contrition its'special ~cacy. Even i~pe.rfect contrition must contain such an intention. ~ The real reason~ ~hy perfect contritign instantly re-~ stores gr~ce to the soul, even before we go to confession;- is to Be found,in its motioe. Perfect contrition is motivated gy charity. The sinner turns to God with peifect~ove; and God repays lord with love. As ou~ Ldrd ~old us, God takes up His abode with those who love Him. " ~e are often asked if it i~ di~chlt for one who h~s~ s~nned mobtally to make an act o~ perfect contrition. .In -an~werifig the questio~ We must h~ve regard for.several points. !n the'first place, ndith~ p~rfect nor imperfect trition ca.lls for a definite degre~ of intensity or r~quiies-any~ Septerr~ber, 1944 " ARE YOU SORRY FOR YOUR SIN~? certaln amount of time. ~n t~e o[her han~, bo[h kinds~of. con[rifion mus[ con[ain an app~eciaffon or~ p~eferenc~ of God which entirely excludes the w~ll to commi~ mortal sin: In" 0[h~ words, ~he con[rile sinner mus~ prefer God [o ady~ p~rsgnal_safisfac[ion [ha[ would con~ic[ ~ith God'd ~riend-s~. This disposifion~is required in all contrition for:mor- [al ~in; and i~is enough, even for perfec[ contrition. emphasize the fact that it is enoUgh, because I believe th~ ~'the.~mpress~6n is.'somet~m~s g~ven that .perfect contrition must exclude all attachment to sin. This impression is not a~curate. Perfect contrition admits of degrees. lowest-~degree contains the ~ preference for God "over any~- .th~ng that conflicts .with h~s friendship; and th~s does not necessarily exclud~ a~t~chm~nt to venial sin.- In assisting-- d~ing sifiners, it seems advisable to begin w~th the lowest degree. After g~v~ng them ~h~ motive for perfect co~tr~- t~on~of which we shall speak in a moment~get tBem to repent of their mortal s~ns and to,resolve never again to s~n mortal'ly. If they have this disposition, ~h~y have what ~s strictly necessary for "loving God above all things," for lov~ng God "with their whole heart, their Whole soul, and .~their whole mind." Having, helped them to th~s essential d~spos~t~on, one can then try to "go higher,"~that ~s,~ to. ~instill sor~ow.fo~ venial s~n and even to incite a desire~ fo~ ~erfect.conform~ty to the will of God in all thin~s. Under manyaspects, therefore, an act of perfect con-tntlon is notmore di~cult than imperfect contrition. The di~cul.ty, in so far as there, is a di~culty, lies ih the one ele~ ment that distinguishes perfect contrition from imperfect: namely, in the motioe. Perfect contrition springs ~from ~eharity ;" ond charity is the love of God "for His own sake" ~an unselfish, disinterested love, To 10ve God for His bwn sake should not be~ di~cult for anyone who reall,y ~know? God: that is, for one ~ho has cbme t6 appreciate 33~ ~ER/~I~D KELLY" - .Re'uie~ £or ~eh'g'ious ~h~ough prayer that°God is go~d and !ovabie; but "~or those_ Who have given little'thought to God, the case is proba.~l~ different:-They need to make some consideration" thal~ will sh~w ~themthat God is really worth loving for His own sake. A ra.ther simple.;ccay of l~elping a sinner to arrive at the -motive necessary for perfect contrition is to g.et him to ,reflect on Christ Crucified. In the opiStufe of our Lord on the Cross we have a very .graphic portrayal of God'os love for us. AppreciatiOn of this fact-begets gral~itude soul;, and it is an easy step from gratitude to perfe~:t love, that is, to the love of charity.St. John, the great apos.tle of charitji,, told us to foll6w this path. from gratitude to charity when he said.:. "Let us therefore love God, .because~ God first hath loved us" (I ,John '~: 19)~. St. Paul's.gr~eat --personal love ol~ our. Lord sprang., from an appre.ciation of the tremendous fact expressed in his Words: "He loved rile and deli~rered himself up for me.'.' St. Francis Xavier's° great prayer of love (0 Deus, Ego Arno Te) is a poeti~. expressio.n of the words of St. John and of St:Paul.~ S(. Ignatius, in his. "Contempla'tion for Obtaining Love," uses. the same psychology: he takes us 'from gratitude perfect, unselfish, disinterested love. First we count the_ ~ gifts of G6d to us, and, seeing their iaumberarid.their val~e, we are deeply grateful;,then, thriju.gh the gifts, which are so good, we rise t6 the consideration of.the infinite goodness. _ of the Giver. -When we say that perfect contrition is motivated by charity, and,that ctiarity.is the love of God forHis'~swn-sake, we do not mean. that perfect- contrition exclude~ all other mot.ives. It is_quite Eroper:for us to be grateful fO God for his benefits, to ~desire to enjoy the happiness of" heaven, tO fear the punishments of hell, and so forth. iuch truths furnish motivation for sorrow for sin; and the} _ 338 -- September, 1944 _ " " ~ " ~ "ARE YOU SORRY FOR YOUR SZNS o~", ~an exist'in the soul together .with the motive for perf&t ¯ : ~ " Imp'effect Contritidn Perfect dbntriti6n "isindeed e.xcellent; but we should -. not overlook the value of imperfect contrition. Imperfect -x6.n.trition is not enough of itself to do away witl~' mortal sin; yet eveh for those in the state of mortal, ~in it is very~ - . profitable. It disposes them togo ,an act Of perfect contrition, and in confessionit is a suffb cient disposition for absolution. ; As for. venial sins,~ theologians commonly, teach that ii~perfet~ contrition is enough for their remission outside ~ ~. of confessibh.~ Hence, those who. have only venial sihs-on their s0ul nee'd not be particularly solicitous about their motives-when, they make an act of contrition;any one of the many possible supernatural motives for detesting their sins will be a suffi'cient basis for a fruitful act of contrition. Elements of All Contrition "It is:of little' ~vai[ to consider the necessity and kinds of ~ontrition, if one's notion of contrition itself is not clear; hence it will be worth our wb~le to return to the first sen-tence of this article. I indicated there that, according to ¯ the Council of Trent, all contrition contains three ifi~red.i- 'ents: detestation, grief, and purpose of amendment. And, of course, as a prerequisite to any act of contrition, there-must be tbe~realization that one has done wrong. -Hence, ev,ery act of contrition.includes in some way, four psycho-logicalsteps: owe realize t~at w~ have sinned; we detest w.hat'we did; we grieve ove~ it; and _we.resolve to amei~d. I should not want to encourageanyone to be technical . in l~is prayers; yet I think that we can all profit by occa- . .sipnal.ly taking apart an 'act of~c~ntrition by thinking over" the me,aning of each of-these psychological steps, and by 339 1. ~GER/(LD KELLY' ,_ ~, Review for Reli~l~ous oactu~i!ly mfikirtgthe'steps-slowlyand prayerfully. In the -subsequent paragraphs, my purpose'is to offer some explg~ _nations and sugg.e, st!ons that might be an aid to one who wants to m~ke ~n act of contrition meditatively. Perhaps I ought to preface .mY ~ema~ks with a brief statement con~cer.ning their doctrinal val~e. Tl'ie Church_ -has mad_e it quite clear that an hct of contrition must t~in-c~rtain elements; but she has let~t the detailed explana-tion of these elements to her theologians. I have drawn rny~ _explanations f.rp_m the works of eminent theologians; yet I realize that on some points the theological_literature is, somewhat obscu.re and that differences of opinion~are pe'~- missible. In all cases of obscurity or uncertainty, I have aimed to limit my sugges.tions, to what is safe and prac-ticable. R~alization When v~e make an act of contrition we have .to be c~a- "scious of the fac~ that we ourse.lves have done evil. This ° ~upposes, of course, a speculative appreciation of the evil ., of sin; but.it does~not stop with mere speculation. The ~ purpose of the realization which precede~s and motivates the act of contrition is to get the sinner to turn away from his~ ow_n sins, with grief and a purpose of amendment. There-fore, it is well to begin a meditative act of contrition with .a conscx0u.sness of one s own sins. This d~es not ne.cess_arily" mean a detailed examination of conscience; but it does imply at least ~i general recalling of one's sins. -- In our catechism books' we say that an ~ct of contrition~ must~ be suoerna.tu~al: th_at is, it must be made wi~b God's grace and. it must be based bn a motive drawfi from~ ~-evelatiori. We may takefor granted that God gives",the grac.e, but we ourselves, have to,s,upply the supernatural motive by considering our sins in the light of some revealed 340 ,State'bet, 1944 , ~ AR~ YOU SORRY FOR YOURSINS~ [ruth. Am6ng,t~e many [~uths t~a~ h~Ip to show,us the e~i!;0f~our sins,, I might suggest the following. Tbe jogs of beaoen, or tbe oai~s~of bell: These are directly applicable to mortal sin, because mortal sin depr~ves us of' our righ~ to heaven and makes us deserving of hell. But the thoughf of heaven can als0 be abplied venial sin because, after all, the/e are degrees of ~lory~in heaven, an~d venial sin kdeps us from attai~ng a higher ~ degree'of glory. EVen the thought of hell can be used as a motive for repenting of venial sin,' because by. commitdn~ ~ vernal sins we might form habits that would lead to mortal ~ sin or_ we might lose certain special g?aces that would at _,times be. necessary in order ~o overcome serious temptfi--~ ,tibns. And, of course, a consideratibn of purgatory,, especially as a painfu~ delay in reaching~ur heavenly h6me, ' "is directly appl:icable to venial sire Tbe Olories o~ sa~ati~i~g ~tace: Grace makes our Souls ,,.beautiful in the ~yes of God; it makes us His adopted chil, .~dren, tharers in His nature, heirs to His happiness. Mortal sin loses this priceless possession for us; venial sin, though - it does not. affect the grace in our. s6uls, represents a~ lost opportunity to grow in grace. Tbe Passio~ o~ 6at Eord: This furnishes fine motiva- ~i0n ~or sorrow for either mortal or venial ,sin. And the same ma? be said-f6r any aspect of our Lord's life, because . everything we know about Him is~ calculated to. increase our admiration andlove of Him and thusshow us by contrast ~. the mefinness of our failure to live according to ~the pattern "'He has given Us. Tbe~doctrine of tbd Redemotion and of our Oa~f i~ itS" God has united us in such a way that_we can help one another ~n the w~y of sai~ation and sanctification. ~n ap~reciafion of this~'truth and of its tremendou~ imp)ica-tion~ gives us a new light on sin:- it.is n0f onlE harmful to ,V ourselves; it is a:refusal.to cooperate ~n~a glOrious-cause.-:,. ~, The ~divine wis~bm hbd2~ood~:~ Prdp~rly~under-stood, ~ this is the most all-embracing and fundafien:tal ~afid, ~I-might ~d, the simplest of motives for ~ detesting sim~ It ~ takes us back to the ohe reason why we and thiswhole world exist at all: namely, to share in the divine goodness"~ according to the ;nfihitely wise plan of God Himself. - By Sin~ we do what we can to thwart His plan; we voluntarily prevent Him from ~iving Hi~self to us as He wishes to ~do~" Ddtestation The whole purpose of meditating on~ ohe of the~ fore-going ~t?uths, or on some similar revdaled truth, is to pre-pare the soul for a~ act of contrition. In~the actor con, trifion itself, tb~ first step is detestation. ~. ~ ~ ~ ; ~ Theologians generally agree, I.believ~, that, as a distinct element-in~ the act of contrition, ~detestation refers.~to the~ p~st. The sinner goes back, so ~o speak, on the a~t that h~> peLformedtand deliberately, chooses to do just the opp~sit~ from what he did when he sinne~. In sinning,,he chose.hi~ o~n will to God's Will; now Ee turns away from his for-mer choide and unites his will to God's will. - " E~idently we cannot undo an act that i~ dong. ~ We;an ,make reparation fdr it; we can.pay damages; we can some-. times ~top it~ effects;, but the fact that" act was performed cghnot be changed. The best that we~can do ~ith~regard to the past act-is to wish we had not done it. "And'that seems~to be-the most apt way khat'we can deScrib~ detesta- 5ion of sinf it is a deliberate wish:that the act'had not been p~rformed. ,- ~ _". " It'is probabl~ not advisable, in making ~ meditative act of contrition, to spend a great deal of time on tgis point. There~ is no direct way of testing an ifiterio~ disposi;tidn such as'detestation, and we are likely to be disturbed, e~e~ _ ~ ~, . - _ T~ ~,S~p,~ember0 1944 ~. _ '-~'ARE YOU ~0RR~ FOR YOUR SINS? . ' ~:ofrightened',~ ,by our, sen~-tove and'- self=love. ~For-'th'ese o " Causes of sin are just asstrong a.s the were. wiaen the'sin ~ "was performsd and they keep. telling us that they liked the sin and.that,they are glad it happened. Hence, if we'dwel[. ~,= long oh this point, we areapt to think that we have no con- ~trition, at all. It is better to make a simple act'of the will: ';~ " ,,"BeCause I n6w see the evil that I did, I wish I had not --~ committed it"; and then. go on to the ndxt point. In prac-tice, we can~ take for granted that we have the )equired " - --~ ,--~d~testation if we have the realization, grief, and purpose ¯ "of amendment. . Grief of Soul ¯ ~" ~ Tile blessed, in heaven can detest their sins but they can-not griev~ o~er them. "i~he reason for this is that grief .Supposes the presence of an evil, and the sins of the blessed-are merely past acts, ttie evil effects o~ which have all been ~emoved ~= With us, th~ case is different." For instance, when a man co .mmits.a mortal sin, his ~oul immediately becomes an, . ~'~ Object of re, proach before God. .This is an evil effect of sin "~ ~over which he can certainly grieve. After the man makes a o""~ood confession, he can have a reasonable assurance that he~ has regained God's friendship, but h~ is not sure that'a11 effects of his sin are removed. There may be some tern, ¯ poral ptinishn~ent~ to ,undi~rgo; there mas} be some weak~: : "hess in the sofil, Some special liability to sin, thaf results ~ro~ his former sin.Because of the possibility that such ,._e~il effects may continue, we~,can griev~ over our sin~all t_hr0ugh our lives, because this possibility keeps the sins ~)'present to us at least in some sense. . ~. Perhaps the best way to describe the grief of soul which constitutes the second element of contrition is to"say that. -o jt'il a desire to get.rid of, tO shake off, the effects of our sins; ~ERALD KELLY " ' + ¯ " -Rem'e t+o °/: "o +r Religious. b&ause-- we- realize that m these effects our detestable +sins sti+il:cling to us. , We have~ to remind good people again and again that grief over sin-is not fiecessarily a matter of feeling. To~ u~e - an illustration, let us suppose that two men get, their hands:.,+ and arms cgyered with.m, qd. The firs~ man likes mtid ahd lqeenjoys being covered with it; the secon'd man does .like it. Then suppose that +while.they are covered" wi+~h~the+ ' mud they find oul~ tha(.this particular mud is very harmful to ttie skin." Both of them immediately try. to wash it bff, _ The example illustrates the difference betw+en acci~ dental grief and essentialgri+ef. On!y one of. the.men had a ~ +feelin9 of' repugnance for tlhe mud, yet both of+ them" tried to bedrid of it when they fbund it wa~s harmful. Sb Jr'is with+ Sorrow for sin. To feet-grief over the effects of sin is good, and may even be called an accidental perfection of dontri~" tion'; but theessential thing "is.to want" to be ¯rid of the.e~,i]. ¯ The besl~ exl~ression of grief, therefor)e, is'n61~ tears, but the sincere will to go to confession, to make.an act ~of per-fect contrition, to gain.indulgences, to repair an. injury dorfe' ~, .~to one's neighbor, to accept some hardship willingly in+ re16aration for one's sins, to¯ do some voluntary penahce' for the same purp?se, and so forth. ' These ale the means of: ~dbing away with the effects of our sins; hence, the will to ~do ~uch things is a tangible, way of showing ourselves that we are sorry, no matter how _we feel. Purpose of Amendment ._ ++. Purpose of'arr;endment, though by no mean~ the whole - of contrition, is 'a very important part of it, and probably~ tile best practical proof of it. No_one can have real contri-~ tion unless he intends to "amend" his lifd, but as" ~hi~ "amen "ament~ can have diffeient meanings for~ differefit ~cases; it may be well for us to consider some examplesdr ",8el~(ember, i944 . k ~ ~ ARE YOU SORRy_ FOR YOUR SINS-t these var"ia t"ions. Suppose .that a man who ha~ committed mort.ai gins sinc~ his last confessibn now wants to regain the state of "grace. W~hether he goes to confession, or makes an act-of perfect contrition with the intention of'goirig to confession, he must' certainly be besolved to "amend", his life. And ~ince ¯ his~c0ntr~tion concerns mortal sinsl hispurpose of amend-ment must be really absolute: tha.t is, he~ must intend to - avoid all mortal sin in the future. He would have tohave the same uncompromising r~solutidn, even if he had. com-imitted~ only one mortal sin. The "purpose of_sinni.ng no .more" applies quite literally tO the'case,of mortal sin. On the other hand, suppose the case of a man who has committed only venial sins since hi~ last confession, but . W.ho now- wishes to make an act of contrition for all h~s venial sins because he wants to'gaifi a plenary indulgence. .What kind of purpose.of amendment'must this man have? "The question is not easy to answer with perfect satisfac- ' tionf but it seems safe to say that it is sufficient for him if fie~.retains no attachment'toany venial sins (in the sense . that he intends to continue to commit t/'2ose Sins) and that he has at least a general intention to improve, for example, o' "~ by reducing the number of his venial sins. We mighi add that it is generally recommended that °such a man should -center his purpose of amendment, on the correction of some-~. thing definite. This recommendation is given ~becausel .experience teaches us that a general purpose o~ amendrfient ~,~is likely to prove ineffective "and that the act .of iontrition ih such' a case is ap.t to degenerate into a mere fobr~ula,~,a bit of wishful thinking, and.nothing more. ~, ~ ' ~ ~'A third case: A man has committed only ve'nial.sins since his last confession,, and he knows that be really" is not contrite for some of these sins: yet be'does wish to make a fiind~re act'of contrition" for 6ne kind of sin: for exa.mplq, 345 ~ ¯ GERALI~ KELLY ~ - ~i~iew ~br Religious iying.~ What must be this man's p~rpqse of amendment? ~.- Again, the case is not~asy fo s01~e with perfect satisfactions: but it seems Safe to give this practical~ rule: Ifthe man's lies -are of the ~ull~ ~libecate kind, he ought to'be resolved avoid them entirely; bfit if-the lies are rather.qn the~semi~ deliberate side~. ~he ought at least to have the good will try to reduce their number. In ~he'foregoing cases,-"amendment, of life'~ was used in. its ordiflary, everyday sense: tfiat is~. ~s an impfove~en¢ over one's recent Conduct. 'There is a fourth case, in which the expression,.e~idently has a different, meaning.: sj[der, for example, the holy K~ng David. _He offended God~ seriop~ly; then_he repented of that sin, was_forgiven, as far as we know, lived many years in the friendship, of God. Yet he continued to recite his Miserere for his past ' lapse fr6m grace. I.t would be absurd to think that this Miserere was-not a good act of cpntrition; but if it was " an-act ofcontrition, in what- did the amendment cod~ist? It ~eems obvious that "amendment"-. in such circumsta~e~ .has a wide meaning:~ that.is, it refers to the renewed pur-pOSe of continuing the reform that had begun Years ag6> The case of David is repeated week after-week iK our confessionals throughout the world. People sin~ mortally in their youth; they confess the~e sins, and then live.for-mony~ years without'furthe} serious lapses. Yet these peo- , p1~, can certainly make acts. of contrition for the "bld": mortal., sins;' in fact, they are e~n advised to i.nclude t~ese -sins in their.confessions io that they may benefit more and more by theabsolution. In their case, as ih David s,.the ~ purpose of amendment-for their mort~l sins d0~sno~ redan. :~ an_ intention to correct their present .lives, but" rather- the. renewed purpose to persevere in the amendment.th#t has, 10rig ~ince beefi brought about. The examples illustrate the various aspects ~of and 346 " ,'~':. September, 1944" - - ARE YOU SORRY FOR Y~)UR SINSt ~ requisit~ for ~u~pose of amendmefit. In our own case, ~when we m'ake an act-of contrition, we shall-, generally find a combination of these examples. We have sins of the past, "for .which it is sufficient to.renew our purpose of amend-r~ en~, and°retent sifts which" call" for real amendmen, t o and '~"~ defiriite resolutions. ~" " _ ~We sa~ that the, f.eelings sometimes present a p~ycho-.- °logicaldifficul~y in estimating detestation and grief.- Some- ~"°~hing ,~imilar can happen .wi.th regard.to purpSse of amend- "-~ ment, parti[ul~rly when ha,bitual sins of frailty are in.- '~yol~red. The sinner realizeshis w~akn~ss and, e~ien-.when he makes~ his act of contrition or goes to con'fession,, he "'~feels,sure" that he is going to sin again. Because of thi~, ,.he wonders if he really has a purpose of amendment. . ~"fh~ ,solution to the difficulty lies in a.proper under- ~- standing 6f~a purpose of amendment. I~ is not an act' of ~' the ~ind, but_of the will. It is a sincere.intention to try to dmend; and to take the means necessary.for doin~ that. .::'" ,The"'f.e~ling ~hat one will sin again" may result, not from any" ill~ will, but from the consciousness-that one is weak -~ and that this weakness has expressed itself again and again. Nevertheless, there is no weakness that cannot be Overcome by.serious effort and the grace'of God: Even the most habitual sinner can,,,resolve to make the effort, and he may 'il~ei iure that GSd will give ttie grace. And ,he should not "be ~li~scou.raged if he ~does fall again; ,this may simply be a -~ sign that he h~s not 'yet discovered the proper means for, correcting his particular bad habit. Sometimes people think, that all .they need to do to°~ oirercome bad habits is to go to the sacraments frequently. This'is only one. aspect of the solu[ion. It will ne~ver work unle.ss the sinner ~akes the more obvious means of avoiding "-occasions of sin, of exercising himself in self-control, and~ ~ sd forth 347 K~:LLY~,. ¯ ~ .,. ~ GERALD . . :- ~ " My afialysis of the act of contrition has been lofig.-Yet I.hop-e it ~cbntgins some helpfUl.suggestions. "~In pa~?ticular2 I think that many would find it fruitful to make a medi-tative act of contrition o~casionall) for example, ,during the morning'meditation on confession day. ~The Cl~urch evidently wants us to draw gre~t profit from frequent fe~ssion; and for.this there.is no m~ans more. effective tha~n~. an increase in contrition. ~" o BOOKLE-rs H~cmn and Psalm~ to Our Lad~l is the title of a: handy little, pamphlet containing "an, English translktioa of the Te" Matcem De/ Laadamus and the "5 Psalms" honor Of Ou~ Lady. Readers who are interested tanget the booklet fr,6mothe erend d,ude Senieur, O.F.M.Cap.0 Capuchin College, Brookland, Washington D.C. The pamplet is sold for the cost "of printing and mailing: individual copies 5 cents each; lots of 25 or more at greatly reduced rates. MV Particialar Ex~men Book is a tiny pamphlet containing many~helpful sug-.,.~ gestions concerning the pa,rticular,examen.and a.numbeE of ruled pages.for marking th~ examen. It is published by- the Franciscan Sisters of the Perpetual Adoration.~ ~t. Rose Convent, La Crosse, ,Wisconsin'. The, booklet began ~s a prtvate com-munity project, but the Sis[ers are now offering it to-other groups of religiotis prac2 tically at cost ($3.00 a hundred) in order to stimulate the use of the particular~ -'xamen as an important nieans of spiritu,al advancement. "Anal~lsis of the. New Testament, by. Cyril Gaul. O.S.B. An excellenL booklet. the fruit of m~ny years of teaching Scripture at St.~, Meinrad's Seminary. In accbrd with Pius X's Qaoniarn i~ re Biblica, the author has provided seminarians with an analysis of the various New'Testament books which all priests and ~he laity will welcome. 77 pages. Price: ~40 cents a copy, postpaid; 4 fol $1.00. Address: SL Meinrad Historical Essays, St. Meinrad. Indiana. ' 348 ~XINT DOMINIC,.AND HI~ WORK. By fhe Reverend Pierre Mandon-net, O.P~ Translated by Sister Mary Benedic÷a Larkln,.O.P.~ Pp.~xvlll ~- 487. B. Herder Book Co., Sf~ Louis, 1944. $S.00. -~ : According to a contemporary account, "the Blessed" Dominic w~as of medium height and of slight build. His Countenance was;hand-some:, of fair complexion, with light auburn hair and beard and. lt~minous eyes. A~kind of radiance shone from his br6~. inspiring love and reveren.ce in,all. Full of joy, he seemed e~rer ready to smile, unlesS, moved to ~pity by the affliction of his neighbor. His hands were long and shapely; his voice itrong,, noble and sonorous. He n~ever was bald, and his corona was complete, sprinkled with:~a few white hairs." Along withthis ratherpleasing exterior; he possessed al,so ver, y exceptional interior gifts of'mind, heart, and Will. And if to this~be added,his life-long faithful correspondence with "so many extr~ordina~ry graces, even.mystical ones, we have tl~e man of action Of whom Pierre Mandonnet, O.P.,-a historian df repute, could say: ]'You may quote'me whenever you wish. I consider Saint Dominic as a religibus founder the greatest o~ganizer that ever trod this earth after~the Lord Jesus Christ." To decide whether, or not that jUdg-ment is true requires a careful re~ding of this volume. It is a little~ Summa of Dominican brigins. ~" . P~re Mandonnet once jotted down on a slip of paper: "T0.re~d." :jo.y; to think, delight; .to write, torture." The last three" wor, d.s may be a par~tial explanation why the present work was far from com-i~' le}ed" when he'died in 1936.- But'he had done ~he reading and'the thi_nking, indeed, a. great deal of both: and he had outlined the chap-ters unit had written,some of them. Fortunately, he had competent ¯ disciples and co-workers. Orie of these, Marie-Humbert Vicair~e, O.P., ~ orghnized the .copious material gathered over many.years, and' sup-plement'ed it with critical notes and studies of his own. Anotpey,. Reginald Ladn~r, O.P., contributed a.do~umentedt.background chap-teron the plight of preaching in the twelfth c~ntury. The result is a book, pi~blished in 1939,somewhat lacking in unity and coherence, but substant~ally P~re Mandonnet s, both as to content and arran~e-~ ment. The contributions~.of Vicaire and Ladner are signed by-them, gut this is not noted in the'table of contents, as it should be. , 349 BOOk KEVIEWS _ . ~ Review.for Reli~.lio!is - ¯ Tile~bobl~-is d.ivided into tWO parts. The first part'presents the bis.~orical .setting, sketches tl~e iife of Saint Dominic, and develops at "length .his arduous l~bors in~fgunding and organizing the Order of. ¯ Preachers. Ciearly seen is thehand of Divine Providence, raising up a new Orderto meet the p~culiar religious needs of the times. In the early'thirteenth century,, the gradual coll~p~ of the old feudal s~rstem an~l the growing prominence of the towns a~ad communes brought about a changed order of things. The lower clergy, for the ~ost p_art ignorant and untrained, was too slow adapting itself to the altered situation. T, he bishops were more occupied w~th temporaht~es than" with tlSeir apostolic duty of preaching the .word of God: 5As-a ~ cdns~quence, the faithful, especially in the towns, began to drift away "frOm the Churchqnto heresies and schisms of various kinds. There,. ~was pressing need for an instructed clergy and for preachers of the Gospel. Saint Dominic, the zealous and learned sub-prior~ of the ¯catl~edrai'chapter of O~ma in Spain; was the man of Providence. was chosen~by Innocent the Third to found an Order qf poor priests~' -whose task would 15~ to preach to the people and to teach theology to ~ti~e clerics; in~brief,~"to contemplate and to give to others the fruits of contemplation." It was Dominic's Order that v/as to play such an important and successful. ~ole in carrying out the objectives ~of the- -Fourth Lateran Council~"the reform of the Church, the refor.rn of morals, the extirpation of heresy, and the strengthening "of the" Faith." Ma.y we not say that the Friars Preachers have never ceased ~_ doing, just that? ,The" second part of the book is" concerned with the Rule of Saint Augustine and its relation to the Rule of Saint Dominic. P~re.Mari~ donnet se.edas to have proved .his point: namely, that the Dominican riales and. constitutions,are, an organic development of the second. the,three 'rules of:Sainv Augustine, and. not, as-wfis though_Ufor,~a ~ ¯ lpng time, of the tliird, the famous Epistle.to certain religious women. The .second Rule is that primitive.Rule followed by a com~mentary" .which gaint,)~ugustiiae drew up in 391 for his first community~ of men. This study reveals, the'hand of a master,historian aiad is the most valuable section of the whole work. COncluding the~book-by way of appendices are five important "h'iDstoomriicnai lc astnueds,i"e s",w .aotnceh doof gwsh oicf hth dei sLcoursds.e's.' t Fheiv oer sigimini loafr tshteu deixeps~re~s sbiuotn~- of'a.more restricted and technical nature, l~ave been omitted from the., Efigl~ish e~liti0n. There_is

' % JUNE, 1900 ooThe0o Qettysbiir Mercury CONTENTS The Evolution of the Thinker, 103 In the Storm, . 110 The Dawn of Idealism, . . Ill The Voice of the Sea, . . 117 A Critique of the Doctrines of Heraclitus, . . . 118 The Noble Hero, . Women as Teachers, Spring, . Editor's Desk Otsego Lake, The Turk in Religion, 121 124 126 127 129 133 \sW-G'BURG C. US, DUPLICATE FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. For Fine. Printing go to Tk Jo Co Wile Frigiiii Howe CARLISLE ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. KitzmMer Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and . Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. B. Dealer in Hats, Caps, Shoes and. Gents' Furnishing Goods Corner Center Square and Carlisle Street GETTYSBURG, PA. EDGAR S. MARTIN, ^CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES. Q£T" t^T* t^* Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. Like to learn Spanish? An easy Jan guage to learn. A JlimfuhVs Spanish Method. Self-teaching. SiianUh-ICiKiHx^Engllsh-SpanUh Diction'y, Hossfeld's Italian Method. Self-teaching. I/nlian-ICinjlixh, English-Italian Dictionary, Hossfeld's German Method. SelJ'-teaehlng. . Qerman-English,Engli8h-German Dictionary, $2.00 lloxsfeld's French Method. Sell-teaching. $1.00 French-Fnr/iish, Enalish-Frenck Dictionary. $2.00 lirooks" 1st Latin Jiook. 50 eta. Latin-English, English-Latin Dictionary. $2.00 Jlrooks' \st Greek Lessons. 50 ct3. Greek-English, English-Greek Dictionary. $2.00 Literal Translations of the Classics—Latin, Greek, Germun, French. Eighty-flvc volumes, sold separately, 50 eta. each. Sendfor list. HINDS & HOBLE, Publishers 4-5-1S-14 Cooper Institute N. Y. City Schoolbooks ofall pub-lishers at one store. orsome other v////////// language? .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY. VOL. IX. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1900. No. 4 THE EVOLUTION OP THE THINKER. PROF. OSCAR G. KLINGEK. (Address on Education before the Susciuehanna Synod, May 9,1900.) TT is my privilege to engage your attention for a little while in A some phase of the general subject of education. It is a sub-ject in which you are profoundly interested, and of the import-ance of which you have a keen appreciation. I take it for granted that you are accustomed to give this hour, not that you may be entertained by an elaborate discourse filled with educa-tional truisms and platitudes, but to hear from some member of your body the newest and best thought of which he is capable. I conceive, therefore, that from me you desire to hear this even-ing what ideal I have of education—what, in my judgment, should be the aim of every system of intellectual discipline. Without hesitation, and asking no favors of adverse criticism, I present for your consideration " The Evolution of the Thinker." Whatever is true in my presentation, I ask you to accept ; what-ever does not appeal to your judgment, I ask you to believe to be the honest expression of a growing conviction. The first voice of the Aryan race to utter its thought was the poet of the Vedic Hymns. In that remote past, when the migra-tion of nations from the old Iudo-Germanic home was peopling Europe and the western part of Asia, the Aryans that settled In-dia were resting for a brief spell in the mountains which form the northwestern boundary of that country. Their eye swept the valley of the Ganges and the valley of the Indus, and as that magnificent landscape lay before them like another Promised L,and, their bards sang of the future. I mention this because in this first voice there is the recognition of the three-fold mystery of existence which is yet but partly solved—the mystery of self, the mystery of the universe, and the mystery of God. It has been 104 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. peculiarly the problem of the Indo-Germanic peoples. They only, believing in the authority of the Reason, and being free from the paralysis of fatalism, have dared to pry into things to get, if possible, their inmost secrets. The effort to explain the mystery of self has resulted in all that is known as logic, psychology and ethics; the effort to solve the mystery of the universe has resulted in all that is known as science; and the effort to solve the mys-tery of God has resulted in metaphysics. I have said that the mystery of existence is peculiarly the problem of the Aryan mind, and this finds its proof in the fact that in all other races mythology takes the place of thinking. The nations listen to the voice of fancy, and accept her dreams as the explanation of reality. Hence the lack of progress in the non-Aryan races. One glance at the history of thought among Aryan peoples reveals the business of the thinker. It is to explain the universe as he experiences it. It is to construe in thought the facts as they are presented to his consciousness. In doing this he must be alive to the authority of the Reason; he must inexorably follow her leadings; he must accept her conclusions. Not only this, but his thinking must bear the marks of his own individuality. In process and conclusion it must be distinctly his own. To master another man's thought, to adopt it as his own, is a valuable ex-ercise; but at best it can be only a propaedeutic to his own think-ing. What I wish to emphasize is this, that a man's thought is always an abstract of his own psychic being. A brief survey of the philosophy of knowledge will show the truth of this assertion. Objective cognition involves, first, a world of reality, which can act upon the sensory nerves and furnish the materials of knowledge; secondly, a human mind which is capable of reacting upon the stimulus, and interpreting the presentation; thirdly, the postulate that the principles which are constitutive of intelligence shall at the same time be the principles of cosmic being. i. B3' sense-perception we recognize reality as actually exist-ing and objective, not on the testimony of one sense alone but of all the senses. Even if we mistrust the report of the senses, we still have an invincible proof of the reality of a thing in its power to resist our will. Our whole conscious life, too, is the proof that this world of reality does act continuously upon all the senses, whether we attend to all of them at the same time or not; THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 105 and a single moment of reflection will discover to us that all the data of objective knowledge come in through the sensory nerves. Whatever truth there may be in idealism of the type of Berkeley, we are nevertheless certain that an external world does exist, and does act upon the nerves of sense. The first condition of ob-jective cognition, therefore, is met. 2. Again, self-consciousness reveals the existence of a human mind, which is our own true being. This mind exists as states of consciousness, each of which is a complex, and linked by laws of association with what goes before and what follows after. Every moment of our lives is a conscious reaction of this mind against the stimuli which reach it through the nerves of sense. In this reaction the presentation is interpreted by means of the principles which are constitutive of intelligence. Phenomena are brought under the category of substance; uniformities under that of law; persistence amid variety under that of identity; so in the interpretation of every single, definite presentation are used all the categories or ideas of the Reason, and used in the same way by every human intelligence the world over. For the Reason is not individualized but universal, the same for all intelligence. So far, then, all men must think alike. But the ideas of the Reason do not fill up the measure of the reacting mind. Beyond these primary elements which are univer-sal, the objective universe is a variable quantity, being for each mind the creation of its own endowment. As the endowment differs with the individual, it follows that no two persons can have precisely the same universe. Now, since all thinking is the explanation of experience, and as all experience is particularized, it follows that all thinking must be the abstract of the psychic being of the thinker. To this point we shall return a little later. 3. Our warrant for accepting the postulate that the principles constitutive of intelligence itself are also the principles of cosmic being, may find its illustration in the mathematical theory of the universe. Pure mathematics is a deduction from the Reason it-self, and wholly subjective. Its principles belong to the essence of spirit. And yet these mathematical principles are used in the interpretation of phenomena, and so precisely do they fit the sys-tem of things that prediction based upon calculation has become the mark of science. Knowledge is never scientific until it be-comes mathematical. io6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. It was said above that a man's thought must be an abstract of his psychic being. This psychic being must be studied in order that all the elements which it supplies in the act of cognition may be definitely understood. It is never a chance product. What any man is at any moment is always the resultant of his reaction upon external stimulus under the bias of his inheritance and en-vironment. This statement recognizes three facts of human life —the fact of heredity, the fact of environment, and the fact of personality. Let us study their meaning as it relates to the thinker. i. By the term heredity we name that law according to which an organism tends to reproduce its kind. Its action in the biology of plants and animals is an every day fact, and needs no illustra-tion. Its action, too, in the human physical organism is well un-derstood. In the realm of psychology and ethics its meaning is only beginning to dawn even upon scholarship. There its sig-nificance is truly startling. For in human life it means that all life is an unbroken continuity; that each new life is but the last edition of a long line; that the babe which comes to you with all the appearance of sweet innocence—" fresh from the hand of God," as we are fond of saying—that your babe is but you and your ancestors making a new start in the old life—you and your ancestors, With sufficient marks of difference to constitute a distinct individuality." "He is a new product just because he represents a new combination of ancestral influences." Perhaps you are ready to doubt this teaching, and call for some higher authority than your speaker's. Listen, then, to Prof. Sully, one of England's most conservative and most prominent psycholo-gists : "The normal human brain, with its correlated psychical capacities, is, like the human organism as a whole, the result of the hereditary transmission of specific or typical characters from progenitor to offspring." "The child brings with it into the world an outfit of instinctive tendencies or dispositions constituting the natural basis of the civilized or uncivilized man." "In this way we all bring into the world, wrought into the very texture of our brain-centers, the physical basis ot our future individual charac-ter, mental and moral." " The child inherits from its series of ancestors, woven into the texture of its nervous system, a number of dispositions representing ages of ancestral experience." And Dr. G. Stanley Hall: " Heredity has freighted it (the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 107 body) with all the results of parental well and ill-doing, and filled it with reverberations from the past more vast than science can explore." You cannot fail to see the truly awful significance of this un-doubted law. It means that the whole life of the offspring is largely, though, thank God, not wholly, conditioned by the men-tal and moral character of its progenitors. The thoughts which the child thinks, the feelings which it loves best to entertain, the bias and disposition which manifest themselves at such a tender age, and generally continue throughout life, are not original with it, but have their roots back in the lives from which its life sprang. It is not what it would be, and for what it is it is not responsible. Its bias and tendencies, its instincts and impulses, are such as its ancestors have transmitted to it in brain and nerve substance. 2. "Men start out, then, in existence with a vital capital sup-plied by their ancestry, which is modified more or less by the law of diversity." But from the very moment when that individual life begins, another fact becomes of supreme importance—the fact of environment. By this term we designate "the sum of the influences and agencies which affect an organism from with-out." Soil and climate, food and work, and, above all, hu-man comradeship, constitute a man's environment. And all of this is individualized. A babe opens its eyes upon a specific set of visual phenomena; its ears are responsive to a particular set of sounds; its other senses are in due time recipient of definite sets of appropriate impressions. Its mind at first is but potential; but at once it reacts upon the incoming currents, at first feebly, but then with growing strength. Its only content at first is the bundle of dispositions and biases, mainly neural, which are ances-tral in their origin ; and the entire furnishing of its mind is that which comes to it through sense-perception. In other words, each individual mind depends for the character of its ideas upon the environment in which it lives. But the mere physical facts that lie about do not constitute its true environment. A selective process is carried on. Out of the whole number of actual pre-sentations to consciousness, it selects such only as are most con-genial to its native disposition. This process continues with the development of the psychic being of every man, his objects of io8 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. knowledge being mainly those phenomena which are most to his taste. 3. Heredity and environment form a large part of every human life, but they do not constitute the whole of it. Their binding power is great, but not entirely irresistible. Men do make choices which are in direct antagonism to both. Many a man whose heredity was all evil has conquered his bias, and lived a true life. This power to choose in opposition to all pre-natal and post-natal influences we call the Will. It is the essence of personality. It is not wholly free, can hardly be said to be free at all at the start; but it is every man's privilege to grow into freedom, and this, in the last analysis, is his chief business in the world. To grow into freedom, to develop into a perfect ethical being, this is his birthright from God—it is the mark of God upon his forehead. The psychic being of every man, then, contains elements which are ancestral in their origin, elements which belong to his early environment, and elements which belong to the constitu-tion of the mind itself. And this is the problem of the educator: Given a human mind, which must react upon and explain the external world, but is itself under the biasing power of ancestral and environmental influences, how shall it construe facts in har-mony with their actual nature ? how shall its thought be a true transcript of reality ? If I have made clear what has been said, then one great prin-ciple has become patent, viz.: Every system of intellectual discipline must have as its supreme aim the mental emancipation of the studejit. All other objects must be subordinated to this. The mind must be so developed that it can cognize a fact in its bleak objectivity. Every prejudice must be laid aside and set at naught. The power of opinion must be broken. The colored lights must be dissipated by the white light of reason. For the true thinker can state his problem only thus : Given the fact, how am I to con-strue it in strict accord with its occurrence ? Now, this freedom of mind is a possible achievement. On its physical side, education is a process of brain-building. It is the creation of new brain-cells. It is a deepening of the convolu-tions . It is no longer doubted by psychologists that thought power depends upon the number and integrity of the brain-cells. Mind and brain are exactly correlated, and every psychic function is accompanied by a corresponding neural process. Since education THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 109 is thus on its one side the creation of new cells, may we not sup-pose that such cells lack, in large measure, at least, the bias which dominates the brain of the undisciplined man ? They will, I am sure, if the master-hand who guides the process be a true educator. But on its psychical side, too, education may lead to freedom. Whatever may be the elements of determinism, the will is yet free in the most of its choices. L,et a youth, dominated by the passion for pure thought, determine to conquer all the bias of his nature —determine to think the universe of his experience for himself— determine that facts shall be construed in harmony with their oc-currence, and then let him persevere in this determination, and the day will dawn which will mark his victory. The universe he thinks must still be his universe ; the facts he seeks to construe must be the facts which he experiences and as he experiences them. His thought, therefore, even when uncolored by sub-jective lights and shadows, must still be his own—must bear the marks of his own individuality. This, then, is the first step in the development of the thinker. The discipline through which he passes must have as its supreme aim his emancipation from every form of bias, gift or prejudice under which at the start he lies bound. This is the first step ; but there is a second of equal import-ance. If a man is to think truly he must have the privilege of thinking freely. His environment must be conducive to freedom of thought. I know of nothing which so paralyzes effort as the expectation of being misunderstood and persecuted. No scholar can object to his thought being brought to the test of reality. That is what he craves. Theories are worthless unless they ex-plain facts. All thinking, therefore, must at every point be brought to the test of things. And no true thinker ever shrinks from this test. What he must fear is that his thought will be brought to the test of opinion. Appeal in philosophy is so often an appeal to authority. Now, in some spheres of human interests authority may have its place, but the sphere of thought is not one of them. Each man's thought is valuable in the degree in which it is a true transcript of the cosmic processes, but upon you and me it can have no possible binding power whatever. From the beginnings of European thought to the present time the objective facts have been pretty much the same. Theories iib THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY have been offered for their explanation. The finest minds of each generation have grappled anew with the problem. Much has been achieved, but more still remains to be made rational. Never in its history has the world needed thinkers as in these days of ours. The world's necessity is the educator's opportunity, and more is being done than ever before to enable the student to de-velop into the thinker. But when his thought is laid before the world, and she sees upon it the stamp of his own personality, let her not scream "sceptic," and " infidel" and " atheist;" but let her humbly and gratefully sift his thought, and save the wheat for her granary. For the time has come when of the thinker we may demand that he accept facts as facts, and that he construe them in thought in harmony with the mind's own laws ; but not that he conform his thought to authority, either ancient or mod-ern. Opinion has no place in the test of thought. IN THE STO'RM. I Fast to the anchor on the shore The boat was rocking upon the deep, A cradle for the sleeping' child. The quick storm rose ; the old sea roar Riyalled the thunder ; jerk and sweep Of wave broke loose the boat, ere, wild, The father came. Though all was black, By the trembling- flash that split the east, He saw the child. Mad with alarms He neared the shore. The sea fell back To its vast heap—then rushing fast Swept safe his child into his arms. II Oh, Father, if the storms of sin Break my hold on the anchor of hope And cast me on the wild life sea, When on that shore the waves roll in, Thy everlasting arms then ope And save and clasp and pity me. I THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. til THE DAWN OF IDEALISM. LDIHES A. WEIGLE, '00. A STUDY in the earlier history of our race, or of some phase **■ of its multiform life and belief, is a task of great difficulty, but which possesses, at the same time, a singular charm. For though that distant world of beginnings is but imperfectly recorded in those of its products which have reached succeeding genera-tions ; though it costs the greatest effort to make real for us the conditions of life and modes of thought of its remote people; thoughstep afterstep in their development can be but conjectured— in these very facts, it seems, there lies a delight which the student alone can attain. There is something intensely attractive about his work as he gropes among the dim shadows of the past, catching here a gleam and here a glimpse of light, which become, to his sensitive soul, a realization, however imperfect, of the dawn of society, of religion, of reason. Among these beginnings, then, that which perhaps appeals most strongly to the mind of the scholar is the dawn of reason, the genesis of real thought. Not without justice, too, for the pre-eminence of humanity lies in the reason, and so may the first steps in the true development of its nascent capabilities be most fit objects of study. There is a peculiar fitness as well as a delight iu looking back at the pioneers of thought approaching the problems with which their successors have grappled likewise; in watching the unfolding of intellect as their conceptions ad-vanced. The proper study of mankind is man ; may we not say with equal truth that the proper study of a rational being is reason. It is significant that this awaking of thought did not take place till so late a date in history as 600 B. C.—the time that men have thought of the great problems of the universe has been centuries less than the former period of mental apathy. But perhaps we should not term it so; it was the period of prepara-tion. The time was ripe for thought; the intellect was keyed to the strain that was to be put upon it; for from Thales, with his turning from mythology to philosophy, but with his poor princi-ple of moisture as the ultimate cause, to Plato, with his turning philosophy into the direction it has since kept, with his doctrines almost Christ-like, and with his idealistic philosophy which has 112 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. only lately reached its fullest development, was a period of only two hundred years—absurdly small as compared with the centuries that had gone before and those that have followed. A study of any period of those two hundred years, in many respects the most fruitful in the history of thought, must necessarily be of the richest character. Our subject is concerned with the close of this period, with the laying down, by one man, of the foundation of true philosophy. For Plato, with his idealism, however imperfect, turned thought in the direction it has since followed, and to him must be ascribed our gratitude for the first overthrowal of sensationalism. True, Socrates was the master, the real pioneer ; but all the best that we have of Socrates is through Plato; and he went far beyond Socrates. He caught up the scattered threads of his master's thought; he carried each precious suggestion to its logical end, and added his own crystalline reasoning; and then he wove it all together into a clear system of philosophy which must yet command our respect. Not to say that Plato embodied his thought formally and logically as a system, for it is widely scattered throughout his dialogues, and nowhere arranged with that intent; but it stands clearly and boldly distinct amid the multitude of chaff, so that a student of his writings gains a definite understanding of his thought-concep-tion of the universe. Most of his teaching is put in the mouth of Socrates, a fact which leaves open much for discussion. Many have conceived this Platonic Socrates as a purely dramatic invention. "Plato himself," says Walter Pater, "but presented, with the reserve appropriate to his fastidious genius, in a kind of stage disguise." Just how far this is true, or, on the other hand, how far Plato recorded dialogues that really took place, and the true utterances of his master, we shall possibly never know. But there is no doubt that Plato was an independent thinker, and not a mere scribe, a Boswell before his time. Socrates prepared and suggested; Plato finished that work, and the" enlarged suggestion from its logical completion made it possible for him to transcend the task his master had set him. And Plato's task was by no means easy. From the time of his entering the field of philosophy he was plunged into a combat with the Sophists, who had firm possession of the public mind. Their brilliant show of rhetoric and self-satisfied claim of wisdom THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 113 and ability to educate appealed to the minds of the Athenians, just awaking to their intellectual capabilities, far more trrau the modest claims of Socrates and his pupils, and their confessed search after truth. What the Athenian wanted was ability to help himself in the life of his day, and to defend himself before his numerous courts; and the quickest way to such an education was what he sought. There was a strong basis of fact in the Sophists' claim of superiority to Socrates and Plato—in point of popularity at least. There was no such glamour in the sincere quest of reality as in the Sophists7 wisdom—pyrites is sometimes more beautiful than gold. And it was not only in the common mind of the people that Plato had to overcome a presumption in favor of the Sophists. Their doctrines were dominant among the thinkers of the day, among those few pioneer minds who busied themselves with matters deeper than those called for by the exigencies of every day life. They taught what has been revived again and again by men after them, the doctrine of sensationalism ; and it is a mode of thought which appeals most strongly to our first reflection, an error into which it is the easiest thing in the world to fall. "Sensationalism," says Prof. Ferrier, "is supported by the natural sentiments of mankind; it is the scheme which suggests itself most readily to the untutored understanding; it is a product of ordinary thinking. When left to ourselves we are naturally of opinion that all our knowledge comes to us through the senses; that the senses are the main, indeed, the sole means and instru-ments ot cognition, and this opinion is nothing but the doctrine of sensationalism." When we remember, then, that this vulgar, natural error of common thought was supported and systematized by the Sophists, and upheld by their brilliant logic and showy pretensions, which appealed so strongly to the Athenian mind, we can understand in some degree what a force Plato was com-bating— the picture of Socrates drinking the hemlock "for cor-rupting the youth" is perhaps not so inexplicable. "Man is the measure of all things," said the Sophists, This reference of the universe to the individual not only relegated all knowledge to the realm of sense-perception, neglecting wholly the higher processes of thought, but wrought far greater mischief in the realm of ethics. Individual responsibility and individual judgment of the good without any abiding principle is nothing ii4 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. but moral chaos. Socrates saw this, and he brought all his magnificent powers of thought and speech to bear against it. He called vice, ignorance, and virtue, knowledge; the true life, to his mind, was the rational life. He taught the independent objective existence of the eternal principles, and that morality lay in the more or less perfect knowledge of these fundamentals. His first endeavor, therefore, was to find a correct theory of knowledge; his most particular aim was a logical definition of the concept. "At the basis of all thought, as Kant has clearly demonstrated, must be a critique of the mind's power to know." Such was the task, then, that Socrates gave over to Plato, and we can only understand Plato's work if we remember this as his aim. "His inquiry was—How to think the universe as given in experience." Plato did not undertake his work blindly, but with a full con-ception of all that it demanded of him. He has been called the creator of philosophy, and, indeed, his thought marks more than a mere step in the line of progress; but he did not make the mistake of attempting total originality. His thought bears the unmistakable marks of careful and thorough study in all that had gone before. Plato was a master of Pre-Platonism. His work was the outcome of a consideration of prior thought; he carefully weighed the previous systems, and took from each its principle of truth. From Heracleitus he derived the doctrine of the perpetual flux—itavra /kc ; from the Eleatics, the permanence of Being; from Pythagoras, the principle of number. For the realm of sense-perception the view of Heracleitus is correct. The senses present a succession of ever-changing phenomena. But Plato saw where Heracleitus failed—in affirming that there is no Being, but Becoming; that "the one thing permanent in a world of change is the law which governs the change." If this were true, knowledge would be impossible-—man would be no better than the brute. Consciousness recognizes-something other than this, for it reacts upon and interprets the phenomena of presenta-tion— there is interaction. And therefore, Plato rejected Becom-ing as the absolute principle of the universe, and adopted the Elea-tic notion of Being. There is Reality, he affirmed; but here again he modified the older doctrine, for the changing phenomena of the universe demand something other than the Eleatic Being, changeless, fixed, " a stony stare." And here came the last of the three prior systems to his help—the Pythagorean number; tafe THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "5 mathematical relation mediates between pure being and the changing world. "Pythagoras brought back to Plato's recog-nition," says Walter Pater, "all that multiplicity in men's experience to which Heracleitus had borne such emphatic witness; but as rhythm and melody now, in movement truly, but moving as disciplined sound and with the reasonable soul of music in it." Thus was posited the foundation, not only of Platonic philosophy, but of future thought, in a blending of the guesses of those gropers in the shadows who had gone before. There is change, but not change alone; there is Being, but not changeless Being; there is the union of the two in an interaction of harmony and design. Why that, we say, is modern! Plato is not an ancient philosopher! But Plato's philosophy did not stop here; the most distinctive doctrine of his thought was yet to be developed from this. Socrates had recognized the reaction of the soul in interpreting the phe-nomena of sense; he had seen how the mind abstracts the resem-blances and recombines them in a class-notion, a concept, and, as has been said, one of his most particular aims was the logical definition of this universal. This general concept Plato received from Socrates, and from it he reached his doctrine of ideas, which, more than any other, gives distinction to his thought. In some points almost fantastic, as we now see it, it was a tremendous stride toward the apprehension of reality, and was the starting point of idealistic philosophy. Every human being in the simplest act of knowledge makes use of these concepts or ideas, but he is unconscious of their nature, even of their presence as such; he does not apprehend them as the necessary and essential instruments of thought. Plato saw this, and his conception of ideas became far different from that of Socrates. For Socrates they had been serviceable creations of the reason, essentially subjective in their existence. But Plato detached them from concrete things and gave them objective existence by themselves as real things, independent of the individual mind. Knowledge, he said, is in some sense not active, but passive; these ideas are not the instruments by which we think our experience, but the cause of our thought. Walter Pater puts it clearly : '' They are themselves rather the proper objects of all true knowledge, and a passage from all merely relative experience to the 'absolute.' In proportion as they blend n6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. themselves to the individual, in his effort to think, they create reason in him; they reproduce the eternal reason for him." These ideas are necessary, then; and hence it easily follows that they are universal and co-extensive with reality. Plato also conceived them as innate, not conflicting in this sense with their objectivity and reality; but innate in that they are not the products of experience, but lend themselves to the mind, ready to be called forth by the sense-impressions of experience. In this lay the principle that the seeds of knowledge have a pre-existence in the mind and may be brought forth by growth and development from within, but not imparted to the mind from without. And herein was another point of difference from the Sophists, for they looked on the mind as a waxen tablet on which nothing was originally inscribed, and boasted that'they could impart any knowledge to the pupil; whereas Plato judged with Socrates that true educa-tion lay in drawing from the child's own mind the principles there innate by stimulating the reflective powers. These ideas were conceived also, not as the creative agency, but as prototypes for its use and patterns for reality as we gain it in experience. There is a world of ideas immeasurably higher and purer than this world of sense—our earth compares with it as the shadow with the substance. Plato himself draws this analogy in the "Republic." He supposes a cavern which opens to the day by a long passage before whose mouth is a great fire. Within the cavern are men bound in such manner that they can look only toward the inner wall of the cave, on which are the shadows of the men and animals passing in the outer world between the fire and the mouth of the cave. "These captives exactly represent the condition of us men who see nothing but the shadows of realities. And these captives in talking with one another would give names to the shadows as if they were realities. And if, further, this prison-house had an echo opposite to it, so that when the passers-by spoke the sound was reflected (from the same wall on which the shadows were seen) they would, of course, think that the shadows spoke. And, in short, in every way they would be led to think there were no realities except these shadows." He then imagines that one of these captives is loosed and dragged up into the outer world, and pictures first his pain and blindness in the presence of the true light and his disbelief in the reality of his impressions ; then how he is gradually enabled to see and to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 117 know the truth, and his unwillingness to take up again his former condition. "We must liken the visible world to the dark cavern and the fire which makes objects visible to the sun. The ascent upwards and the vision of the objects there is the advance of the mind into the intelligible world; at least such is my faith and hope. . . . God knows if my faith is well-founded. And, ac-cording to my view, the idea of the Supreme Good is seen last of all and with the greatest difficulty, and when seen is apprehended as the cause of all that is right and excellent. This idea produces in the visible world light and the sun the cause of light; in the intellectual world it is the cause of truth and the intuition of truth." And so these ideas are not co-ordinate, but at the head of all is the notion of the Good. Plato's philosophy has led us to the conception of the Infinite, as must every rational system. And so dawned idealistic philosophy, with its roots far back in the very first of the thinkers, and its plain development in the thought of one man. There is much that is chaff in the pages of Plato, but there is more that is truth. Scribens est mortuus, says Cicero—"he died pen in hand ;" and his work has lived ever after him. For we cannot get away from Plato; his thought is an anticipation of all that has followed. He is ever new and fresh ; his thought is always modern. THE VOICE OF THE SEA. C. M. A. STINE, '01. I sat by the shore of the heaving- sea As the darkness of night grew deeper, And the limitless ocean seemed to me Ivike the lace of a dreaming sleeper. So I listened to the deep-toned murmur, ' Watching the fog wreaths creep Slowly, treacherously nearer To the pallid sands at my feet. I questioned the gray old ocean Who is ever, yet never, the same, "Whereunto hath God created us ? Is't but to sorrow and pain ?" But the all knowing, fathomless sea, As it rolled vast, foam crested and dim, To the paling light of the horizon, Was gray, relentless and grim. n8 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The billows sighed for the mystery And the sorrow of this mortal span ; For man's short life and the losses That come in "three score and ten." "Is this all of your fabled knowledge ?" Broke from me then in my pain, For I sought to find comfort and soothing In the voice of the tossing main. In agony of soul I gazed seaward, When softly over the deep Stole an imperceptible radiance, As the dawn lights on the mountains creep. The mystery of the tossing billows Was hushed, and the thunderous murmur One cadence breathed on the night wind,— "Forget not the love of the Father." Ah, the peace that then came stealing As deep called afar unto deep; The assurance "Thy Father loves thee" Soothed my spirit to dreamless sleep. A CRITIQUE OF THE DOCTRINES OF MERACLITUS. WILLIAM W. FREY, '00. T TERACLITUS. the last representative of the Ionian school of * *■ Greek philosophy, lived, according to Laertius, in Ephesus, about 500 B. C. He belonged to one of the first families of Ephesus, and this is very manifest in the tone of his writings, in his contempt for the masses. In character he was of a melancholy temperament, without political ambition, disliking social inter-course, but greatly inclined towards philosophical speculation. His style of writing, as revealed to us in fragments, was concise, abrupt and very obscure; this obscurity has been attributed to dif-ferent causes by the historians. Ritter supposes it to have been due to the early infancy of prose philosophical writing and to the inadequacy of words to express accurately the thoughts of the lofty range of speculation in which he indulged. Mallet, Descartes and others ascribe it to an intention of the author not to make his meaning accessible to the common people. As to the contents of his work, there is also much controversy. Some regard it as ethical, others political, others solely metaphysical. It seems THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 119 likely, as Mallet says, that Heraclitus gave a wider range to phi-losophy in that he included physical, political, moral and mythical questions within his discussion. The problem he sought to solve—common to the Ionian school—was to discover the physical ground of all phenomena ; the principle which pervades and lies back of all natural phenom-ena. It was the "end of wisdom," Heraclitus held, to find this principle. He differed from the others, however, in assuming the position that Reality has necessarily its ground and principle in an "absolute, universal, illimitable, living, perfect essence," en-dued with vital energy or force, and, disregarding the hypothesis of the independent existence of individuals, he endeavored to grasp this notion. Furthermore, he attempted, too, to find out the law of development,—how all things came from this first principle. Let us now view more closely his philosophy, noting the falsity of some of his doctrines as we do so. The principle which seemed to him the most powerful, subtle and pervading of all elements was ''fire;" so he founded his system, according to Draper, upon the simple axiom "that all is convertible into fire and fire into all." By this fire, however, he means not a flame but a sort of dry vapor, using it symbolically to represent the principle of universal vital-ity,— something more than the "arche" of previous philosophy— a life pervading all. He held that from this one principle, all things proceed, and are again resolved into it by a perpetual flux. Nature resembles a river flowing incessantly. There is no Being but Becoming; the common character of all phenomena is a perpetual strife, but still a strife according to necessary, irresistible laws. By opposi-tion wehave harmony ; by rarefaction and condensation, all things, by contraries, all movement. So fire in producing all things; passes through a series of transformations—this is strife; and again, by assimilation all things die out—this is peace. Testing this thought by actual life experiences, one cannot help but notice how true it is. Life is a struggle; death is rest. In his adaptation of fire as a symbol, again we seethe appropriateness, for fire is rest-less, striving, longing to pass into other forms, continually active until extinguished. But when we consider further that he denies existence to everything except the Law of Change, fallacies are very apparent. I 120 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. For motion always implies something that moves; change sug-gests materials which are transformed. There can be no "real" phenomena thought of, except in connection with something ex-isting. One attribute is necessary to every substance, viz. Being; and, of course, we must have substance in order to conceive of any attribute at all, such as capability of motion, which is essen-tial to the phenomena of motion or change. Though there is con-tinual change, nevertheless we see more than the process, we see also the things themselves changing. At this place, we must con-sider another false doctrine of Heraclitus—shared later by other philosophers. His teaching that our senses are unreliable and practice deception when they give us certain impressions, is found in different forms and under various guises in the writings of Hamilton, J. S. Mill, Bain, Spencer and others. To discuss this subject,—"the relativity of knowledge," would require a greater expansion of our topic than would be proper. Suffice it to say, in Dr. Valentine's words, that "this theory in whatever form, would do away with the possibility of attaining truth of any kind." The best philosophy of centuries affirms the truth that the ''ratio cognoscendi is grounded in the ratio essendi.'' Of course, Heraclitus, not accepting the senses as giving us truth, and start-ing with the assumed basis of eternal motion, could easily deny Being. Another doctrine, palpably false, which reappeared again many years later, was the "universality of belief as the criterion of truth." He maintained that the universal or divine reason, that medium which surrounds us, which is common to all, only could be relied upon ; but the conceptions of the individual reason were not to be trusted. He says, "to think is common to all; and he that would speak rationally must abide by that which is main-tained by all in common." It must be borne in mind that all his doctrines concerning things both subjective and objective are wholly speculative, not empirical. In pursuing his "vital principle" he lost sight so entirely of the individual that he considered it only as purely phenomenal and delusive. "The only proper starting point is the individual.'' Having begun, as he did with the assumption of the reality only of the universal energy, and then, too, considering this as pure transition alone, it is no wonder that the individual drops out en-tirely as such, and is merged into the universal. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 121 As to his theory regarding the physical universe little need be said. If one bears in mind that it was all theory and not observa-tion, all a priori speculation and not science, his hypotheses will not appear so very unreasonable after all. He supposed the heavens to be basins or bowls, the concave part turned towards us; the stars and sun, flames from earthly evaporations; the size of the sun is just twelve inches ; it is kindled every morning and goes out every night; eclipses are caused by the turning around of the basins. His moral system is based upon the physical, the fundamental doctrine being the excellence of fire. Thus he accounted for a drunkard's acts, by his having a moist soul, and drew the infer-ence that a warm or dry soul is best. His doctrine of the soul of man was that it is a ray from the great fire that is in every phe-nomenon and throughout all nature. He did not approach the idea of a soul as we conceive it to-day,—it was not spiritual at all; in fact some of his writings seem so near later materialistic theories, that Cousin calls them, "Materialism in its infancy." Fatalism is very evident in Heraclitus ; movement is the essential. In Heraclitus as in almost all the better Greek writers, we can easily trace the strong national feeling. Political considerations enter frequently. Note the maxim : "A people ought to fight for their laws as for their walls." With such a system and viewing the conditions of his native country at that time, one is not surprised at his deprecatory esti-mation of humanity which finds expression in this : "The very birth of a man is a calamity—a birth unto death." THE NOBLE HERO. S. W. AHALT, '02. ABOUT two miles south-west of Keedysville, and a mile and a half from Sharpsburg there is a beautiful little cottage sur-rounded by a magnificent grove. In front of the house there is a small porch which is covered with ivy. Directly in front of the porch is a fountain, around which there is a gravel drive. For many years this place was owned by an old man named Hastings. He was a very rich old fellow, yet he spent his yearly income on his only daughter, Naomi. Naomi was a beautiful, fair-cheeked girl with golden hair and dark blue eyes. She was very fond of 122 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. fine clothes (as most girls are), and her father tried his utmost to please her in every way possible. Mr. Hastings gave many re-ceptions and dances for his daughter and her numerous friends. At these balls Naomi was looked upon more as a queen than an ordinary girl. Unlike most girls of her age, she did not have any particular gentleman friend, but she was of the opinion that all men are born equal and she treated them as such. One day a young man named Roberts, from N. Y., who was stopping at the Ross hotel in Sharpsburg, called to see Mr. Hastings. It being near the middle of the day, he was asked to stay and take dinner with them, which he did willingly. Mr. Hastings was very much pleased with the appearance and the manners of the gentleman, so he invited him to attend a dance to be given the following evening. Mr. Roberts thanked him very kindly for the invitation and promised him to be present. In the evening, Mr. Roberts was among the first to drive up to the house. He, being a stranger to all the guests, asked for Mr. Hastings, who introduced him to all present. It was a very short time until Roberts became acquainted with all. He was quite a graceful dancer, and of course all the girls were very anxious to dance with the fine-looking stranger. All the time he was dancing you could see that he kept his eye on Naomi and would give her a pleasant smile whenever a chance was given. He had asked her several times to be his partner, but it seemed that she always had an engagement. The dance continued far into the night and it was now time for the friends to say, "Au Re-voir." Roberts was slow in taking his departure, as he desired to speak a few words with Naomi before leaving. One by one the carriages passed through the gate of the yard, until but one re-mained. Naomi and Roberts stepped out on the porch and as soon as Naomi heard the trickling of the water from the fountain the thought struck her that she must have a drink, and in a few moments the two stood beside the beautiful fountain drinking the water from a silver cup. The moon shone brightly and the stars twinkled like diamonds in the azure sky. A few snow-white clouds were floating in the heavens, and a slight breeze, made fra-grant by the rose-buds and peach-blossoms, was moving the leaves of the trees. They watched the little fish swim in the moonlight, and talked about the enjoyable evening they had spent, and Roberts told her THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 123 how anxious he had been to dance with her. Roberts now took his departure, but not until Naomi had invited him to call again to see her. After this his visits were very numerous, and at last they became engaged to be married. About this time the famous battle of Antietam was fought and on the 16th of July, '62, Roberts decided to go into the battle and fight for his country. He spent that evening at Hastings', and Naomi tried every way possible to induce him to stay out of the battle, but he was determined to help his struggling country and he did so. When he departed that night Naomi left these words with him: "Farewell! The sun no longer shines, The skies no more are blue Above this lonely life of mine ; The sunlight goes with you. But oh, whatever lot I see Thro' sunshine or thro' rain, My L,ove, I will be true to thee Until we meet again." Yes, the battle was fought and the victory won. The noble hero had done his part, although it cost his life. Naomi watched both day and night for her lover's return, but alas ! she watched in vain. He was among the many hundreds of soldiers who were lying dead upon the battlefield, covered with blood and dust. There was a letter in his pocket from Naomi, which was the only thing that kept him from being buried among the unknown. A few days afterwards, Naomi was walking past the graves of the soldiers and she saw her lover's name (A.M. Roberts) in her own hand-writing tacked upon a slab at the head of a grave. She burst into tears, but consoled herself by thanking God that she knew where he was buried. For many years Naomi kept flowers upon the hero's grave, and you can now see his name upon the headstone on the western slope of the National Cemetery at Sharpsburg. I24 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. WOMEN AS TEACHERS. GERTRUDE FREY, '00. HPHE higher education of women is a problem which has been * agitated for many years. Formerly woman's subjection to man was very nearly complete in all respects, whether considered from a social, a political or an intellectual point of view. But from being the property of man, she emerged, under civilization, from the sphere of drudgery to that of social power, and conse-quently to the liberty of cultivating her mental faculties. Some people profess to believe that the development of woman's mind is undesirable, because there is a tendency toward what is called "strong-minded" women. But the higher education, rightly pursued, does not make women cold, hard and semi-mas-culine, as many claim it does. Indeed, the more a woman knows of life, the better she understands the past and present of the world, and the experiences and conclusions of its greatest thinkers, the less likely she will be to confuse the masculine and feminine ideals, or to underrate the latter in comparison with the former. Experience has proved to us that women are capable of just as high intellectual development as men ; and many have taken ad-vantage of the opportunity given for the higher education, whether they expect to enter a profession or not. A study of the census statistics leads to the broad statement that there are but few lines of remunerative employment not now open to woman. She is found in nearly all departments of pro-fessional life—ministry, medicine, literature, art, music, the drama, education and science. Of the 128 occupations classified in the census of 1890, only one—military pursuits—had no femi-nine representative. There are some professions which I think are not desirable for women to enter. Generally when the college woman thinks of doing something as a means of livelihood, she thinks of teaching. There have been many objections made to this, because it cannot be assumed that 50 per cent, of all college women have special gifts in the same direction. Experience shows that the special gift for teaching is as rare as other talents, and as valuable when it finds its true expression. Kate Claghorn writes that the evil results to the teacher her-self of this overcrowding of her profession are many. First, ' 'she THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 125 must accept a low rate of pay for her work ; next, she must be content with an inferior position; furthermore, she must lengthen her period of preparation, not always with advantage to the work that she wants to do." She also says, that the remedy for this is plain : That women who graduate from college with the inten-tion of earning a living, should look about for other occupations than that of teaching. " With lowered competition, not only would salaries be raised, but quality of service also." While it is admitted that there are many teachers who perhaps would do better work in other professions, yet it cannot be denied that teaching is one of the best and most suited professions for women. There are many more female teachers than male, yet there are many discriminations made against them. There is no longer a discrimination of position, because women hold just as high posi-tions as men. Women are holding the positions of State, City and County Superintendents. These are principally in the West. But there is a discrimination in salaries, except in the higher positions, where they are the same for all. Let me give a few of Mr. Wright's reasons why women receive less than men. First, "stepping out of industrial subjection, woman comes into the in-dustrial system as an entirely new economic factor. Secondly, woman occupies a lower standard, both in physical features and in mental demands. Thirdly, she receives low wages through an insufficient equipment for life's work, which is not the result of incapacity or lack of skill, but is due largely to the hope that the permanence of work will be interrupted by matrimony." This is in some cases true, and it has a tendency to lower the wages, so that those who do intend to make it a life-work, and do it because they feel that they can do better along this line, cannot receive the salary that they should have. There are many other reasons given why women are paid less than men; but it seems to me that there should be no discrimina-tion made in the payment of salaries if the work is equally well done. Agues Wright says : " The growing importance of woman's labor, her general equipment through technical education, her more positive dedication to the life-work she chooses—all these combined will place her on an equality with man. As she ap-proaches this equality her remuneration will be increased and her economic importance acknowledged." 126 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. While I am in favor of the higher education of woman which places her on an equal basis with man, I think she should net be given the right of suffrage. This would not elevate her. It would take her out of her proper sphere, and tend to destroy all the characteristic traits which are especially desirable in a true womanly character. SPRING. C. R. SHDLTZ, '03. As I hear the bluebird's song And the robin's sweet refrain, I know that Spring- has come again, With pleasures for weak and strong. O, the beautiful days of Spring, Of all the days the best! When Nature, renewed by rest, Again the flowers doth bring. The Earth has been quickened by rain, And hath donned her cloak of green; And leafless trees, by a hand unseen, Have been brought to life again. Hail, then, thou glorious Spring ! For we greet thee with good cheer; Hail, blessed season of the year! Thy praise we do gladly sing. _-L .'THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Voi,. IX. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1900. No. 4 Editor-in- Chief, S. A. VAN ORMEH, '01. Assistant Editors, W. H. HETRICK, W. A. KOHLSE. Business Manager, H. C. HOFFMAN. Alumni Editor, REV. P. D. GARLAND. Assistant Business Manager, "WILLIAM C. NEY. Advisory Boards PROF. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg-) College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Ten Cents. Notice to discontinue sending1 the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORS' DESK. ^~\N Saturday evening, May 12th, the Y. M. C. A. entertain- ^-"^ ment course was completed with a lecture on Literature as a Personal Resource, by Hamilton Wright Mabil, editor of The Outlook. None but words of appreciation were heard from those who are interested along the line of Mr. Mabil's lecture. The lecture was delivered in a conversational rather than in an oratorical manner. His smooth flow of plain language, to-gether with his great breadth and unusual discrimination, are the characteristics that captivate his audiences. He gave us the best thoughts that have accumulated from his broad experience in the field of literature. Mr. Mabil seems to have felt the pulsations of the hearts of the masters, and received their vitalizing in-fluences. ! 128 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURlt \V7E gratefully acknowledge the receipt of Commencement pro- ** grams and invitations from State College and Dickinson. J> 'THE cause advocated by the following letter merits recognition *■ in THE MERCURY, hence we publish it in full, hoping that by so doing we may lend some assistance to a worthy cause. The tireless efforts of President Passmore will, we hope, be rewarded in this meeting. ■To TEACHERS, DIRECTORS AND FRIENDS OF EDUCATION IN PENNSYL-VANIA : I desire to call your special attention to the next meeting of the Pennsylvania State Teachers' Association, which will be held this year in the city of Williamsport, Pa., July 3rd to 6th, inclusive. Every enrolled member of this Association will receive a copy of the addresses and other proceeding's, not only of the State Teachers' Association, but of the City, Borough and Township Superintendents' Association, and also of the State School Directors' Convention, thus getting1 the very best thought along these different lines in the State. I appeal to the friends of education in Pennsylvania to enroll in large numbers. There are over 26,000 teachers in the State in the pub-lic schools alone, and the number of superintendents, teachers, direc-tors and other friends of education enrolled should not be less than 10,000. The trip to Williamsport is a pleasant one. It is an ideal place to meet—fine hotels, its citizens noted for their hospitality, elegant drives; and the excursion to Eaglesmere will be a great attraction. The pro-gram is excellent. Turn out in large numbers, and show your interest in the great educational Association of your State. If you find it utterly impossible to attend the meeting, send your enrollment fee of $1.00 to Prof. David S. Keck, Treasurer, Kutztown, Pa., who will promptly send you a certificate of membership. Let me not plead in vain for our dear old Commonwealth to make this meeting a record-breaker. JOHN A. M. PASSMORE, President. A S this is the last issue of THE MERCURY this college year, it ■**■ seems in place to express our appreciation of the courtesies of the Student body and Alumni who have so generously fur-nished us the material with which to fill our pages. The primary object of the journal is to encourage writing on the part of the students, both in prose and verse; and it seems to be accomplish-ing this end. Not all the articles that appear are of the first or-der, nor can this be expected; for, if only the best were accepted, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 129 we should want for material, and again that needed stimulus would not be furnished to the students in general—which is THE MERCURY'S mission. The present number—and such is the case with most issues—contains articles above the average, articles worthy of study. \V7E are glad to acknowledge the receipt of the May numbers " of The Washington Jefferso7iian and The Western JJyiiver-sity Courant, two journals that have not been reaching us. OTSEGO LAKE. WM. M. ROBENOLT, '02. f~\F the many little sheets of water found in the mountainous ^-' districts of central and eastern New York there is none which surpasses Lake Otsego either in the beauty and variety of its surrounding scenery or in the number and interest of the historical events connected therewith. "Peerless among- these mountain gems, Unmatched 'mong nature's diadems, Is Lake Otsego, 'Glimmerglass,' Whose grandeur rare naught can surpass." This body of water, forming a basin ten miles in length and one in width, is located on the hills forming the watershed between the Mohawk and Susquehanna rivers, its elevation above the sea level being about 1,300 feet. At its outlet is where the Susque-hanna enters upon its long and winding and troubled course toward the ocean. It lies within the territory formerly occupied by the Mohawks, and this region was their favorite fishing and hunting ground. Along its western bank was the trail of these Indians in their journeys toward the south. From this region, undoubtedly, furs and skins were sent to Ft. Orange to be bartered with the early Dutch traders, for the hills abounded in fur-bearing animals of different species. This lake furnished a means for Gen. James Clinton, after making his expedition up the Hudson and the Mohawk, to convey his army southward to meet Gen. Sullivan who was to yAn him from the south and then march into the country of the Cayugas and Senecas. On the first of July, after carrying his boats over-land from the Mohawk, he embarked at the head of the lake with 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. over two hundred boats and began his journey over its placid waters toward the Susquebanna—a larger fleet, doubtless, than shall ever again float on these waters. After landingat the outlet they encamped on ground now occupied by the village and waited for orders to move southward. During the stay here of nearly six weeks he and his men amused themselves by hunting the deer on the hills and fishing in the lake. This beautiful sheet of water is the first on which James Fenimore Cooper's eyes fell with a conscious look, and be-ing reared along its shores, it was always a charming spot to him. It has been made famous by his classic pen, for in and about this lake are laid some of the most interesting scenes found in his "Leather Stocking Tales.'' In this vicinity is where Natty spent his time in hunting with the Indians, and now may be seen on the eastern shore near the foot of the lake a fine marble statue of him, standing erect on a small monumental column ; the tall white figure of the old hunter stands gleaming among the higher branches of a grove of young pines, looking over lake and valley. The one who visits this lake to-day does not see the unbroken sylvan surroundings that were here in the days of Clinton and Cooper. When Clinton encamped here there were no permanent dwellings and very few in Cooper's younger days. Now may be seen a village at either end and cottages and beautiful farm houses around its shores. To one who has an eye for the beauties of Nature, the views about this lake are an unceasing source of delight. Hills, inter-spersed with woods and meadows, abounding in springs whose water trickles down their banks finding its way to the basin of the lake, rise from either side, those to the east being for the most part steep and rugged, while those to the west have a more gentle slope. Thousands of visitors seek this spot every summer, and the entire length of its beach is dotted with tents and camping houses. A roadway parallels the whole lake and pleasure seekers often take a drive, making the complete circuit, a distance of twenty-five miles. The village lying at its southern shore is called Cooperstown, from the name of its founder. Here are the summer residences of some of the most prominent people of this country. From the pier at this place one can get a view of nearly the whole lake. To the right of the pier and not far from the outlet THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 131 may be seen the rock which formed the place of meeting for Deer-slayer and Chingachgook, with the limpid waves rippling about as they did at the time of this meeting. It is now known as Otsego or Council Rock. The river for the first few rods, after receiving the water from the lake, flows so smoothly that scarcely a ripple may be seen. Its terraced banks are covered with scenery which may well challenge a rival. It has been termed the "Lover's Lane." To the eastward of the outlet and beyond the village, rising in terraces, is the "Lakewood" cemetery, one of the most beautiful in the country, among whose marble columns, one erected to the memory of Cooper towers above the rest. On its base are sculptured emblems of the author's thought, and on the top, with dog and gun, is Leather Stocking—Fiction's son. The body of Cooper, however, was laid to rest in the village churchyard nearby. At the east from the cemetery one of the slopes rising above the others is known as Mt. Vision. From this height where the whole lake is visible it appears like an opal enclosed in an emerald. To the north of the cemetery, a little distance up the hillside from the beach, is found the Fairy Spring. Chaliced in a solid rock, its waters form a mirror here in the hillside. Every summer many little parties picnic here for a day and many interesting little stories are connected with the consecrated spot. Farther up along the eastern coast and not far from the shore has been erected a tower which commands the view of the lake. The name "Kingfisher Tower" has been given this. A short distance to the north and up on the hillsides, which here are so steep they can scarcely be climbed, may be found a rocky glen, the famous "Leather Stocking Cave." "Sulphur Spring" is the next point of interest, whose waters are valuable for medicinal purposes. A short distance from here two streams side by side glide down the mountain with a narrow ridge between them in the form of a roof, called the "Hog-back." When viewed from the lake the deep ravines which form the bed of these streams appear like a large "W." Farther on the hills take a gentle slope and through them flows a stream which is one of the most beautiful places about the whole lake. Its banks are lined with trees whose images are reflected in the water. It is termed the "Shadow Brook," the northern "Lover's Lane." Nearby lies a promontory whose f 132 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. gentle slopes have been cleared of their forest growth. This viewed at a distance assumes the form of some monster crouching for his prey, and from this resemblance has been called the "Sleeping Ivion." Tradition tells us that in Cooper's day an island lay off the coast of this promontory. (On this island was Hutter's cottage.) It, however, has since been submerged and lies but a few feet below the surface. An interesting story is connected with this and the "Sleeping L,ion." It is said that the lion outstretched his paws, struck the island and caused it to sink beneath the water, and to-day we have the "Sunken Island." This brings us near the head of the lake where the village of Springfield is situated. The points of interest along the western shore are not so numerous, though the views gained from this side are much more beautiful than those gained from the east side. Two points of interest, however, command our attention, Three Mile and Five Mile Points, situated, respectively, three and five miles from the village of Cooperstown. It is scarcely possible to imagine a spot more charming than the one first mentioned. Jutting out into the limpid waters of the lake at the foot of a height, lined with a pebbly beach, covered with trees and a grassy carpet, it seems to possess every charm to render it a favored spot. A limpid spring, remarkable for the coolness and sweetness of its waters, rises from the gravel of the beach at the very root of ancient trees. A wild brawling brook coming down from the hills has torn for itself a rude channel, adding variety to the ground, and often blending the troubled murmur of its waters with the gentle play of the ripple on the beach. The views in every direction are unsurpassed. In the rear, rise hills which seem to touch the sky in the distance. The eye, having wandered over a beautiful expanse of water, sees hills on the opposite side covered with woods and meadows from the strand to their crest. To the northward is the isolated height before mentioned as the "Sleeping Lion." To the southward lies the village of Cooperstown and the valley of the Susquehanna with a background of low mountains in the distance. This was one of the places selected by Cooper for several of his most impressive scenes. On this point the "Mingoes" are encamped when Natty's daring rescues Hist; and here he sends the canoe with the Indian lovers adrift and remains himself a THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 133 prisoner. And here is where Deerslayer was captured by the Indians. Ever since the days of Cooper this spot has been sacred. During the summer several boats make daily trips from one village to the other, stopping at the intermediate points of interest. Who, after enjoying a ride on the Natty Bumpo, can forget the beautiful scenery gained from her deck ? Smaller crafts may be seen floating on the glassy surface for its entire length. This lake will always be held dear in the memory of one who has visited it. All whose paternal homes lie on or near a fine lake shore can readily say with Natty, "My eyes never a-weary looking at it." Irving waters are the very soul of a landscape. There is certainly no other natural object, however fine, whether imposing like a grand mountain or winning like a smiling valley, which carries with it so much of the spirit of companionship through all the successive years of a human life, as a lake, and one of a limited size awakens more of this feeling than a larger body of water. THE TURK IN RELIGION. A. H. MERDINYAN, '01 (KONIA, ASIA MINOR). 'THE Mohammedan world is proud of her children, who have intense loyalty to their religion, and are active for its wel-fare. Although the nation is a prey to the misteaching of the Koran, still feeling it j»o be the best pioneer of truth, they live under its obscure banner and the misery of misleading religion. The Turk is intensely religious in his belief, and endeavors to accomplish all the rites and duties of his religion. He is held within the limits of his false religion, and his freedom of thought and private judgment is crushed, and he cannot find an occasion to develop for better. He has no freedom to accept the other re-ligion, which is far better than his. The Turk in religion is what he is, and remains what he is, because his religion is Moham-medan. There is no leaven in it. Elements of kindness, politeness, hospitality and religious fer-vor are their good qualities ; but they show anger, hatred and bitter cruelty when occasion offers. In the highest attitude of his religious inspiration he often gets too wild, and is not less than a beast. He is a cold-blooded murderer and butcher to carry on the false mission of the Koran, as he believes it to be his reli-gious duty. In his religious inspiration he cries out, "O Eord of 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. all creatures ! O Allah ! Destroy the infidels and polytheists, thine enemies, the enemies of the religion ! 0 Allah ! make their children orphans, and defile their abodes, and cause their feet to slip; give them and their families, their households, their women, children, possessions and race and their wealth and lands as booty to the Moslems, O God of all creatures !" The Turks are missionaries as well as Christians. They press steadily forward to convert the world. They labor under a mis-erable delusion and misconception that Mohammedanism is an elect, and paves the way for a purer faith, which leads to the life eternal. The sword of Mohammed and the Koran are the most stubborn enemies of civilization and truth the world has yet known; and every believer in the Koran is in the same propor-tion anxious to bring many under the bloody and shameful banner of his religion. They have the great honor (?) of being the most destructive and cruel nation of the world. To-day the largest religious university in the world belongs to the Mohammedans— " Ayhar," the university in Cairo, where nearly ten thousand young men are preparing themselves for the priesthood, to spread and proclaim the doctrines of Mohammed to the wide world. Al-most every town and city of the country is provided with theo-logical schools, graduating every year scores of young priests for the mission of Mohammed. Iconium, with its sixty thousand population, has thirty-five Mohammedan theological schools. Mohammedanism is an aggressive religion, and is anxious to bring "kafirs" Infidels (as they call the Christians or non-Mo-hammedans) within its pale. We cannot overlook the fact that in late years they have written pages of history with their sword dipped in Armenian blood. Their extreme civil and religious measures were more than an Armenian nation could bear, and the result has been cold-blooded murder throughout the land. The blame is on Christian nations, who, being unconcerned, tol-erated their brothers and sisters to suffer unto the death under the paw of a wild and cruel nation, which every day strives to exter-minate all those who are outside of their religious sphere, as well as on the Moslems. So long as the political power and supremacy rests in the Turk, there can be no real civil and religious liberty in that country. There are 200,000,000 Mohammedans in the world—nearly one-eighth of the human race—who live and die under the stub- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 135 born doctrines and statutes of the Koran; under its sway the radi-cal evils of polygamy and divorce are fully practiced among them. Islams can legally and religiously take as many as four wives, but the number of concubines is not limited. The Turk not only looks upon polygamy as right and proper, but he considers it a religious duty. The practical duties of a Mohammedan are pro-fession of faith, " L,a ilahe illallah Mohammed er-resoul-oallah" (There is no God but one God, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God); ablution with prayer; giving alms to the poor; and going to Mecca. Kach faithful believer ought to pray five times a day —at dawn, at noon, in the afternoon at three o'clock, at six o'clock, and in the evening at eight o'clock. Before each prayer ablution, washing of hands, feet, mouth, ears and face is impera-tive. "While doing this certain prayers are offered for the for-giveness of the sins which are committed with these several mem-bers. The form of worship consists of kneeling down, rising, bowing down, kneeling again, and putting face against the floor, and each time whispering certain prayers; then clasping the hands over the face, passing them down and off as if driving the devil away. The mosques are open at all hours during the day. The external part of the mosque is most gorgeous and mag-nificent, but internally it is very plain. The floor is covered with beautiful rugs or carpets. No chairs are in the mosque. Here and there some texts from the Koran are written in large letters. Mosques have no bells. "Magin," with loud voice, yell from the top of minarets, " There is no God but one God, Mohammed is the Apostle of God;" "Come to prayer, come to the temple of life." That is the echo which comes from the hundreds of mina-rets each day five times. Friday is their Sabbath. After ablution each believer enters into the mosque, after taking off his shoes at the vestibule or door, and takes his place beside his fellow-be-lievers. An ultimate reverence and respect prevails during the prayer—no talking, no laughing, no sleeping ; even coughing is checked by each believer, in intense reverence to prayer. In perfect harmony the immense body of believers worship in such a solemn manner as can hardly be seen in any other place of wor-ship. The preacher is at the altar. He is without any special garment. He leads the prayer, and each of his movements or prostrations are observed and imitated by hundreds and thousands of worshipers. After prayer they may hear some exhortations from the Koran on their practical duties of religion, and then they are dismissed. 1 PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. C F. SOLT MERCHANT TAILOR Masonic Bldg., GETTYSBURG Our collection of Woolens for the coming Fall and Winter season cannot be surpassed for variety, attractive designs and general completeness. The latest styles of fashionable novelties in the most approved shades. Staples of exceptional merit, value and wearing durability. Also altering, repairing, dyeing and scouring at moderate prices. .FOR UP-TO-DATE. Clothing, Hats, Shoes, And Men's Furnishing Goods, go to I. HALLEM'S MAMMOTH CLOTHING HOUSE, Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, PA. ESTABLISHED 1867 BY ALLEN WALTON. ALLEN K. WALTON, President and Treasurer. ROBT. J. WALTON Superintendent. Hummelstooin Broom Stone Company Quarrymen and Manufacturers of Building Stone, Sawed Flagging and Tile Waltonville, Dauphin Co., Pa. Contractors for all kinds of Telegraph and Express Address. Cut Stone Work. BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting the Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. R. For a nice sweet loaf of Bread call on J. RAMER Baker of Bread and Fancy Cakes, GETTYSBURG. PA. EIMER & AMEND, Manufacturers and Importers of Chemicals and Chemical Apparatus 205, 207, 209 and 211 Third Avenue, Corner 18th Street NEW YORK. Finest Bohemian and German Glassware, Royal Berlin and Meissen Porcelain, Pure Hammered Platinum, Balances and Weights. Zeiss Mi-croscopes and Bacteriological Apparatus; Chemical Pure Acids and Assay Goods. SCOTT PAPER COMPANY MAKERS OF FINE TOILET PAPER 7th and Greenwood Ave. PHILADELPHIA PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Century Double-Feed Fountain Pen. Fully Warranted 16 Kt. Gold Pen, Indium Pointed. GEO. EVELER, Agent for Gettysburg College PRICE LIST. No. 1. Chased, long- or short $2 00 No. 1. Gold Mounted 3 00 No. 3. Chased 3 00 Spiral, Black or Mottled $2 50 Twist, " " 2 SO Hexagon, Black or Mottled 2 50 No. 3. Gold Mounted 4 00 Pearl Holder, Gold Mounted 5 00 THE CENTURY PEN CO., WHITEWATER, WIS Askyour Stationer or our Agent to show them to you. Agood local agent wanted in every school mmmv,-,_.,u. sammmmmmwmwmmmmmmmmmmwwwgg Printingand Binding We Print This Book THE MT. HOLLY STATIONERY AND PRINTING CO. does all classes of Printing- and Binding-, and can furnish you any Book, Bill Head, Letter Head, Envelope, Card, Blank, or anything- pertain-ing- to their business in just as good style and at less cost than you can obtain same elsewhere. They are located among the mountains but their work is metropolitan. You can be convinced of this if you give them the opportunity. Mt. Holly Stationery and Printing Co. K SPRINGS, PA. =3 H. S. BENNER, .DEALER IN. Groceries, Notions, Queenswcire, Glassware, Etc., Tobacco and Cigars. 17 CHAMBERSBURG ST. WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. Pitzer House, (Temperance) JNO. E. PITZER, Prop. Rates $1.00 to $1.25 per day. Battlefield a specialty. Dinner and ride to all points of interest,including the tb ree days' fight, $1.25. No. 127 Main Street. MUMPER & BENDER Furniture Cabinet Making, Picture Frames Beds, Springs, Mattresses, Etc. Baltimore St., GETTYSBURG, PA. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs and Fine Sta- People's Drug Store Prescriptions a Specialty. .GO TO. {}otel (Gettysburg Barber Sfyop. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON J. A. TAWNEY ». Is ready to furnish Clubs and Bread, Rolls, Etc. At short notice and reasonable rates. Washington & Middle Sts., Gettysburg. W.F.CODORI, M*£T£&! Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davxb Croxel, Dealer in ^tne (groceries cmb notions «-«-4}ork Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washing-ton Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, Graphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. Spalding's OFFICIAL Athletic Goods Officially adopted by the leading Colleges, Schools and Athletic Clubs of the Country. Every requisite tor Baseball, Football, Golf, Tennis, Athlet-ics, Gymnasium. Spalding's Offi- 'cial League Ball is the Official Ball of the Na-tional League and all the lead-ing college asso-ciations Handsome cata-logue of Athletic Sports free to any address. Spalding's Baseball Guide for 1900,10 cts. A. Q. SPALDINQ & BROS. New York Chicago ROWE. YOUR GROCER Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc, Best Coal Oil and Brooms,at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEOE CAMPUS. S. J. CODORI, Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE ST. R. H. CULP PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York Street. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH St. PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES:- Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through A. N. Bean. To Repair Broken Arti-cles use Major's Cement Remember MAJOR'S RUBBER CEMENT, MAJOR'S « LEATHER CEMENT. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Pleased Customer Is not a stranger in our establish-ment— he's right at home, you'll see him when you call. We have the materials to please fastidious men. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg- St., Gettysburg, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instruments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, GROCER Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season. 19 Main St. GETTYSBURG City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. ^ Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day John E. Hughes, Prop. Capitol Cit? Cafe Cor. Fourth and Market Sts. HARRISBURQ, PA. First-Class Rooms Furnished. Special Rates to Private Parties. Open Day and Night. European Plan. Eunch of All Kinds to Order at the Restaurant. ALDINGER'S CAPITOL CITY CAFE. POPULAR PRICES. F. Mark Bream, Dealer in Fancy and Staple Groceries Telephone 29 Carlisle St., GETTYSBURG, PA. .Photographer. No. 3 Main St., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. Our new effects in Portraiture are equal to photos made anywhere, and at any price PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS alright, 140-142 Woodward Avenue DETROIT, MICH. Manufacturers of High Grade Fraternity Emblems Fraternity Jewelry Fraternity Novelties Fraternity Stationary Fraternity Invitations Fraternity Announcements Fraternity Programs Send for Catalogue and Price List. Special Designs on Application. MOTEL GETTYSBURG LIVERY GETTYSBURG, PA. LOING & HOLTZWORTM, Proprietors Apply at Office in the Hotel for First-Class Guides and Teams THE BATTEFIELD A SPECIALTY TTbe JSoIton Market Square "Ibartfeburg, lpa. Large and Convenient Sample Rooms. Passenger and Baggage Elevator. Electric Cars to and from Depot. Electric Light and Steam Heat. J. M. & M. S. BUTTERWORTH, Proprietors Special Rates for Commer-cial Men "EZ 1ST IMMER CUT ET WAS ZU WISSEIN." These are the words of Goethe, the great German poet, and are as true in our day as when uttered. In these times of defective vision it is good to know something about eyes. A great deal has been learned about the value of glasses and their application since Goethe lived. Spectacle wearers have increased by thousands, while at the same time, persons losing their eyesight, have been greatly diminished. If your eyes trouble you in any way let me tell you the cause. Examination free and prices reasonable. We grind all our own lenses and fit the best lenses (no matter what anyone else has charged you) for $2.50 per pair and as cheap as SO cents per pair, or duplicate a broken lens if we have one-half or more of the old one, at a reasonable charge, returning same day received. .E. L. EGOLP. 807 and 809 North Third Street, MARRISBURG, PA. r PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. (^entFal [lotel, ELIAS FISSEL, Prop. (Formerly of Globe Hotel) Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa. Two doors from Court House. MODERN IMPROVEMENTS. Steam Heat, Electric Light and Call Bells all through the House. Closets and Bath Rooms on Every Floor. Sefton & Fleui-mrng's Ijivery is connected with this Hotel. Good Teams and Competent Guides for the Battlefield. Charges Moderate, Satisfaction Guaranteed. Rates $1.50 Per Day. GET A SKATE ON And send all your Soiled L,inen to the Gettysburg Steam Laundry R. R. LONQ, Prop. R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, PA. J^ Try My Choice Eine of A t. High-Grade Chocolates 3 L p y. J. V. at 40c per lb. Always fresh at ,\ £ CHAS. H. McCLEARY j £ Carlisle St., Opposite W. M. R. R. j) l. Also Foreign and Domestic Fruits A j" Always on Hand. ** JOHN M. MINNIQH, Confectionery, lee, • andIee Creams. Oysters Stewed and Fried. No. 17 BALTIMORE ST. HARRq f}. 3EFTON The Leading Berber v>f)op (Successor to C. O. Sefton) Having- thoroughly remodeled the place is now ready to accommodate the public Barber Supplies a Specialty. .Baltimore Street. GETT*l5§UR(i, PA. ESTABLISHED 1876 PENROSE MYERS, Watchmaker and Jeweler Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, Col-lege Souvenir Spoons. NO. 10 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. L. (\. klltW Manufacturers' Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, Paints and Queensware. GETTYSBURG, PA. The Only Jobbing House in Adams County.

The Mercury June, 1893 ADVERTISEMENTS. IRailroafc "The "Royal 'Route" /Viu^rc and ^rfc C°1s^^Vato^y. Chartered 1850, offers Classic, Normal, Music and Art courses for Diploma and Degrees ; comprises three large brick buildings, situated on ;t beautiful eminence, a lovely campus, library, apparatus, hot and cold mountain water, steam heat, gas light, electric bells, a suite of rooms nicely furnished for every two or three students, music lessons on 1'ipc Organ, Reed Organ, Piano, Violin, Guitar, Mandolin, IJanjo, and Cornet. Lessons in Drawing, Crayoning, Pastel, China and Oil Painting. German and French languages taught and spoken. Special attention paid to Elocution and Voice Culture. Normal course with Diploma for teaching. Strict attention given to Physical, Social, and Religious culture. Kee Mar College is located in a most attractive, refined, and healthful city of 14,000 people. SEND FOR CATALOGUE AND JOURNAL TO Rev. C. L. KEEDY, A. M. M. D., President, Hagcrstown, Mel. To th$ StlJd^rjts oF New and Direct Line To and From QETTT5BURQ. Fast, Frequent and Superbly Equipped Train Service Between NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, Allentown, Pottsville, Williamsport, Reading, Harrisburg and Interior Pennsylvania Points, with through connections to and from all parts of the Middle States, New England and the West. Visitors to America's Greatest Battlefield can obtain through tickets and baggage checks, via this new and most picturesque route, at all principal stations and ticket offices throughout the country. I. A. SWEIGARD, C. G. HANCOCK, General Manager. Gen. Pass. Agt. Barber SfrQP> CHARLES C. SEFTON, PROPRIETOR. BALTIMORE STREET. THE PLACE FOR STUDENTS TO GO. ONLY FIRST-CLASS WORK QANDERS & OTAYMAN Beg to call attention to their splendid exhibit of the leading makes of Pianos and Organs Including the famous ESTEY OROAN, WEBER, DECKER BROS., ESTEY, FISCHER, AND IVERS AND POND PIANOS. Also a full line of Sheet Music, Music Books, and Musical Instruments of all kinds, including Violins, Mandolins, Banjos, Guitars, Cornets, Autoharps, &c. SANDERS & STAYMAN, 13 NORTH CHARLES ST., BALTIMORE, MD. 934 F STREET, N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. Music Sent " On Selection." Catalogues Free. We are Sole Agents for the Wonderful "JEOLIAN," an Orchestra in Your Own Parlor, With You as Musical Director. Spalding's Livery Stable, STRATTON ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. Branch Office, E. S. Faber's Cigar Store. Hacks, Carriages, Wagonettes, Double Teams, Riding Horses, Large Wagons Capable of Holding Sixty Persons at a Time. COMPETENT GUIDES FOR THE BATTLEFIELD. CHAS. J. SPALDING, Proprietor. "-vjX5))jj ■ ■ ■ ■ 11 ■ 11V? 11111:111 -1 -11: ■ i.ii i.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiii-iiiaiii'iiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimlftQv1*^— Gettysburg Carriage Works, CHAS. J. SPALDING, Proprietor. WEST MIDDLE STREET. BUILDER OF « Surreys, Buggies ^ Road Wagons.>« REPAIRING PROMPTLY DONE. ADVERTISEMENTS. B. # O If you are Going to the World's Fair— And we suppose you are— We desire to Call your attention To the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, Because it is The Shortest Route From this section Of the country, And because it Is the most Picturesque and Historic. Its solid Vestibuled Trains from New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore Run via Washington, Traverse the Historic Potomac Valley, the theatre Of the war between the States, and cross the Allegheny Mountains, 3,000 feet above The sea level. All through trains carry Pullman Sleeping cars. The rates to the World's Fair via the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Will be very cheap, And the train service Will be unexcelled. The Baltimore and Ohio Has direct tracks From its station at Chicago to the World's Fair Grounds. Apply to Chas. O. Scull, General Passenger Agent, Baltimore, Md., if You desire to know More about this Great Route. ADVERTISEMENTS. iii Society Baboes flbri3e flfcebals Stationery The most successful designers of College and University Badges in the Country Estimates— -Designs on Application BAILEY BANKS BIDDLE Chestnut and Twelfth Streets Philadelphia, *Pa. iHary had a Little Lamb, (Stam> your Memory.) It's wool was all the go— We make it up in BUSINESS SUITS for S1 5.00 you know. These Custom-Wade Suits are popular throughout America — because they represent the very Quintessence of Nobby Dress, and are essential to every business man who cares one lota for economy and APPEAR-ANCE. Send us 6 cents in stamps, stating kind of gar-ment or suit desired, and we will forward you SAMPLES of Cheviots, Cassimeres, etc., Self-measurement rules and fashion plate. YOU DO THIS and we do the rest. Balti-more cheapest market. KEELER the largest custom producer. Full Dress Suits, Trousers, - - Frock Suits, • Overcoats, - - JOnN M. KEELER, 5 N. Calvert St. Baltimore, fid, "Suffer no longer the extortions ofloco-1 tailors. S25.0U Up. $4.00 Up. $18.00 Up $18.00 Up. OEHM'S AGME HALL @nirm Hnnm & ruinisnrm 5 and 7 W. Baltimore Street, Annex 6 and 8 S. Charles St., BALTIMORE, MD. Correspondence Solicited With Responsible Parties Desiring to Act as Agents. NEW SPRING STYLES Of Suits and Overcoats now ready at 20 to 30 per cent, under com-petitors' prices. Write for Samples and Price List. WILLIAM SMALL, DIM DQOH nnra AND BOOK DMDLX 6 WEST MARKET STREET, YORK, PENNA. w. SJSGHRODER, DEALER IN rjafrs and Caps? ^ No. 6 Balto Street, Gettysburg. IV ADVERTISEMENTS. p. D. SCHRIVER Draper, Importer, • AtfD Merchant Tailor 23 Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. The College Mercury. Vol. I. Gettysburg, Pa., June, 1893. No. 4. THE COLLEGE MERCURY, Published each month during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. STAFF. Editor: JULIUS F. SEERACH, '94. Associate Editors : ALBERT S. COOK, '95. FRANK E. FICK1NGER, '94. HENRY E. CLARE, 95. WALDO D. MAYNARD, '95. PAUL \V. KOLLER, '94. ROSCOE C. WRIGHT, '95. SUMNER R. MILLER, '95. Business Manager: BENJAMIN R. LANTZ, '94. Assistant Business Manager : CHARLES F. KLOSS, '94. T^n^.r-. f One volume (ten months), . . . . $1.00 lERMS-| Single copies, .15 Payable in Advance. AH Students are requested to hand us matter for publication. ' The Alumni and ex-members of the College will favor us by send-ing information concerning their whereabouts, or any items they may think would be interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the Business Manager. Matter intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address, THE COLLEGE MERCURY, Gettysburg, Pa. eONTE/NTS. EDITORIAL, 55 CHARLES S. WOLF, 56 RESOLUTIONS ON THE DEATH OF SUMNER R. MILLER, 57 THE PROGRESS OP MESMERISM, 58 AN EPISODE 59 SPECIALISM: ITS NECESSITY AND ITS DANGER, . 59 PROOF-READING—MENTAL AND MORAL, 61 PAPA H 's SOLILOQUY ON THE DAY THE KEE-MAR GIRLS WERE HERE, 62 COLLEGE LOCALS, 63 ALUMNI, 66 FRATERNITY NOTES, 69 ATHLETICS, 70 TOWN AND SEMINARY, 71 LITERARY SOCIETIES 73 E/DITO-RIAL. WITH this number of THE MERCURY, the lately elected staff takes charge of affairs. It is their desire to mirror faithfully the life and thought of the students of Gettys-burg College, and bring before them in read-able form the doings of each month. Such work, however, calls for the heartiest co-opera-tion of the student-body. We, therefore, ask you for your willing help and for contributions to its columns. Remember that THE MER-CURY is the true representative of the college, for it alone stands for the interests of the students. * * * IT is of peculiar interest to us, who are train-ing for active work in the world, to know just what sort of material the world demands. The idea is slowly dying a natural death that four years of Latin, Greek, and Mathematics will fit a man to deal with all the problems of life. Text-books and dictionaries contain ten times more knowledge on these subjects than the average student, but they are powerless to effect the solution of our daily enigmas. The world calls for more than that, it calls for men. Our learning is of no account to those around us, unless a man stands behind it. Character-is a prime necessity for a man, and here is the place to develop it, for the college is a little world with duties as real as those of the throbbing world about us. If we fail here when the test is applied, we are bound to fail when larger duties demand our attention. The world is a severe judge, and takes no excuses. We are weighed in the balance, and, if found wanting, the command comes : " Make way for a man !" To quote the words of Dr. Hulbert: " Men are in demand; not homines—animals 56 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. that wear pants—but viri, plumed knights, with swords upon their thighs," ready to battle for right and truth, and make the great world better. THE spirit of death seems hovering over our college. But a short time ago we were called upon to mourn the loss of one whose college days were nearly over, Charles Wolf. Then came the announcement of the departure of the College Treasurer, Alexander D. Buehler, a man full of years and honors. And now again we have to bow to the will of that dread power, giving up one whose whole life lay before him filled with the glorious promise of highest achievement. Sumner Roscoe Miller, a member of the Sophomore class and one of the editors of THE MERCURY, died May 30th, shortly after the hour of noon. His illness was of a short duration, and the end came unexpected, swift and terrible. Just the day before his death, all reports spoke of speedy recovery, but now such.hope is vain—his health has come to him in a happier land. But words fail the writer, and the task of telling the story of that bright life must be left to a calmer mind and a quieter heart. Grief, deep and sincere, is in the hearts of all his fellow-students, and words are slow to come when the heart quivers in pain. IN days of old, when the burden of thought was turned to things heavenly, a common belief was expressed in the words of the adage : " Cleanliness is next to Godliness;" but now that the minds of men have deigned to descend from their lofty flight and take an interest in human affairs, the thought implied finds better expression in the changed form : " Cleanliness is next to manliness." Refer-ence is made to this in order that the careless-ness, so prevalent lately, may cease, and that the rubbish which litters the campus may dis-appear. It is to our interest to appear neat and tidy to the visiting world and the Faculty. We are judged by what is seen of us, and we naturally desire favorable judgment. But to obtain such judgment we must do something worthy of it. Let us, therefore, respect the request made of us, and rid ourselves of waste matter through the proper channels. If we respect the wishes of others, we have more chances of having our own respected, and more right to claim consideration for them. * * IN the editorial concerning the glee club, which appeared in the last issue, it should have been stated that the club was granted permission to be absent from college for sixteen periods. The reason that they were not allowed to give concerts away from college this term is owing to the fact that the time granted was exhausted last term. CHARLES S. WOLF. CHARLES STORK WOLF, son of Rev. Dr. and Mrs. E. J. Wolf, was born in Baltimore, Md., December nth, 1873. He was named for and baptized by the late il-lustrious Dr. Charles Stork, and it would seem that there was transmitted to the child the same gentle and charitable spirit of the sainted man whose name he received. In his second year, he removed with his parents to Gettysburg, and resided here until his death. He began the work of his education in the public schools of this place, and was graduated from the High School with the highest record of his class in June, 1887. The following Sep-tember he entered the Preparatory Depart-ment, where he remained for two years, and entered the Freshman class in college in Sep-tember, 1889. Three years of his college life had passed and the day of his graduation was at hand, when, on April 26th, he left home to spend a few days in New York city, at a con-vention of the Sigma Chi Fraternity, of which he was a faithful and devoted member. He returned home on the evening of Saturday, THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 57 April 29th, happy and apparently in excellent health. The next morning, however, he be-came sick, and after an illness of little more than forty-eight hours, he died at 6.15 o'clock : on the morning of Tuesday, May 2d. Such are the facts connected with the brief life and sudden death of Charles Stork Wolf- He was a gentle, amiable, happy boy, scatter-ing smiles and sunshine into the lives of all with whom he came in contact. His nature was beautifully childlike in its tenderness and simplicity; his character was pure, noble, and upright. In his home he was an example of filial respect and brotherly love; in his frater-nity he was the type of loyalty and devotion ; in his class and the whole college community he was loved by all and hated by none. Among the citizens of Gettysburg he had a smile and kind word for all, knowing no dis-tinction of high and low, rich and poor; and beyond the limits of Gettysburg his friends were numbered by the score. His death came just at that period of transi-tion when the youth is passing into the man. The arena with its activities lay just before him, and in a few months he would have met the world, and dared the decrees of fate. What the future held for him we cannot say; if the boy was prophetic of the man, we believe his life would have added blessings to the world and benefit to the race. From child-hood his heart had turned longingly toward the work of the ministry, and it is not for us to predict what words of sacred eloquence and deeds of Christ-like love would have been his, had he lived to carry out his purpose. It is sufficient for us to know that God needed him and his service in some foreign part of his great universe, and that the bright boy, who so recently moved among us, still labors and loves in a broader and better life in the presence of his Father and his God. W. K. D. the death of a member of the active chapter. As we con-template the death of our young and beloved brother, Charles Stork Wolf, involuntarily we bow and say, " Truly death hath all seasons for her own." The very type of youth and health and happiness, he walked among us only a few days ago, and the thought of death was never associated with that bright face and manly form, but in a twinkling of an eye the summons came and he was taken. Charles Stork Wolf was a youth of rare and enviable qualities. His nature was bright, genial, and affable; his character pure, upright, and noble. Cheerful smiles, gentle words, and kind deeds were his constant companions. In his home he was a loving and obedient son and a kind and gentle brother. In his friendships he was true, sincere, and faithful, and in the world at large he had a heart of love and charity for all men. Only the garlands of friends rest upon his newly-made grave, and from no heart rises the curse of an enemy to distract the peacefulness of his slumber. In the death of Charles Stork Wolf, Theta chapter of the Sigma Chi Fraternity has suffered a sad and heavy loss. He became a member of the chapter early in the present col-legiate year, and during his membership his devotion to the White Cross and its interests was constant and memorable, and new lustre has been added to the emblem by his pure and unselfish life. As we gather in our chapter lodge it is hard to think of him as a " silent Sig," but the vacant chair with its drapings of mourning, the longing for " The touch of a vanished hand And the sound of a voice that is still " are sorrowful reminders of the truth. Our hearts are filled with sadness, for in the years to come we shall miss his hearty hand-shake, his cheery laugh, his happy ways. Resolved, That the chapter lodge be draped in mourning for a period of thirty days, Resolved, That a copy of this action be sent to the family of our deceased brother, spread in full upon the minutes, published in the college publications, and the Sigma Chi Quarterly. ED. W. LOUDON, CHAS. W. HUMRICHOUSE, FRANK S. LEISENRING. FRATERNITY RESOLUTIONS. 1'or the first time in the almost thirty years of its existence "as Theta chapter of Sigma Chi been called upon to mourn RESOLUTIONS ON THE DEATH OF SUMNER R. MILLER. WHEREAS, God in His all-wise providence has seen fit to summon from our midst our dearly-beloved friend and class-mate, Sumner Roscoe Miller; and WHEREAS, In his sad and unexpected death the class of '95 has lost a most talented and devoted member, and the ' ministry a most promising candidate ; therefore be it Resolved, That while we bow in humble submission to the will of Him " who doeth all things well," yet we deeply mourn the loss of him who, by his manly character and Christian conduct, had endeared himself to us; and, 58 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Resolved, That in him we have lost one whose place can never be filled, and whose memory will ever be cherished, not forgetting that our irreparable loss is his eternal gain; and Resolved, That,as an expression of the sincere sorrow which we experience on account of this mysterious act of God, we extend to the bereaved family and friends of our departed classmate our deep sympathy; and Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the family of the deceased, and that they be published in the College journals, Church papers, and The Millersburg Sen-tinel, E. H. WERT, W. H. FELDMAN, W. A. KUMP, W. D. MAYNARD, R. C. WRIGHT, Committee. THE PROGRESS OF MESMERISM. THE world to-day is alive with scientific investigators. Who will be the next to affix his name to the scientific roll of honor ? Such was the question that forced itself into the chemical brain of William Belshazzar Lutz but a very short time ago. Outside of compounding vile chemical mix-tures in the laboratory, the subject of mesmer- , ism has been the one absorbing topic that has occupied the mind of this gentleman for many years. Ofttimes when the bell in the tower would toll forth the silent hours of midnight, and when the rest of his college mates were wrapped in the sweet embrace of slumber, this devotee of science, with his face wreathed in smiles, would read how Joseph Smith, the great Mormon leader, had practiced the virtues of animal magnetism upon his credulous followers. Why not put this art to a more noble use ? Lengthy and deep were the medi-tations which followed, and many were the conclusions at which he arrived. His plans being formulated, the one great thing that re-mained to startle the scientific world with the results of his study was to make test of the same by practical experiment. Who should be the subject of experimentation ? This new and great difficulty now confronted him. The mesmeric ability of " Homer" Kloss, that lengthy man of antiquity, was well established. After mature deliberation, he resolved to give him a share of his confidence, and to make him the first and only partner in his mesmeric firm. These two worthy Juniors, the convolu-tions of whose brains are deeper than the teeth of a ten-foot ice saw, persuaded Freshman Carty and " Sister " Hedges to permit them-selves to be operated upon. Carty, whose will-power is remarkable, proved himself to be but a poor subject. " Sister " next seated him-self in the experimental chair, and Belshazzar, with a flourish of his hands that would have rivaled that of an Indian juggler, soon had his patient under mesmeric influence. The opera-tor softly whistled " Annie Rooney," and when the music had ceased the circus began. " Sister " performed all sorts of queer pranks. He washed his face with Sozodont. He jumped on the springs of Belshazzar's bed, and said he was riding in a Pullman palace car. He combed his hair with a broom, and put on a storm overcoat, saying that it was about time he had found his linen duster. He lathered his face with blacking, and tried to shave with a yard-stick. He imagined he was Bare's phonograph, and, when asked to hum a good old gospel hymn, he whistled " Reddy Get Your Hair Cut." He brushed his toe-nails with tooth-powder, thinking his teeth were at his pedal extremities. " Enough !" the brilliant operator exclaimed. "Now, gentlemen, allow me to remove the charm." His hands flew heavenward over " Sister's " face, but, alas, the patient only rolled his eyes and groaned. The operator was startled. Again he tried to break the spell, but a deeper groan and a more horrible rolling of eyes was the only result. The operator was unnerved. A third attempt was made, but groans and sighs that would have wrung the heart of any human being were the only response. The wildest alarm now followed. Never was there such consternation since the infernal fiends THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 59 were pitched over the " battlements of heaven." Belshazzar, naturally a religious man, gathered together all the busts of the immortal gods, and, having placed them on a copy of Clyde " Remsen's" Chemistry, prayed to each one separately. He besought Bacchus to pour some fire-water down his patient's throat and thus restore him. He tearfully asked Zeus to hit poor " Sister " with a thunderbolt and awaken him. He prayed Neptune to run his tri-dent through " Sister's " hair and electrify him out of his accursed spell. He prayed Apollo to shoot him with a golden arrow. He prayed jEolus to squash him with an Omaha cyclone. He prayed Vulcan to hit him with a brand new sledge-hammer, " but not too hard, dear Vulcan." He sought the aid of Juno, but Juno wasn't " in it." He prayed to Venus, but Venus said he had sported around the " Kee-Mar " girls, and she would have nothing to do with him. He lastly besought Minerva to grant him enough wisdom to restore poor " Sister," but Minerva did not look with appre-ciation upon the actions of such mortals as himself. Finally, in despair, he borrowed a new Columbian cent from his partner, " Homer," and, having placed it between his patient's teeth, he prayed that Charon might successfully ferry him across the hated river. But a greater surprise was in store for him. Belshazzar glanced toward the wall, and there an unknown hand was busy tracing, in bold hieroglyphics, the following terrible words: " Take him up town, set up the ice-cream, and get a Freshman to sleep with him." Only too thankful to follow some kind of directions, Belshazzar complied with the strange request, and the next day his patient was fully restored. Billy's scientific aspirations are now buried in the depths of the " Tiber." Like many other would-be scientists, he will eke out his exist-ence only as a disappointed and heart-broken man. But, what is still harder to bear, he has learned that the human heart is desperately wicked and deceitful above all things. The whole thing was a farce, for his partner was in league against him, and the joke was only brought to a beautiful termination by " Sister's " apparent innocence. " SUPER." AN EPISODE. He went to hear the phonograph, With her upon his arm ; He entertained her with his laugh, She with her eyes did charm. And when, the entertainment thro', They homeward took their way, They did not cease to laugh and coo, And much they seemed to say. She lolled her eyes, until her glance Beamed on his lovely face; And then, by some peculiar chance, Unknown to such a case, He turned and met those lifted eyes, And smiled his sweetest smile; For he did naturally surmise She loved him all the while. But next day, when the sun was bright, She, with those eyes of blue, Her lover had forgotten quite; For light made love untrue. Tho' in the dark she favored one, Yet, when it did come day, Round in the tennis-court she'd run And shout " Love thirty-Play." A. H. B., '96. SPECIALISM: ITS NECESSITY AND ITS DANGER. FIELDS of work, like fields of grain, look all green from a distance. In the general view, which is all that we commonly get of a science or an art, it is attractive, and like Hamlet we are apt to see the charms of each path so clearly that we are loth to choose one and forego all the rest. There is nothing more delightful than to take such peeps into the treasure boxes of knowledge as the maga- | zines afford. But not in such a way can one become the owner of a jewel or even tell the diamond from the paste. Yet it is often said that the periodicals are convenient forms in 6o; THE COLLEGE MERCURY. which to get the information that makes a " well-rounded man." Nothing more false! The well-rounded man is not the one who is symmetrical because of equal supcrficialty in all parts of his mind. For making a fine im-pression it is enough to converse about books which have been reviewed in the Pacific Monthly, but the habit is weakening to intellect and character. This is somewhat from the subject, but is a plea for the " man of one idea " over against the dead-level man of no idea. It is often said that a man never again knows so much as he did when he was a Senior at college, and it is because a man reaches the period then when he has just looked into the open gates of history, science, language and literature, and sees beautiful vistas of trees laden with ripe fruit. He has not yet learned of the labor of which he sees the result. He offers immense chunks of wisdom from what department you will, but after a while he begins to see that he was borrowing, and that he did not under-stand whereof he spoke. Then he wants to know something. One says to himself, I will pursue Science, and then decides that a life-time is too short for that, and says, I will learn Geology, and finding that too large, seeks to find the language of fossils. At last he begins to know something. Another will sacrifice all else to History, but how can he for himself find out anything when so much ground is to be covered ? He narrows himself to the history of Italy, but again he must take his knowledge second-hand, and finally, when he has become modest enough to confine himself to Florence or Venice, he says, this one thing I can know. And then a man becomes a power. Then he can be something more than a sponge, and leave a mark to show where he has been. Nature holds more truths ready for the dis-coverer than she has given up to Darwin. The world is learning fast, and it seems that it is learning so many new things that old tradi-tions cannot give way fast enough. Perhaps, j therefore, there will be a pause in religious in-vestigation until the Church can chew the large bite thrust into its mouth. But the energy will go into some other department. Deep dark-ness is all around us. Exploring parties go on in one direction until they are frightened by the distance they have come, then wait for the rest of men to come and occupy. Hut while they rest another party of specialists is en-larging the lighted area in another point, and so, by each individual working away at his one idea, the people get more light. It is surprising how much can be done in the knowledge of books by those who can give only surplus of time to them, if the study is specialized. Most of those who know why Shakespeare is the greatest poet that ever lived have read him from their youth up. He has been a companion of many men all through life. By giving themselves up to him, and growing into him, they have learned the secret of his greatness, have known him. What can be gotten from reading tons of criticism and ephemeral talk to compare with this intimate acquaintance with one or two great minds. By such specialization a man is developed. He reads literature as it ought to be read, namely, as thing inseparable from living, and not as a literary exercise. Hence he will be free from pretentiousness. One result of the other method is to tempt to a display of knowledge which is only on the surface. " Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers." Objections are heard to specialism and specialists. It is said that those who give a great part of their time to either art or the pursuit of knowledge become self-absorbed, absent-minded, and egotistical. It ought not to be so. If it is the case, they are getting more than they can digest. They are apply-ing more to the surface than can be absorbed into the inner man. Ambition often drives the worker to this forcing process, and it can-not fail to have evil effects on his character. This, then, is a danger of specialism ; this is the abuse of the good thine. The man ought THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 61 PROOF-READING—MENTAL AND MORAL. to grow with his work. No matter how special his department, his acquirements ought to spread their influence through his nature j and leaven the whole. If, on the other hand, it takes the form of an outside excrescence, not only is it valueless, but also, as we are naturally more vain of the things we have ac-quired than of those we have by nature, the student fails to recognize it as a deformity, and feels pride in his borrowed glory. It is the old story of the peacock proud of his voice, j But this is only when conditions are abnormal. ' Healthy work on a chosen subject makes the mind broader, opener, greater in every way. It makes a man more capable of friendship and of higher feeling ; it raises the plane of his life. The man or woman who knows one thing has an anchor. He is no longer the slave of every doubt. He need no longer be a led-horse. He has some equipments for fighting the bat-tles of his own mind and for facing the ques-tions which assail every man. M. W. CROLL. TO the uninitiated eye, there is an air of deep mystery about the mutilated text and hieroglyphic margin of a corrected proof-sheet. The ranks of printed words have a grim and battle-scarred look, like a veteran regiment with tattered flags and ragged uniforms ; the gaps left by fallen comrades are not yet filled, and many of the survivors bear abiding marks of the stern conflict through which they have passed. The marginal corrections, in every variety of curve and angle, irresistibly suggest the bursting bombshells and bayonets keen of thrust which have wrought such havoc in the brave array. But these are only fancies ; and our supposed observer, being presumably of a practical turn of mind, soon seeks to discover a more intimate i relation between the text and the corrections —the casus belli, so to speak, which has occasioned this pitiless decimation of the soldierly ranks. A comparison of the marks in the text with those on the margin soon reveals the purport of the strange hieroglyphs, and the investigator sees how, by means of a few strokes and letters, omissions are supplied, confusions rectified, and intruders expelled, all with a view to the ultimate perfection of the text. A brief inspection will probably suffice to convince him that proof-reading is a very easy thing indeed. Yes, the typographic symbols of the proof-sheet disclose at least a part of their meaning without much difficulty to an intelligent observer; but to the mind of one who com-bines some degree of experience with his observation, the same lines and curves have another story to tell. To him they speak of that eternal patience which is yet not genius:— that patience which scans and scans again the printed lines, striving to detect the smallest error, until it seems that not so much as the ghost of a mistake can lurk within the tangled maze of words ; that patience which even then is not satisfied, but still scrutinizes each sentence over and over, going beneath the mere form of the words, not content until it has endeavored at every doubtful point to fathom the author's meaning, lest some mis-placed phrase, some intruding word, some omitted sign, should obscure the thought and frustrate the purpose of the writer. Such is the patience which perhaps of all patience sees the least result of its own toils, and has least confidence in the correctness of its own work— the keen-eyed patience of the proof-reader. But this is not all that the proof-sheet sug-gests. Strangers though most of us may be to the actual task of correcting proof, we are daily and hourly applying the methods of the proof-reader to the products of our mental activity and to the conclusions of our judg-ment and experience. The more we learn, the more deeply do we realize how much of our knowledge and belief is merely tentative—how frequently our opinions must be altered and revised, and how few of them can be depended 62 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. upon as absolutely correct in every particular. Even what we call facts are often largely relative, and the slightest change of circum-stances may introduce variations which will overturn our most careful inductions and dissipate our most ingenious theories. There is in almost all our thinking an element of un-certainty similar to the feeling of the proof-reader— a doubt that lingers after the most painstaking revision, and questions whether there may not still be somewhere an un-detected error which must be discovered and eradicated before the opinion or system of thought can be trusted. While it is unworthy of a rational being to accept a belief without good reason for its entertainment, it is equally irrational to close the mind against conviction, and to refuse, either from obstinacy or from indolence, to revise an opinion whose faulti-ness has been shown by the light of increased knowledge. The man who would rather think wrongly than incur the trouble of correcting his thinking needs to take a lesson from the proof-reader. Not only must our opinions be ever open to revision, but a similar method must be pursued in the developing of character. Our lives are not what the Author of our being intended them to be. An adverse force has twisted and marred and spoiled them, yet so artfully that we do not recognize it until we test them by the standard of the highest Truth—the only truth which is absolute. Then we cannot help seeing how faulty and incorrect our lives really are ; but it is so hard to change them ! An uncorrected proof-sheet looks so clean and fair beside the scarred face of a sheet that has been revised! As long as one does not read the former closely, the mistakes will not be noticed ; and so we are tempted to think that no one will mark our shortcomings unless our correction of them draws attention thereto. And these are the hardest of all errors to remedy—hardest to detect and hardest to elim-inate ; but if we would be true to our highest interests, we must not evade the task. We need not always perform it alone. A proof-sheet has far more chance of being correct if several readers have perused it; for one may detect what another has missed, and a third may notice what has escaped the others ; and so it is in moral proof-reading. " In the multitude of counselors there is safety." Not all persons, indeed, are willing to tell us of the faults they see in us; but as long as there are candid and truthful souls on earth, we need not fear that we will be left in utter ignorance of our defects. Happy are we if the lips that tell us of our faults be friendly ones. Nor is this the only assistance that we have. The author of a production is best qualified to read its proof, since he is so well acquainted with the form and sense of the original; and in reading the proof of our lives, we may always have the assistance of the Author, if we will. And when, at last, every error has been rectified, the corrected pages will not be allowed to remain marred and mutilated, any more than the finished book is composed of the disfigured proof-sheets. The final copy will be not only correct, but clean and beauti-ful as well; and the Author, seeing His pur-pose wrought out and His thought expressed in all its pristine perfection, will pronounce it very good. M. R. H., '94. PAPA H 'S SOLILOQUY ON THE DAY THE KEE-MAR GIRLS WERE HERE. To go, or not to go, that is the question :— Whether 'twill be better in the end to go With the pretty Kee-Mar girls from Hagerstown ; Or not to go, and run the risk that they will Think us slow: That must not be; too slow; but yet, If I should go, what would Miss H J say ? Would She permit me thus to flirt the whole day long With pretty Kee-Mar girls, and not object ? If She were only out of town to-day;—this day; That's a consummation devoutly to be Wished; but, then, she isn't—ay ! there's the rub. Dear me ! Now I almost wish that I had never gone To Middle Street until this day had passed. But Yet, we cannot always look ahead to times Of so great moment; and now I must decide. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 63 When such grave questions stir the souls of men, No wonder that we hesitate. If I were (Inly familiar with such questions, 'twould be Far different; but as I've never gone with The girls before this year, I don't know what to Do. But, then, I am a Senior and that makes Up for all deficiencies, and Miss H will Not jilt me; for, if she did, who would translate Her Latin lessons? But conscience does make Cowards of us all. I have decided. I'll go, and if the boys Do tease me, I'll not mind it. Ha! ha! Yes, that Reminds me of a fox and a grape story I once read. 1 fully realize that I am risking Much ; but this is an opportunity of A lifetime. Some of my Kee-Mar friends are from Washington, and quite elite, you know ; much so, Tis said. And as I am a Senior of our Beloved G. C, perchance I may—, but I won't Soar too high, lest with broken pinion I fall Back crushed. But what's the use of further meditation. The die is cast. I am resolved to go. COLLEGE LOCALS. ALBERT S. COOK and SUMNER R. MILLER, Editors. AT last the long-expected and much-talked-of visit of the Kee-Mar girls to historic Gettysburg is an event of the past, and the College boy consoles himself, while he nurses his empty wallet, by thinking and talking of the fair one whose guardian angel he was on that glorious day, Saturday, May 13th. Ever since the Musical Clubs were at Hagerstown, this proposed visit has been looked forward to with the greatest pleasure and expectation. The boys were royally re-ceived and entertained by the ladies of Kee- Mar, and they were only too anxious for an opportunity to return the kindness shown them there. The disappointment of the previous week increased this desire, for it had caused many bitter sighs and " weeps." All was excitement here on the morning of May 13th. Nearly all the boys were dressed in their best, and some of those who had never been known to " dress up," except on Sunday, were " sporting around " with the others. The Kee-Marians owned the battle-field, the town, the college, the boys, " and all the ap-purtenances thereof." The fellow who didn't have a girl wasn't "in it." Many were the hearts that were broken and the tears that were shed on parting ; but the boyshavemany mementos of the happy time in the shape of photographs, etc., which will ever be a source of pleasure to them. Dr. Keedy, whose kindness made it possible for the boys to have a good time, is most warmly praised, and their fondest wishes are that he may long continue to be President of Kee-Mar College, and often repeat the visit of May 13th. On Monday, May 15th, the ladies of Wilson College, Chambersburg, visited Gettysburg. Dr. Edgar loaded the girls into hacks outside of town and did not permit the boys to get near them. It was very considerate on his part, as the boys were all "dead broke," owing to the visit on the Saturday before. Examinations are rapidly approaching, and the Seniors are busily engaged on their Com-mencement work. The general inclination of the boys for the past week or two has been to imprecate the weather, and rejoice over the absence of several members of the Faculty. 'Rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! —'rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! Penn-syl- va-ni-a! was replaced by 'rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! 'rah ! Gettysburg ! at a recent mass meeting of the students in Brua Chapel, April 29th. A second yell, Hoo-rah ! hoo-rah ! hoo-rah ! Get-tys-burg-i-a ! was also adopted. The value of having several yells was demonstrated during the Dickinson game, as was also the necessity of practicing them before trying to give them. It is rumored that some of the boys find more than flowers on their botanical excur-sions. Grave charges against some of the pro-fessors have been floating around the college during the last few weeks. They are accused of having stolen " horses " in broad daylight during the late racing season, and their owners declare that they continue prowling around their stables. Let the owners of " blooded stock " keep a sharp lookout lest their " record-breakers " be led away during the coming races. We suggest that the owners build hedges around the entrances, and fill the inter-vening spaces with (k) erbs. He was wheeling the carriage along the back streets, the while talking to a pretty com- <*4 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. panion, and one naturally made a slight mis-take, but the occupant of the carriage belonged to a different duffer. Dr. N.—" Gas tends to escape from open vessels, because it is lighter than air." S., '94.—" Can't you keep it in by putting a cover on the bottom ?" B-» '93-—" I think we will have a thunder-storm to-day—I feel it in my head." —, '95 (unconsciously).—" Your head must be a little bar(c)ometer." The latest chestnut.—" Pappy, when will the invitations be here ?" The next latest.—" Ben, when will The Spectrum be out ?" " Good-morning, Mrs. Smith." " Good-morning." "Any ice?" "No ice." "No ice? Get up J" Prof H.(in rhetoric).—" What is the theme ?" H., '95 (after thinking awhile).—" The theme of what, professor ?" E., '95, wishes to inform his friends and classmates that he has a large supply of " in-dices rerutn " on hand. • B.,/95, junctive?' -" Doctor, what tense is that—sub- L, '94 (just finishing speech on " Cleve-land's Cabinet").—"Professor, I forgot Mr. Smith, shall I bring him in now ?" Prof. H.—" Yes, bring him in." R, '94 (translating " Die Friede wohnt in diesem Kleide ").—" In this garment priests-beasts dwell." W., '95 (translating Homer's description of Thersites).—" There was a very ugly man came from Troy. He was cross-eyed, and his other foot was lame." Dr. N.—" Mr. C, put the multiplication table on the board for me." C-i '95-—"Doctor, I don't just know what you mean." Dr. H. (in English Bible).—" Mr. H., can you give me the etymological meaning of ' transgress ?' " H-, '95-—" Handed down from generation to generation." R., 95.—" Say, Jones, where is your hornet? I want to serenade my girl to-night." S., '94 (learnedly discoursing at table).— " Yes, the German pheasants eat rye bread and are healthy." Miss B., '96.—" Look here! this book tells you ' How Plants Grow—Gray'—that must be interesting." Dr. N.—" If I should throw a piece of chalk-up in the air, would it start a train of thought in your mind ?" N., '94.—" I don't know, Doctor." We are pleased to inform all that Nick has resumed his cordial relations with Grand-mother Pitzer. Dr. B.—" Marriage is of much more import-ance than most people make it." " Homer" (emphatically—just rousing from a day-dream).—" That's right." W., '95.—" I do wish Hill would pitch some of his straight curves." Dr. N.- Mr. Kemp, what is 'specific gravity ?'" K., '94.—" Pacific gravity is when a body is in motion it remains in motion, and when at rest tends to remain at rest."—Kemp studied Neptune's Oceanic Physics before coming here. A Senior says he has a dim idea how it goes for a woman to put up her hair. We gu(e)ss he does. Dr. S.—"What are warm-blooded ani-mals?" E., '96.—" Quadrupeds, such as men and birds, are said to be warm-blooded animals." E., '96.—" I have been out to Culp's Hill all morning." S., '96.—" Looking for flowers ?" E., '96.—" No, bullets don't grow on flozucrs!' Dr. H.—" How did Aaron excuse himself for making the golden calf?" L, '96.—"And Aaron said: 'The people brought their earrings to me, and I put them in the fire, and there came out a golden lamb! " The following letter was sent to Philo. Society by O. W. Holmes as a letter of en-couragement to its members. Mr. Kuhns, who solicited the autograph, deserves high praise for his wide-awake activity in behalf of his society. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 65 BOSTON, May 6th, 1893. DEAR SIR :—I am much pleased to hear that the students of Pennsylvania College are diligently studying the best authors of their country, and, if by their indulgence my name is found among them, I will trust it to their charitable judg-ment. It is well that they should read French and German—that they should study the Greek and Latin classical writers, but best of all that they should be well acquainted with the mas-ters of their own language—for the only tongue a man thoroughly knows is the one he learned to speak through his milk-teeth. With heartiest good-wishes, yours very truly. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. Y. M. C. A. NOTES. On Saturday evening, May 20th, in Brua Chapel, Mr. Walter Pelham gave his excel-lent and amusing character entertainment, under the auspices of the Lecture Course Com-mittee. The audience received, with great ap-plause, the renditions of this celebrated im-personator. The Association has authorized delegates to be sent to the Northfield Training School, and it is probable that we will be represented also at the Lake Geneva (Wis.) School. The efficiency of the local work of our Y. M. C. A. would be greatly increased if we were provided with a separate building for Associa-tion purposes. The need of such a building has been felt for some time, and a Building Fund has been slowly accumulating. We believe the cause is worthy of outside help, and all receipts from Alumni and friends will be gratefully acknowledged. Among other things of interest to the As-sociation, the delegates to the Carlisle Confer-ence of Y. M. C. A. Presidents report that our Association has a larger percentage of students engaged in systematic Bible study in classes than any other institution represented at the conference. This shows the result of the earnest and repeated efforts in this line, and is most gratifying. But from the same source we learn that our work in the cause of Christian missions has not come up to a desirable standard. It is earnestly hoped that more active interest will hereafter be taken in the cause of missions. There is need for men to carry the Gospel to the young men of foreign lands who are with-out the blessings we enjoy, and the obligation largely rests upon us. The men are ready to go, the one thing needful is funds to send them. The attendance at the devotional meetings still continue to be good, and the meetings are made both interesting and profitable. Let us all put forth every effort to keep up the good attendance during the remainder of the term, and the good results will be veiy apparent. PENNSILFAUNISH DEITSCH GESELLSCHAFT. Schon etlicha yohra hen die Studenta g'schwetst fuhn en Pennsilfaunish deitsch societie ufgriega; aber es is alia mohl darich g'falla; die Ursach wahr das sie gemehnt hen dass es net 11 f g'halta sie kennt. Now des wahr all g'schwets. Sie hen ahner a dinger uf griega kenna un die hen auschalda, un fer-was net soh eppes. Aber sacha sin now ahnister. Letscht Dinshtag Ovet, der 23sten Moy, sin sechtza deitsha tzamma komma im Briider Bortner sei Sthup undhen en organ-ization g'formed. Die sin Charter members. Es wahr en enthusiastic meeting. All die members missen deitsch schwetsa kenna, un kenn English wort is erlaubt im meeting. Die object fun die verein is, ehrst, das wir Deische, unser Mutter sproach net gohns fergessa sol-len; un, tzwet, dass wir tzamma sticha sollen in en binderlicher weg. Die officers sin: President, Briider Bortner; Vice-President, Briider Ibach ; Secretary, Briider Newcomer ; Treasurer, Briider Kump; Gahrt, Briider Menges. Die charter members sin Briiders Dundore, W. H. Ehrhart, Uhler, Ibach, Nicholas, Rudi-sill, Becker, Nipple, Newcomer, Kump, Meisenhelder, Menges, Danner, Smith, Hain, Bortner. Professor (looking at his watch).—"As we have a few minutes I shall be glad to answer any questions that any one may wish to ask." Student.—" What time is it, please ?"—Ex. 66 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. ALUM/SI. FRANK E. FICKINGER, Editor. WITH this number of THE MERCURY, a new editor of this department appears before you. It will, perhaps, be necessary to say nothing more than to reiterate the words of the former editor, in outlining the aim of the Alumni Department to be that of keeping the former graduates in closer touch with one another, with the undergraduate, and, in chief, with their A/ma Mater, and likewise to repeat his requests, earnestly soliciting all proper in-formation, both concerning yourselves and others, that you may be disposed to give. Let the Alumni Association at its Commencement meeting not fail to elect a wide-awake inter-ested man as Alumni Editor. The success of THE MERCURY depends in great part upon the attitude of the Alumni toward it, and we would therefore most earnestly hope for your hearty co-operation, sanction, and support in the June meeting. We trust we will not be disap-pointed. We are pleased to learn that the class of '78 will hold a reunion in Gettysburg, with a banquet at McCullough's cafe, on Tuesday evening of Commencement week, June 20th. Other reunions are being talked of, but as yet nothing else authentic has come to our ears. Let us have a large representation of the Alumni with us this year. Your presence is inspiring both to the professors and to the students. '39. Rev. Dr. C. A. Hay, of the Seminary, delivered the address at the laying of the corner-stone of St. John's Lutheran Church, Steelton, on Sunday. '39. Rev. P. Willard, now at Mexico, Pa., is writing a history of the Orphans' Home at Loysville, Pa., of which he was the founder and for many years the superintendent. '44. Rev. P. Anstadt, D. D., of York, Pa., will install his son as pastor of the Lutheran Church at Bedford, Pa. '48. Hon. Edward McPherson, one of the executors of the estate of the late Hon. Thad-deus Stevens, filed his report the early part of May. The bequest of $1,000 to Stevens Hall (the Preparatory Department of our college), is sustained with interest. '49. Judge Wm. McClean began his series of lectures to the Senior class on Constitutional Law last Wednesday, the 24th ult. '51. Hon. David Wills, of Gettysburg, was in attendance as delegate from the Carlisle Presbytery at the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church which convened recently in Washington, D. C. '53. Rev. P. Bergstresser, of Middletown, Md., will not remove to Chicago as stated in the last number of THE MERCURY. '55. Philadelphia, Pa.—The day for the dedication of the new Calvary Lutheran Church, Rev. S. A. Holman, D. D., pastor, will doubtless be fixed for Sunday, June 18th. '55. Rev. Dr. Huber, professor and chaplain in the college, contemplates building a resi-dence this season on his lot, on the northeast corner of Carlisle and Lincoln Streets. '57. President C. L. Keedy, of Kee-Mar College, Hagerstown, Md., has been appointed Vice-President of the Department Congress of Higher Education to be held at the World's Fair. On May 13th, the doctor, with a party of 35 of his charming students, visited the battle-field. The Kee-Mar girls and the Get-tysburg boys are always on the best of terms, so of course—well, you know—everybody had a nice time. '59. On Sunday, May 7th, Rev. J. G. Goett-man, D. D., pastor of Trinity Lutheran Church, Allegheny, Pa., preached the third in a series of inter-denominational sermons in progress in that city on " Why am I a Lutheran ?" The Doctor's congregation has arranged for an excursion to Gettysburg in June, to be present at the college Commencement and to view the battle-field. '61. Bethlehem Lutheran Church of Har-risburg, Pa., has extended a call to Rev. I. C. Burke, of the Third Lutheran Church of Baltimore, Md. Rev. Burke has been pastor of the latter church for sixteen years. '61. Rev. J. R. Williams, of Uniontown, Md., has received and accepted a call to the Millers-town charge, Chicora, Pa., and will begin his labors June 1st. '64. Rev. H. J. Watkins, pastor of the Luth-eran Church at Lockport, N. Y., recently cele- THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 67 brated his 55th birthday, when he was pleas-antly surprised by a visit from the pastors of all the other churches in the city, accompanied by their wives. The evening was spent in a most enjoyable manner. '65. Dr. McKnight, from latest advices, is at present in Paris, having left the Mediter-ranean coast very much benefited in health. The time, till June 8th, when he sails from Southampton, will be spent in sight-seeing. His full and complete recovery is earnestly and universally hoped for by the students. '67. Rev. Charles S. Albert, D. D., of Balti-more, Md., was elected president of the Gene-ral Synod, lately in convention at Canton, O. '67. Rev. W. E. Parson, D. D., has been secured to deliver an address at the Chicago Lutheran Congress on " Liberty in the Luthe-ran Church." '68. Rev. D. L. Mackenzie lately had an article in the Sioux City Times, entitled " Now and Then." '68. We were pleased to greet on our streets, the latter part of April, Rev. R. F. McClean, formerly of New Bloomfield, Pa. (pastor of the Presbyterian Church), but now located tempo-rarily in Carlisle, Pa. Sunday evening, April 30th, the reverend gentleman preached a most excellent sermon in the College Church. '68. Rev. J. W. Richard, D. D., of Gettys-burg, Pa., will next year deliver a course often lectures on Ecclesiastical Architecture. These lectures will treat of the history and develop-ment of the Roman, Gothic, and Italian archi-tecture. '69. The opening sermon of Rev. J. A. Clutz, D. D., the retiring president of the General Synod, was published in full in the Lutheran Observe}-, and is a masterly produc-tion. Dr. Clutz has been invited to deliver an address before the Lutheran Congress at the World's Fair. '70. The Board of Directors of the German Lutheran Theological Seminary, at Chicago, have elected the Rev. G. F. Behringer, A. M., of Saddle River, N. J., professor of Systematic and Exegetic Theology in that institution. '71. Rev. D. T. Koser, of Arendtsville, Pa., with his brother, A. S. Koser, of Muncy, left home the latter part of May for an extended trip to California and through the West. '71. Rev. W. H. Dunbar, D. D., of Leba-non, Pa., will preach the Baccalaureate sermon to the graduating class of the college on Sun-day, June 18th. Rev. Prof. Jacob Yutzy, '76, of Selins Grove, will deliver the annual address to the Y. M. C. A., on the evening of gradua-tion day. The Alumni address will be deliv-ered on the evening of June 21st, by Mr. Sterling Valentine, Ph.D., '82, of Lebanon, Pa. '73. Rev. Philip Graif's congregation at Oakland, California, will in a few days break ground for their new church edifice, which will be exceptionally handsome. '74. Rev. F. W. Staley, of Middletown, has been appointed by the General Synod as its fraternal representative to the next meeting of the General Convention of the Reformed Church in the United States, to convene in Reading, Pa., May 24th, 1893. '74. Rev. J. A. Wirt, of Hughesville, Pa., was here in attendance at the funeral of his father-in-law, the late Alexander D. Buehler. Rev. Wirt will preach a sermon to the Y. P. S. C. E., of Irving College, Mechanicsburg, June 4th. '75. Rev. E. G. Hay, of Pottsville, Pa., visited his parents in Gettysburg during the first of May. '76. Rev. S. E. Smith, of Newport, Pa., after the General Synod, will spend several months in the West. '79. The corner-stone of St. Matthew's Lu-theran church, on the Manor near Buckeys-town, Md., was laid in the presence of a large congregation on April 23d. The sermon was preached by Rev. Luther Kuhlman, of Fred-erick, Md., president of the Maryland Synod. Rev. A. H. Burk is pastor loci. '79. J. B. Raby, Esq., formerly corporation lawyer for Frick Co., Waynesboro, Pa., has opened a law office in that city as a practic-ing attorney. '80. Rev. A. H. F. Fisher, wife and son, of Barren Hill, Pa., spent a week in Gettysburg the latter part of May, visiting Mrs. Fisher's mother, Mrs. Picking. Mr. Fisher speaks in terms of the strongest commendation of his people at Barren Hill. 68 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. '80. The corner-stone of Rev. M. P. Hook-er's new church edifice at Steelton, Pa., was laid on Sunday, April 30th, amid large crowds and imposing ceremonies. '80. Rev. L. B. Wolf, President of the Watt's Memorial College, Guntur, India, ar-rived in Gettysburg, Wednesday evening, May 17th, after an absence of five years. After a few days' visit among friends and relatives, he repaired to the meeting of the General Synod, leaving his family here. '82. Messiah Lutheran Church, Philadel-phia, Pa., of which Rev. M. H. Valentine is pastor, at a recent effort, raised $2,000 toward making repairs and alterations in the church edifice, which was damaged by fire several months ago. '82. The Pennsylvania Lawyer, containing abstracts of the laws of Pennsylvania, and of the postal, patent, copyright, and pension laws, with legal and business forms, is a new book-by W. C. Sheely, Esq., of this place. It is published by L. G. Firestine & Co., of Mechan-icsburg, and sold by subscription at $4 and $5 per volume of about 700 pages. '83. The Second Lutheran Church ofJohns-town, Pa., Rev. G. W. W. Amick, pastor, has built a parsonage for its pastor. '83. Rev. Wm. W. Anstadt, pastor of the Lutheran Church at Bedford, and Miss Mary Alice Hantz, were married at the residence of the bride in York, Pa., on Wednesday evening, May 3d. The ceremony was performed by Rev. P. Anstadt, D. D., '44, father of the groom. '83. Rev. H. L Yarger, of Lawrence, Kan., will address the Y. M. C. A. at Midland Col-lege, June 7th. '84. The work of Rev. L. M. Zimmerman, pastor of Christ Lutheran Church, Baltimore, Md., has received the highest commendation at the hands of the city papers. The Balti-more Herald, of May 7th, contains a three-column review of his six years of labor there. '85. Rev. L. E. De Yoe, pastor of the Mes-siah Lutheran Church, Harrisburg, Pa., preached a sermon to the G. A. R. posts of that city on Sunday, May 28th. '85. We congratulate Mr. S. S. Neely, Esq., on his appointment by the Government as statistical agent of the State for the Agricul-tural Department. Mr. Neely's duties in his new position will not be of a very onerous nature, we understand, while the attendant salary is quite a lucrative one. '86. Rev. Prof. O. G. Klinger, principal of the Preparatory Department, spent a week in New York, recently, in the interest of the col-lege. '87. Hagerstown, Md.—Rev. S. E. Bateman, pastor of St. Mark's, has been called to All Saints, Philadelphia. His success in building up a new congregation, and erecting in a grow-ing part of the city an attractive and comfort-able chapel, has brought this popular and efficient worker into deserved prominence. '87. Rev. W. F. Steck, having accepted the call extended to him by the Lutheran congre-gation of Port Royal, Pa., has left the people of his former pastorate amid universal regret. May success attend him in his new field of labor. '88. The Church of the Reformation, Balti-more, Md., of which Rev. D. Frank Garland is pastor, was dedicated on Sunday, May 21st. The exercises consisted of a dedicatory ser-mon at half-past two o'clock, by Rev. J. W. Richard, D. D, '68, of Gettysburg Theological Seminary, and a sermon at eight o'clock in the evening by Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D., LL D. Short addresses were made by the pastor, by Rev. Charles S. Albert, D. D., '67, Rev. H. F. Kroh, '84, and others. '88. Rev. C. A. Hoy, Orrstown, Pa., reports having resigned his charge on the 21st inst, to accept a new mission congregation in south-east Philadelphia. '89. Rev. S. J. McDowell was installed as pastor of Emmanuel's Lutheran Church, Fries-burg, N. J., on Sunday, April 16th, by Rev. Dr. Enders, of York, Pa. This is one of the oldest Lutheran churches in America, having been founded nearly two hundred years ago. Mr. McDowell is performing an excellent work among his people, and has earned the esteem of the entire community. '90. C. B. Fager, Jr., Geo. B. Kunkel, and Wm. H. Ulsh, received their degrees of M. D. from the University of Pennsylvania, on May 10th. We expect the gentlemen to be with us Commencement week. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 69 '90. L. M. Kauffman, lately graduated among the first in his class from Bellevue Hospital Medical College, is practicing his profession with his father at Kauffman, Pa. He was offered a hospital appointment, but declined. '90. Rev. N. E. Yeiser and wife, recently-sent by the General Synod of the Lutheran Church as missionaries to India, arc for the present living with Dr. Kugler and Miss Fannie M. Dryden, two lady missionaries who have been there some time. '91. D. A. Buehler, now with the A. E. Footc Co., wholesale dealers in scientific books, Philadelphia, Pa., was at home in attendance at the funeral of the late Alexander D. Bueh-ler. '92. We were glad to greet again on the campus, recently, Mr. H. H. Jones, who has spent the past year in the Medical Depart-ment of Maryland University; also Mr. E. J. Cook, an ex-member of '92, who has been, during the past year, principal of Bel Air Academy. Mr. Cook expects to study law after taking a short trip to the World's Fair this summer. '93. Mr. M. C. Wright, formerly of the class of '93, in Gettysburg College, graduates this year in the regular classical course at Michi-gan University, Ann Arbor, Mich. '94. Mr. J. H. Fichthorn, who left Gettys-burg at the end of Freshman to enter Cornell, has been compelled to forego attending college, during the past term, from weakness of the eyes. '94. We were pleased, indeed, a few days ago, to once more greet Mr. R. E. Miller, who the past year has been taking private tutorship at home, under the able direction of Mr. F. E. Metsgar, '88. Mr. Miller expects to join his class again at the opening of next year. F-RATEKMITy /NOTES. PAUL W. KOLI.ER, Editor. PHI KAPPA PSI. Our symposium will be held on Wednesday, June 21st, at the Eagle Hotel. Bros. Clayball and Stitely, of Westminster, Md., helped to cheer our base-ball team on to victory during the recent game at that place. Bro. Keefer, Secretary of I. C. A. A., at-tended a meeting of that body, held at the Bingham House, Philadelphia, on May 20th. Bro. Hill, of town, paid our Chapter a visit recently. Bros. Turner, Keefer, Witman, and Russell are entered in the tennis tournament. PHI GAMMA DELTA. A new Chapter (V 7) of Phi Gamma Delta has been chartered at Trinity College. Bros. M. G. L. Rietz, '95, and Howard M. Plerr, '97, were initiated on Thursday, April 27th. We enjoyed a short visit lately from Bro. Fred. T. Howe, Ph. D.,of theBeta Mu (Johns Hopkins) Chapter, and editor of the Phi Gamma Delta Quarterly. " The Religious Element in Man " is the subject that has been assigned Bro. Blint, '90, for his Commencement thesis. Bro. Hoffcr, '94, represented us at the Pennsylvania State Convention of Phi Gamma Delta which met at the Wyandotte Hotel, South Bethlehem, Pa., May 4th and 5th. Measures are being taken for the establish-ment of an Alumni Chapter at Pittsburgh, Pa., and it is likely that a charter will be granted in the near future. Bro. David A. Buehler, '90, who at present is with the A. E. Foote wholesale scientific book firm, was in town to attend the funeral of his uncle, the late Alexander D. Buehler. PHI DELTA THETA. Bro. Cook, E. J., Principal of Bel Air Acad-emy, Md., was the guest of his brother over Sunday last. Bro. Maynard, '95, was initiated into the mystic brotherhood on the 20th inst. Bro. Gilroy, of Dickinson College, recently spent a few days in our midst as the guest of Pennsylvania Beta. Bro. Brallier will have the honor of being the Latin Salutatorian at the coming Com-mencement exercises of the class of '93. ALPHA TAU OMEGA. Bro. John W. Cable, Jr., '97, of Smithsburg, Md., was initiated April i8th, 1893. 7° THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Bro. Gco. A. Kyner, '89, attorney-at-law in Chambersburg, Pa., paid Gettysburg a fly-ing visit lately to see old friends. Bro. H. H. Jones, '92, who has been pur-suing a course of medicine at the University of Maryland, Baltimore, visited his Alma Mater on his way home. Bro. H. W. Jump, whom all will remember as the very able trainer of last year's success-ful foot-ball team at Gettysburg College, lately graduated from the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania. SIGMA ALPHA EPSILON. On the evening of the 10th inst, Pennsylva-nia Delta, the first chapter established north of the " Mason and Dixon line," was re-estab- Jished at our institution with the following charter members : John C. Grimes, '93 ; Geo. D. Danner and Jas. T. Povall, of the Fresh-man class, and Wm. R. McCartney, '97. Bro. Danner, '96, attended the Commence-ment exercises of the High School at his home, Manheim, Pa., on the nth and 12th of May. He presided over the annual meeting of the Alumni Association on the evening of the nth, held in the Reformed Church. Bro. Chas. G. Smith, '97, of Beaver Springs, Pa., was initiated on the 27th of May. Sigma Alpha Epsilon, of Gettysburg Col-lege, sends greeting to THE MERCURY. May it ever be a thorough representative of our in-stitution. Thanks to members of our sister fraternities for their congratulations. ATHLETieS. H. E. CLARE, Editor. THE present base-ball season opened April 29th with unprecedented interest. The team by its admirable playing has aroused general enthusiasm, each succeeding game raising the interest to a higher pitch. So far not a game has been lost, and the expecta-tions of the most ardent have been gratified. The sincere hope of THE MERCURY is that the season may close as auspiciously as it has opened, and from present indications we feel safe in saying that this hope will be realized. The first game of the season was played on the home grounds Saturday, April 29th, with Franklin and Marshall, but, owing to the in-clement weather, the teams were unable to play upon the grounds until 3 p. M., and as the visiting team was compelled to leave for the train at 3.30 P. M., the game was called in the second inning. Enough was seen to show what the home team could do, the score when the teams ceased playing being: Gettysburg, 11 ; Franklin and Marshall, o. On May 6th, the Indians of the Carlisle Training School played with our team on out-home grounds. The game was very close and interesting, especially during the first six inn-ings, neither side having scored a point. Then the tables turned, and the home team, by superb playing, scored six points and won the the game. Annexed is the score : GETTYSUUItG. INDIAN SCHOOL. Gies, c. f., . . Nicholas, i b., Kcefer, 3 b., . Hill.p Lcisenring, I. £, Tate, c, . . . Gilbert, 2 b., . , Hoffman, s. s., Erb.r.f.,. . . Totals, H. O. A. E. 3OOO Sh'na'do'h, 1 b., Toprock, 2 b., . Turkey,c. f., . . Lufkin, 1. f., . . Chief Eagle, r. f, Silas, s. s. and p., Taylor, 3 b., . . Eagle Feather, c, Nori, p. and s. s., H. O. A. E. O7O0 6 11 27 13 2 I Totals, 1 6 27 9 INNINGS. ■ Gettysburg, 00000041 1- Indian School o o o o o o o o 1- Summary—Earned runs, Gettysburg, 2 ; Indian School, 1. Three base hit, Turkey. Bases stolen, Gettysburg, 7; Indian School, 1. Base on balls, by Hill, 1 ; by Silas, 2 ; by Nori, 1. Hit by pitched ball, Toprock. Struck out, by Hill, 3; by Nori, 4; by Silas, 3. Passed ball. Eagle Feather. Time of game, 1.30. Umpires, Vastine and High Horse. Scorer, Keffer. All looked forward to May ioth with eager expectation, that being the time scheduled for our first game with Dickinson College. The expected day came and with it the game, but it proved to be so one-sided an affair that we were disappointed. From beginning to end Dickinson wasn't " in it." Himes made a miserable excuse for pitching, the home team knocking him all over the field to the intense delight of the spectators. The only playing done by the visiting team was in the field. Hill pitched a superb game, strik-ing out eight men. He amused himself with the visitors, three times hitting their bats, thereby giving them their three hits. When the last man was put out in the ninth inning, the spectators fairly rent the air with their cheering. .The crestfallen visitors slowly wended their way to the train that was to carry them away from the scene of defeat, while the dolefully tolling bell sent forth its THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 7% melancholy reverberations. Following is the score: GF.TTYSHURG. Gies, c. f., . . . • 3 Nicholas, 1 b., . . 2 Keefer, 3 b 3 Hill, p., ■ • ■ ■ 3 Richardson, r. f, . o Leisenring, 1. f., . 1 Gilbert, 2 b.t . . . 1 Hoffman, s. s., . .2 Tate, c, 2 Totals, . 17 16 27 13 2 DICKINSON. R. H. O. A. B. Himes, p., . o o o 4 o Davis, 1. f., . 1 1 2 o o Gilroy, 2 b., .01642 Curry, 3 b., . . - o 1 2 30 Bowman, c, .002 4 a Goodall, ib o on o 1 Lantz, c. f., . o o 3 1 1 Cramer, r. f., . . . o o 1 o c Makely, s. s., . .000 1 3 Totals, .1 3 27 17 7 Gettysburg, 4 J ° « « 3 2 2 3—'7 Dickinson, 1 o o o o o o o o— 1 Summary—Earned runs, Gettysburg, 9; Dickinson, 1. Two base hits, Hill, Nicholas, Hoffman. Bases stolen, Gettysburg, 14; Dickin-son, 2. Double play, Hill and Nicholas. Bases on balls, by Hill, 3; by 'Himes, 3. Hit by pitched ball, Gies and Tate. Struck out by Himes, 1 ; by Hill, 8. Passed balls, Bowman, 2. Time of game, 1.45. Umpires, Vastine and Vail. Scorer, Keffer. Another victory was added to our list, May 13th. After a drive of twenty-three miles over rough roads, our team met the Western Maryland College team upon their grounds at Westminster, Md., and defeated them. The game was close and interesting. Fine work was done on both sides, especially by the batteries and the Gettysburg fielders. Although the Gettysburg boys were somewhat exhausted by the long drive, they kept up their record to the end. The score was not as high as it would have been had the conditions been more equal. Following is the score: GETTYSBURG. Gies, c. f., . . . Nicholas, ib., . Keefer, 3 b., . . Hill, p., . Richardson, r. f., Leisenring, I. f., Gilbert, 2 b., . . Hoffman, s. s., . Tale, c R. H. O. A. E. WESTERN MARYLAND. K. H. O. Sellman, p., .001 Danner, 2 b., . . . o 2 2 Kurgeson, c, . . . o 1 4 Lewis, s. s., . . . o c 1 Gilbert, 1 b., . . . o o 9 Stull, 1. f. o o 3 Story, c. f. 1 o 4 Keen, r. f., . . . . o 3 1 Miller, 3 b., . . . o 1 2 score of 23 Totals, . 4 5 27 11 1 Totals,.i 7 27 11 6 | INNINGS. Gettysburg 10030000 0—4 1 Western Maryland o 1 o o o o o o o—1 | Summary—Earned runs, Gettysburg, 2; Western Maryland, 1. | Bases stolen, Gettysburg, 8 ; Western Maryland, 4. Double plays, Gies, Keefer, and Gilbert : Hoffman and Nicholas. Bases on balls, I by Sellman, 2. Hit by pitched ball. Hill. Struck out by Hill, 7; by Sellman, 3. Passed balls, Furgeson, 2. Time of game, 1.50. Umpires, Vastine and White. Scorer, Keffer. The game of May 20th with New Windsor College, on our home grounds, proved to be a very one-sided contest. Mr. Whitehill wasn't " in it" with Gettysburg's Hill. The game became rather monotonous toward the end. The home team did good playing. More need not be said—the score speaks for itself: Gettysburg, 27 ; New Windsor, 2. Much base-ball skill is developing in Prep., an example of which we had on Saturday, May 20th, when the Sub-Freshman team de-feated the Freshman team by a to 9. On Saturday, May 27th, the Sub-Freshman were again victorious. This time they de-feated the Sophomores by a score of 15 to 9. Their skill and coolness is to be commended, and Gettysburg need not tremble for her laurels for the next few years. The return game with Dickinson,.scheduled for May 24th, has been postponed to a future date. The return game that was to be played with Franklin and Marshall has been declared off on account of their team disbanding. At no time in the history of the college has so much interest been awakened in tennis. Every one seems to be infected with the fever. The absorbing topic in tennis circles is the tournament to be held during Commence-ment week. The entries for " doubles " are closed with thirty-six names. The " singles " are still open, but will be closed shortly. Practice is now in order for the preliminaries, which will be held in a week or two. At present the outlook for the tournament is very favorable, and if nothing unexpected occurs, it will be one of the most pleasant features of Commencement week. Base-ball and tennis have not entirely over-shadowed the interest in foot-ball. The appli-cants for next year's team practice weekly. Some new and promising material has been developed since last fall, and we look forward to a strong team for next year. Arrangements are being made for the Field Sports to be held during Commencement week. The sports will consist of dashes, races, jumping, kicking, throwing, etc. Mana-ger Nicklas, '94, is doing all in his power to make the affair a great success. We hope that his efforts will not be in vain. Keefer, '95, represented Gettysburg College at the annual athletic games held at Philadel-phia, May 20th, under the auspices of the Inter-Collegiate State Athletic Association. TOW/N AND SEMI/NTVRy. ROSCOE C. WRIGHT, Editor. SEMINARY. THE annual meeting of the Bible Society of Gettysburg was held April 29th. Dr. Hay was re-elected President. 72 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Mr. Foster U. Gift, of the Junior class, will act as English Assistant to Dr. Wenner, of New York, during the coming summer vaca-tion. Rev. Ellis B. Burgess has accepted a call to Avenmore, Pa. He will enter upon his work in June. Appropriate Ascension Day services were held in the Seminary chapel, May l ith. Ad-dresses were made by Drs. Hay, Wolf, and Richard. Rev. W. Eichmann, of Westphalia, Ger-many, arrived here on the 29th of April. He studied theology five years in Germany, and came to Gettysburg to learn something about American church life. At the close of the term, he will go West to take a charge. We wish him success. Rev. C. H. Gruver has received a call from the Lutheran Church at Sparrow's Point, Md. Dr. Butler, of Washington, and Rev. H. R. Geiger, Ph. D., editor of the Lutheran Evange-list, visited the Seminary April 27th. Dr. George Scholl, Secretary of Foreign Missions, was with us April 23d. Dr. Hay delivered the address at the laying of the corner-stone of St. John's Lutheran Church, at Stcelton, April 30th. Mr. J. Braren, of Holstein, Germany, a member of the Middle class, expects to go West this summer to do mission work among the Germans of Nebraska. Drs. Valentine and Wolf are delegates to the General Synod. Rev. A. Stewart Hartman, Secretary of Home Missions, has appointed Mr. A. C. Stup as missionary for the summer vacation to Riverside, Cal., and Mr. A. A. King to Bangor, Pa. Messrs. Axe, Bergstresser, Hesse, Dunlap, and R. B. Wolf, have been appointed as colporteurs for the Pennsylvania Bible Society. On Sunday, May 21st, Rev. D. Frank Gar-land's church, in Baltimore, was dedicated. Dr. Richard preached the dedicatory sermon. Rev. F. S. Schultz has received a unanimous call to Morellville, a suburb of Johnstown, Pa. Dr. Richard entertained the Senior class of the Seminary at his home, Thursday evening, May 18th. A very enjoyable time is re-ported. Rev. Wolf, the missionary who recently returned from India, addressed the students, Sunday morning, May 21st, on "The kind of men needed in the foreign field to-day." The address was an excellent one, timely, and full of many important suggestions. Rev. Wolf intends to remain in this country about three months. TOWN. April 30th was the one hundredth anniver-sary of the independence of the Reformed Church in the United States, that body having separated from the church in Holland, April 30th, 1793. Rev. Barkley delivered an his-torical sermon in Trinity Reformed Church in the morning. Mrs. Harriet Brown Krauth, widow of Rev. Dr. C. P. Krauth, the first President of Gettys-burg College, died April 27th. S. S. Neely, Esq., has been appointed statis-tical agent of the State for the Agricultural Department. Arrangements are being made for the semi-annual encampment of the Department of Pennsylvania, G. A. R., at Gettysburg, July 15th to 21 st. Large delegations from the De-partments of New York, Maryland, and Dela-ware are expected. The New York monument in the National Cemetery will be dedicated July 3d, the anni-versary of the battle. That State has ap-propriated $50,000 for the transportation of the Governor and staff, members of the Legis-lature, and surviving veterans. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. n A distinguished party, consisting of General James Longstreet, General E. Porter Alexan-der, artillery leader of the Confederacy, General Mahone, of Va., Major-General O. O. Howard, of the U. S. Army, Generals Sickles and Tre-main, of New York, Governor Pattison and Auditor-General Gregg, of Pennsylvania, visited the battle-field April 28th-2C)th. On May 6th the oratorical contest between six members of the College Prohibition Club was held in the Court-House. This contest is preliminary to the State Inter-Collegiate Prohibition Contest, to be held at Harrisburg, June 6th, to which the winner will be sent. The winner at the State Contest will take part in the National Contest to take place at Chi-cago. The following is the list of the contest-ants, and the subjects of their respective orations: I. O. Moser, "Our Public School System ;" O. O. Leidich, " Monopolies ;•" M. Kemp, " The Effects of Prohibition on Na-tional Character;" L. F. Miller, " Arbitration vs. War;" W. D. Ernest, " The Curse of the Nineteenth Century;" C. E. Sanders, "Pro-hibition the Safeguard of our Social Fabric." The judges, Dr. Swartz, and Revs. Black and Good, decided that Mr. Sanders was the win-ner of the contest. THE MERCURY extends congratulations. Dr. Geo. E. Reed, President of Dickinson College, delivered the Memorial Day oration at Gettysburg. The electric railway company is meeting with much opposition. The pike companies brought suit, claiming that if the electric road was built it would interfere with traffic over their roads. This was settled by paying the pike companies $100. Recently the veterans have taken the matter in hand. Not wishing to see Devil's Den, Peach Orchard, Valley of Death, and other places of historic interest defaced by the blasting and filling in for the road-bed, they are petitioning the Secretary of War to prevent a further desecration of the battle-field. The railway company maintains that the new road will not mar the scenery at the foot of Round Top, and that the battle lines will remain intact. The War Depart-ment sent Major George B. Davis, Advocate General Judge of that department, to look over the proposed route. The decision of the Secretary of War will doubtless be based upon his report. Rev. Hugh Gilchrist has accepted a call to the Presbyterian Church. At the recent session of the State Medical Society it was decided to hold its next meet-ing at Gettysburg. We are again called upon to note the death of one intimately connected with the college. On Friday morning, May igth, Alexander D. Buehler died after a very short illness. Mr. Buehler succeeded his father as Treasurer and Trustee of Gettysburg College 37 years ago. During his long residence in Gettysburg he was identified with the Gas Company, the Adams County Fire Insurance Company, and the Water Company. Since 1867 he has been one of the proprietors of the Star and Sentinel. A large circle of friends will mourn his depar-ture. He bequeathed $2,000 to the college. On Thursday, May 18th, Hon. Chris. Magee, of Pittsburgh, and State Senators William Flinn, Walter Lyon, Wm. Penn Lloyd, Grant Herring, and Samuel Steele were here to look over the battle-field. Senator Flinn is the author of the bill giving electric roads the right of eminent domain. LITE-RTVRy SOCIETIES. WALDO D. MAYNARD, Editor. OWING to so many attractions out-doors, there is not so much interest manifested in society work as there should be. This is a matter to be regretted, for our work in the literary societies is of so much importance that 74 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. we cannot afford to neglect it. The time and labor required for preparation in this work is but comparatively little, so much the more is it needful then that we should not shirk our work when we are on the programme for per-formance. Let us then arouse ourselves to greater activity and make our society work of as much importance during the spring term as any other term of the year. With a little self-denial and restraint this can easily be done. Nearly all of the men in college now belong to the societies. This is very encouraging, but the members should keep at work until every man belongs to a society. PHRENA. NOTES. Phrena. has made valuable additions to its library, over 50 volumes of standard works having been purchased recently. The following will be the contestants in the Junior Oratorial Contest, to be held during Commencement week: Messrs. Lantz, Bush, Barndt, and Stahl. Mr. R. N. Stahle, '97, has been elected a member of Phrena. The following action has been taken by Phrena. upon the death of one of its members, Mr. Charles S. Wolf. WHEREAS, God, in His all-wise providence, has seen fit to remove from our midst Charles Stark Wolf, a true and faith-ful member of Phrenakosmian Literary Society; and WHEREAS, In this sudden departure from a life, rich with promise, we deeply mourn our great loss of one who has always been a loyal Phrena.; therefore, be it Resolved, That in his untimely death we have lost an active worker, an ardent supporter, and a congenial asso-ciate ; and also Resolved, That though his seat be vacant, and we shall meet him no more here, we have the assuring hope and belief that our loss is his infinite gain ; and Resolved, That though we are saddened by the loss of our associate, recognizing that His ways are not our ways, we bow in humble submission to Him who doeth all things well; and also Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be presented to the family of the deceased; that they be recorded in the minute-book of the society ; and that they be printed in the college journals, church and town papers. VIRGIL R. SAYLAR, FLAVIUS HILTON, EDGAR SUTHERLAND, GELLERT ALLEMAN, ROSCOE C. WRIGHT. PHILO. NOTES. Philo. has finished its course in the discussion of authors. The society was very successful in this new undertaking. The hall was crowded every evening, while this plan was pursued, by the people from town as well as by the students. The following noted authors were some of those considered : Tennyson, George Eliot, Oliver Wendell Holmes. Fifty volumes of standard works have been added to the library, and a committee has been appointed to re-catalogue the books in the library. The following have recently been elected members of Philo.: Messrs. Ibach, '94; Wiest, Madara, Hoffman, Feldman, '95 ; Shaar and Heindel, '96; Smyser, Lutz, Culp, McCartney, Misses Tipton and Hess, '97. Oliver Wendell Holmes and Mrs. H. B. Nixon were elected honorary members. On Friday, May 26th, Philo. Society elected new officers to attend to her business. The officers elected were as follows : President, D. W. Van Camp ; Vice-President, W. A. Kump ; Recording Secretary, G. Z. Stup; Treasurer' W. B. Duttera ; Critics, J. F. Seebach, F. H. Bloomhardt, R. W Mottern ; Janitor, H. D. Newcomer. Philo. will hold its preliminary to the Junior Oratorial Contest on June 9th. A maiden fair of Boston town, Whose hose were azure as her eyes, Who'd ranged the scale of all the fads, Woke in my heart the god of sighs; She loved me, and I thought to hear Some erudite endearing name, But no, the learned darling called Me " lovie-dovie," just the same. —Life. ADVERTISEMENTS. Wanamaker's. Sporting goods of every sort. Sporting wear of every sort—Coats, Trousers, Caps and such a gathering of Shoes for every indoor or outdoor game as was never before seen in America. And Wanamaker prices—as low as anybody's, very likely lower than any-where else. ATALANTA was the swiftest girl of antiquity. The myth has come true to-day in a Wheel. Our ATALANTA is a Bicycle as fast, as strong, as simple as any on the market; faster, stronger, simpler, safer, better than most of the "first-class" machines. And lighter—weight Z°V\ l°s- But the best part is the price—$120 for a bang-up $150 Bicycle ! JOHN WANAMAKER. PROFESSIONAL CARDS. SEND FOR CATALOGUE OF NEAR. BALTIMORE, IVID, This widely known, thoroughly equipped, and extensively patronized School will open its 41st Annual Sesson, Sept. 13th, 1893. All the Departments of a High Grade Seminary. Address, Rev. J. H. TURNER, A. M., Principal, LUTHERVILLE, MD. CH^LlES S. DU^iCR^, '82, ATTORNEY AND COUNSELLOR-AT-LAW, Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. CHRS. E. STAflLtE, '87, ATTORNEY-AT-LAW, Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. DR. CHAS. B, STOUFFER, OFFICE, STAR AND SENTINEL BUILDING, GETTYSBURG. PA. ftWber's Drag Store, Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. Prescriptions Carefully Compounded. matest Styles ii} Hats, Shoes, AND Gents' Furnishings, R. M. ELLIOTT'S. N. B.—Stiff Hats made to Fit the Head in two minutes. A. D. BUEHLER&CO., Headquarters for B©©^s a^d Brags, Stationery and Blank Books. LOWEST CASH PRICES- VI ADVERTISEMENTS. DECKER BROTHERS' PIANOS. Absolute .Evenness of Touch, Richness and Brilliancy of Tone, Extraordinary Singing Quality, Unequaled Workmanship, Power of Standing in Tune longer than any other Piano made, are among the characteristic qualities of DECKER BROS. PIANOS, 33 Union Square, Heuu York. Used in Philo. Hall at Gettysburg College. GO TO C.A.BLOCHER'S Jeujelpy Stove fot» Souvenir * Spoons, . Sword * PTVins, &c. DKEKA Fine Stationery and Engraving House, 1121 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. J^pari-rnS a SPecraTty. COLLEGE INVITATIONS CLASS STATIONERY SOCIETY STATIONERY PROGRAMMES, BADGES WEDDING INVITATIONS VISITING CARDS BANQUET MENUS DIPLOMAS AND MEDALS Post Office Corner, Centre Square, STEEL PLATE ENGRAVING FOR FRATERNITIES, CLASSES AND COLLEGE ANNUALS. All work is executed in the establishment under the personal supervis-ion of Mr. Dreka, and only in the best manner. Unequaled facilities and long practical experience enable us to produce the newest styles and most artistic t fleets, while our reputation is a guarantee of the quality of the productions of this house. ADVERTISEMENTS. Vll R. H. REININGER, Merchant % Tailor. * & X *c THE BEST WORK AT THE LOWEST PRICES. Suits from $12.00 to $40.00. Pants from $4.00 to $12.00. NEXT DOOR TO POST OFFICE, UP-STAIRS. CENTRAL SQUARE. PETE THORNE, Shaving $ Hair Cutting Parlors. Pl-RST eLASS 7VRTISTS. CENTRAL SQUARE. AJVIOS EC^EHT, DEALER IN FLEMMING & TROXEL, Billiard AND Pool 'Rooms. BALTIMORE STREET. Hats, Shirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Gloves, Satchels, Hose, Pocket Books, Trunks, Telescopes, Rubbers, Etc., Etc. AMOS ECKERT. SPECIflli TO STUDENTS. Fine Tailoring. JOSEPH JACOBS, Merchant Tailor, Shambersburg Street, (Mow Eagle Hotel) GETTYSBURG, PA. Red Front Cigar Store R. H. RUPP, Proprietor. flo. 8 Baltimore St., Gettysburg. The place for a fine Cigar or a good chew. Solid Havana filler, 5 for 25c. An elegant article. A FINE ASSORTMENT OF PIPES AND SMOKING MIXTURES. j V111 ADVERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1876. PE/NKOSE MgE-RS, \Y/dTCHndKER ™ jEWELER. Liarge Stock of LUatehes,Cloeks, Jeuuelpy, etc., on Hand. That Man is Out GETTYSBURG SOUVENIR SPOONS COLLEGE SOUVENIR WHO BUYS HIS BASE BALL, . BICYCLE, . . LAWN TENNIS -^2-3 10 BALTIMORE STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA. Students' Headquarters IS AT J. R.STINE & SONS CLOTHING STORE The Cheapest Clothing and Gents' Furnishings in Gettysburg. 1 IP-OUTING, ELSEWHERE . THAN AT . YACHTING AND BOATING SUPPLIES, A. Q. SPALDING & BROS. CHICAGO, NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, loS Mnclison St. 243 l'.roatlwny, 1032 Chestnut St. MERCHANT TAILORING DmTLEflELD LlVERT. Rear of Washington House, Opposite W, M. R. R. Depot. GETTYSBURG, PA. ^~ All Kinds of Teams. Good Riding Horses. A SPECIALTY. COME AND SEE US. J. R. STINE & SON, THE LEADING CLOTHIERS, MAIN STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA. :o:- The Battlefield a Specialty, With First-Class Guides. DAVID McCLEARY, Prop.

INDICE CAP.1 Premessa 1 DALLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO ALLA RESPONSABILITA' SANITARIA 1. La responsabilità in generale 2 2. Responsabilità civile, contrattuale ed extracontrattuale 3 3. La responsabilità medica 9 4. La responsabilità del medico 10 5. La responsabilità della struttura sanitaria 12 6. Il sistema a doppio binario 14 7. La "spersonalizzazione" del rapporto 17 8. Il problema della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura 19 CAP. 2 RESPONSABILITA' CONTRATTUALE ED EXTRACONTRATTUALE 1. Il problema della distinzione dell'ambito applicativo delle regole sulla responsabilità 25 2. Lo stemperarsi dei profili di differenza 36 3.L'incremento dei punti di contatto 37 4. La zona grigia tra illecito e contratto 41 CAP.3 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DIPENDENTE DALLA STRUTTURA SANITARIA 1. La tesi della natura extracontrattuale 46 2. La tesi della natura contrattuale 50 3. La tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale 56 4. Evoluzione giurisprudenziale dopo le S.U. della cassazione e consolidamento della tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale 72 CAP.4 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DOPO LA LEGGE BALDUZZI 1. La ratio della legge e il contesto socio-economico nel quale si inserisce 79 2. Problematiche inerenti l'art.3 87 3. Ricadute dottrinali e giurisprudenziali 98 BIBLIOGRAFIA 111 1. Giurisprudenza di legittimità 116 2. Giurisprudenza di merito 118 CAP.1 DALLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO ALLA RESPONSABILITA' SANITARIA Premessa. La presente tesi si propone di affrontare la responsabilità civile del medico approfondendo uno dei profili più dibattuti, la natura della responsabilità, che è stata anche oggetto del predetto intervento normativo. A tal fine nel primo capitolo verrà trattato il passaggio dalla responsabilità del medico alla responsabilità sanitaria, facendo attenzione ai profili evolutivi della dottrina e della giurisprudenza, con uno sguardo rivolto alla spersonalizzazione del rapporto medico-paziente; nel secondo capitolo l'attenzione sarà rivolta alla natura della responsabilità, cercando di definire le linee di confine e le varie problematiche inerenti la prestazione medica; nel terzo capitolo verranno esaminate le varie tesi a supporto della diversa configurazione della natura della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura sanitaria e infine nell' ultimo capitolo verrà posto l'accento sul contesto socio-economico della legge Balduzzi e le varie problematiche inerenti l'art. I poteri riconosciuti al privato che si ritiene danneggiato dall'altrui condotta spaziano dalla tutela per equivalente alla tutela in forma specifica, previo riconoscimento del suo diritto. 2. Responsabilità civile, contrattuale ed extracontrattuale. Volendo delineare le caratteristiche, o meglio il presupposto principale, alla base della responsabilità civile, vediamo che quest' ultimo si sostanzia nell' esistenza di un "danno risarcibile". L'opera di Sacco confutò la tesi dell' identificazione tra ingiustizia del danno e lesione di un diritto soggettivo assoluto, mostrando le varie sfaccettature che può assumere in pratica il requisito dell' ingiustizia del danno, al di là della lesione del diritto della vittima. Schlesinger invece contrastò l'impostazione tradizionale affermando che l'atipicità stessa dell' illecito, portasse l'istituto della responsabilità civile, al di là della protezione dei diritti assoluti . Basti pensare all' interesse del contraente che quando entra in un rapporto contrattuale non pretende solo la prestazione che è oggetto del contratto ma ha interesse anche a non subire pregiudizio alla propria persona e alle proprie cose che indirettamente entrano automaticamente nella stessa prestazione contrattuale. A mio avviso emblematico è a tal riguardo il caso del medico dipendente che, pur essendo legato alla struttura da un rapporto di lavoro, avente ad oggetto il suo obbligo di prestazione medica, si trova esposto ad una molteplicità di rischi e pericoli legati proprio allo svolgimento della sua prestazione. In passato la responsabilità medica si declinava come responsabilità del medico, ponendo al centro del giudizio la colpa professionale dello stesso sul cui accertamento veniva basata la responsabilità solidale di medico e di strutture; oggi, la responsabilità sanitaria è innanzitutto responsabilità della struttura sanitaria e porta alla ribalta l'attività di assistenza sanitaria e con essa il rispetto dei livelli di qualità e appropriatezza clinica delle prestazioni sanitarie oltre che degli standard organizzativi e strutturali , . Oggi si parla sempre più correntemente di responsabilità medica o medico-sanitaria per sottolineare che alla responsabilità del singolo professionista si aggiunge quella della struttura sanitaria o ospedaliera presso la quale il medico presta la propria attività. Al di là della terminologia, il mutamento più significativo si è realizzato nella disciplina della responsabilità sempre più complessa e articolata tanto che si è parlato di un nuovo sottosistema della responsabilità civile . Nell' arco di qualche decennio, come vedremo si è passati dall' affermazione della natura extracontrattuale della responsabilità al principio del concorso ed infine alla natura schiettamente contrattuale. 4.La responsabilità del medico. In origine la responsabilità medica nasce e si afferma come responsabilità professionale del medico. La cornice normativa era composta da poche norme di portata generale sulla responsabilità civile(artt.1218 e 2043 c.c.) ed una norma di parte speciale che, dedicata alla responsabilità del professionista intellettuale(artt.2236 c.c.), si trova nell'ambito della disciplina del contratto d'opera professionale . Nell' evoluzione giurisprudenziale la responsabilità medica è stata declinata come responsabilità sanitaria di medici e strutture che ha dato luogo alla creazione da parte dei giudici di regole di responsabilità solo modellate sull' atto medico. Si è arrivati infatti a dare autonomia al "fare organizzato" della struttura rispetto al "fare professionale" del medico. Nell' ottica dell' attività di assistenza sanitaria, di cui è debitrice la struttura nei confronti del paziente, non si può più parlare di somma delle prestazioni dei singoli medici. L'opera creativa della giurisprudenza ha dapprima cercato di definire questo "contatto sociale", che da essere considerato la fonte di meri obblighi di protezione senza obbligo primario di prestazione diviene fonte di un "contratto di fatto" sulla base del quale è possibile individuare in capo al medico un obbligo di prestazione ; successivamente cercando di assimilare e ricondurre all' obbligo di prestazione da parte del medico quell' obbligo di assistenza sanitaria di cui è debitrice la struttura, sulla base del contratto stipulato con il medico. Nel panorama dei soggetti operanti nel settore sanitario si iscrivono anzitutto le Aziende Unità Sanitarie Locali, costituite dalla legge di riordino del sistema sanitario nazionale, sono aziende con personalità giuridica pubblica e autonomia imprenditoriale, che operano mediante atti di diritto privato, e che sono vincolate al rispetto del principio della economicità della gestione e alla redazione del bilancio d'esercizio, rimanendo in ogni caso soggette al potere di controllo delle Regioni(art.3) . n. 502/1992. La natura contrattuale della responsabilità della struttura sanitaria sia pubblica che privata, nei confronti del paziente, è oggi pacificamente condivisa da dottrina e giurisprudenza, non semplicemente sulla base della stipulazione di un contratto. Alla luce di tali considerazioni parrebbe preferibile una definizione della natura della responsabilità dell'istituto di cura in termini di responsabilità ex lege: la struttura sanitaria, ai sensi della legge 833/1978, è , infatti, legislativamente obbligata allo svolgimento dell'attività di "assistenza medica", con la conseguenza che il non corretto esercizio della stessa costituirebbe inadempimento di una obbligazione legale. Il sistema cd. a " doppio binario", costituisce il periodo intermedio dell'evoluzione dottrinale e giurisprudenziale dell'intera disciplina, nel quale alla responsabilità della struttura sanitaria si riconosceva origine contrattuale, mentre a quella del professionista si attribuiva natura aquiliana. In capo al medico gravava solo una responsabilità extracontrattuale, per violazione dei doveri inerenti alla professione, ex 2236 cod. civ., concorrente con quella contrattuale dell' ente. Un doppio binario in cui incanalare la responsabilità aquiliana del medico e quella contrattuale della struttura come responsabilità solidali in cui al medico era riconosciuta la possibilità di valersi di un beneficio di preventiva escussione della struttura sanitaria ogniqualvolta esso sia in grado di dare prova di una "non grave violazione" delle regole desumibili da protocolli scientifici, linee guida, raccomandazioni . Se la qualificazione extracontrattuale della responsabilità di quest'ultimo appariva corretta sul piano metodologico, al contempo risultava troppo riduttiva: ravvisare, infatti, nel medico un "quiusque de populo"significava non tenere conto del rapporto che si instaura direttamente tra quest'ultimo e il paziente . Inoltre, veniva a determinarsi un concorso improprio tra responsabilità aquiliana del medico e contrattuale dell'ente con conseguente bipartizione del regime giuridico applicabile, nonostante la responsabilità dell'ente avesse matrice unica ed esclusiva nell'esecuzione non diligente o errata della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico. A questo punto era utile definire quando si conclude il rapporto contrattuale tra ente e paziente; secondo l'impostazione tradizionale , è la stessa accettazione del paziente ai fini del ricovero o di una visita ambulatoriale a segnare la conclusione del "contratto d'opera professionale" tra il paziente e l'ente ospedaliero, il quale assume a proprio carico, nei confronti del paziente,l'obbligazione di svolgere l'attività diagnostica e la conseguente attività terapeutica, in relazione alla specifica situazione patologica del paziente preso in cura. A questo rapporto contrattuale il medico rimane del tutto estraneo, venendo ad instaurarsi con il malato solo un rapporto "giuridicamente indiretto". Di qui la conclusione che "la responsabilità del predetto sanitario verso il paziente per il danno cagionato da un suo errore diagnostico o terapeutico è soltanto extracontrattuale, con la conseguenza che il diritto al risarcimento del danno spettante al paziente nei confronti del medico si prescrive nel termine quinquennale stabilito dall'art. La "spersonalizzazione" del rapporto che intercorre tra medico e paziente va di pari passo con l'evoluzione dell'attività medica. Proprio sulla figura del "malato" infatti e non più sulla cura della "malattia" dovrebbe concentrarsi il lavoro del medico e di tutti gli altri operatori sanitari. 8. Il problema della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura La responsabilità del medico verso l'ente è strettamente legata al tipo di rapporto che intercorre tra i due soggetti, mentre sostanzialmente irrilevante è la natura pubblica o privata della struttura. I problemi in merito alla responsabilità del medico alle dipendenze della struttura muovono dal non sempre agevole inquadramento di quest'ultimo all' interno del complesso iter organizzativo che vede il coinvolgimento di altre figure sanitarie e di altri fattori interni come apparecchiature e l'erogazione di servizi ad essi correlati. A questo punto analizziamo il caso in cui, il medico, nello svolgimento del suo incarico, provochi un danno al paziente. Quest'ultimo potrà agire in giudizio nei confronti del datore di lavoro del medico, struttura pubblica o privata, in quanto il suo rapporto è con l'istituzione, alla quale è ricorso, in base alla disciplina della responsabilità contrattuale; A sua volta l'istituzione convenuta in giudizio, può rivalersi civilmente con l'azione di regresso ai sensi dell' art. 2055 c.c. :" Responsabilità solidale.- Nel dubbio, le singole colpe si presumono uguali", nei confronti del proprio dipendente per i danni che sia stata costretta a risarcire al terzo, danneggiato in conseguenza della colpa professionale del medico, così pure può chiamarlo nel processo ove è citata in giudizio. Tornando, solo brevemente al quantum di diligenza richiesto al medico dipendente dalla struttura, la norma di riferimento è l'art. 2104 del c.c., che recita:"Diligenza del prestatore di lavoro.- Altrettanto emblematico si rivela poi il percorso giurisprudenziale in tema di qualificazione della responsabilità del medico operante in una struttura sanitaria, infatti in tale settore si è registrato un progressivo abbandono della prospettiva extracontrattuale, ritenuta inappropriata in quanto l'assenza di un contratto non può determinare una variazione del contenuto dell' obbligo del medico che rimane pur sempre quello di cui all' art. 1176 secondo comma c.c. Il fondamento normativo della responsabilità del singolo operatore è individuato prevalentemente nell' art. 28 Cost., anche se non mancano riferimenti all' art.1228 c.c. . Medico ed ente sarebbero legati da un contratto di cui il paziente è terzo beneficiario , da ciò discende la sua possibilità di attivarsi contrattualmente anche nei confronti del medico per far valere la non diligente esecuzione della prestazione . In una posizione a se si colloca la sentenza della Corte di Cassazione n. 589 del 1999 che propone un nuovo approccio alla problematica mediante il ricorso alla teoria dell' obbligazione senza prestazione basata sul rapporto contrattuale di fatto o da contatto sociale tra medico e paziente . L'attività del medico incide su di un bene costituzionalmente garantito (art.32 Cost.) ed, inoltre, il medico è vincolato al rispetto di una disciplina deontologica particolarmente pregnante . CAP.2 RESPONSABILITA' CONTRATTUALE ED EXTRACONTRATTUALE 1.Il problema della distinzione dell'ambito applicativo delle regole sulla responsabilità. La differenza tra responsabilità contrattuale e responsabilità extracontrattuale si basa su una diversità strutturale che pone la prima in esito alla violazione di un obbligo funzionale alla realizzazione del diritto e la seconda in esito alla lesione tout court di un diritto . Si pensi al mancato rispetto del vincolo ad attuare il trasferimento del diritto nei contratti ad efficacia reale. Il primo secondo cui:"L' accettazione del paziente nell' ospedale, ai fini del ricovero oppure di una visita ambulatoriale, comporta la conclusione di un contratto d'opera professionale tra il paziente e l'ente ospedaliero, il quale assume a proprio carico, nei confronti del paziente, l'obbligazione di svolgere l'attività diagnostica e la conseguente attività terapeutica in relazione alla specifica situazione del paziente preso in cura ". Siccome a questo rapporto contrattuale non partecipa il medico dipendente, che provvede allo svolgimento dell' attività diagnostica e della conseguente attività terapeutica, nelle vesti di organo dell' Ente ospedaliero, la responsabilità del sanitario verso il paziente per il danno provocato da un suo errore diagnostico o terapeutico è soltanto extracontrattuale; immediata conseguenza quindi è che il diritto al risarcimento del danno, spettante al paziente nei confronti del medico, si prescrive nel termine quinquennale. Un secondo, più recente, orientamento faceva, invece, rientrare la responsabilità del sanitario in ambito contrattuale, assumendo che detta responsabilità, così come quella dell'ente, avrebbe "radice nell'esecuzione non diligente della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico dipendente, nell'ambito dell'organizzazione sanitaria. Pertanto, stante questa comune radice, la responsabilità del medico dipendente sarebbe, come quella dell'ente pubblico, di natura professionale" . Detto inquadramento tende, peraltro, ad appiattire ed omologare la responsabilità della struttura a quella del medico; infatti, se da un lato dava importanza al contratto stipulato tra paziente e struttura, tanto da "attirare" nel regime contrattuale anche l'operato del medico, dall'altro individuava, quale unica fonte di danno, l'eventuale comportamento imprudente/negligente del professionista, così trascurando tutte quelle altre possibili cause di danno derivanti dall' inadempimento, da parte dell' ente, di obbligazioni di cui solo quest' ultimo è debitore (es. igiene, controllo dei macchinari, organizzazione del personale). Si deve peraltro segnalare che la Suprema Corte era giunta al riconoscimento della natura contrattuale della responsabilità del sanitario dipendente anche tramite altra via, ovvero tramite l'accoglimento della teoria, di origine germanica, del "contratto con effetti protettivi a favore del terzo". Secondo questa impostazione, in alcuni contratti, accanto ed oltre al diritto alla prestazione principale, sarebbe garantito ed esigibile un ulteriore diritto a che non siano arrecati danni a terzi estranei al contratto. La natura della responsabilità quindi, deve essere individuata non sulla base della condotta ( negligente o meno) in concreto tenuta dall'agente, ma sulla base della natura del precetto violato; sia la responsabilità del medico, sia quella dell'ente ospedaliero hanno entrambe una "radice comune" nell'esecuzione non diligente della prestazione, ma ciò non comporta necessariamente che entrambe le responsabilità siano di natura contrattuale, non potendosi escludere che un fatto, l'attività professionale del medico appunto, integri, da un lato, una responsabilità contrattuale a carico di un soggetto (ente ospedaliero) e, dall'altro, una responsabilità extracontrattuale a carico di un altro soggetto, autore del fatto (medico). Escluso, dunque, di poter fondare la natura contrattuale della responsabilità del medico sulla "radice comune" dell' esecuzione non diligente o sul rapporto di dipendenza tra medico ed ente, l'orientamento di cui trattasi individua la ragione della natura contrattuale degli obblighi di cura dovuti dal medico a favore del paziente nel "contatto sociale" che si instaura tra detti due soggetti; la disamina di tale teoria sarà trattata nel terzo capitolo, per il momento ci apprestiamo ad analizzare alcuni aspetti problematici. Secondo questa lettura, l'attività professionale del medico implica l' adempimento di obblighi di conservazione della sfera giuridica altrui che nascono dall'affidamento inevitabilmente generato dalla stessa professionalità. Con riferimento ai carichi probatori, secondo questa teoria che fonda la responsabilità del medico sul "contatto sociale" con il paziente, "in base alla regola di cui all'art. Parallelamente al descritto iter relativo alla responsabilità del sanitario, si è assistito al riconoscimento di una totale autonomia della responsabilità dell'ente rispetto a quella del medico curante. 1228 c.c., per l'inadempimento della prestazione medico-professionale svolta direttamente dal sanitario, quale suo ausiliario necessario . Detta lettura, che costituisce un ritorno al passato inquadramento della responsabilità del medico, trova il proprio fondamento normativo nell' art.3 del recente provvedimento legislativo n. 189 dell' 8 novembre 2012 di conversione del c.d. "Decreto Sanità" (d.l. 13 settembre 2012,n. 158), secondo cui: "L'esercente le professioni sanitarie che nello svolgimento della propria attività si attiene a linee guida e buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità scientifica non risponde penalmente per colpa lieve. In tali casi resta comunque fermo l'obbligo di cui all' art. 2043 del codice civile…". Nel rinvio all' art. 2043 c.c., parte della dottrina legge, infatti, la volontà del legislatore di prendere posizione ,nella disputa sulla natura contrattuale o extracontrattuale della responsabilità del sanitario, a favore di tale ultima impostazione; sul punto si tornerà in maniera più accurata e approfondita nel capitolo quarto. Ne risulta una riduzione ad unità della responsabilità di diritto civile, questa volta all' insegna del modello contrattuale. Quanto al primo aspetto, costituisce principio giurisprudenziale ormai consolidato che la responsabilità extracontrattuale concorre con quella contrattuale ogniqualvolta all'inosservanza di una previsione negoziale si accompagni la violazione del generale dovere del neminem laedere . La tesi contraria fa perno principalmente sulla "specificità" della tutela creditoria, ovvero sul diritto del creditore alla prestazione che "assorbirebbe", in altre parole, la generica pretesa ad una condotta non dannosa da parte del debitore. In tal caso, dunque, il paziente potrà, quale creditore insoddisfatto, invocare la responsabilità contrattuale; ma al tempo stesso, ricorrere alle regole di responsabilità aquiliana. E' stato in proposito osservato che in sostanza , la funzione del cumulo della responsabilità medica risponde all'esigenza di offrire tutela al diritto alla salute, senza sottrarla al regime aquiliano anche in quei casi in cui la lesione sia stata la conseguenza di un inadempimento, ma nel contempo adottando per la valutazione della condotta medica uno standard unitario, valevole sia per la responsabilità contrattuale che per quella aquiliana, desumibile dal criterio della diligenza professionale ex. art. 1176 c.c. . Si parla di "obblighi di protezione", considerati autonomi rispetto all' obbligo di prestazione, oltre che sul piano della struttura, anche su quello della fonte: nascono dalla legge anche quando fonte dell' obbligazione sia il contratto . La questione rimane aperta e le possibilità configurabili sono tre: a) unicità di natura della responsabilità contrattuale e di quella aquiliana, c.d. reductio ad unum della responsabilità di diritto civile ; b) tertium genus tra contratto e torto; c) tradizionale bipartizione della responsabilità di diritto civile. In dottrina inoltre, di fronte al dilagante fenomeno della c.d."ipertrofia del contratto" , due sono le strategie elaborate: quella della c.d. "terza via" , diretta a far confluire al suo interno tutte le ipotesi tipiche di responsabilità che non rientrano né nel modello extracontrattuale né nel modello contrattuale; e quella della riscoperta, per dir si voglia della portata generale del principio del neminem laedere, in una prospettiva di graduale superamento dell' antinomia tra modello contrattuale e modello extracontrattuale di responsabilità . CAP.3 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DIPENDENTE DALLA STRUTTURA SANITARIA 1. La tesi della natura extracontrattuale. Un primo orientamento riconduce la responsabilità del medico inserito all' interno di una struttura sanitaria(sia essa pubblica o privata) all' alveo extracontrattuale. A tal proposito è utile far riferimento alla sentenza che ha segnato i caratteri di questa, ormai anacronistica configurazione. Parte nel contratto d'opera professionale, e nel conseguente rapporto obbligatorio, è l'ente ospedaliero ed esso soltanto, non anche il medico dipendente che provvede in concreto allo svolgimento dell' attività diagnostica e della conseguente attività terapeutica. In sede di conclusione del contratto e di esecuzione della dovuta prestazione professionale, di fronte al paziente si pone esclusivamente la soggettività giuridica dell' ente ospedaliero, nel quale il medico dipendente si immedesima per effetto del rapporto organico, sì che non rileva, nell' ambito e sotto l'aspetto dell' attività diagnostica e terapeutica, il suo status di soggetto di diritto, essendo egli organo per mezzo del quale l'ente ospedaliero adempie la prestazione professionale che è il contenuto dell' obbligazione assunta a proprio carico con la conclusione del contratto ."Quanto all' ente ospedaliero, l'attività è dovuta nei confronti del paziente, quale prestazione che l' ente si è obbligato ad adempiere con la conclusione del contratto d'opera professionale. Quanto al medico dipendente, l'attività è dovuta nei confronti dell' ente ospedaliero nell'ambito del rapporto di impiego pubblico che lo lega all' ente e quale esplicazione della funzione che è obbligato a svolgere" . Non è configurabile una responsabilità contrattuale del medico dipendente da ente ospedaliero, verso il paziente, in conseguenza dell' errore diagnostico o terapeutico da lui commesso. Il quale errore, però, rileva, cioè sotto il profilo della responsabilità extracontrattuale . La qualificazione contrattuale della responsabilità del medico dipendente, pur in mancanza di un vincolo negoziale diretto col paziente, è variamente argomentata e costituisce attualmente la questione più complessa della materia. Così, pensando alla prestazione medica o meglio al fine ultimo e sperato di quest' ultima, il "risultato della guarigione", certo non dovuto, pensiamo alla malattie tumorali in fase terminale, indica e seleziona le terapie adeguate al suo (sperato) conseguimento. Il richiamo all' obbligazione senza prestazione, nella sentenza della cassazione n. 589 del 1999 e successive pronunce, appare forse il più problematico fra i tentativi di fondare la responsabilità diretta del medico dipendente da una struttura ospedaliera. Detto ciò, vediamo che obblighi di protezione, obbligazione senza prestazione e contratto con effetti protettivi a favore di terzo, sono inidonei a render conto della complessità di contenuto del rapporto medico-paziente e della sua attuale evoluzione. Limitarsi al profilo della responsabilità aquilliana quindi significherebbe farsi sfuggire il dato più significativo e caratterizzante, il modo in cui oggi realmente si atteggia il rapporto medico-paziente. 3. La tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale. Troppo riduttivo e alquanto garantista appare restringere la responsabilità del medico nell'alveo della responsabilità contrattuale, infatti difficilmente poteva configurarsi un rapporto contrattuale tra medico e paziente, tale da identificare un eventuale danno come inadempimento contrattuale. La responsabilità del medico per i danni cagionati dall' espletamento dell' attività sanitaria ha, pertanto, comunque natura contrattuale, ma derivante dalla posizione di garanzia che il sanitario assume nei confronti del paziente a seguito dell' affidamento che quest'ultimo ripone in colui che esercita una professione protetta avente a oggetto il bene, costituzionalmente tutelato, della salute. La cassazione inoltre è intervenuta anche in tema di responsabilità professionale del medico-chirurgo, affermando più volte che sussistendo un rapporto contrattuale , quand'anche fondato sul solo contatto sociale, in base alla regola di cui all'art. Natura contrattuale ha quindi la responsabilità del medico ospedaliero anche in caso di inesistenza di un pregresso rapporto obbligatorio col paziente poiché con quest' ultimo, nel momento in cui il sanitario decide di intervenire, si instaura un rapporto contrattuale di fatto . La giurisprudenza quindi, come più volte sottolineato in precedenza, operava una distinzione tra la responsabilità della struttura sanitaria, ritenuta da inadempimento a seguito dell' accettazione del paziente nell' ospedale, ai fini del ricovero o di una visita ambulatoriale con l'obbligazione di compiere l'attività diagnostica e terapeutica in relazione alla situazione patologica del paziente preso in cura, dopo il pagamento del ticket, ipotizzando la conclusione di un contratto d'opera professionale tra paziente ed ente ospedaliero, mentre la natura della responsabilità del medico, dipendente e pagato dalla struttura pubblica, nei confronti del paziente, per danno cagionato da un suo errore diagnostico o terapeutico, veniva qualificata extracontrattuale, con esclusione della colpa lieve nei casi di negligenza o imprudenza . La tesi contrattualistica della natura della responsabilità del medico dipendente dalla struttura sanitaria è stata variamente argomentata da dottrina e giurisprudenza, sino ad essere cristallizzata, sotto un peculiare profilo, dalla nota pronuncia n.589/99 della Suprema Corte. Secondo un primo orientamento , la responsabilità contrattuale del medico dipendente troverebbe fondamento nell' art.28 Cost.; tanto la responsabilità dell' ente, quanto quella dell' operatore sanitario troverebbero, cioè, radice nella medesima condotta, ossia nell' esecuzione non diligente della prestazione sanitaria. Detta impostazione riduce al momento terminale, cioè al danno, una vicenda che non incomincia con il danno, ma si struttura prima come "rapporto, in cui il paziente, quanto meno in punto di fatto, si affida alle cure del medico ed il medico accetta di prestargliele" . La prima esperienza applicativa di questa teoria riguarda la responsabilità da contatto sociale del medico strutturato e le note difficoltà di inquadramento del rapporto tra ente, medico e paziente. Come già accennato il primo riconoscimento della validità del contatto sociale come fonte di responsabilità è avvenuto nella nota sentenza della Suprema Corte n. 589 del 22 gennaio 1999, ed ha ad oggetto la responsabilità del medico dipendente di un ente ospedaliero pubblico per il danno cagionato ad un paziente da un'errata diagnosi, con conseguente non corretto trattamento terapeutico. Più controverso è stato individuare la natura della responsabilità del medico dipendente. In alcune sentenze la Suprema corte ha peraltro optato per una responsabilità contrattuale del sanitario. Ciò perché si inseriva la prestazione del medico nel quadro del rapporto privatistico tra ente gestore e paziente, e si rilevava la diretta relazione che lega detta prestazione all' aspettativa del privato richiedente il servizio, ravvisandosi una responsabilità contrattuale sia dell' ente ospedaliero che del medico da cui questo dipende . Questo orientamento parte dal presupposto che, attraverso l'immedesimazione organica tra l'ente pubblico ed i suoi dipendenti, i danni causati all' assistito dall' esecuzione non diligente della prestazione del medico dipendente sono fonte di responsabilità diretta per l'ente gestore del servizio sanitario. La riconduzione in schemi contrattualistica anche della responsabilità del medico dipendente si desume poi dall' art. 28 della cost. che contempla, unitamente alla responsabilità dell' ente, quella del dipendente, essendo entrambe tali responsabilità fondate sull' esecuzione non diligente della prestazione sanitaria del medico. L'unicità del fondamento comporta quindi che anche quella del medico sarebbe una responsabilità contrattuale di natura professionale . È stata, infatti, definita un sottoinsieme della responsabilità civile o un settore multidisciplinare all' interno del quale vige un regime giuridico speciale , . L'atipicità del modello di responsabilità medica si desume anche dal fatto che, pure quando è stata collocata all' interno della responsabilità aquiliana, ad essa sono stati applicati comunque istituti propri della responsabilità contrattuale, quali la distinzione tra obbligazioni di mezzo e di risultato, il criterio della diligenza professionale, il richiamo a regole di causalità materiale, la limitazione di responsabilità di cui all' art. 2236 c.c. 4. Evoluzione giurisprudenziale dopo le SU della cassazione e consolidamento della tesi della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale. Da ciò ne consegue che la responsabilità dell' ente gestore del servizio ospedaliero e quella del medico dipendente hanno entrambe radice nell' esecuzione non diligente o errata della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico, per cui, accertata la stessa, risulta contestualmente accertata la responsabilità a contenuto contrattuale di entrambi , ovviamente tale qualificazione non discende dalla fonte dell' obbligazione ma dal contenuto del rapporto . 2236 c.c., essere allegata e provata dal medico ; a proposito della responsabilità professionale da contratto o contatto sociale del medico, la Corte in una pronuncia afferma che al fine del riparto dell' onere probatorio, il paziente danneggiato deve limitarsi a provare il contratto o contatto sociale, e l'aggravamento della patologia o l'insorgenza di un' affezione ed allegare l'inadempimento del debitore, astrattamente idoneo a provocare il danno lamentato . Ancora, in tema di responsabilità professionale del medico, ove pure quest' ultimo si limiti alla diagnosi e all' illustrazione al paziente delle conseguenze della terapia o dell' intervento che ritenga di dover compiere, allo scopo di ottenere il necessario consenso informato, ha natura contrattuale e non precontrattuale e quindi ne consegue che a fronte dell' allegazione, da parte del paziente dell' inadempimento dell' obbligo di informazione, è il medico gravato dell' onere della prova di aver adempiuto tale obbligazione .Dalle varie pronunce si evince come la sentenza n. 589 del 1999 ha sicuramente trovato un riscontro favorevole nella successiva giurisprudenza. Ricondurre all' alveo della responsabilità contrattuale da contatto sociale la responsabilità del medico dipendente ha però senz' altro esposto la professione medica alla cd. medicina difensiva. E' evidente che l'estensione ai medici del servizio sanitario nazionale della responsabilità contrattuale , che riduce notevolmente le possibilità di difesa da ingiuste o non provate accuse di violazione del contratto, non potrà che accelerare questo orientamento delle compagnie di assicurazione. La responsabilità del medico sembra concretizzarsi non all' atto dell' assunzione di un obbligo, ma in esecuzione dell' obbligazione sanitaria e quanto al suo contenuto, questo si atteggia come una normale obbligazione che richiama comportamenti destinati a produrre un risultato utile per il creditore. Come visto, nel tentativo di ricostruire il rapporto medico-paziente come autenticamente contrattuale vediamo come nella prestazione del medico nei confronti del paziente ciò che sembra sfuggire è l' accordo tra le due parti che deve precedere l'esecuzione della prestazione. Per quel che concerne, poi, il criterio della risarcibilità del danno, esso, a prescindere dalla natura della responsabilità individuata, viene sempre limitato all' interesse a non subire danni alla salute. La lesione dell' interesse positivo al contratto può venire in considerazione, in particolare, nel caso in cui si possa individuare in maniera distinta sia un interesse alla prestazione migliorativa, che un interesse alla prestazione conservativa. CAP. 4 LA NATURA DELLA RESPONSABILITA' DEL MEDICO DOPO LA LEGGE BALDUZZI 1. La ratio della legge e il contesto socio-economico nel quale si inserisce. Nel capitolo precedente abbiamo visto come attraverso l'espediente del contatto sociale, come fonte di protezione tra medico e paziente, si compie una perfetta omologazione in punto di disciplina della responsabilità del medico a quella della struttura e viene salvaguardata, in nome della radice comune delle due responsabilità, l'unitarietà del regime di regole applicabile ad entrambi. Dal "fatto illecito del medico", che negli anni 80 aveva sorretto la configurazione di un regime unitario di regole di responsabilità, si trascorre oggi alla "non diligente esecuzione della prestazione sanitaria da parte del medico dipendente nell' ambito dell' organizzazione sanitaria" . In tal modo si individua nell' "operato professionale", in cui si incardina il "fare" del sanitario/dipendente della struttura, quel "fatto dannoso comune" che sorregge la responsabilità solidali di medici e strutture. Quindi la responsabilità del medico dal paradigma della responsabilità professionale fondata sulla colpa, trascorre al paradigma di una responsabilità semi-oggettiva in quanto la prova liberatoria ad esso richiesta non è quella dell' assenza di colpa bensì quella specifica dell' evento straordinario ed eccezionale che è stato causa di danno alla salute . Tutto ciò perché nell' interpretazione che ormai si impone in giurisprudenza con riguardo alla ben nota regola probatoria contenuta nell' art. 1218, nel riferimento anche all' inesatto adempimento di obbligazioni che hanno per oggetto un fare professionale del medico, l'intero carico probatorio si sposta sulla struttura e sul medico e senza distinzioni di sorta si richiede ad entrambi come prova liberatoria, a fronte dell' allegazione dell' inadempimento da parte del paziente, non la prova dell' assenza di colpa bensì quella dell' evento straordinario ed eccezionale che è stato causa del danno alla salute del paziente . Si giunge cosi a considerare esigibile dal medico "strutturato", oltreché dall' ente, quel "risultato conseguibile, secondo criteri di normalità, da apprezzarsi in relazione alle condizioni del paziente, all'abilità tecnica del primo, e alla capacità tecnico-organizzativa dell' ente" , del quale entrambi sono chiamati a rispondere fino alla prova di quell' evento imprevisto/imprevedibile/non prevenibile, che è stato causa dell' insuccesso del trattamento sanitario o del mancato miglioramento della salute del paziente. Oggi il medico, se dipendente di struttura, nonostante nelle massime si continui a declamare la sua responsabilità per colpa al pari degli altri professionisti intellettuali, diviene oggi "garante della salute" del paziente rispondendo di qualsiasi insuccesso della terapia fino al limite della complicanza non prevedibile o non prevenibile, e ciò anche nei casi in cui l' insuccesso sia riconducibile a fattori risalenti all' organizzazione . Ovviamente si parla sempre di responsabilità da violazione di obblighi che, a prescindere dalla fonte, vuoi da contatto sociale vuoi da contratto, vengono comunque ricondotte all' art. 1218, salvo differenziarsi sui contenuti della prova liberatoria posta a carico del medico. Per il primo, si richiede l' identificazione della causa, eccezionale e non prevedibile con la diligenza ordinaria, che sia stata all' origine dell' insuccesso del trattamento e/o del danno alla salute del paziente; per il secondo, che svolge la sua opera al di fuori di un'organizzazione sanitaria, si ritiene essere sufficiente, come prova liberatoria, quella della corretta esecuzione della prestazione o comunque del fatto che l'inadempimento non sia stato causa del danno. Ovviamente nel nostro sistema ciò è avvenuto, senza abbandonare il modello unitario di disciplina della responsabilità di medici e strutture che si regge su un fatto dannoso comune come presupposto fondante entrambe le responsabilità; modello che se in passato ha condotto ad omologare la responsabilità della struttura a quella del medico, oggi, in una inversione di tendenza, fa si che sia la responsabilità del medico ad adeguarsi in punto di disciplina, a quella della struttura. In questo clima dunque la nostra classe medica è stata attratta dal vortice della medicina difensiva, della quale abbiamo avuto modo di parlare all' inizio del paragrafo. L'obiettivo del legislatore è, allora, quello di farsi carico con misure concrete del problema, tentando di porre un freno al dilagare del contenzioso giudiziario e dei costi connessi. A completare il quadro l'estrema specializzazione di ogni operatore sanitario, insieme alla crescente difficoltà di aggiornamento e alla complessità della strumentazione moderna; lo svolgimento del lavoro in equipe e all' interno delle strutture sanitarie; la presenza di norme sempre più dettagliate e l'enfatizzazione del diritto alla salute, che ha fatto salire il livello di attesa di un risultato favorevole. In tale contesto si inserisce l' art. 3 del decreto legge 13 settembre 2012 n. 158, come modificato dalla legge di conversione 8 novembre 2012, n.189, articolo specificamente dedicato alla "responsabilità professionale dell' esercente la professione sanitaria", che pare riportare la responsabilità del medico nella disciplina dell' illecito. L'art 3 del decreto legge stabiliva: Al comma I, che :"Fermo restando il disposto dell' art. 2236 del codice civile, nell'accertamento della colpa lieve nell' attività dell' esercente le professioni sanitarie il giudice, ai sensi dell' art. 1176 del codice civile, tiene conto in particolare dell' osservanza, nel caso concreto, delle linee guida e delle buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità nazionale e internazionale.". Al comma quarto che: "Fatto salvo quanto previsto al comma I, la responsabilità civile per danni a persone, causati dal personale sanitario medico e non medico, occorsi nell' ambito di una struttura sanitaria pubblica, privata accreditata e privata è sempre a carico della struttura stessa". - In tali casi resta comunque fermo l' obbligo di cui all' art. 2043 del codice civile. Il giudice, anche nella determinazione del risarcimento del danno, tiene debitamente conto della condotta di cui al primo periodo"; Il comma quarto è stato, invece rimosso dal testo legislativo finale. Inoltre parte della dottrina, tra cui l'autore N. Todeschini, affermano che il legislatore avrebbe introdotto una mera lex specialis, per i soli dipendenti del sistema medico sanitario, senza tener conto che la responsabilità del medico fa parte delle "responsabilità nei servizi sanitari"; sottolineando anche come il ritorno all' applicazione della disciplina sull' illecito aquiliano, più gravosa per il paziente in ordine all' onere probatorio ed ai termini di prescrizione, volta a ridurre il contenzioso sulla responsabilità del medico,indebolirebbe sia il diritto alla salute, sia il diritto ad essere curati dal servizio sanitario, sia la stessa tutela della salute . Volendo passare in rassegna le due versioni della norma vediamo come il legislatore abbia inteso perseguire il proprio obiettivo focalizzando l'attenzione sulla "colpa professionale" del medico, così restituendo all' elemento soggettivo, troppo spesso trascurato nelle decisioni dei giudici, un ruolo centrale nella responsabilità del medico. Questa scelta definita da molti autori "demolitiva", da un lato, lascia intendere che per l'ente continuino a valere quelle regole già coniate prima dell' entrata in vigore della recente modifica; regole all' insegna di una responsabilità semioggettiva, che trova il proprio limite nella dimostrazione dell' evento imprevisto ed imprevedibile che abbia causato il mancato miglioramento del paziente; dall' altro lato, porta a ritenere che la volontà del legislatore di dettare una norma dedicata esclusivamente alla responsabilità del medico, significhi, implicitamente, aver ammesso che il regime applicabile al sanitario deve considerarsi disciplinato da regole separate ed autonome, sia con riguardo alla fonte, sia alla natura della responsabilità, rispetto a quelle indirizzate alla struttura. Come emerge dalla lettura proposta del comma 1, dell'art. 3, si ritiene che il legislatore, con l'ultima versione dell' articolato, abbia operato una "scelta di campo" a favore della natura extracontrattuale della responsabilità del medico, con le relative conseguenze in tema di elemento soggettivo, termine di prescrizione ed onere della prova . 3 della l. 8.11.2012 come disposizione, espressamente dedicata a disciplinare la responsabilità degli "esercenti la professione sanitaria", rivela dunque, nel silenzio serbato nei confronti di chi è oggi il protagonista chiave nel giudizio civile e cioè la struttura che è anche solidalmente responsabile con il medico, di voler guardare alla responsabilità del medico, in modo del tutto autonomo dalla responsabilità della struttura, confermandone il suo inquadramento nell' ambito delle responsabilità professionali da status. 3 del decreto sanità, nel riferimento alla prova di una diligenza, qualificata dall' applicazione delle L.G., con importanti implicazioni sulla quantificazione del risarcimento del danno in termini di riduzione, abbia inteso, nel rinvio all' art. 2043 c.c., far gravare sul paziente la prova della colpa medica all' insegna di un non dovuto o non richiesto dalle circostanze del caso, adeguamento alle L.G., che solo al medico compete individuare tra le diverse accreditate dalle Società scientifiche. Molti autori sostengono in definitiva che la norma del decreto Balduzzi sia "precettiva" con riguardo alla colpa penale e al criterio di quantificazione del danno in sede civile, mentre è una norma "interpretativa" con riguardo alla colpa civile del medico; la sua rilevanza nella gerarchia delle fonti consiste nell' evidenza di riassegnare un ruolo centrale alla responsabilità da fatto illecito, in linea con la tradizione, e conferma l'intuizione dottrinale dell' attualità, per così dire, del paradigma della responsabilità professionale fondata sulla colpa . In senso favorevole a una restaurazione del sistema vertente sulla natura aquiliana della responsabilità del medico, il Tribunale di Varese, nella sentenza 26 novembre 2012, n.1406, si è pronunciato motivando il revirement in forza di una maggiore coerenza con i nuclei ispiratori della disciplina di riforma sanitaria. Ciò in considerazione dell' aumento esponenziale e spesso pretestuoso del contenzioso nei confronti dei sanitari. Viene sottolineato anche il fatto che se il richiamo all' art. 2043 c.c. imponesse l'adozione di un modello extracontrattuale, l'applicazione rigorosa della norma ne comporterebbe l'applicazione anche alle ipotesi pacificamente contrattuali, quali i rapporti fra pazienti e medici liberi professionisti, dal momento che il primo periodo dell' art. 3, comma 1, secondo periodo della legge Balduzzi, in conformità con la collocazione sistematica e con la ratio dell' intervento legislativo, ha il solo scopo di richiamare la disposizione cardine espressione del principio del neminem laedere e del conseguente obbligo di risarcimento del danno conseguente alla violazione del suddetto principio. 3 del decreto legge 158/2012 scolpiva la responsabilità contrattuale della struttura sanitaria pubblica, e dei medici pubblici dipendenti, il novellato art. 3 della legge di conversione, opta per la soluzione opposta, facendo scomparire ogni riferimento esplicito alla qualificazione in termini contrattuali della responsabilità del medico pubblico dipendente, con il chiaro ed indubbio riferimento all' art. 2043. Come abbiamo già visto poi la legge di conversione, ribaltando la norma del decreto legge che faceva una chiara scelta in tema di responsabilità risarcitoria del medico pubblico dipendente, richiama espressamente i criteri della responsabilità aquiliana, ritenendo che la responsabilità civile del medico non debba rifarsi ad una responsabilità da inadempimento con gli indubbi vantaggi del paziente in tema di prescrizione ed onere della prova, ma alla responsabilità aquiliana. In altri termini, al fine di contenere gli oneri risarcitori della spesa pubblica, il nuovo art. 3 della l. 189/2012, intende intervenire sul "diritto vivente", operando una scelta di campo finalizzata al valore del risparmio e non della salute del paziente. Il Tribunale di Torino non utilizza la teorica del contatto sociale e quindi rigetta la domanda del paziente per i danni subiti in ospedale, nel caso di specie la frattura del femore, per non aver fornito la prova della colpa delle parti convenute, e quindi del fatto illecito. Tralasciando i riscontri penalistici, per il caso di colpa lieve, che per molti è limitata alla sola imperizia e non anche alla negligenza e imprudenza, la persistenza della stessa responsabilità civile va riportata all' art. 2043 c.c., infatti la norma sottolinea come :" In tali casi resta comunque fermo l'obbligo di cui all' art. 2043 c.c. Ovviamente il giudice nella determinazione del risarcimento del danno terrà conto della condotta del medico richiamata nel primo periodo dell' art. 3, e quindi anche se l'esercente si attiene alle c.d. L.G. e alle buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità scientifica, nel momento in cui provochi dei danni al paziente, sarà tenuto al risarcimento danni ex art. 2043; se poi verrà accertato che la sua attività sia stata condotta con negligenza e imprudenza e non solo imperizia, risponderà anche in sede penale. Tutto ciò fa si che la paziente abbia stipulato, al momento dell'accordo con il medico dr. Le due sentenze ribadiscono che la responsabilità del medico, così come quella della struttura sanitaria, ha ancora natura contrattuale; anche l' obbligazione del medico dipendente dall' azienda sanitaria nei confronti del paziente, seppur fondata sul contatto sociale, costituisce vincolo contrattuale. La tutela del paziente passa in primo piano senza però sfociare in eccessive estensioni della responsabilità, civile e penale, che in passato hanno fomentato il ricorso alla medicina difensiva. Il richiamo all' art. 2043 c.c. all' interno dell'art.3 della legge Balduzzi è stato letto da molti autori come un vero e proprio fondamento normativo della responsabilità del medico ospedaliero di natura extracontrattuale. A conferma di questa prima interpretazione sono intervenute numerose sentenze, tra le quali è utile ricordare quella del tribunale di Milano che afferma come: Sembra corretto interpretare la norma nel senso che il legislatore ha inteso fornire una precisa indicazione nel senso che, al di fuori dei casi in cui il paziente sia legato al professionista da un rapporto contrattuale, il criterio attributivo della responsabilità civile al medico (e agli altri esercenti una professione sanitaria) va individuato in quello della responsabilità da fatto illecito ex art. 2043 c.c., con tutto ciò che ne consegue sia in tema di riparto dell' onere della prova, sia di termine di prescrizione quinquennale del diritto al risarcimento del danno". La tesi che però oggi è prevalente in giurisprudenza è quella che qualifica come "contrattuale" la responsabilità medica, per agevolare la posizione del paziente, responsabilità che nasce non dal contratto atipico di spedalità, che riguarda il rapporto del paziente con la struttura, bensì dal "contatto sociale" istituito tra medico ospedaliero e paziente. In conclusione del presente lavoro appare opportuno richiamare alcune novità contenute negli articoli 6 e 7 del ddl sulla responsabilità professionale n. 1324 dell' 8 luglio 2013. La prima novità si lega a una delle critiche mosse alla legge Balduzzi: avere fatto un riferimento troppo generico alla colpa. Inoltre, per quello che ci interessa più da vicino, dalla natura "extracontrattuale" della responsabilità in capo all' esercente la professione sanitaria sono esclusi i liberi professionisti . La responsabilità contrattuale delle strutture viene allargata anche alle prestazioni sanitarie svolte in regime intramurario, nonché attraverso la "telemedicina". 1912, 744. CARUSI, Responsabilità del medico e obbligazione di mezzi, in Rass. giur. Treccani, 1990. CASTRONOVO C., Problema e sistema nel danno da prodotti, Milano, 1979 in La responsabilità medica, Giuffrè editore, Milano, 2004 , 22. CATTANEO C., La responsabilità del professionista, Milano, 1958, 313. CATTANEO C., La responsabilità medica nel diritto italiano, in AA.VV., La responsabilità medica, Milano, 1982, 11. CHINDEMI D., La responsabilità contabile e danno erariale della asl e del medico, in Resp. 2011, 1400. CHINDEMI D., Resonsabilità del medico e della struttura sanitaria pubblica e privata, terza edizione, Milano, 2015, 60ss. DE LUCA M, La nuova responsabilità del medico dopo la legge Balduzzi, Roma, 2012, 24-78. DE MATTEIS R., Dall' atto medico all' attività sanitaria. Un sottosistema della responsabilità civile, Cedam, Padova, 1995, 3. DE MATTEIS R., Responsabilità in ambito sanitario, Cedam, 2014, 133ss. 1996, 899. FORZIATI, La responsabilità contrattuale del medico dipendente: il "contatto sociale" conquista la Cassazione, in Resp. 1999, 681. GALGANO F., Contratto e responsabilità contrattuale nell' attività sanitaria, in Riv. Civ., 1984, 710. GALGANO F., La responsabilità medica. Un sottoinsieme della responsabilità civile, Padova, 1995, in La responsabilità medica: dal torto al contratto, Massimo Paradiso. IAMICELI P., La responsabilità civile del medico, Il diritto privato nella giurisprudenza, a cura di Cendon P., La responsabilità civile, Utet, Torino, 316. IAMICELI P., Responsabilità del medico dipendente: interessi protetti e liquidazione del danno, in Corr.giur., 2000, 376 ss. INTRONA F., Un paradosso: con il progresso della medicina aumentano i processi contro i medici, in Riv.med. MAZZAMUTO S., Note in tema di responsabilità civile del medico, in Europa e dir. , 2013. PIZZETTI F.G., La responsabilità del medico dipendente come responsabilità contrattuale da "contatto sociale", in in Giur. it., 2000, 746. PRINCIGALLI, La responsabilità del medico, Napoli, 1983, 36. PUCELLA R., Trattato breve della responsabilità civile., Civ., 2013, 77. ZAMBRANO, Interesse del paziente e responsabilità medica nel diritto civile italiano e comparato, Napoli, 1993, 232. ZAULI F., La responsabilità professionale da contatto sociale del medico e inadempimento contrattuale dell'azienda sanitaria, in Ragiusan 2011, 331. ZENO, ZENOCOVIC V., Il danno al nascituro, in Nuova giur. Civ. comm., 2001, 1574. Cass., 29 aprile 2003, n. 6673, in La responsabilità penale e civile del medico, 2013. Cass. civ., sez. III, 28 maggio 2004, n. 10297, in Danno e resp., 11 marzo 2013, n. 11493, in Guida al dir., 13 settembre 2013 n. 37764, in Guida al dir.

The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ; This is an oral history interview with Dr. Clyde Winslow Fields. Dr. Winslow discusses the difficulties of setting up a dental practice during the Depression, including working in the Eccles (First Security Bank) building, caring for some of the Eccles family, and the closure of the Ogden State Bank. He recalls dealing with bootleggers and sexual harassment, and professional jealousy within the medical, dental, and law professions. He also talks about vice on 25th Street including prostitution. ; 27p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Dr. Clyde Winslow Fields Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Dr. Clyde Winslow Fields Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Copyright © 2016 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. The working files, original recording, and archival copies are housed in the University Archives. Project Description The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The forty-five interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management This work is the property of the Weber State University, Stewart Library Oral History Program. It may be used freely by individuals for research, teaching and personal use as long as this statement of availability is included in the text. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Fields, Dr. Clyde Winslow, an oral history by Mack S. Taft, circa 1960s, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. 1 Abstract: This is an oral history interview with Dr. Clyde Winslow Fields. Dr. Winslow discusses the difficulties of setting up a dental practice during the Depression, including working in the Eccles (First Security Bank) building, caring for some of the Eccles family, and the closure of the Ogden State Bank. He recalls dealing with bootleggers and sexual harassment, and professional jealousy within the medical, dental, and law professions. He also talks about vice on 25th Street including prostitution. The interviewer is Mack Taft. MT: What were you doing during the Depression years? Were you a dentist then? CF: I started in August 1929. I opened my office on the 14th of August, and the crash hit in October. I was here in Ogden in the First Security Bank building. I hadn't got started, and I had a wife and twin babies. We'd come from Portland, where I had been going to school. When we got here, we knew that she was going to have twins and were completely financially broke. We had no money, and we had borrowed money from my sister to open an office and take the state board, for that matter. I took the state board at that time, then I had three days at the Capitol Building and one day at the University of Utah and at the penitentiary, where I worked. That was in Sugar House at that time. I have often said that every young man ought to have the opportunity of being in the penitentiary for one day to teach him a lesson to stay out of trouble because it was one of the hardest tests I ever went through in my life. The strain I went through because I had a wife and twin babies that were born in July. Even though in that summer it was a boom time, I started in the middle of August and had all expenses and no income. I think that I collected 2 $550 gross between August and January. But of course my expenses were much more. It looked pretty good starting out in Ogden and then, of course, the crash came, and they kept saying, "It won't last, it won't last." But it went on and on and on. I didn't get any start before the crash came. I was in the First Security Bank building, and I was there eleven months. Then I moved over in the Eccles Building and joined offices with my father-in-law, Dr. Dwight Hardy, and we were. But I was in debt, and it was really a struggle because money was very hard to get after the crash came, and people were having a heck of a time trying to get any money. Of course they couldn't pay us at all, and it was a struggle for me. I had to keep going down to the bank renewing the notes that I had there because they were having a hard time, and the bank made me renew my notes every three months instead of every six months, as we started out. Of course people themselves were having a hard time. They finally came out with script. I think that was partially paid for by the federal government, and they'd buy vegetables with the script. Well, it was supposed to be really illegal to spend the script for dental or medical work, but then they needed help and they couldn't get it through the script, as they called it. So we traded them dental work for the script, and we would go buy vegetables with the script. This was common among the dentists and the physicians and all. Of course if got to be kind of a struggle for survival, and lots of things were done that maybe shouldn't have been done. Maybe I shouldn't mention this, though, but the county physicians were taking pay. They were being paid by the county, and they were also being paid by the patients. They found it out and caused a lot 3 of ruckus in the medical society, and almost split the society wide open because they were all having a hard time. When they tried to do it this way, it caused a lot of feelings. Of course the county commissioners felt bad because it was a bad mark on their record; and Mr. Stratford, who was a senior member of the county commission, asked my father-in-law if we couldn't squelch this thing in the medical society so that it wouldn't get out to the public too much because it looked so bad for him politically. MT: What kind of care did people take of their teeth during the Depression years? CF: Well, that was one of the hardest things that we had to put up with because there weren't very many that felt they were very essential. In fact, they let them go until they ached, and oft times there was a loss of teeth that ordinarily would not have been if they had the sense to get at them. But they didn't have the money, and we didn't have the money, and it was a very difficult situation. Of course some things were very bad situations because of the lack of care. It was the days of Prohibition, too, and this added another facet that most people don't stop to realize because we had a number of people who were doing bootlegging work who were out to get money. It later had a reflection that was very bad. Now among both the medical and dental and legal professions, if we found he was a bootlegger, we would charge him a more excessive price. We had two or three reasons for that. In the first place, we figured he made his money illegally. The second reason was that we never knew if we were going to have him the next day or not because he might be in jail. And the third reason was that they had the money when nobody else did. And this was a common 4 practice when we realized they were bootleggers and were in the business. Those were the ones we tried to make our money on because lots of times we had a hard time making it on the others. They did neglect their work – bridge work, anything that way, just the bare essentials. Sometimes not even that. Back in the phase of bootlegging, just to give you an example of what would happen, I had a man come into my office who was on what was known as the WPA at that time. He brought his wife in with a terrible toothache, and I didn't know them. They were strangers to me, but they had been referred to me. She was about seventh months pregnant, and she had a terrific toothache and they wanted something done. He was sort of a gruff fellow and said, "I can't afford to pay you, but," he said, "you can take the tooth out, and you don't have to deaden it. I know that's a cost to you and you've got to pay it, but," he said, "I can't afford to pay you, and I don't know when I can. She's got to go to the hospital and have a baby." I couldn't take the woman's tooth out without deadening it, so I deadened it. I said, "Well, if you get to where you can pay me, let me know." Because I was having a hard time buying milk for my twin babies. I couldn't tell hardly which tooth it was because they were all so bad, and I didn't know which tooth was aching. I couldn't afford to go very far myself, so I took the tooth out that she said was aching, and looking at the rest of those, I thought that she would soon be back for more. I didn't know, and within another month, she was back again with another toothache and the same story: "Oh, I can't afford to pay you." I couldn't see the woman suffer that way, so I went ahead and took it out. The next month 5 he came in, and he had a toothache. She was in the hospital. He couldn't stand a toothache, so he had gone down and bought him a fifth of whiskey from the bootleggers. Well, that made me furious. He could buy the whiskey, but he couldn't pay for his wife's teeth to be pulled. So I made him pay then. I made him pay it all, and I told him I wouldn't do his teeth unless he did. But these were the sad parts of it because she was a good woman, and he was just a weakling. We saw a lot of this in the Depression because people would often fake some of their injuries in order to get care, both medical and dental. Those were the people that I might say were more of a dishonest type that made it hard for us because if we tried to be honest, we never knew, as in a case like this one, it made it very difficult to get it. We used to do all kinds of things. We used to trade dental care for services, for groceries, and things this way. This was often very unsatisfactory because either on the dentist's side or on the patient's side, oft times one or the other would take advantage of the other. It did its service all right. It had a service, but it still was not satisfactory because one felt the other was taking advantage of them, and in some cases it may have been the dentist taking advantage of the patient. I know one dentist whose patient had apples to sell and couldn't sell them. He made him give him an exorbitant number of apples just to have his tooth pulled. The patient felt that it was very unfair, but they were desperate and needed help. Now, as far as the patient was concerned, they would take advantage of the dentist, declare hardship when they didn't have it. I had a case where welfare was supposed to be being done, and they were 6 dividing up some of these cases that were so bad, and some of the service clubs were having some done, and they wanted to know if the dentists would help out, and we did – we wanted to help out. But one day, one patient had so much work that they divided up among several of the dentists. I got part and Dr. Clark got the other part. Dr. Clark was a Mason, and belonged to the Masonic Lodge. One day he called me up and he said, "Hey, sucker, what are you doing?" He said, "This patient that we're doing work for, you and I, has no reason to be on charity." He said, "I found that out through the Masonic Lodge. His father is a railroad engineer, and they would be able to pay." He said, "They've gone on charity, and they're not supposed to be." Well, I said this was not fair to us because we were having a hard time, too. So we had all these kinds of problems to put up with because people were taking advantage. It got progressively worse as time went on because they figured, "Everybody else is getting it done, why shouldn't I?" So it was really not a satisfactory thing of trading services for dental. It was far more satisfactory where the cash was handled. Even though we may trade with the individual, grocers would come to us and want work done, and we would do it in trade for groceries. Well, sometimes I found that in some of the cases, not all, there were exceptions, but when the groceries were delivered, they were mediocre, poor fresh vegetables, fresh groceries, and they'd come that way to the home. I'd ask my wife to call them up and trade the bill off, and they'd bring that stuff that was really unsatisfactory, not fit to use sometimes. This was a common thing. Of course, it made the dentist want to slough his work. Yet we were held 7 by a law if we did slough it that would come at us in a lawsuit. This was a tough proposition. However, there were those who were perfectly straight and honest in all their dealings. But we were still always suspicious, and they were too. I know that I had patients come in. One patient came in and wanted to trade that way, and I did some work for him the first sitting. He said, "When are you going o finish the job?" I said, "You are finished." He said, "But when are you going to put the permanent fillings in?" I said, "They are in." He said, "But they can't be." He said, "The dentist I've been going to would just cut them open a little bit and put in a temporary filling, and have me come back, and keep charging me each time." I said, "I can't do that." Well, the dentist was protecting himself from the same proposition – the lack of honesty and fairness in trade. This was a continual problem with us. Now, in my own cases, I went up and picked peaches in payment for dental work I did. He let me have the peaches, but he charged me twice what I could pay for the peaches elsewhere. And I didn't know the price of peaches at the time, and my father-in-law found it out. It was one of his patients, and he sent me there to do that, to trade it. He was pretty angry about it, and called the man and called him down about it. People who were working for the WPA would do the same thing. I know they brought a man into me for a physical examination. He was supposed to have hurt his back while working for the WPA. The doctors couldn't find anything specific that was causing the pain in his back, and he was continually complaining. They had to pay him his wages. He was supposed to have been on the road grader when he was injured, and they had to pay him his 8 wages. I'd tried to examine him for his teeth, and the WPA was giving him the money, and he was supposed to pay his bills with the WPA check. But they gave him double money for the medical condition. I did get some money, but they asked us to keep the price down because they couldn't afford to carry too much. I walked out of the office one day and saw a man walking in front of me. I thought he looked familiar and, all of a sudden, I realized that it was this patient who was supposed to be injured and couldn't walk. But he was walking as normal as anyone I ever saw. I followed him for about two blocks. Then he turned around and saw me and recognized me, and started in with the best limp you ever saw. He went limping from then on. So these were the common things that we had to put up with, and yet we were having a struggle making our payments and paying our rent. Our rent was not held down, and so we had a meeting with the owners of the building and told them that we just couldn't afford to keep going on this way, and they couldn't afford to lower the rent. They were running the building in debt, and now they had a heavy debt to pay off, and they couldn't afford to cut the rent. So then the Eccles, the owners, said they would try to divide their medical and dental work up amongst the tenants of the building. Well, that created problems because Royal Eccles was one of the tenants, and he had been going to Dr. Tribe for his dental work. He was a good dentist, but then suddenly he brought part of his family to me and part of them to Lee Tribe. To try to be fair to Lee Tribe, I went in to him, and I said, "How do you charge because some of the family is coming to me?" Well, then Lee got mad, 9 and there was professional jealousy, which crept in because of these conditions. I know this was typical among dental, medical, and legal people because I saw it. A lot of them would not admit it but finally I said to Lee, "Now look, I'm trying to be fair with you and not undercut you. I just don't know how to handle this situation with him because he's hard to handle." And Lee said, "Well, he can afford to make a trip around the world, so he can afford to pay his dental bills. You have to charge him not by the job, but by the hour because he'll take more hours of your time than any of your other patients." I said, "Well, that's all I wanted to know." This was a problem. Now, in due time, Royal left me and went to another dentist in the building. He didn't come to me and ask how to handle him, and in due time he was complaining because he couldn't make any money on him because he took too much of his time. So I said, "Well, I went and asked Lee. He came from Lee to me, and Lee told me what was happening." I said, "You come to me and you could have found out, too." He said, "Yes, but I didn't want you to know that I had him." This was professional jealousy, you see. Patients were needed, wanted, and where there was any possibility of getting money, naturally you struggled to get it. Well, it's human nature. You just have to recognize that it's human nature. Some dentists would even make passes at the elevator girls to send them patients. People would come in and want a dentist, and they would want the elevator girl to send them to him, and they would give the elevator girls service and not charge them, or do it for a very cut rate. So then we had to go to the building manager, and the elevator girls had to receive strict instructions that they 10 would refer nobody to no one anywhere. Another thing that often happened, the patients wanted their work, especially young ladies, especially with young dentists, made some passes, and it made it very difficult. We had some moral problems came from that. This also happened in the medical and legal offices, and this I know because I know some of the girls that were involved, and I know the dentists that were involved. I know what happened to them, and how things went along. Sometimes it created a condition that was not very satisfactory. For instance, I had a girl come into me and wanted a tooth extracted, and I had reason to believe that she was from a bootlegging family. So I ordinarily charged $2 for an extraction, I believe, and my father-in-law came in, and I thought he recognized her from the bootlegging family. When he walked out, he put up his hand – $4 like that – so I charged $4. Well, she said that she didn't have the money with her, so there was nothing I could do but put it on the books. About two weeks later, she came in paid me 50 cents. Well, we were glad to have the 50 cents. Well, about two weeks later, she came in with another 50 cents. She said, "I could pay you all at once, but I kind of like you. It's too bad we only have dental appointments, isn't it?" So they were constantly. Now other girls did the same thing. I was a young dentist, new because I started out in August of 1929, and this was common amongst many of them. They were willing practically to sell themselves for dental services, and in some cases successfully so. But of course others of us had a little different standards. We didn't go for it, but this was a frequent problem. MT: What do you remember about the Ogden State Bank? 11 CF: Well, I remember quite a bit about the Ogden State Bank because they had certain involvements with me in an indirect way. It was a bank which everyone liked, and the friendship and the friendliness in there was very good. But then suddenly it crashed. It was a severe blow because many people had what little they had in there. This was true of both farmers and professional men, and it really hit them hard. The laws were not strict like they are now, and the legal professions went in there and helped straighten it out, and they really took advantage. They took a lot of money, and the depositors got it in the ear, and they didn't have a strict law as to what could be taken and what couldn't be taken. So the lawyers that were in there, it was common knowledge that they really took a great advantage of the people. It caused a lot of feelings. There was a lot said among the other professions about those lawyers really taking advantage of it and hurting the people alike. Now one of the Barkers was a cashier, and a lot of his friends had money in there. They were kind of teed off because he didn't inform them that the bank was going to close so they could get their money out. But he really didn't know himself, and the result was that he cracked up, and they had to take him to Provo for treatment for a while. It was said there was insanity in the family, but there was not. It was just the stress and strain on him from his friends accusing him that he didn't inform them that the bank was going to close. MT: Now, was that located on 24th Street? CF: Right where the Ben Lomond Hotel is now, that building right on the corner there. It was really a hard blow because sheep were running wild up here, and the bank 12 had money on them. The law was trying to foreclose on them, and the sheep owners couldn't pay it. So they had to send men out to try and take care of them, and some of them just running rampant because there was nobody to take care of the sheep. It finally began to resolve itself, but people lost heavily and it caused a lot of feelings. Of course it caused repercussions in my wife's family because this Barker that had the breakdown had a brother that was going with my wife's cousin, and this caused fear. They said that she couldn't marry him because of the insanity in the family. I believe that there wasn't because I knew the boy that she was going with. They said it was insanity, and they broke her relationship with him. Of course I lost my wife, Beth, and they didn't like the new fellow she was going with, so they tried to get me to go with her. When I first came here, I was like everyone else, and I liked to go hunting, and I couldn't afford to go. I had to stay here for every dime I could get. But during the second year, I went up with this cousin's father into Cache Valley to hunt, and so it was really hard to leave the office. So I was only able to spend one day up there. At that time, there was no minimum wage paid girls. I had girls come in my office and work for me – the first one came in and offered to work just for the experience so that she could get a job. They didn't ask any pay, and finally because of the stress and, I think, moral conditions was such that they took advantage of it. We found out that problems occurred more in the business than in the medical and dental profession. They took advantage of some of these girls because they needed help, and they needed work, and they had to almost sell themselves in order to get a job. It was not so prevalent here as it 13 was in some other areas. We got the reports all right, but there was some here. There were too many here with a higher moral standard, but we still had plenty that were not. Now, I had some here that I would get the money from, and I said to one of them, "How come you can afford to buy gas stations for your boys and give them jobs?" I had an idea that he was connected with the bootlegging, but when I started asking him questions he frankly told me where he got it. I realized that bootlegging was just a side issue. There was more money in the prostitution, and this was where he got a lot of money, and he frankly told me so. MT: What's your opinion of the repeal of the 18th Amendment? Was it a good move, or what do you feel about that? CF: I would say it was a good move under the conditions because it was being violated so much. If it had been enforced, I could see it. But it was not being enforced, and it was causing so much law violation and so much trouble, they were making money at it. But as far as paying taxes, they were not, and it was causing such a moral burden. I personally would be for the Prohibition, but the way it was handled, and the way it was turning out, the administration of it was a failure. MT: What was your opinion of Hoover and Roosevelt at that time? CF: Well, Hoover was a strait-laced Quaker, and my feeling was that he was handicapped because he didn't have the freedom to operate that was later given to Roosevelt. When the crash came, you could see that he tried to get the Federal Reserve Bank to give more credits to get business back on its feet. When he lost the election because of it, they blamed him for it. I don't think he 14 was any more to blame than anyone else. And he tried to get Roosevelt to send someone else to the White House – they didn't want to close the banks. He didn't want to, and he could see what was going to happen. He asked Roosevelt to send a representative to help him, and see if they couldn't get the Federal Reserve to cooperate. Roosevelt refused to cooperate. So by the time Roosevelt got in, things had deteriorated so bad that he had to close the banks. I personally think that it would never have had to be done if he had sent someone there in the first place to carry it on. But Hoover was a strict disciplinarian, and he wanted to carry it on to live the law. He wanted to do what was right. Roosevelt got in and immediately they gave him a blank check, and the whole phase of it changed. The Republicans were swept out, and the Democrats went in. Of course they'd been out for quite a while and they were glad to promise the people anything. The people were so desperate that they grabbed on to any promises that came up. He was a shrewd and clever politician, and he tried to soothe the people with the fireside chats. But basically, I think if he had gone in there as he had been asked by Hoover, he could have stopped the closing of the banks and forestalled a lot of the problems that came later – of killing little pigs and trying to curtail production because there was a limited market. But he had done this. The Federal Reserve Bank tried later, but it had gone so far by that time that it really caused still further deterioration until the war started in Europe, which started the upturn in business on war basis, not on an internal reconstruction. They were having too 15 many problems with pouring money in too many directions, and people were taking advantage of it. MT: The war, then, was actually the thing which ended the Depression? CF: It was, definitely. When the war came, then we started selling. When it began in Europe, a trend because they were buying, and then we got more and more and more on to a war basis. Of course, we became more involved in it ourselves. It became a war of prosperity. It was not prosperity itself. This was very evident to me and many others. We had expected and expected because the government had been priming the pump. But it didn't prime. Then the war came along, and from then on things started picking up. Of course then they started putting boys into the service and heretofore fellows trying to get into the dental profession were trying to get into the service because they were guaranteed an income according to their commission. They had their medical services taken care of – their dental services, hospital services, all that. A lot of the fellows in Ogden were trying to get in there. They joined the reserves trying to get into regular full-time employment in the service. There their business was assured, and their pay was assured. But as these fellows went into the service, that was when our business began to pick up. More industry was picking up because of it, and they started these installations out here. Then, of course, it started to rush. But I got out of the reserves because after my wife died, I'd been two years in succession, and I went down to Fort Douglas and spent two weeks as a dentist. I was glad to do it. The pay was good, and it wasn't the hard work of 16 private practice. But I went two years in succession, and that gave me promotion to a major. But as we got up to where we had a higher rank and higher pay, the government cut us off. I was one who got cut off. Then as the war started in earnest, they started drafting some of the dentists who hadn't been in at all, and then the business started picking up for all of us. MT: What about 25th Street there? Did it boom more during the Depression time than at other times, or what was the condition? CF: I would say yes because I know a number of the people. Some of them lived up in this area that worked down there. They were among the prosperous people, and bootlegging was doing a lot. Some of the people who owned buildings down there were getting good rental off the buildings. They claimed they didn't know what was going on down there, and this was brought out in investigations later on when they finally tried to close up a lot of this stuff on 25th Street. It was brought out because the Rose Rooms down there, she said that she didn't know what was going on down there. She didn't realize it, but she did all the time because she was really prospering. They were doing good down there, and a lot of that. One of the auto courts in Ogden that is now operating was built entirely on bootleg money. They did well enough and got enough money that he quit the bootlegging and was able to hire Native Americans here to do all the dirty work. They would get arrested, and he'd bail them out. When the war came on, they had jail records and couldn't get in it. His family could. But he was one of the instigators. I did his dental work when money was hard to get, and he was sent to me 17 by another doctor. He had been going to another dentist, and he had a good-looking girl, but her teeth were very crooked. Another dentist had tried to fool with them, and I knew nothing about that particular work at that particular time. They weren't very successful. They only had one orthodontist in Salt Lake, and he brought her in to me. He was very rough, very crude, and crudely wanted to know what I was going to do about the girl. I said personally that I wasn't going to do anything. I said, "Just calm down, and I'll send you to a person who can." He said, "I don't care about the money. I don't care about the money. Whatever it costs, I'll pay it." And I knew he was a bootlegger. So I called up the dentist in Salt Lake, and I told him what I had. I said, "He can afford to pay for it, and you see that he does pay plenty for it." He was standing right by my side when I told him. This other fellow that I did work for, another farmer, they came from Rock Springs. While he was sitting in my chair, he said, "I have all the money I need. I don't need to work." And he didn't need to work. He had plenty of money, and he bought gas stations to get his boys jobs. I had a man come in, and he had gotten in a fight there and had broken his front teeth. The more I talked to him, I assumed he was a bootlegger. I didn't want to soak him if he wasn't, if he was an honest man. I knew they were having their problems. But if he was a bootlegger, I wanted my money. So I kind of fished around but I couldn't get out of him what he really did. He was manager of one of the clubs down on 25th Street. Well, that gave me a clue. I told him what a new bridge would cost him. It was about three times what I would have normally charged. He said, "Well, you just as well get started on it." 18 I told him that it was a cash job because we had learned that if we didn't get cash from them at the time you did the job, they would be in jail, and you couldn't get it. So I went to work on him, and I got my money all right, and I finished the job. Two days later, he was picked up for owning a house of prostitution and was banished from the state. He went down to Las Vegas and practiced down there. One night, he came back here and got into another scrap and broke a tooth. He came into Ogden, and it was a hot summer evening. I was ready to quit, and he wanted me to fix his teeth. He said, "You'll get your money." He wouldn't leave the office until I got done. In between sessions, while I was working in the lab, he was calling his friends. I had to work until midnight. He said, "Doc, you're a fool working this way." He said, "I'm a welder by trade, but," he said, "I made $100,000 this year down in Las Vegas running the business I run." He said, "What do you want to work like this for?" But these were the temptations these fellows put before us. But of course my standards would not go along with this kind of thing. I did his work, and he paid me cash, and I charged him plenty. MT: What do you think it was more difficult for yourself or the average person to secure, food or clothing? CF: Well, I would say clothing may have been harder, but I don't think they put so much stress on clothing. After all, people will try to take care of the pangs of hunger first and clothing second. People liked to dress neatly, perhaps more respectably, maybe, than they do now. But nevertheless, they would make the 19 most of little, more so, I would say, than they do now. Because their attitude was, there was still a semblance of pride among the people, more so than there has been during the last few years. MT: Were there people in your acquaintance who did their own shoe repair and things along this line? CF: Yes, a lot of people did. They would do anything and try to fix anything up that they could. You could go into Woolworth's and stores like that, and you could buy rubber patches that you could glue on your shoes, and people did it. It was hard for them to do it, and they didn't do as good a job. But they did a service. People wore cheaper clothing, bit by bit. Sometimes they would look quite nice and try hard to keep it nice. It wouldn't last long because they were buying everything cheaper. Of course anybody that came out with anything cheaper, people tried it. Lots of times they got bit on it because they got things that were too cheap for the money they put into it. This was caused by these fellows who travel through the country selling clothing and things that way, and they would write and say they were coming through with clothes from Hong Kong, and they would sell it for half what it would cost in the store. The people would order, and when they got it, well, they really got taken. I got taken once that way, but not like a lot of them. I was on the seventh floor of the Eccles Building, and there were a whole bunch on the floor that got taken on some suits because they were no good. I'd paid $5 down. Well, the other guys, when they came, they paid the balance. Then when they saw what they got, they saw they were really taken. Well, I lost my $5, but I didn't get them, 20 and I was still money ahead. And this was a problem. Deception was a common problem. Fellows came through selling gowns, and they would take your measurements and your order and give you a receipt. They had stolen the order books, and the company didn't have any connection with it, and they took the deposits. MT: What about patent medicine during that time? Was there much of that? CF: Yes, there was quite a lot of patent medicine sold. One of the most common things at that time was Crazy Crystals, but that was pushed from down in Texas. There were a lot of things just like that. I can't remember the names of a lot of them. They sent samples to you, and they tried to get you to prescribe them and push them. Crazy Crystals were really the rage, and people would come in to me and tell me how much better they felt from Crazy Crystals. It cut out their constipation and they felt better. I quizzed them, and I told them, "You can do the same by drinking water." I said, "They've given you enough to give you a mild laxative, but, "I said, "Then they prescribe for you to drink so much water a day with it." I said, "If you'd just drink the water, you'd get the same result." Some of them didn't believe it, and to this day, I have patients come in and say, "How do I take care of this situation." I tell them, "You don't drink enough water." MT: What were some of the good things that came out of the Depression? CF: I would say at that time that people learned a little more self reliance. They learned to work. They learned to be more dependable in the things they did, and they tried to do more for themselves. I think also they learned to be more cooperative and helpful toward one another. There was more of a spirit of 21 cooperation. We were all in this boat together. People were more willing to cooperate because they couldn't do it otherwise. There was more of a spirit of friendliness. Of course, as I say, there were exceptions of those who tried to be greedy, but there was more of a spirit of friendliness and cooperation. MT: What did the wards do for entertainment then? Did they do a better job than they do now? CF: Yes, I would say they did because there had to be more of that kind of cooperation, and the wards tried every way they could to bring the people together because otherwise it was very depressing. It was a Depression both in spirit and in finance because people were hurt. People did more, and got together, and tried to help them out. It was a period of trying to organize. I think that the wards in the [LDS] church soon found out what they had to do because, heretofore, they had been depending upon commercialism, business to do these things. But now the people couldn't afford the commercial, and they had to cooperate or they'd die. There was more of it done. You'd find people more willing to do things. Of course, they stumbled along and struggled along trying to do some of these things. Of course when the church welfare program first came out, it was a blundering program. I criticized it a lot because when they started it out, they wanted the people in the wards who had fruit and those things to give every so many bottles to the ward to give to the needy. Well, my criticism came this way – the needy, all right. But let the needy help put it up. But if they want to come into the ward, let's get together and we'll furnish the fruit, not us do all the labor for 22 them. So that's a few criticisms that way started to bring the spirit of cooperation out of it, and they began to do things. But my wife was busy with three little children, and I didn't feel like loading her down with work to give to the others without them working in payment for it. So I said I would be glad to furnish the fruit and help with the bottles and a few things that way, but let them help to put it up. Finally it did begin to change, and soon it got to be a kind of cooperative thing within the ward. But it was a development process. MT: Did you have any innovative method of developing your clientele? CF: Yes, it was a matter of trying to work through clubs and others to try to develop educational programs through the PTA to show people that if they would regularly take care of their dental work that it would be much cheaper than if they had to get a lot done at once. We did a lot of educational work that way through clubs and PTA, and lecturing at the schools and organizations.

4$ IA iramSirimiSiiimiminiimi., _ _j&. ,' It > :i!3 ft :«- THE -:- Gettysburg mERCURY. DEGEmBEH, 1897. CONTENTS: The Schmucker Statue, Dr. P. Anstadt 35 The recent Tour of Duty at Hazleton, Capt. F. M. Olt,. 38 Reverie, ] 4° Emperor Conrad and the Weinsbergers, Rev. George Conrad Henry, 47 Our Unknown Dead, 51 The Ghosts' Christmas Gift, 51 Chrysanthemums, 56 A College Song 58 Deed of a Stormy Night, 58 The Influence of Happy Thought, 59 Life's Duty 6T The Game at Philadelphia, 62 Editor's Desk 64 Our Exchange Table 66 Sense and Nonsense 67 ■■■M.M.M.,.M.1,.,Mt,.,.nM,ULLUi m-rriTTTrrixTrirxxiimilituUi "■ 0. MILLER, PRIN' G6TTVSBURQ. HH FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR IIS. J. R. STINE & SON, debts' ••• pur^is^er, CHAMBERSBURG ST. C B. KITZMILLER, —DEALER IN- (lag, dapg, Boof$ and pljoeg, GETTYSBURG, PA. Reafly for Fall an! Winter. Suits to Order—Prices $12.00 to $35.00; Trousers, $2.50 to $9.00 ALL KINDS OF REPAIRING DONE-All the new effects in Check and Over Plaids you will find at THE LEADING TAILOR, CLOTHIER AND GENTS' FURNISHER, I U Mm llBalt0-st- J 1 f I 1 JTI J V I O, Gettysburg, Pa. S. B. ALCOTT~ —AGENT FOR— Browning King & Co., Merchant Tailor, New York. Suits $12.00 up, Overcoats $12.00 up, Pauts$4.oo. Fit and workmanship guaranteed. R. A. WONDERS' Corner Ci£ar Parlors, A FULL LINE OF Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, &c. Scott's Cor. Opp. Eagle Hotel, Gettysburg EPH. H. MINNIGH, Manufacturer, Wholesale »nd Retail 'Dealer in Confectionery and Ice Cream, Oysters in Season. News Depot & Subscription Agency, MAIN ST., GETTYSBURG, PA Sole Mannf'r of Dr. Tyler's Cough Drops SAMUEL FABER7 FINE CIGARS AND SMOKER'S ARTICLE. Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, JOHN JK. WWW CONFECTIONERY AND ICE CREAM, OYSTERS STEWED AND PRtED. No: 17, BALTIMORE STREET. COLLEGE OK PWskians § Sur^ons, BALTIMORE, M». The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Baltimore, Maryland, is a well equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full information send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean. Cor. Calvert and Saratoga Sts. The Ijett^bitfg NJei'cu^, Entered at the Post Office at Gettysburg as second-class matter. VOL. V. GETTYSBURG, PA.; DECEMBER, 1897. No. 8. STAFF EDITOR-IN-CHIEF, W. H. Bruce Carney, '99 BUSINESS MANAGER, ALUMNI EDITOR, Rev. F. D. Garland ASSISTANT EDITORS, Steward W. Herman, 99. /y^/ /'^^/y^*0' Robert W. Woods,' THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 49 the hand, threw herself at his feet. "Your Majesty," she cried, "must our innocent children suffer?" The Emperor started ; he looked at the white-headed boy who was greedily chewing a crust. He went back to his own childhood and remembered hearing his mother telling him to be kind and merciful—and then, he thought of Christmas. "Peace upon earth !" The angels had sung, and now he was about to kill children for whom the Saviour had come to earth as for him, the haughty com-mander. His face assumed a gentler look and he turned towards the woman. All women and maidens, with the little children may leave the city ! I will give you your lives ! If any of you have anything which is dear to you, you are hereby per-mitted to carry away as much as you can load on your backs. Everything else belongs to me ! Your men must die!" The little band drew back into the devoted town. They were thankful, in a measure, for the graciousness of their Conqueror. But the noble women of the city were deeply moved at the expected fate of their husbands, brothers and sons, and mourned bitterly on that night of the twentieth of December. The Emperor slept soundly. He flattered himself on his clemency in sparing women and children; on the poor men he never bestowed a thought. * * * * "Your Majesty," called one of his pages, "come here quickly! The Weinsberg women are playing a huge trick on you !" It was dawn of the twenty-first of December. Out of the gate came a wonderful procession. All the noble women of the little city were panting under a heavy bur-den, and the knees of some of them seemed breaking, for each woman was carrying her husband on her back ! As the astonished commander beheld the strange sight he realized how adroitly these women had tricked him ; but his nobles and pages cried, "All must die now, women, children and men, for so deceiving the Emporer !" The women advanced and threw themselves at his feet. "Your Majesty told us that we might take our best 50 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. and dearest possession. What better than our husbands, who protect us and our children ?" As the Emperor was thoughtfully stroking his long beard, as the women and children stood around weeping, as the men, one by one, descended to the ground, the bells on the city church towers began to play, for the Christmas week had begun, when every morning it was the custom of the children to go to the church and sing sweet carols. The old bell-ringer who had no faithful wife to carry him, and to whom death was a welcome guest, was performing his duty as on other joyous occasions. The soldiers scarcely heard the bells for they were vehemently urging the Emperor to punish the women. But Conrad was hearing the bells, and merrily they chim-ed, "Peace upon earth to men of good will." He called aloud, "An Emperor's word shall not be broken!" The wild faces of his soldiers fell. "I promised these women that they might carry their dearest possessions out of the city! They have so done ! Let them go in peace." And so it came to pass ; and as you stand to-day among the ruins of the old city, the Castle Weibertreme (faithfulness of women) tells its own pathetic story. Three days after, on Christmas Eve, as Emperor Con-rad heard his father confessor read the Gospel for the day, his heart was full of joy ; while the Weinsbergers in the neighboring hamlets recalled the merciful kindness of the stern soldier with heartfelt gratitude. Over seven hundred and fifty years have fled since the Emperor laid down his weary head, but he is not for-gotten ; not because he was Emperor—for these are for-gotten— bul because for the sake of the Chist-child he showed kindness to his enemies. Shippensburg, Pa. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 51 OUR UNKNOWN DEAD. The sons of freedom, brave and strong, Defended liberty's fair name, When she by an accursed wrong Was threatened with disgrace and shame. The brows of some are laurel crowned, Their praises rise from every tongue ; But others perished unrenowned, And seldom are their glories sung. No statues stand to mark their graves, In memory of their bravery shown Against the surging battle waves ;— In narrow rows they sleep unknown. Stay, friend, step not upon the mound, Though small may be the marking stone ; For just as hallowed is the ground, Though epitaphs are but "Unknown." Nor pass their resting places by Like careless ships on waveless seas ; No gift is dearer than to die, No champions braver than were these. And when upon the mounds you strew Sweet flowers, like precious seed well sown ; Perchance a mother blesses you, Whose son is sleeping, still unknown. . J- N. K. H., '99. THE GHOSTS' CHRISTMAS GIFT. The sun was shining brightly in the little village of Clarksburg, one beautiful December day. People hurried along the streets, full of the bustle and joy of the Christ-mas- tide, and showed by their merry greetings and glad faces that the Day of days was near. From one well-known face, however, the universal joy was not reflected. Tom Wilson, usually the gayest of the gay, was sad and depressed. He had been out of work for a long time, and had awakened that morning to the fact that in two days' time Christmas would be here, and he was penniless. His youngest son had torn his father-heart by asking over his breakfast of bread and molasses, "Wot yo' gwine ter give me fo' a Chrismus SSI8E BwKW 52 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. gif ?"; while the oldest one added, "Will yo' bring de tukey home ter-day fo' us ter git acquainted wif, like yo' use ter?" Tom had not answered, and the mother, eager to save him further pain, said sharply, "Hyar, yo' chilluns, eat yore breakfus ! Cayn't yo' see yore pa doant want ter be pestered ?'" And the meal was concluded in silence, after which the little black people slunk off to school. " 'Taint no use, Sallie," said Tom, after they had gone, "dey'll hev to go 'thout Chrismus disyear." But Sallie laid her hands on his arm and said rather timidly, "Chrismus '11 be hyar jes' de same, Tom, 'thout gif's, ef we wants ter hev it." Then forcing herself to be hopeful she added brightly, "But I doant b'lieve yore bad luck's gwine ter hoi' ; yo' go down street an' try yore nan' fer a job." Tom rose wearily, " 'Taint no use," he muttered again ; but he went down street. Judge Oliver was just coming out of his office as Tom passed. Tom was a prime favorite with the Judge, and as the latter caught sight of the woe-begone face he called, "Stop a moment, Tom, I want to speak to you." Tom turned listlessly. "Why in the world are you carrying about a. face like a tombstone? Are you in trouble, and can 1 help you out?" questioned the Judge. "No, yore honor, thank yo'," said Tom with studied indifference. The Judge gave him a keen glance. He knew how different Tom was from his fellows, how proud and sensitive; so, thinking to change the subject, he said carelessly, "Have you captured your Christmas turkey yet?" Tom winced so perceptibly that the Judge under-stood ; but he gave no sign as Tom answered with diffi-culty, "No, yore honor, we done sort o' got tired o' tukey an' won't hev none dis year." "Well, go along, Tom, I have a case to look up. By the way, I'm coming to hear you debate to-night,—you're on, aren't you?" THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 53 Tom hesitated. "Y-a-s, your honor,—least ways I war; but I's jes gwiue ter tell Jim ter get somebody else. I ain't up ter snuff fo' dat sort o' thing ter-day." "Oh! come now," exclaimed Judge Oliver, really con-cerned, "I have invited some of my guests to accompany me to that debate especially to hear you. There is no one who can take your place" (Tom bowed and scraped, pleased in spite of his deep dejection), "and you, even you, can't win that debate for your side, I'll bet!" Tom's face said, "Just try me," and to the Judge's keen eyes it proved an inspiration. "Here, Tom," he said, "I'll bet you a Christmas dinner that you don't win !" "Done !" cried Tom, slapping his knee, while his face shone as if illumined by a sun-burst, "yo're a goner, Jedge; 111 get dat dinner, shore !" They both laughed as they went their separate ways, and Tom chuckled glee-fully, "Yo'll git you tukey, chilluns, fo' dey ain't but one way dat queshion kin come out! An' I didn't beg !" he added proudly. That night, much to Sallie's surprise, he went to the meeting of the Debating Society. The Evergreen Debating Society was an acknowl-edged feature in the life of Clarksburg. How it came to be so could never be accurately determined. Whether it had been born of Tom Wilson's overmastering love of argument, or of some one's else devotion to the church, or "whether its organization had been instigated by the law-yers of the town, who were its unfailing and delighted supporters, no one was willing,—perhaps able,—to testify. Whatever its origin, its right to existence was as unques-tioned as was that of Clarksburg's most honored citizen. Once in two weeks a debate was given before the pub-lic. Tom was always present, alive with keenest interest ; the ten-cent admission fees were received at the door as long as there was standing room inside, and afterward were faithfully turnedovertoZion's A.M. E. church which provided the room for the meeting ; and the front bench was never without representatives of the legal profession 54 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. who well knew they could give their friends and them-selves no better entertainment than an evening with the Evergreen. On these memorable occasions, the basemmt of the African church presented a sight which was imposing or ludicrous, according to the standpoint from which it was viewed. The long, low room was lighted on either side by lamps which were usually kept clean and bright; on the platform where the debate took place, the judges chairs were arranged with a precision which argued well for the fairness of the decision which their always grave, often pompous looking, occupants would render. Just below them, in the foremost ranks, were the seats reserved for "de white frien's"; while beyond these to the door, on seats and in the aisle, swarmed the belles and beaux of colored circles, old "Aunties" and "Uncles" who could not miss "de chillun's fun", with here and there a child which some unusually anxious mother could not bring herself to leave at home. The debate on the evening of which this story treats was one of vital interest to the negro element of the com-munity, and, consequently, offered more than ordinary attraction to the patrons for whom the front seats were reserved. Even the lamps seemed to be affected by the weirdness of the subject, "Ghost or No Ghosts ?" for they were smoky and dim. They seemed to say, by the dubious, questioning light which they gave forth, "We fully realize the momentousness of the question to be did cussed, and would consider ourselves personally respon-sible if, by shining out bright and clear, we unduly influenced the decision." Tom Wilson was wild with excitement. The hope of the dinner inspired him to a brilliant effort. He dashed into his argument, carrying his audience with him, until as he neared his conclusion, cold shivers were capering up and down the backs of his hearers, breaths were drawn in quick gasps, and when, just then, a door banged shut and some one exclaimed in abject fear, "Lawd a-massy !' the terror of the audience was complete, and the reality of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 55 ghosts seemed established beyond the peradventure of a doubt. But alas for Tom! He was followed by a dapper little mulatto who argued so glibly, "from de stan' point ob scientificness," against the possibility of seeing ghosts, that the black eyes of the audience which, during Tom's speech, had been surrounded by ever-increasing rings of terrified white, gradully resumed their normal appear-ance, and their owners began to think that they might venture to pass the graveyard at night, some time, the braver ones even going so far as to think that perhaps they might try it that night. When the decision was rendered, it was overwhelm-ingly against the poor ghosts ; whereupon Tom sprang to his feet, and, bowing to the judges and then to the aud-ience, he turned again to the former and said, "With deepest respec' fo' yore corporosity ez jedges, I wants ter put dis queshion ter a risin' vote." The judges gave the desired permission, and Tom turned to the audience, saying, "All dose in dis hyar room wot b'lieves dey is no ghoses, rise to der feet." Those of the audience who had been most impressed by Mr. Perkins' profound argument started to rise ; but, seeing that "de white folk" on the front benches remained seated, they subsided into their seats again. Tom waited several impressive moments, and then he called, in a voice which rang out like a clarion, "Now, all dose wot b'lieves dey is ghoses, rise to der feet!" Instantly Judge Oliver and his friends sprang up, and their example was followed by the entire audience. Tom's grin showed all his white teeth. "I's glad ter see yo' all has de courage o' yore evic-tions." he said. "I 'llowed dat de ghoses in Pennsylvany couldn't be so mighty diffunt f'om ghoses in Virginy, an' I knows dey's ghoses down dar; least ways, ef I hasn't seen 'em I's heerd 'em!" And Tom retired amid a thun-dering burst of applause. As the audience filed out, one old Uncle said to another, "Wall, Rastus, wot yo' tink now ? It sutteny am mighty 56 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. quar how dese niggahs kin mak a pussen tink one ting one time an' anudder anudder.'' But Rastus only shook his head with a movement which Pete took for unqualified assent to his remark, but which Judge Oliver, who saw it, understood to mean an unalterable opinion on this subject. With a laugh he turned to the friend next him, and, pointing to Uncle Rastus, interpreted the expression of his face in the words of Edward Lear, "I think so then, and I thought so still.'" To Tom he whispered as he passed him, "I'll send the din-ner to-morrow so that Sallie Can cook it next day." Early on Christmas morning Tom shouted, "Hi! chil-luns, wek up ! It's Christmus !" Little Tom opened his eyes and stared stupidly ; but Pete only closed his more tightly as he muttered, " 'Taint no Chrismus 'thout Chrismus gif's." "Come on, an' see wot Santy Claus brung yer," in-sisted Tom in a voice so peculiar that the boys obeyed in spite of themselves. And lo! a vision of candy and oranges and toys greeted them such as their young eyes had never before beheld. In a single bound Pete seized a horn and began to blow it, while his brother approached more slowly and touched a tin soldier with one small black finger. Their father, delighted, stole softly down stairs. It was not until they were seated around the bounti-fully spread dinner-table that Pete found time to ask : "Who gev us these hyar Christmus gif's, ennyway?" Tom laughed ; then he said solemnly, "Dis dinner an' yore Chrismus gif's, chilluns, is a present f'om my 'steemed frien's, de ghoses ob Virginy." JAY SWEET. CHRYSANTHEMUMS. Just now, when the whole world seems dark and dreary, these lovely flowers come, to brighten with their cheery presence the last hours of the dying year. Everywhere is bleakness and desolation. Long ago the roses died, and were buried with the pride and beauty THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 57 of the lost summer ; the last leaf has fluttered away from the forest trees and found a grave with the flowers ; not a vestige remains of all the glory and grandeur of the Autumn time. And so we look around and say "Not one bit of beauty or brightness is left", and we mourn for the dear, dead flowers. But what is this ! Has Summer in her hasty flight for-gotten some of her treasures ? Has Autumn relented and spared to us a tiny part o'f her wealth and beauty ? For everywhere are masses of brilliant bloom, great clusters of many colored flowers. We look out upon the wonderful transformation. In the garden, where so lately all was bleak and barren, the blossoms peep forth, timidly at first, then bolder, until the pretty heads are brightening and smiling everywhere. How lovely they are! From, the great flower of purest white, with its snowy, curling petals to the tiny, golden bud, all are lovely. They are brave blossoms, too, and do not seem to mind the chill nights and. frosty mornings, but nod gaily in the sunshine, as tho' glad of their kindly mis" sion. And we fill our hands with the flowers, and wear them on our bosoms, and give them a place in our hearts. We note their delicate petals and beautiful colors, and we say, "These, too, shall be our favorite flowers." Their white purity tells us of the snowy flakes that shall fall, their crimson tints, of the glorious sunsets winter shall bring, and their gold, of the sunshine that shall follow shadow. No frail, delicate blossoms are these, flowers of the summer, bearing in their sweet perfume the memory of soft breezes and gentle sunshine, but brave, hardy flowers, heralds of the winter, bringing in their strong, bi tter odor, suggestions of wild winds and snowy scenes. And what beauty they bring ! They brighten the sad, dark earth until the snow shall come to cover her desola-tion. And when at last the poor old year shall die, and white flakes shall drift into his grave, his bier shall be strewn w;.th the faded blossoms of the Chrysanthemum. A. R. W., '99. 58 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. For " The Gettysburg Mercury." A COLLEGE SONG. The college days abound in joys The alumni oft recall, Our gala days have come, my boys, The happiest days of all. Chorus: Hail Gettysburg, live Pennsy boys ! Hail Pennsylvania! We forge ahead with little noise, But we'll "get there," 'rah ! 'rah ! Come, boys, the standard we'll sustain, The Course tops all to date, Let us endeavor to attain The scholar's high estate. Foot-ball's all right; yes, yes, (we guess); All other sports beside ; T'is brawn that gives brain-work success, Let "dafties" ponies ride. No cannon balls now make alarms ! The battlefield lies still, The "vets" return no more in swarms, But students "fill the bill." We're student girls and student boys, Do not forget, dear friends, Old Pennsy well deserves applause, Her fame far out extends. Hurrah for "The Gettysburgian"\ And "Mercury" renewed! New-made the College seeks the van And marches victor-viewed. —'80. A DEED OF A STORNY NIGHT. It was a fearful night. Pale lightning quivered at intervals through the clouds. The wind, howling around the corners in fitful blasts driving the rain before it in whirling, dizzying sheets, lent a horror and a wierdness almost unendurable. Flaring and fluttering in its at-temps to penetrate the gloom, the dim and uncertain street-lamp, swayed by the storm, cast huge, blurred, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 59 ghost-like shadows It is on just such nights, that crimi-nals commit their crimes. Having no light in my room, I was standing by the window looking out into the storm. I saw my neighbor, a man of suspicious character, even now in the shadow of the law, his coat buttoned close up to his neck, his hat drawn over his eyes, come out of his door, carrying something in his hand. I saw the look of grim determination, as the light from his own door streamed upon his face. I saw him with nervous tread, stooped posture, head thrown forward, and the arm which carried the doubtful something drawn back as though about to strike, sneak up to the corner of his house, where, in the friendly shadow of the street-lamp, he paused. Still it rains; but above the howl of the wind and the swish of the rain, soon he hears some one approaching. He cautiously peers around the corner, and sees by the light of the street-lamp that the man coming, bears a striking resemblance to a certain one who, only that morning, attempted in court to prove him a thief. Upon this man he had sworn to take vengeance. I see my neighbor crouching there ready to spring upon this man. Yet a few steps, and he will be avenged. Fearer comes the unsuspecting man ; lower my neighbor crouches ; the man is before him, I hear a low gurgle ; but the couch-ant figure did not spring upon him. Can this be the wrong man? The man is safely past, and still the figure is couchant. A glimmer from an opened door shows that I have been mistaken ; to-morrow is wash-day. He is placing a tub under the spout, and that low gurgle is made by the water falling into it. J. K. H. '00. THE INFLUENCE OF HAPPY THOUGHT. Our attention is often directed to the influence of our habits of actions upon our conduct and character, but the influence exerted by our habits of thought is not so gener-ally emphasized. This influence is no less potential and is ever more important than that produced by our habits of muscular action. GO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. We can plainly see that each effort to use the fingers, in sewing or writing, for instance, leaves a tendency to do the same way until it becomes automatic. But we can not so clearly see what is progressing in the same way—that each thought tends to repeat itself until it is wholly invol-untary, and furthermore that every thought we think has either a good or bad influence in the formation of our character. Therefore in our college life it is esoecially important that we cultivate the habit of happy thought, because of the variety of our thoughts, the ones that we cherish pertinaciously will finally become a part of us and remain through life just as the action of the hand in writing or playing a musical instrument will finally become automatic. By the habit of happy thought is not meant the utter exclusion of all that is unpleasant and sad, but a sunny outlook upon life. Some one has said, "If we love beauty, and look for it, we will find it everywhere." Every book we read, every person we meet, every incident that occurs has a pleasant or an unpleasantside to it. We must choose which of these sides we will get into the habit of seeing. That, "Our thoughts are our angels," is certainly true if we are in the habit of seeing the bright side, if we are in the habit of cherishing happy thoughts. Two men may live in the same house, may have the same surroundings, but may not live in the same world. To the one everything seems dark, deformed, and the world seems to be out of joint; in men he sees only the cimes without, but not the good within. The other lives in the sunshine of life ; he is friendly to everbody; no one wishes him harm. He has formed the habit of happy thought; the other has not. As our thoughts are, so will be our actions, our char-acters. Bishop Porteous said, "Bad thoughts quickly ripen into bad action," and it is just as true that happy, altruistic thoughts produce good and noble men and women. Pure, virtuous thoughts are as guardian angels to watch over and protect us from evil and wickedness. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 61 Plato said, "Thinking is the talking of the soul with itself.' The conversation of some persons is not only pleasant but also profitable to us, of others it is injurious. So are our thoughts sources of extreme happiness, as well as a benefit, or they are an injury to us. As we are judged by the company we keep so are we known to the world by the thoughts we think because they reveal themselves in our character, our action, and also in our features. Our minds are gates and their keeper, the Will, will exclude all thoughts we do not desire. Those that do enter will soon find themselves in the world of action. H. S. R., '01. LIFE'S DUTY. Old bells grown such with ringing Peal sweetest melodies ; Song-birds cease not from singing Though brown and bare the trees; The brook that leaps in glory And turns the busy mill, Is praised in song and story; But ne'er the one that's still. When purple morn appeareth, When hours are long and bright, When twilight slowly neareth And silent fades in night; Go forth unto your duty, Though it be play or work; Those lives contain most beauty Which ne'er a duty shirk. When all your toil and sorrow On earth is here complete, The angels, on the morrow, And loved ones you will meet. O sweet and blessed meeting, When portals ope to all! O joyous, happy greeting, Within the jasper wall! —C. S. B., ■^■■1 02 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 1HEGAME AT PHILADELPHIA. SEEN THROUGH A WOMAN'S EYES. Perhaps it may interest your readers to hear of the great game from one who was there. The day was Heaven's own child, the mists of the morning had rolled away and there could not have been more delightful conditions for those who came to see. For those who came to play ball the day was too warm, so said "those-who-know." And just here I may say that "those-who-know" have a decided advantage over common folk who do not know, when it comes to a game of foot-ball. For instance when attention is called to the number of rooters on the field, the unknown scans the field, sees no pigs, confesses ignorance and learns that the excitable young men with huge tin horns—megaphones I believe—are the professional "rooters." I suppose it has a classical root, since it is in the college boys vocabu-lary. Eyes that are unaccustomed to crowds fail to esti-mate when numbers exceed the hundreds ; so to me there seemed to be • an innumerable host of beings, closely packed in the tiers of seats on the ball ground. A University man says twenty-five thousand tickets were sold ; probably twenty thousand people were there. At any rate it was an interesting scene, one not easily for-gotten, and what matters a few thousands more or less to such a host. It was a jolly crowd ; hundreds of college boys sang, bands played, men and women chattered, and at intervals came the "yells" of two Universities. But the supreme shout greeted the players as they ran upon the field; the Harvard boys in their crimson stockings and sweaters ; the U. P. team in their garments of red and blue. Last of all came Jumbo, clad in a red and blue blanket; and as the heavy mastiff ran into the centre of the field and took the ball into his jaws, another round of cheering broke forth for the U. P's. mascot. The large number of Harvard partisans was a matter of surprise ; and it was a pleasure to us who wore the crimson badge, but went feeling there would be no one to THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 63 cheer the Boston boys. On one of the stands two large Harvard flags—beauties they were, of crimson silk— floated out bravely on the breeze, until the second part of the game; when a wag lowered one of them in token of the waning fortune of the day. Gayly dressed women and merry girls wearing the college colors of their choice gave fine color to the scene that would have been monotonous without them. How monotonous a company of men would have been was im-pressed upon me by the prevalence of one tone in the hats worn by them. Surely out of ten thousand men, nine thousand five hundred wore the light gray felt hat that has come into the full tide of fashion. Get a gray felt, with a black and gray band and be happy. Only once did Harvard win the heartiest applause by their fine playing ; and that was in Parker's brilliant dash, which even the unknowning could fully appreciate. "Those-who-know" say it is an old trick by which the Penn boys should not have been caught; he called it a mossback but I cannot find this word in my diction-ary. At no time was Penn's. goal threatened. Harvard played a stubborn, defensive game from first to last. There were no serious accidents to mar the game ; bloody brow and limping legs, were trifles you know. Umpires and referees were much in evidence among the players, but on the whole great good feeling seemed to prevail. One U, P. man left the field "disqualified for slugging." It was sad to see the beaten team go deject-edly from one corner of the field, while from another cor-r ner the captain of the conquering band was borne from the field on the shoulders of his jubilant comrades. C. I, ■■■^■■H 64 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. EDITORS' DESK. Ring out the old, ring in the new, Ring, happy bells, across the snow : The year is going, let him go ; Ring out the false, ring in the true. Ring in the valiant man and free, The larger heart, the kindlier hand; Ring out the darkness of the land, Ring in the Christ that is to be. —In Memoriam. * * * OuR"Gettysburg College Songs"is now only a question of time and leadership. The sentiment is strongly in fa-vor of the movement. Sentiment is the first essential, but only the first. We must have the songs. Every man who can versify and has a musical element in him should now seize this opportunity to show it. Many of the boys are already at work and others will do something during the long holidays. Our first song is from an alumnus. Next! MUCH the same might be said of the MERCURY. It is with us to stay as a literary paper and we are trying to conduct it in such a way as will meet the approval of our readers. All we need to make it the kind of a paper you think it ought to be is for you to write the kind of mater-ial you think it ought to contain. When you graduate, are you going to sit down and wait for a position to seek you, or are you going to seek it ? Can you prepare for life by a purely passive receptivity ? Mere knowledge is not power. The man of power is the man who has knowledge and skill. The latter comes only from within. Says Marion Crawford,''Any one who means to make a career of litera-ture must read widely and write much." The principle has a universal application. The vacant places on the staff are to be filled in the future by those who show by contribution the most inter-est and ability. By personal solicitations for material, we run counter to this proposed method of election. The so- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 65 lution is for you to give us articles unasked. If they are not published, the editor and writer are Ihe only ones in the knowledge; if you don't want your name before the readers as the author of your articles, again we are the only ones in the secret. "We have two educations, one which we receive from others, and one which we give to ourselves. It is this lat-ter which gives us our place in society and finally our condition in this life." ONE of the considerations entering into the average stu-dent's choice of a college or university is the extensiveness of its library. But after having begun his course he seems gradually to drift from his noble purpose of availing him-self of every advantage the library affords. This is more because he has not attempted to cultivate a taste for litera-ture, or thinks he has not the time to read, than because he believes that there is no gain in it. For who doubts the value of reading ? Who cannot single out the reader by his conversation, language, thoughts, in short, by his cul-ture? The force of Bacon's saying that, "Reading maketh a full man," is easily realized by him who associates with ci reader or is himself one. WE live in an age of books. Never before was there such a universal distribution of literature, available to practically every one. To-day it is almost a fact that no man has any excuse for being ignorant. If books and general literature can do so much for the ordinary man, what can they not do for him who is especially in pursuit of knowledge ? Students, awake and read ! It is needless to say that it should be the best. G6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. OUR EXCHANGE TABLE. The November issue of The Free Lance and of The Col-lege Student is a "Foot Ball Number." The former gives a record of foot-ball since '87 ; the latter has a nnmber of excellent articles on various phases of the game, three of which are written by members of the faculty. Women comprise 55 per cent of our undergraduates. Tbe Senior Basket-Ball Team bave honored Pennsyl-vania College by adopting orange and blue as their colors. —Irving Sketch-Buok. There are 1000 women in the medical schools of Tokio, Japan. Cambridge and Oxford refuse to bestow degrees upon women. Li Hung Chang graduated at the head of a class of 15,000. A series of articles on "Books one should read before graduation*' are appearing in The Lafayette. The fact is emphasized that it is easier to tell a college student what to read than when to find time to do it. Ann Arbor enrolls over 3000 students. Dartmouth students have adopted the honor system of examinations. All required work in Greek and Latin is completed in Freshman year. Senior year is all elective, Junior almost all. For every dollar spent on the army, Russia spends for public schools, li cents, France 18 cents, Italy 24 cents, Prussia 25 cents, Austria 46 cents, United States $3.50. The Kalends always contains some interesting stories. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 07 It ranks among our best exchanges. "Christmas Edition" is especially good. Robert R. Gaily, Princeton's famous foot-ball center, will soon sail to China as a missionary. Yale claims the honor of send-.ng out 92 college presi-dents. Harvard has 3739 students. We welcome the following exchanges : Wittenberger, Susquehanna, Midland, Roanuke Collegian, Maryland Collegian, The Pharetra, Mountaineer, Western Maryland Monthly, St. John's Collegian, The Campus, The Muhlen-berg, Ursinus Bulletin, The Phcenix, College Forum, Col-lege Folio, Mont Amoenian, Orange and White, Amulet, Normal Herald, Delaware College Review, Haverfordian, Cordiensis. Each of these contain some highly creditable work. We are deficient in a suitable place where they may be kept on file and be accessible to the students. SENSE AND NONSENSE. Of all the gifts this side of heaven That ever were to mortals given, The best to have, the worst to miss, The truest, sweetest source of bliss, The one rail left on Eden's fence, Stands the pure charm of common sense. LITTLE SISTER—"What's the diff'rence 'tween 'lec-tric'ty and lightnin'?" Little Brother—"You don't have to pay nuthin' fur lightnin'." A man with a two-inch brain and a three-inch mouth is like a five foot boiler and a seven-foot whistle—every time the whistles blows the engine has to stop. us THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE man who thinks he knows all there is to know is already too dead to know that he is dying. MOTHER—Johnny, you said you'd been to Sunday School. Johnny (with a faraway look)—Yes'm. Mother—How does it happen that your hands smell fishy? Johnny—I—I carried home th' Sunday School paper, an'—an' th' outside page is all about Jonah an' th' whale. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs & Fine Stationery PEOPLES' DRUG STORE. Prescriptions a Specialty. J. A. TawneY is ready to furnish clubs and board-ing houses with Bread, Rolls, &c, at short notice and reasonable rates. Washington and Middle Sts., Gettysburg David Troxel, .DEALER IN. FINE GROCERIES AND NOTIONS. =Yorli Street. Go To^ ^HOTEL GETTYSBURG^? BARBER SHOP. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON. MUMPER & BENDER, Cabinet Making, Picture Frames. Baltimore St., - GETTYSBURG, PA. SIMON J. CODORI, —DEALER IN— BEEF, PORK, LAMB, VEAL, SAUSAGE, York Street, Gettysburg, J3F"Special rates to clubs. .Go To. ^TIPTON & BARBEHEOt BARAERS, In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. Subscribe for > The PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. RCGUJIIUIiATED WEAIiTH. Laying: up of riches isn't the only thing in life, for frequently a sour disposition is Hie result. You want to take comfort in life as you go along, one of the best ways to taRe comfort is to buy well-fltting clothing. My Fall Styles are now here and the selection is large and varied Suits made to your order from §12 up. Pressing and Repairing done at short notice. J. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor. 45 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. G. E. SPANGLER, (Successr to J. W. Eicholtz & Co.) DEALER IN PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, STRINGS, Etc. YORK STREET, ist Square, Gettysburg. 1108 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. Wright's EngraYing House, HA8 become the recognized leader in unique styles of COLLEGE and FRA-TERNITY ENGRAVINGS and STATION-ERY, College and Class-Day Invitations, engraved and printed from steel plates ; Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Re-ception Invitations, Announcements, etc. etc., Examine prices and styles before ordering elsewhere. 50 Visiting Cards from New Engraved Plates $1.00. ERNESTA. WRIGHT, noS CliestnutSt., Philadelphia. ^JOHN L. SHEADS, NEW CIGAR STORE Next door to W. M. Depot, Gettysburg, Pa. ~P. F. HENNIG7 —DEALER IN— Bread, Rolls, Pretzels Crackers, YORK STREET, GETTYSBURG. ®°Reasonable Rates to Clubs. L. D. MILLER, ig Main St., Gettysburg. Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. ICE CREAM and OYSTERS in SEASON. GETTYSBURG, PA., Main St. Free 'Bus to and from all trains. Rates $1.50 ta $2.00 per day. Thirty seconds' walk from either depot. DINNER WITH DRIVE OVER FIELD WITH 4 OR MORE $1-35. JOHN E. HUGHES, Prop'r Go Tn __ c. A. BLOCHER'S Jewelry Store .FOR. Souvenir Spoons, Sword Pins, &c. All Kinds of Jewelry. Repairing a Specialty. Post Office Corner, Centre Square. PHOTOGRAPHER, NO. 3 MAIN STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA. Our new Enameled Aristo Por-traits are equal to Photos made afiywhere, and at any price. WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. BASE BALL SUPPLIES, Spaldings League Ball, Mits, Masks, etc., Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Tennis, Golf, Cricket, Track and Field Gymnasium Equipments and Outfits. Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. "THE NAME THE GUARANTEE" A. G. SPLLDING, & BROS., New York, Philadelphia, Chicago. S. G. Spangler, & Co. Fine Groceries, iN1 •*- Telephone 39, 102 E. Middle Si. S. J. CODO$I, JPM DRUGGIST. .DEADER IN., Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Ar-ticles, Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE STREET. R. H. GULP, 43. * $ ">.v Second Square, York Street. College Emblems, EJVIIli ZOTHE, Engraver, Designer and Mauufact'g Jeweler. 19 SOUTH NINTH STREET; PHILADELPHIA, PA. SPECIALTIES : Masonic Marks, Society- Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All goods ordered through C.H.Tilp. BOHRDINCT By Day, Week or Month. Rates reasonable. House equipped with all modern improvements. GROCERY STORE in same building. Full line of goods kept and sold at small profits. House and Store located on Cor. of College Campus, opposite Brua Chapel. ^"Public Patronage Solicited Samuel EC. Tanghinbangh, Prop. MENEELY BELL CO. Troy, N. Y. Manufacturers of SUPERIOR BELLS. The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania College was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. AH^ E$(ERT —DEALER IN— Hats, Shirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Gloves, Satchels, Hose, Pocket Books. Trunks, Telescopes, Rubbers, Mo'.',. Etc., AMOS ECKERT. Job printer1, WEAVER BUILDING, Centre Square, JO1|RJ. Thomseu's Sons IMPORTERS AND JOBBERS OP + DRUGS, '• Nos. 16 and 18 W. German street, BALTIMORE, SID. Offer to the trade their large and well-selected stock ol' DRUGS, MEDICINES, CHEMICALS and PERFUMERY. Make a specialty to have on hand everything required by Pharmacists. A complete stock can at any time be selected or wants supplied. ALONZO L. THOMPSEN, Manufacturing Chemist. Race, Winder, Sharp & Leadenhall Sts , P. O. Box 557. BALTIMORE, MD. I beg to call attention to the trade that I have recently added to my Plant a com-plete set ol Drug Milling Machinery of the most improved pattern. J. I. MUMPER, PHOTOGRAPHER, 29 BALTIMORE ST., GETTVSBEKG, PA. Speciai Mtention CQLLEGE WORK. A PINE COLLECTION OP BATTtEFIFLD VIEWS. Always on- hand. Mail Orders receive Prompt Attention. CALL ON . . F. MARK BREAM, The Carlisle Street Grocer, Who always has on hand a full line of fine Groceries. WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Located on Centre Square where McClellan House formerly stood. GET"n SBUIW, PA. RATES $3 PER DAY. It is the acknowledged Lead-ing Hotel of Gettysb'g Heat-ed throughout with steam; hot or cold Baths; commodious Sample Rooms: Dinine-room capacity 200; has a Cosine of par excellence. Headquarters for League American WfaejBl-man. Headquarters couimei" cial travelers. Headquarters military or civic societies, Free 'bus to and from all trains. II. .V I>. K. Miller Prop's. ElfflER & AMEND, Manufacturers and Importers of CHEMICALS ani CHEMICAL • APPARATUS, 205, 207, 209 & 211 Third Avenue, Corner 18th Street. NEW YORK. Finest Bohemian and German Glassware, Rojal Berlin and Meis-sen Porcelain, Purest Hammered Platinum, Balances and Weights. Zeiss Microscopes, and Bacteriologi-cal Apparatus, Chemical Pure Acids and Assay Goods. — Established 1S76 -*■ PENROSE MYERS, Watchmaker and Jeweler. Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons, No. 10. Balto. si. Gettysburg', Pa "PRICES ALWAYS RIGHT" THE LUTHERAN PUBLISHING HOUSE. ^ No. 42 North 9th St., "^' PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for ANYTHING and EVERYTHING in the way of Books for Churches, Families, Col-leges, and Schools, and Lit-erature, for Sunday Schools. Please Remember That by sending your orders to as you help build up and develop one of the Church institutions, with pecun-iary advantage to yourself, Address;, Henry S. Boner, Sui>"t. No. 42 North 9;h Street, p PHILADELPHIA. BARBER ^SHOP, CHARLES C. SEFTON, Proprietor, BALTIMORE STREET. The place for Students to go. Only First-class Tonsorial Work.

Podría presentar este trabajo de una manera muy sencilla, pero desapropiada seguramente para la ocasión y su finalidad, diciendo que: "es una cuestión de valores, o de principios para el caso que nos ocupa, y detrás de los buenos valores o principios siempre hay buenas personas", por ello este trabajo también está dedicado y dirigido a todas aquéllas buenas personas que hay en el Mundo, sobre todo a las que tienen o tendrán capacidad decisoria y de influencia en los asuntos públicos. La contratación pública constituye uno de los ámbitos vertebrales de la actuación administrativa, teniendo además un gran significado económico y a la vez social y medioambiental, no en vano representa aproximadamente un 19% del PIB de la Unión Europea y es una de las principales herramientas para luchar contra la crisis y lograr un desarrollo sostenible social, ambiental y económico. En un mundo tan globalizado e interrelacionado como en el que actualmente vivimos resulta complicado dudar de la existencia de un Derecho administrativo global, así como del trascendental impacto que el mismo tiene en los ordenamientos administrativos internos o nacionales. Autores como BENEDICT KINGSBURY, NICO KRISCH Y RICHARD B. STEWART, lo han puesto de manifiesto, de forma brillante, en trabajos como "El surgimiento del Derecho administrativo global". Así, como añadido y método de profundización de lo anterior uno de los objetos del presente estudio es realizar una reflexión sobre si la contratación pública puede considerarse uno más de los ámbitos o campos del Derecho que reflejan el proceso de formación, desarrollo y consolidación de este Derecho administrativo global, de forma que ello nos permita hablar, también en la actualidad, de la existencia de un Derecho global de los contratos públicos, pero no sólo eso sino también señalar a través de los principios generales que lo informan cuál es el camino que debería tomar en su desarrollo ese Derecho global de la contratación pública. A ello dedicamos la Parte Preliminar y el Capítulo I de este trabajo. Asimismo el presente trabajo está enfocado al estudio del sistema de Derecho de la Unión Europea y del sistema judicial compuesto de la Unión Europea como sistema administrativo y de la contratación pública global, con el fin de analizar, tanto los principios generales de ese Derecho de la Unión Europea, entre los que se incardinan los derechos fundamentales, como los distintos medios que tiene ese sistema judicial compuesto para la defensa de los derechos e intereses legítimos de los ciudadanos europeos y la tutela cautelar de esos derechos e intereses legítimos frente a las Leyes internas nacionales a priori incompatibles con el Derecho de la Unión Europea y sus principios generales. Del mismo modo, desde la perspectiva de los derechos de los ciudadanos de la Unión Europea, se aborda el constitucionalismo económico en la Unión Europea a través del estudio del intento fallido de implantación de una Constitución económica europea y las características de la misma, frente al éxito del Tratado llevado a cabo inmediatamente después, esto es, el Tratado de Lisboa, Tratado que constituye en estos momentos el último eslabón en el proyecto de integración europea. De esta forma, partiendo de esta premisa, y pasando por el constitucionalismo nacional español fruto de la influencia comunitaria, se ponen en solfa ambos textos comunitarios, uno fallido y otro actualmente en vigor, con un enfoque muy centrado en los derechos fundamentales y en los derechos e intereses legítimos de los ciudadanos y ciudadanas de la Unión Europea en el marco de ese sistema de Derecho y judicial compuesto de la Unión Europea. Siempre evidentemente bajo un enfoque muy centrado en ese Derecho global de la contratación pública, en este caso de la Unión Europea, cuestiones todas ellas a las que se dedica la Parte I de la obra compuesta por los capítulos II a V. También desde el marco de esa concepción global y ya en la Parte II de la obra, el Capítulo VI realiza una aproximación al sistema nacional de contratación pública español, cuya "alma máter", cuya madre nutricia, es el Derecho de la Unión Europea como Derecho global que en toda medida es del conjunto de los veintiocho Estados miembros que conforman la Unión y por tanto también de España. De forma que partiendo de la exposición de los pilares que sustentan al Derecho de la Unión Europea y que constituyen igualmente los paradigmas que hacen comprensible su interrelación con el Derecho español, se pasa a exponer las cuatro generaciones de Directivas en materia de contratación pública, así como el ordenamiento jurídico español en materia de contratación pública, para avocar finalmente en una visión constructiva a los principios generales que conforman ese ordenamiento jurídico interno y que conforman el anteproyecto de Ley de Contratos del Sector Público a la hora de incorporar la nueva generación de Directivas al ordenamiento doméstico nacional. Desde esa visión constructiva es cómo se clasifican acto seguido los distintos principios generales en función de su aceptación, separando a los que tienen un mayor grado de antigüedad y de aceptación; de aquéllos de nacimiento más reciente pero con un alto y fácil nivel de aceptación y a su vez de aquellos otros que inician su andadura con pretensiones de generalizarse, pero con muchas más dificultades que los segundos a la hora de ser aceptados. A estas tres categorías de principios se dedican los Capítulos siguientes de forma que el Capítulo VII afronta, por todos los demás de esta serie de principios de fácil aceptación, el estudio del principio vertebral de transparencia del que se estudian los antecedentes de este principio en la contratación pública, así como la influencia de la Ley de Transparencia, Acceso a la Información y Buen Gobierno desde el punto de vista de su incidencia en la normativa sectorial de contratación pública. El Capítulo VIII, se dedica sin embargo antes que al segundo grupo al tercer grupo de principios generales antes clasificados, por su mayor necesidad, de forma que se enfrentan en este Capítulo las llamadas propuestas, esto es, los principios generales de promoción del desarrollo humano y de promoción de la sostenibilidad ambiental que se encuentran en el seno del primero de los principios generales de todo Derecho, el derecho a la vida. La línea argumentaría de estos principios se continúa en este caso, respecto de todo lo abundando con anterioridad a lo largo del estudio, desde el desarrollo de la óptica de lo que yo denomino actualmente 'aspectos' socio-laborales y medioambientales en la contratación pública y, especialmente a título simplemente de ejemplo, respecto a la consideración de la igualdad de género como aspecto social en el marco de las políticas de contratación pública. Para ello se pone el énfasis en cuáles son las claves actuales para la correcta utilización de estos aspectos en la praxis de la contratación pública. Acercándonos ya a la última de las clasificaciones de principios generales que nos quedaba por tratar, en el Capítulo IX y nuevamente desde una conceptualización global del Derecho de la contratación pública se va descendiendo en la disciplina hasta, a través del principio general de vigencia tecnológica, llegar a la contratación pública electrónica, de manera que sobre esta última se realiza una exposición de la génesis normativa, esto es, de los antecedentes normativos tanto del sistema comunitario como nacional que han contribuido al nuevo sistema de contratación pública electrónica que se plantea en el ámbito de los Estados miembros de la Unión Europea. Del mismo modo se muestra la regulación existente actualmente en contratación pública en materia de medios electrónicos, con especial referencia por su potencialidad futura al perfil de contratante; haciendo hincapié, por último en la parte final de este Capítulo, en el calendario de implantación obligatoria de la contratación pública electrónica y en el contenido normativo y aplicación práctica que esta implantación obligatoria por etapas conlleva a los sistemas nacionales de contratación de los Estados miembros que forman parte del sistema global de contratación pública de la Unión Europea. La Parte III de la obra es consecuencia de la necesidad de atajar una lesividad común que se da en la práctica de la contratación pública a los principios generales que conforman el primer grupo de principios expuestos. Así, la aprobación del texto refundido de la Ley de Contratos del Sector Público con sus ingentes modificaciones y más recientemente de la última generación de Directivas en materia de contratación pública y su obligatoria transposición, obligan a los juristas y profesionales de la contratación pública a ampliar sus conocimientos en esta materia, resultando trascendental en este sentido saber diferenciar correctamente las figuras jurídicas de los convenios de colaboración, las encomiendas de gestión y los contratos públicos, porque la errónea tipificación contractual del negocio jurídico en cuestión, tiene como consecuencia la coartación de raíz de los principios generales de la contratación pública comúnmente aceptados y la no legitimación del régimen jurídico que se haya aplicado al contrato y por tanto la invalidez de este, algo de una enorme trascendencia práctica. Idéntica situación se produce en la correcta calificación de los contratos de servicios de los de gestión de servicios públicos. He ahí la importancia práctica del tema elegido y el objetivo del mismo a colación de la gran novedad en el Derecho global de la contratación pública de la Unión Europea, cuál es la regulación por primera vez de las concesiones de servicios. Por ello, en los siguientes Capítulos de la obra la nueva generación de Directivas está, si cabe, cada vez más presente, dedicando en todo caso un epígrafe a la nueva regulación que establecen. Es por ello, que partiendo en esta Parte III de un Capítulo iniciático, el X, que nos permita diferenciar a los contratos públicos de otras figuras afines como son los convenios y las encomiendas de gestión, logramos llegar a la figura del contrato administrativo, para una vez en ella proceder al estudio detallado a lo largo de los dos Capítulos siguientes, XI y XII, de las características propias de los contratos administrativos típicos de servicios y de gestión de servicios públicos, con el objetivo último de llegar a un capítulo final de esta Parte III, el XIII, que nos concluye tanto las diferencias teóricas como prácticas existentes entre estos dos tipos de contratos, de manera que nos permitan de forma clara y concisa diferenciarlos, sobre todo en el aspecto práctico por resultar el más complicado. De este modo, el objetivo del Capítulo X es acometer un estudio basado en la jurisprudencia y en la escuela consultiva que, existente sobre los contratos públicos, nos permita diferenciar claramente cuáles son las posibilidades de uso y aplicación que otorgan las distintas figuras jurídicas de los convenios de colaboración, los encargos o encomiendas de gestión y los propios contratos públicos, a efectos de delimitar las fronteras que diferencian estos negocios jurídicos, como paso previo al estudio y diferenciación último de los contratos administrativos típicos de servicios y gestión de servicios públicos. Por su parte, el Capítulo XI tiene por objeto conocer en profundidad el contrato administrativo típico de servicios mediante el estudio en detalle de sus características y régimen jurídico propio, todo ello a través del análisis normativo de los preceptos que lo regulan, pero también a través de la delimitación que de sus fronteras han establecido la doctrina jurisprudencial, los informes de las juntas de contratación administrativas y las resoluciones de los tribunales administrativos propios de la contratación pública. Idéntico objetivo al que posee el Capítulo XII, en este caso, respecto del contrato administrativo típico de gestión de servicios públicos. Por último para cerrar esta tercera Parte de la obra, a través del Capítulo XIII se consigue finalmente delimitar las fronteras que diferencian los contratos de servicios y los contratos de concesión de servicios, que es donde realmente está el quid de la confusión, de forma que ello permite realizar una correcta diferenciación teórica y práctica de los mismos, analizando cuáles son los elementos prácticos decisivos de esta diferenciación e indicando aquéllos otros que carecen de relevancia para esta determinación práctica, todo ello apoyado nuevamente en una abundantísima casuística jurisprudencial y consultiva. En resumen, podemos decir que esta tercera Parte de la obra nos proporciona con detalle, a más de, inicialmente, las características diferenciadoras de las figuras de los convenios administrativos, las encomiendas de gestión y los contratos administrativos, todas las peculiaridades y características que de los contratos de servicios y los contratos de gestión de servicios públicos recoge la normativa y su interpretación por la jurisprudencia, permitiendo de esta manera, en último lugar, diferenciar con nitidez, no sólo el contrato administrativo de servicios del contrato administrativo de gestión de servicios públicos, sino y sobre todo, dentro de estos últimos, del de concesión de servicios, tanto en su vertiente teórica como, especialmente, práctica. Ya que en la justificación de esa relevancia práctica de todo el trabajo, se ha optado por afrontar un estudio más empírico basado en el análisis de la Jurisprudencia, tanto la de la Unión Europea como la propia nacional; de las Resoluciones o Acuerdos de los distintos Tribunales Administrativos de Recursos Contractuales, así como los de otros órganos como puedan ser el Tribunal de Cuentas español; de los Dictámenes e Informes de las Juntas Consultivas de Contratación Administrativa o de otros órganos consultivos o con funciones de informe, como es el caso del Consejo de Estado o la Abogacía del Estado, respectivamente; y también de los pronunciamientos en materia de contratos públicos de los distintos órganos del entramado orgánica de la administración global de la Unión Europea, a saber el Defensor del Pueblo, el Tribunal de Cuentas, el Comité de las Regiones, el Comité Económico y Social Europeo, etc., llegando al estudio y análisis de un cuarto de millar de referencias y, todo ello, con el apoyo permanente del estudio de una seleccionada bibliografía en las que todas las menciones que se han hecho están incluidas en notas al pie de página, de forma que no existe una sola referencia bibliográfica que no tenga su cita individualizada. Es de este modo como a través de la Bibliografía y del Anexo I se recoge lo anteriormente expuesto, enumerando hasta 174 referencias bibliográficas principales y 225 referencias prácticas principales, figurando a mayores incluidas a lo largo de la obra, en ambos casos, también referencias que no han sido consideradas para su inclusión en ambos listados. Además, el trabajo se completa con un Anexo II en el que se recogen otros recursos Web principalmente consultados. Para terminar esta presentación del trabajo he querido dejar precisamente la Parte Final del estudio, en la que se recoge la conclusión reflexiva que como decía al inicio: es una cuestión de principios. CONCLUSIÓN REFLEXIVA No es una, sino muchas, las conclusiones a las que se ha ido llegando después de este estudio, sirvan a título de ejemplo el resumen de las principales: 1. Hemos sentado la existencia de un Derecho administrativo global con un ya consolidado Derecho global de la contratación pública como parte integrante y fundamental del primero. Pero hemos observado una importante carencia respecto de sus principios generales a la que nos referiremos posteriormente y también en el plano organizativo, porque pese a la existencia de un Administración global multifacética, es notoria la carencia de una jurisdicción global administrativa, con competencia global, que ponga cerco a este Derecho global administrativo y de la contratación pública. Estaríamos hablando de una jurisdicción global de carácter contencioso-administrativo, al igual que la encontramos en otros ámbitos como el penal o el de los derechos humanos, siendo preciso que, al menos al caso de estudio que nos ocupa, tuviera competencias en el orden de las contrataciones públicas de carácter internacional, al modo de lo que ocurre en la Unión Europea con el TJUE. 2. El análisis del conjunto del Derecho global administrativo de la Unión Europea desde una perspectiva general y también organizacional de su Administración global, para conocer y entender el Derecho global de la contratación pública de la Unión Europea, al objeto de presentar las posibilidades que el mismo otorga a los ciudadanos para la defensa de sus derechos e intereses legítimos en este sistema de Derecho y judicial compuesto de la Unión, entre ellos sus derechos e intereses en el campo de la contratación pública, ya sea como operadores económicos, como beneficiarios, usuarios o destinatarios de los contratos públicos o como simples ciudadanos en general que se puedan de algún modo ver favorecidos por las compras públicas, presentando a su vez estos derechos e intereses legítimos como derecho de contraposición al más predominante constitucionalismo económico en la Unión Europea. 3. El retrato de la nueva configuración de la transparencia en la contratación pública, con ese plus de exigencia a nuestra primera Ley de Transparencia a la hora de fijar las lagunas o deficiencias que para la publicidad activa y el cumplimiento del principio de transparencia pueda tener la norma, en la falta también de coordinación entre la misma y el resto de normas sectoriales a las que afecta, particularmente con el TRLCSP en el caso de los contratos públicos, a riesgo no obstante de que se produzca falta de efectividad en la aplicación de las nuevas obligaciones de publicidad y donde he subrayado también el papel preferente que el perfil de contratante puede cumplir como herramienta de publicidad, de forma que garantice un auténtico derecho de toda la ciudadanía a acceder a una información pública de calidad que asegure el conocimiento y el control que se realiza de los recursos que son de todos. También en esta como en otras materias que hemos señalado a lo largo del trabajo, es el momento oportuno de corregir, con la oportuna transposición de las nuevas Directivas, las deficiencias aquí planteadas. 4. La importante determinación de las claves jurídicas y prácticas para la correcta utilización de los 'aspectos' socio-laborales y medioambientales de forma que su uso no devenga incorrecto e inservible por parte de los poderes adjudicadores que los utilicen. Claves que permiten aprovechar las oportunidades que la contratación pública otorga a los poderes públicos como instrumento para influir positivamente en la protección del medioambiente y de los sectores más desfavorecidos de la sociedad. Claves que pasan por: Primero, hacer una meridiana diferenciación entre las distintas fases del procedimiento de adjudicación de los contratos públicos a la hora de utilizar estas herramientas. Segundo, diferenciar nítidamente la existencia de un grupo de aspectos (cláusulas) sociales y medioambientales que tienen carácter general y son aplicables en todos los contratos públicos, de otro grupo que tiene un carácter más específico, más delimitado, más ceñido en su uso, que se podrán incluir en aquellas licitaciones en que el medioambiente o el aspecto social pretendido sea parte o constituya el propio objeto del contrato, siendo el grado de exigencia de cumplimiento de requisitos mayor para este segundo grupo. Entendiendo que ambos tipos de cláusulas pueden utilizarse complementariamente en un mismo contrato. Tercero, subordinar el alcance de lo que disponga la normativa sectorial referida al medioambiente o a cuestiones sociales y que es ajena a la contratación pública, a la conformidad de lo dispuesto por la legislación contractual-administrativa, actuando esta última en materia de contratos públicos como límite a la transversalidad de las políticas ambientales y sociales. Cuarto, destacar que el impacto que el medioambiente y los aspectos sociales en general tienen en la vida de las personas a través de diversas esferas o ámbitos, siendo uno de esos ámbitos el denominado espacio público, en el que le corresponde intervenir a la acción pública, es el que motiva la aplicación de criterios medioambientales y sociales en el marco de la contratación pública. 5. La ubicación del principio de vigencia tecnológica, poco conocido como tal, y de todos los beneficios que para la contratación pública y en particular la contratación pública electrónica nos traerán: Denunciando la laxitud al respecto de la normativa anterior y el tiempo y ahorro perdido en aras de la consecución de estos beneficios, estimados en millones de euros. Ahorros significativos que permiten a la sociedad un desarrollo equilibrado, igualitario y más sostenible, mejorando los resultados al permitir también a los poderes adjudicadores evitar, detectar y corregir los errores derivados de una interpretación incorrecta de las normas de contratación pública, consiguiendo al mismo tiempo una herramienta estadística, de control del gasto y de control automatizado previo y coetáneo, extraordinaria para la gobernanza económica a efectos de impulsar la buena gestión, la eficacia y la transparencia, la libertad de acceso a la información, la igualdad y no discriminación, la publicidad y la necesaria ausencia de corrupción, permitiendo en definitiva destinar esos ahorros a otros sectores más básicos y necesitados de la sociedad. Abundando en esos beneficios que nos reporta la contratación pública electrónica, ya que centraliza la información y permite así compartirla con mayor agilidad; automatiza los procedimientos de conformidad con la normativa haciéndolos más simplificados y más y mejor documentados, regidos y controlados, permitiendo por ejemplo controles automatizados o la detección de alertas; consiguiendo unos contratos públicos más accesibles a través de la eliminación de las barreras geográficas y también físicas, incrementando de este modo la concurrencia competitiva y por tanto no sólo el ahorro económico resultante de esta competencia, sino también la mejora de los servicios y una mayor especialización, que como consecuencia también provocan una mejora de la eficiencia y de la eficacia, con el consiguiente ahorro directo en logística y a su vez, nuevamente, en costes, tanto para la Administración como para los operadores económicos; consiguiendo al mismo tiempo con la eliminación y automatización de todas estas tareas burocráticas un ahorro estimable de tiempo que se podrá dedicar a otras actividades más productivas; suponiendo igualmente una fuente invaluable de información que permite optimizar los recursos; por último supone un aumento de la garantía de los tan importantes e imprescindibles principios generales de la contratación pública. Plasmando el calendario de implantación de la contratación pública electrónica que la nueva Directiva clásica sobre contratación pública impone. De forma que en un primer término pretende que a partir de la fecha límite de transposición, 18 de abril de 2016, el uso de las tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones electrónicas sean obligatorios en lo que respecta a determinadas fases del procedimiento. Para después culminar de forma obligatoria la transición a la contratación electrónica en la Unión Europea: en un segundo término fijado en el 18 de abril de 2017 para las centrales de contratación; en un tercer término establecido el 18 de abril de 2018, para dilatar la aplicación de lo dispuesto al respecto del documento europeo único de contratación y su ofrecimiento exclusivamente en formato electrónico; y en un cuarto y definitivo momento, para todos los órganos de contratación, en el día 18 de octubre de 2018, con el objetivo último de conseguir una contratación pública electrónica de principio a fin en la que todas las fases del procedimiento se llevan a cabo por medios electrónicos como mecanismo estándar de comunicación. 6. La elemental diferenciación de tres figuras jurídicas bien distintas y no alternativas: los convenios administrativos, las encomiendas de gestión y los contratos públicos en aras de la salvaguarda anticipada de los principios generales habitualmente aplicables a la contratación pública. Primero, distinguiendo que el núcleo de la cuestión que nos ocupa está focalizado en realizar una correcta utilización de la figura de los convenios administrativos, para lo que resultará imprescindible saber diferenciar muy bien esta figura de otras figuras análogas como las encomiendas de gestión y los contratos públicos, al objeto de conocer ceñidamente cuál es la delgada línea roja que marca las fronteras de uso entre las mismas, teniendo en cuenta que su distinta utilización supone importantes consecuencias prácticas. De forma que el estudio nos permite concluir que los convenios se diferencian de las encomiendas de gestión, en que en los primeros, las partes, no tienen por qué pertenecer a la misma esfera pública como sí ocurre en las encomiendas de gestión; además, son consecuencia de un libre acuerdo de voluntades entre las partes en pie de igualdad en busca un interés común, mientras que en las encomiendas de gestión, es el poder adjudicador el que controla la voluntad del ente instrumental, sin necesidad de acuerdo de voluntades. Siendo así que los contratos públicos se diferencian, a su vez, de los convenios en que el acuerdo de voluntades ha de ser de naturaleza contractual, lo que por definición lleva aparejada una contraposición de intereses de carácter oneroso, mientras que en los convenios la regla debe ser la cooperación real para la consecución de algún objetivo de interés común, además de que, en virtud del TRLCSP, no pueden tener el mismo objeto prestacional que los contratos públicos. Es igualmente este acuerdo de voluntades, de carácter oneroso en los contratos, el que diferencia a los mismos de las encomiendas de gestión, donde ya hemos visto que no existe acuerdo de voluntades alguno. Segundo, que las conclusiones a las que podemos llegar para realizar esa correcta utilización de la figura de los convenios administrativos, son que estando incluido el objeto del supuesto convenio dentro de la delimitación de los distintos tipos contractuales, hay que concluir necesariamente que nos encontramos en el marco jurídico de un contrato público, lo que conlleva que no pueden equipararse a los convenios de colaboración a los efectos de la dispensa de someterse a los principios y normas de la contratación pública. Asimismo, sólo se puede huir de los principios generales de la contratación pública a través de la figura de las encomiendas de gestión si se dan los dos criterios Teckal, que consisten en que, acumulativamente, el ente territorial ejerza sobre la persona de que se trate un control análogo al que ejerce sobre sus propios servicios y esta persona realice la parte esencial de su actividad con el ente o los entes a que pertenece. Tercero, que las soluciones pasan, la primera y principal, en el caso de los convenios de colaboración, por la creación de un verdadero régimen jurídico propio de esta figura legal en el que se regule ampliamente la misma, tanto para el caso de convenios con personas públicas como privadas, de forma que se regule su concepto legal, se le diferencie de figuras similares, se fijen sus ámbitos subjetivos y objetivos, su procedimiento y también la habilitación normativa tanto por razón del órgano como por razón de la materia, para la firma de un convenio. Mientras que para el caso de las encomiendas de gestión pasa por elaborar unas pautas de carácter obligatorio que sirvan de guía al gestor público para hacer un uso adecuado de este instrumento, mediante la definición de las características y requisitos que debe reunir cada tipo de encomienda de gestión, la enumeración de los documentos que deben acompañar su tramitación y la comprobación de que se cumplen todos los requerimientos legales para usar correctamente este instrumento jurídico, cuestiones que hoy en día también brillan por su ausencia. A partir de aquí vendría ya la aplicación práctica de estas nuevas regulaciones jurídicas, de una manera mucho más fácil y amparada en el tan importante principio de seguridad jurídica. 7. La definición que del estudio jurisprudencial se ha obtenido del concepto de 'servicio público' del que podemos deducir los elementos que definen un servicio público, ya que: debe tratarse de una actividad administrativa de prestación; el titular de tal actividad debe ser una Administración; la prestación debe estar sometida a un régimen de Derecho Público y la prestación debe ser ejercitada de una manera regular y continua. 8. La concreción metódica del concepto jurídico indeterminado de 'autoridad inherente a los poderes públicos', equiparando la misma a las funciones específicas del Estado y de las colectividades que pueden ser asimiladas, como por ejemplo son las fuerzas armadas, las fuerzas y cuerpos de seguridad del Estado, la magistratura, la Administración fiscal y la diplomacia, pero con necesidad de añadir un grado más de exigencia respecto de las funciones que corresponden al empleado público conforme se va ascendiendo en los distintos Cuerpos o Escalas, de forma que realmente para ejercer esta autoridad inherente a los poderes públicos se deberán en puridad realizar funciones o trabajos que suponga el ejercicio de potestades públicas o funciones públicas de autoridad, o sea, que dicho añadido se corresponde en realidad con ser depositario de una autoridad o potestad pública y no con el simple hecho de ser un empleado público perteneciente a alguna de las colectividades aludidas. 9. El análisis de la doctrina del 'factum principis', como sistema de equilibrio económico del contrato en la modificación de los contratos de gestión de servicios públicos, procediendo calcular la compensación para el restablecimiento del equilibrio económico, por ejemplo de una concesión, siendo el poder adjudicador el que deba acordar el modo más adecuado de hacerla efectiva y observando que es viable jurídicamente el restablecimiento del equilibrio económico del contrato que puedan plantear las empresas concesionarias si se incardinan en los criterios jurídicos expuestos acerca de la doctrina del 'Hecho del Príncipe'. 10. El punto y final a la considerable inseguridad jurídica acerca de hasta qué punto los contratos celebrados por los poderes adjudicadores deben estar reglamentados por las normas sobre concesiones, distinguiendo meridianamente los contratos típicos de servicios y de gestión de servicios públicos, relacionando a modo conclusivo no sólo sus diferencias teóricas de régimen jurídico y acentuando la importancia práctica de su correcta aplicación, sino llegando a la conclusión final, que lo que caracteriza en el plano práctico a las concesiones de servicios, a diferencia de los contrato de servicios, es que el contratista asume el riesgo y ventura de la explotación de los servicios percibiendo como contrapartida una retribución por el uso del servicio abonada ya sea por los usuarios, por terceros o incluso por la propia Administración contratante; pero, eso sí, una retribución vinculada estrechamente al propio riesgo y ventura en la explotación del servicio por el contratista, y quedándonos la duda sobre qué hará nuestro legislador nacional nuevamente con el resto de modalidades de los contratos de gestión de servicios públicos que, diferentes a la concesión, no han estado reguladas antes en el Derecho de la Unión Europea, ni lo están ahora en la cuarta generación de Directivas sobre contratación pública. Conclusiva, sin embargo todas estas conclusiones avocan en todo momento en este estudio hacia una misma dirección e idea, la utilización del Derecho administrativo como herramienta de los poderes públicos para la promoción del desarrollo del ser humano y su dignidad en base al primero de los principios generales que debería estar presente en cualquier rama del Derecho, en especial del Derecho público, el derecho a la vida, entendiendo a la contratación como la más potente de las herramientas jurídicas de actuación administrativa que sirve para hacer efectivo este desarrollo digno del ser humano y ello por el ya conocido potencial económico que proyecta el Derecho de la contratación pública. El Derecho administrativo como uno de los máximos exponentes del Derecho público y en su marco el Derecho de la contratación pública por su importancia económica cuantitativa, deben por imperativo legal y moral estar dirigidos al desarrollo del ser humano y a todas las facetas implícitas a este derecho. Es sólo a través de los principios generales del Derecho, esencia misma de todo Derecho, omnipotentes y omnipresentes, como podemos lograr nuevamente en nuestras sociedades que el Derecho público, el Derecho administrativo, el Derecho de la contratación pública se dirijan hacia la consecución de la dignidad de sus verdaderos destinatarios, las sociedades en su conjunto y la población que la forma. En una realidad globalizada como la nuestra, en la que hemos dado por manifiesta la existencia de un Derecho administrativo global; también de un Derecho global de la contratación pública, que aunque en proceso de expansión contribuye generosamente a la consolidación de ese Derecho administrativo global; y en la que los principios generales del Derecho y de la contratación pública se erigen como principios-guía que conforman el elemento integrador de ese marco global, resulta ineludible abundar en el arraigo de aquéllos principios-guías que hagan que el Derecho público, el Derecho administrativo, el Derecho de la contratación pública, tanto en el ámbito global, como regional y local, cumplan el que es el objetivo de la acción pública y política, el desarrollo de la persona, del ciudadano, del ser humano y de todos los derechos inalienables e inherentes a su condición. Es de este modo como los principios generales de la contratación pública son la pieza nuclear del Derecho de la contratación pública y a la vez la mejor herramienta para el equilibrio de los distintos intereses en el seno de esta disciplina, al objeto de corregir a tiempo la dirección a seguir como contraposición a la actual vertiente eminentemente económica, sin caer al momento en la trampa de pensar en el carácter ficticio de esta idea. La importancia fundamental en todo Derecho que hoy revisten los principios generales es por todos conocida y reconocida y ha sido expuesta con ahínco a lo largo de esta obra, de ahí deriva también la importancia de su positivización en el Derecho escrito, en aras no sólo de esa mayor seguridad jurídica, sino también de su presencia en las mentes y conciencias de todos los operadores del Derecho de la contratación pública. Los principios generales de la contratación pública constituyen los verdaderos cimientos y pilares de este Derecho, ya que sirven como criterio de interpretación de las normas escritas, para colmar las lagunas o vacíos normativos, y para constituir el medio más idóneo de asegurar la unidad dentro de la pluralidad de preceptos que se aplican en las Administraciones Públicas y poderes adjudicadores. Son, en definitiva, el fundamento y origen de todas las normas, principalidad que les confiere preeminencia frente a otras fuentes del Derecho. Cimientos y pilares, en definitiva, que se instalan en el respeto del ser humano o en la naturaleza de las cosas. Hemos clasificado a los principios generales de la contratación pública en función de su aceptación a través de tres grupos: por un lado los que tienen un mayor grado de antigüedad y de aceptación pacífica (libre circulación de mercancías, el derecho de establecimiento, la libre prestación de servicios, la no discriminación y la igualdad de trato, la transparencia, la proporcionalidad, el reconocimiento mutuo, la publicidad y la concurrencia competitiva y muchos otros enumerados a lo largo de este trabajo); por otro lado, aquéllos de nacimiento más reciente pero con un alto y fácil nivel de aceptación (por ejemplo el ya referido principio de vigencia tecnológica claramente unido a la contratación pública electrónica) y, por un tercer lado, aquellos otros que son inherentes al ordenamiento jurídico, que lo inspiran, lo informan, que son innatos al mismo pero que deben tener un impulso en su difusión y defensa con el ánimo de generalizarlos y que formen parte del primer grupo. Es en este tercer grupo en el que encuadramos como auténticos principios generales en todo su ser a los principios de promoción del desarrollo humano y de promoción de la sostenibilidad ambiental, ya sea sin olvidar que como principios-guía entre los principios generales se encuentran reconocidos los derechos fundamentales de las personas, porque no podremos hablar del carácter social y medioambiental de la contratación pública, ni de los principios generales de desarrollo humano y sostenibilidad ambiental sin antes saber si están garantizados los derechos del ser humano. Si bien este punto de vista puede parecer ilusorio, lo cierto es que el Derecho público, el Derecho administrativo, el Derecho de la contratación pública en sus concepciones global, regional o local debe estar enfocado al respeto de los derechos del ser humano y al respeto del medio ambiente en mejora de un medioambiente sano y saludable y de la calidad de vida, del mismo que está impregnado por los principios generales comúnmente aceptados aludidos anteriormente respecto del primer grupo de principios. Es de este modo que desde el primer Capítulo de esta obra se ha venido enfocando la aplicación de la contratación pública desde un punto de vista socio-laboral y medioambiental, como instrumento de progreso económico, social y medioambiental en manos de los poderes públicos y al servicio de los ciudadanos. Creo, por consiguiente, que para conseguir un Derecho global, regional y local de la contratación pública y de esta forma un Derecho administrativo global, regional y local más justos, y por tanto basados también en el principio de justicia, no se debería limitar, como entiendo que viene ocurriendo, estos Derechos hacia una proyección eminentemente económica de los mismos, de modo que se avance hacia la consecución de Estados y situaciones de Derecho global, regional y local más sociales y democráticas como contraposición al actual Derecho de corte predominantemente económico, sin que esta idea, a través de la importancia económica y social que la contratación pública supone, deba, como he dicho, necesariamente ser tachada de descabellada porque es necesario añadir, como se ha venido motivando reiteradamente, que estos principios generales de desarrollo humano y sostenibilidad ambiental en absoluto están reñidos con el carácter marcadamente económico que hoy se busca dar a la contratación pública, dando lugar precisamente a un crecimiento social, ambiental y económico también, más sostenible. Es realmente en este juego de intereses en el que entran en práctica técnicas como el proteccionismo, que merece siquiera en las siguientes líneas una mínima mención. Es inevitable escuchar voces a favor de la mayor de las igualdades para los oferentes o licitadores, esto es una tónica en el seno de las relaciones comerciales internacionales de la Unión Europea, pero debemos tener presente que los principios generales de la contratación pública también deben estar pensados y dirigidos a los destinatarios y usuarios finales de esos bienes y servicios, las sociedades y los individuos que las forman, ese es mi parecer, y que por tanto ese principio de igualdad también debe ser trasladado en la contratación pública a las sociedades equilibrando a través de este mismo principio allí donde haya desigualdades. En eso consiste precisamente también la esencia de los principios generales, en la utilización adaptada al caso concreto y no en la interpretación sesgada y unilateral de los mismos. De ahí el empeño de la Unión Europea por ejemplo en combatir el proteccionismo nacional en los Acuerdos de Libre Comercio que afectan a la contratación pública global, pudiendo ocurrir no obstante que la realidad sobre el terreno sea bien distinta. Parámetros que si no se respetan, justifican y motivan sobradamente el proteccionismo de regiones, naciones y territorios, normalmente en el corto plazo y para circunstancias específicas. Por ello la cooperación y el libre comercio global en contratación pública debe ser beneficiosa para todas las partes y no configurarse a través de meros instrumentos de adhesión al más poderoso, sino que esos instrumentos, normas y acuerdos deben guiarse también por los principios generales de desarrollo humano y sostenibilidad ambiental, atendiendo las desigualdades existentes entre los miembros de cada región desde la óptica social y medioambiental de cada uno y en aras también de la proyección de ese principio de igualdad de oportunidades, consiguiendo así la expansión de la contratación pública global mediante el establecimiento de derechos y obligaciones multilaterales y bilaterales equilibradas y no abusivas. Sólo así cabrá la crítica justificada al proteccionismo local. Como hemos ido viendo, gran parte de este estudio está dedicado precisamente al Derecho global administrativo y de la contratación pública de la Unión Europea, ergo al sistema nacional de contratación pública español como fiduciario que es del primero. A ellos debemos también referirnos a continuación en esta conclusión reflexiva. Sabemos que la Unión Europea es la mayor economía mundial, el primer exportador e importador mundial y también el principal origen y destino de inversión extranjera. Con aproximadamente el 7% de la población mundial, genera más de la cuarta parte del PIB global. Es en definitiva la región líder del comercio internacional y mundial. Es por tanto fundamentalmente a ella a la que le corresponde jugar un papel primordial y tomar opción o no en lo defendido en este trabajo hasta el momento. El ordenamiento jurídico comunitario es el auténtico fundamento de la Unión Europea y confiere a ésta su carácter de comunidad de Derecho social y democrática, dado que la contribución de este ordenamiento a la solución de los problemas políticos, económicos y sociales de los Estados miembros es incuestionable. Nadie puede negar la paz que ha traído a Europa. Este ordenamiento jurídico está amparado por una consolidada estructura orgánica, por una Administración global de la Unión que entre otras funciones hace las veces de fuente material del Derecho de la Unión Europea. Sólo a través de la creación de este nuevo Derecho y su salvaguardia pueden realizarse los objetivos perseguidos con la creación de la Unión Europea. El ordenamiento jurídico comunitario ya ha realizado grandes logros en este sentido, muchos de ellos expuestos a lo largo del trabajo y que no procede recuperar aquí, lo cual no obsta para que no haya elementos en los que también quepa mejorar: es enormemente criticable el marcado carácter económico que ha adquirido en las últimas décadas, más que nunca si cabe, esta organización supranacional alejándose de su carácter de comunidad de Derecho social. El ordenamiento jurídico comunitario y la comunidad de Derecho que se fundamenta en él sólo pueden sobrevivir si se garantiza su respeto y su protección. Los garantes jurídicos de ello son los tres pilares del ordenamiento jurídico comunitario: su autonomía, su aplicabilidad directa y la primacía de este último sobre los Derechos nacionales. Porque la construcción de una Unión Europa se fundamenta en unos principios vertebrales con los que los Estados miembros se tienen obligatoriamente que comprometer y cuya aplicación se confía a las instituciones de la Unión, entre ellas al TJUE que es el garante del ordenamiento jurídico Comunitario, asistido en esa labor por los sistemas jurídicos nacionales. Principios vertebrales, por tanto, cuya existencia y mantenimiento son defendidos decididamente por el TJUE, que garantiza la validez uniforme y prioritaria del Derecho de la Unión Europea en todos los Estados miembros y en campos como el de la contratación pública. En consecuencia, el Alto Tribunal Europeo es una institución que ha jugado y juega un papel decisivo en el desarrollo de ese ordenamiento jurídico comunitario y por ende de los ordenamientos jurídicos nacionales de los distintos Estados miembros, desarrollo que se debe en buena parte a los principios instaurados por el TJUE a lo largo de su práctica judicial en defensa, entre otros bienes protegidos, de los derechos e intereses legítimos de los ciudadanos de la Unión Europea. Es por ello que a pesar de todas las lagunas y ambigüedades, que al igual que a otros ordenamientos jurídicos caracterizan al ordenamiento jurídico comunitario, la contribución de éste ordenamiento y, por consiguiente, del Acervo Comunitario a la defensa de los derechos e intereses legítimos de los habitantes de la Unión Europea y a la solución de los problemas políticos, económicos y sociales de los Estados miembros y de sus ciudadanos no deja de ser también de un valor excepcional que merece ser nuevamente destacado. Es así como el TJUE ha contribuido también a integrar y armonizar los Derechos nacionales de los distintos Estados miembros a favor de una normativa más igualitaria y fundada en los clásicos principios generales de la contratación pública y cada vez más, en los que considero venideros principios generales que entiendo se acabarán por instaurar, de promoción del desarrollo humano y de promoción de la sostenibilidad ambiental, que han tenido y tienen sus primeras manifestaciones en los aspectos sociales (socio-laborales) y medioambientales, criterios o cláusulas por las que se hace una decidida, aunque como hemos visto debatible y todavía insuficiente apuesta por parte de la nueva generación de Directivas de contratación pública de la Unión Europea. De este modo, el TJUE ha formulado en muchas ocasiones principios generales, unas veces como desarrollo de categorías ya contempladas normativamente y otras suponiendo una construcción 'ex novo' ante el silencio normativo al respecto. Ese es el caso de la evolución normativa que se ha venido produciendo con respeto a los denominados aspectos socio-laborales y medioambientales, sin llegar a la fuerza jurídica de principios generales. Pues bien, es el momento de destacar nuevamente que entre los principios generales formulados reiteradamente por el TJUE dentro de todo el conjunto del Derecho de la Unión Europea se encuentran los derechos fundamentales de las personas. De este modo al declarar el Tribunal de Justicia que los derechos fundamentales forman parte de los principios generales del derecho, ha contribuido a elevar los niveles de protección y seguridad de estos derechos fundamentales y de estos principios generales. Principios generales cuyo respeto el Tribunal impone no sólo a las instituciones comunitarias, sino también a todas las autoridades nacionales encargadas de aplicar el Derecho de la Unión Europea. Encontrándonos con que el Derecho de la contratación pública no es una rama, ni una materia ajena a los derechos fundamentales y tampoco al resto de principios generales del Derecho, por lo que todos ellos son aplicables por consiguiente al ámbito de la contratación pública y a los procedimientos administrativos de adjudicación derivados de las compras públicas. Llegados a esta realidad nos encontramos con otra, la óptica desde la que son observados con generalidad los principios generales de la contratación pública. Son dos o tres los sujetos, las partes, en un contrato público, por un lado siempre nos encontramos con el poder adjudicador y el contratista, siendo que muchas de las veces hay una tercera parte que son los destinatarios de esos contratos pública, tercera parte que opino se podría pensar está siempre presente, ya que aunque el destinatario del contrato sea el propio poder adjudicador, éste siempre tiene como objetivos unos fines públicos para los que fue creado y que repercuten en las sociedades. Ocurre que los principios generales que hemos ubicado en el primer grupo (que son podríamos decir todos los existentes en el Derecho positivo), los comúnmente aceptados, son vistos desde la única óptica subjetiva de las dos primeras partes de los contratos públicos a las que me he referido, poderes adjudicadores y contratistas, ignorando por tanto los beneficiarios finales de esos contratos. Pondré como ejemplo por todos los demás principios al principio de igualdad. Mucho se ha hablado y escrito sobre este principio general en la contratación pública enfocado por regla general desde el predominante punto de vista de igualdad de acceso a las licitaciones por parte de los operadores económicos. Pues bien, es factible pensar en la posibilidad de interpretar el principio de igualdad desde la única óptica de la igualdad en el acceso al mercado y a los contratos públicos de los licitadores y proveedores, por ejemplo extranjeros en el marco del Derecho global, o bien cabe también la posibilidad de prolongar ese principio de igualdad de oportunidades, como yo lo entiendo, hacia la fase de ejecución de los contratos públicos y por tanto extrapolar dicho principio en aplicación también de las ventajas o desventajas de los beneficiarios y usuarios de los Acuerdos de Libre Comercio y de los contratos públicos de ellos derivados. Lo mismo podríamos decir del principio de transparencia, tradicionalmente pensado en la contratación pública desde el prisma de la publicidad del contrato para el cumplimiento del principio de igualdad entre los oferentes y de publicidad, y sólo más recientemente pensado en la contratación pública como derecho a la información que tenemos todos los ciudadanos de conocer el uso y destino que se da al dinero que es de todos, que es básicamente como ha sido tratado este principio general en el Capítulo de esta obra dedicado a él. Es este por tanto el mismo ejercicio que tenemos que hacer con el resto de principios de los tres grupos de principios generales enunciados y en definitiva con el Derecho de la contratación pública, el Derecho administrativo y el Derecho público en toda su dimensión. Es decir, la mayor parte de los principios generales de la contratación pública que actualmente se plasman por escrito en las distintas normas y que forman por tanto parte de nuestro ordenamiento jurídico positivo han sido planteados y valorados, podríamos decir simplificadamente, desde la visión de las primeras fases del procedimiento de adjudicación de los contratos públicos, esto es, desde las fases de admisión y adjudicación del contrato, enfocados casi únicamente a las personas del poder adjudicador y contratista. Ello ha supuesto la omisión de la concepción de los principios generales en la fase de ejecución de los contratos, históricamente la menor regulada de todas en el ámbito del Derecho de la contratación pública, de forma que podríamos afirmar también casi taxativamente que los únicos principios que se han pensado para esta fase tienen que ver más con la vertiente económica que con cualquier otra perspectiva, como es el ejemplo de la inclusión en el artículo 1 del TRLCSP, como pórtico del sistema de contratación pública español y en compañía con los principios generales del primer grupo, del objetivo de estabilidad presupuestaria y control del gasto. Se omite pues la responsabilidad social corporativa que más que a nadie le corresponde sea exigida a los poderes públicos, la responsabilidad social y medioambiental como pórtico también del Derecho de la contratación pública, principios generales dirigidos claramente a esa tercera persona que forma parte de los contratos públicos, los usuarios, destinatarios y beneficiarios finales, o sea, la sociedad en su conjunto y los individuos que la forman, los contribuyentes si lo preferimos e incorporamos la perspectiva económica, los cuáles también son titulares de derechos. Como hemos ido viendo el último eslabón en el marco normativo de la contratación pública en el Derecho de la Unión Europea lo forman las nuevas Directivas 2014/23, 24 y 25. Los Estados miembros tienen la obligación de transponerlas como máximo el 16 de abril de 2016 y la previsión en España es que se incumpla como tantas otras veces anteriores este mandato. La doctrina coincide en que es un excelente momento para mejorar el marco normativo y el sistema de contratación pública nacional. Los actuales anteproyectos de Ley de Contratos del Sector Público y sobre procedimientos de contratación en los sectores especiales así lo auguran. Así ocurre por ejemplo con respecto a los principios generales, en los que en muchas ocasiones los nuevos textos en su versión actual son más garantistas que las Directivas de contratación pública. Si bien, como digo habrá que esperar al resultado último de los textos finales que puedan resultar de las postrimerías de una legislatura y del inicio de otra. No obstante, es necesario seguir profundizando en esta disertación hacía el cumplimiento del objetivo último de la acción pública y política, la persona, a través de una suma constructiva a los principios generales de la contratación pública del Derecho de la Unión Europea y del Derecho español. Reiteraré nuevamente la manifiesta y generalizada aceptación de determinados principios generales y su consubstancialidad a la contratación pública, ubicados en los primeros considerandos o preceptos tanto de las normas comunitarias como españolas. Sin embargo, no es nada habitual en nuestros ordenamientos (podríamos afirmar que es inédito) que se defienda la inclusión de los principios generales de desarrollo humano y sostenibilidad ambiental, haciendo valer de esta forma con carácter imperativo otra clase de principios generales que hoy por hoy todavía constituyen, voy a decir, 'empeños'. Me he posicionado claramente a lo largo de este estudio, dentro del marco del ordenamiento jurídico de la Unión Europea y nacional, a favor de la defensa de los derechos fundamentales de las personas por encima de los intereses económicos particulares, sabiendo que el principio de desarrollo ambiental sostenible es un derecho fundamental más. Pues bien, del mismo modo que el actual Anteproyecto de Ley de Contratos del Sector Público es en ocasiones más garantista a lo exigido por la nueva generación de Directivas a transponer, así por ejemplo en lo concerniente a los principios generales, resulta también el momento oportuno para introducir en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico estos principios generales encuadrándolos expresamente dentro del artículo primero de la nueva Ley de Contratos del Sector Público. Dicho 'ex professo' lo anterior, es evidente la existencia de los aspectos sociales o socio-laborales y medioambientales en la contratación pública, si bien su aplicabilidad real no sea la que podría ser. Aspectos respecto de los cuales también se ahonda en este estudio poniendo de manifiesto los problemas futuros de aplicación que traerá la nueva normativa, lo que hace dudar de su manifestado espíritu en pro de su utilización, así por ejemplo en la fase de ejecución del contrato al fijar un inexorable vínculo con el objeto contractual que hasta ahora no era exigido. Sabemos que estos aspectos de la contratación pública son ubicables en las tres fases de los procedimientos de adjudicación, entendiendo por las mismas la fase de admisión, la de valoración/adjudicación y la de ejecución y que era precisamente en la última de las fases en la que su utilización era más viable. Quiero destacar ahora antes de continuar, el abismo normativo, teórico y práctico, que existe entre aspectos (cláusulas o criterios) sociales y medioambientales y unos verdaderos principios generales, ya que las diferencias entre unos y otros son evidentes, pasando de primera mano por el carácter potestativo de los aspectos y no así del carácter obligatorio y consustancial al concepto de principio general que tendría el desarrollo humano y la sostenibilidad ambiental. Pero además, es necesario e imprescindible destacar, que al igual, en su origen, que el resto de principios generales comúnmente aceptados y conocidos por todos, estos dos principios que he enunciado no son en puridad creaciones 'ex novo', ya que forman parte del ordenamiento jurídico positivo expreso de algunos otros Estados como por ejemplo Perú o República Dominicana, cuya constitución recoge el principio de sostenibilidad ambiental en la contratación pública. Si los principios generales de la contratación pública, que ya hemos adelantando cuál es su carácter de esencia de todo Derecho, son también el fundamento de la misma y se caracterizan por su transversalidad, ya que alcanzan a todos los contratos, independientemente de su cuantía, de su naturaleza jurídica de administrativos o privados, manifestándose asimismo en todas las fases del procedimiento de contratación, es que podríamos incluir con los mismos efectos los principios generales de desarrollo humano y sostenibilidad ambiental como verdaderos principios-guía del marco normativo de la contratación pública. Pues bien, es igualmente que estos principios ya son principios generales del ordenamiento jurídico de la Unión y de España, porque son intrínsecos a los mismos, resta ahora desvelarlos, generalizarlos y potenciarlos, haciéndolos en primer lugar visibles en el Derecho positivo español ahora que está pendiente la transposición de las últimas Directivas, avanzando un paso adelante en lo establecido al respecto por el ordenamiento de la Unión. Permitiéndome el atrevimiento en este mismo instante de avanzar en esta defensa primigenia de los principios generales de promoción del desarrollo humano y de promoción de la sostenibilidad ambiental en el ámbito del Derecho global de la contratación pública, de la Unión Europea y del Derecho español de contratación pública, que quizás más tarde que temprano se acaben por implantar en el Derecho global, pero dónde seguro más temprano que tarde acabarán implantándose es en el ámbito espacial del Derecho global de la contratación pública en la Unión Europea, de forma que puede que dichos principios se tornen en obligatorios en la próxima (quinta) generación de Directivas de la Unión Europea en materia de contratación pública a través de la plasmación imperativa de los hoy llamados criterios o cláusulas sociales (socio-laborales) y medioambientales, sino incluso antes, de forma más reducida y sesgada aunque no expresa, en la venidera transposición al ordenamiento jurídico interno nacional español de la que es ahora la cuarta de generación de Directivas sobre contratación pública, Directivas 2014/23/UE, 2014/24/UE y 2014/25/UE. Del estudio realizado esa es la tendencia que proyecta seguir el ordenamiento jurídico comunitario, ergo, español. Porque si estos dos principios ya son parte en realidad de nuestros ordenamientos jurídicos (comunitario y nacional) porque no incluirlos entonces también expresamente en la contratación pública al nivel jurídico, interpretativo y dogmático de principios generales. Reconocidos, como se ha demostrado en el estudio, estos principios generales de promoción del desarrollo humano y de sostenibilidad ambiental por el TJUE, los encontramos también en los Tratados de la Unión, como el de Ámsterdam, el de Funcionamiento de la Unión Europea o el último de los Tratados, el de Lisboa; en la Carta de los Derechos Fundamentales de la Unión Europea con rango de Derecho primario; como obligatorios los acoge igualmente Constitución española y todos los tratados y acuerdos internacionales ratificados por España que forman parte de nuestro ordenamiento jurídico interno. Porque todas las normas de ámbito global, regional o nacional estudiadas y citadas en este trabajo, que buscan una acción positiva a favor del medioambiente o de los aspectos sociales, encuentran cobijo, como no podía ser de otra forma y dentro del pleno respecto al principio de primacía del Derecho de la Unión Europea, en nuestra Constitución, incardinándose al amparo del mandato contenido por ejemplo en sus artículos 10, 14, 15 y 45.2 y del derecho que recoge el apartado primero de este mismo precepto constitucional, de forma que es lícito promover por las Administraciones Públicas y poderes adjudicadores como interés general los aspectos medioambientales y sociales en el marco de las políticas de contratación pública. Siendo que estos principios generales como he venido reiteradamente defendiendo resultan legales, obligatorios, necesarios y rentables social, medioambiental y económicamente a corto, medio y largo plazo, constituyendo en la antesala del ordenamiento jurídico de la contratación pública la herramienta que permita promover las condiciones para que la libertad y la igualdad del individuo y de los grupos en que se integra sean reales y efectivas; remover los obstáculos que impidan o dificulten su plenitud y facilitar la participación de todos los ciudadanos en la vida política, económica, cultural y social y cumplir con el mandato imperativo que marca, sin ir más allá de nuestras fronteras, nuestro ordenamiento jurídico en el artículo 9.2 de su norma suprema. Es decir, no es ni siquiera necesario descifrar estos principios generales en el conjunto de nuestros ordenamientos, están presentes pero en cierta medida obviados, olvidados, máxime en una materia que supone aproximadamente de media el 25% de la ejecución del presupuesto de gasto de las Administraciones Públicas. Requieren, por consiguiente, de un impulso, defensa, promoción y aspiración para ser consignados expresamente de manera positiva en el ordenamiento jurídico de la contratación pública, en igualdad de lugar y condiciones que otros principios generales totalmente aceptados. Se trata de principios generales que son legales porque se encuentran incorporados en los pilares de las normas fundamentales de la Unión Europea y de España y obligatorios porque como obligatorios los acogen también los mandatos que realizan a los poderes públicos ambos ordenamientos jurídicos a través de sus normas más supremas y fundamentales. Su carácter de necesario es una realidad global, regional y local que nos sobrepasa como individuos diariamente. Su también necesaria e imprescindible rentabilidad se justifica porque en el equilibrio de las poblaciones sociales y del medioambiente se encuentra en definitiva el desarrollo sostenible, económico también, de los pueblos y los Estados. Pero si su existencia en el ordenamiento jurídico es tan manifiesta, por qué incluirlos expresamente. Entonces por qué hemos incluido el resto de principios generales del primer grupo si se encontraban en la misma situación: por qué tienen un perfil más económico, los aquí patrocinados también, consiguiendo, a la vez, ese crecimiento social, ambiental y económico sostenible. Por lo tanto he aquí mi apuesta y mi crítica constructiva. Nos encontramos en el momento idóneo para introducir y plasmar como Derecho positivo los principios generales de desarrollo humano y de sostenibilidad ambiental en el marco nacional de las normas de contratación pública, haciéndolos de este modo visibles, omnipotentes y omnipresentes en los actuares de los órganos de contratación y en las mentes y conciencias de los políticos, de los gestores y de los operadores jurídicos y económicos de los contratos públicos. A nadie se le escapa ya la existencia de los otros principios generales, los por todos conocidos y aceptados, y sí a muchos todavía los hoy todavía denominados 'aspectos' socio-laborales y medioambientales. Esta es una realidad cotidiana, muy utilizada también por quienes infravaloran esta concepción del Derecho administrativo y del Derecho de la contratación pública, para qué exigir con respecto al adecuado cumplimiento de las normas sociales, laborales y medioambientales si ya todo está en el resto del ordenamiento jurídico, si bien la experiencia determina que no se detienen a reflexionar que sí se exija, sin embargo, la honorabilidad del licitador desde el punto de vista deudor de la Hacienda Pública o de la Seguridad Social si también son ya obligaciones que establece la correspondiente normativa. La misma limitada visión que supone el creer por los órganos de contratación que no les compete, cuando en realidad las competencias de una Administración Pública, de un poder público, no son compartimentos estancos que se agotan en la unidad u órgano creado al efecto, sino que abarcan y obligan al conjunto de la Administración o poder público como persona jurídica única, pensemos por ejemplo en las competencias de medioambiente, de igualdad de la mujer, de menores, de personas con discapacidad, de bienestar social, de empleo y un largo etcétera, son competencias de todos, son competencias transversales, amparadas además por la obligación de acción de los poderes públicos contenida en el artículo 9.2 de la Constitución española. Es así que he abogado al inicio de este estudio por la inclusión de estos principios generales en el ordenamiento jurídico global de la contratación pública, en el Derecho de la Unión Europea y en el sistema de contratación pública español. Ocurriendo que para este último se ubica el momento perfecto con la incorporación de las nuevas Directivas y la aprobación de la que será nuestra próxima normativa nacional sobre contratación administrativa, todavía en trámite. Como anteriormente señalé, hemos perdido un preciado tiempo en la implantación de la contratación electrónica favorecedora de los principios generales también por sus posibilidades de transparencia. Seguro que otro tiempo maravilloso perderemos también en el Derecho de la Unión Europea de la contratación pública para la implantación de los principios generales que ahora defiendo, confiando en que este hecho se produzca. No perdamos pues la extraordinaria la oportunidad que se nos brinda con la transposición de las nuevas Directivas incorporando a nuestro sistema nacional de contratación pública estos novedosos principios generales en el ámbito de la contratación pública, puede que adelantándonos así a otros actores, dando ejemplo y haciendo justicia social y medioambiental con el dinero que es de todos. Porque, en conclusión, la inclusión en nuestro Derecho positivo más actual de estos principios de promoción del desarrollo humano y de promoción de la sostenibilidad ambiental, depende únicamente de las personas que tienen la capacidad de decidir e influir en las normas de contratación pública y del esfuerzo que las mismas hagan en tal sentido, porque si nadie se cuestiona la inclusión en el pórtico de la normativa de contratación pública del principio general de eficiencia en conexión con el objetivo de estabilidad presupuestaria y de control del gasto; si es posible también establecer en los contratos públicos un objetivo basado en el 100% en el aspecto económico, por qué cuestionarse entonces la inclusión y existencia de estos principios generales que como mandato obligatorio nos imponen nuestros ordenamientos jurídicos si los mismos resultan a su vez rentables para el conjunto de la sociedad formada por todos nosotros. Empecemos, por tanto, a corregir la trayectoria y tendencia del actual Derecho administrativo y de la contratación pública por el principio, por los principios.

El presente artículo busca hacer una breve conceptualización del agotamiento del derecho marca de acuerdo a lo dispuesto por la legislación comunitaria europea, ya que para los bloques económicos suramericanos, en especial para la Comunidad Andina de Naciones (can), constituye un referente de cómo se ha logrado equilibrar los intereses de los agentes del mercado fomentando la libre competencia y la libre circulación de mercancías. Por lo tanto, mediante este análisis será posible determinar cuáles son los retos y debates que afrontan los países suramericanos sobre este tema. ; Derecho de marca; Agotamiento del derecho de marca; Mercado comunitario; Importaciones paralelas ; enero/junio 2015 ISSN: 0120-3754 Las PYME en América Latina, Japón, la Unión Europea, Estados Unidos y los clúster en Colombia Ángel Emilio Muñoz Cardona María Patricia Mayor López Movilidad urbana: cómo de nir el sistema de trans-porte público colectivo (SITP) en Bogotá Crispiniano Duarte Vega Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana La participación del Instituto Nacional Electoral en las elecciones de Juntas Auxiliares en México Román Sánchez Zamora Gabriel Miranda Trejo Yunuén Catalina Reyes Archundia La adopción de las TIC con actitud crítica en el sector de la educación por parte del gobierno electrónico de Bogotá D. C. Un caso de éxito Jairo Augusto Ortegón Bolívar Las empresas como formadoras de identidad individual y grupal en la sociedad a partir de la fenomenología Germán Rubio Guerrero Luis Alfredo Muñoz Velasco Fernando Adolfo Fierro Celis Gestión para resultados en el desarrollo: hacia la construcción de buena gobernanza Sergio Alberto Chica Vélez Análisis de la estructura interna de los "grupos económicos" en Colombia en la transición del siglo XX al XXI Juan Sergio Cruz 61 45 Calle 44 n.º 53-37 CAN PBX 220 27 90 l FAX 315 25 60 A.A. 29745 l Bogotá, D.C. 40 41 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones* Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana Autora Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana Administradora pública, docente. Magíster en Análisis Económico del Derecho y las Políticas Públicas de la Universidad de Salamanca. Profesora de la Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios, Seccional Bello, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas Correo electrónico: rojaslaila@gmail.com Dirección postal: Carrera 96 b n.° 17b-40, apto 104, int. 10, Fontibón, Bogotá D. C. Fecha de recepción: 10.06.2015 Fecha de aprobación: 5.09.2015 Resumen El presente artículo busca hacer una breve conceptualización del agotamiento del derecho marca de acuerdo a lo dispuesto por la legislación comunitaria europea, ya que para los bloques económicos suramericanos, en especial para la Comunidad Andina de Naciones (can), constituye un referente de cómo se ha logrado equilibrar los intereses de los agentes del mercado fomentando la libre competencia y la libre circulación de mercancías. Por lo tanto, mediante este análisis será posible determinar cuáles son los retos y debates que afrontan los países suramericanos sobre este tema. Palabras clave: Derecho de marca, agotamiento del derecho de marca, mercado comunitario, importaciones paralelas. Abstract This paper presents research results on the identification of shortco-mings that communities suffer regarding the quality in the provision of touristic services and management of this economic activity. From there, a training process in touristic services is proposed with emphasis on community tourism strategies, as well as management tools that facilitate the integration of different agencies and communities of the sector. The text discusses, first, an approach to the concept of commu-nity tourism and its state of the art. Secondly, it presents the diagnostic and composition of the touristic product in the districts of Ciudad Bolivar, Usme and Sumapaz in the Colombian Capital City of Bogotá. Then, the article reviews the current activities of these communities in community tourism, under the auspices of the district government and some institutions such as universities and NGOs. Finally, quantitative and qualitative findings reached with the fieldwork, shown in tabulated results of surveys, observation and interview inquiries made by resear-chers and assistants are described. Keywords: tourism, empowerment, strategic plan, development. Resumo O presente artigo expõe os resultados da investigação de falências que têm as comunidades com relação à qualidade na prestação dos serviços turísticos e a gestão administrativa desta atividade econômi-ca. Daí, é proposto um processo de formação em serviços turísticos com ênfase nas estratégias de turismo comunitário, assim como nas ferramentas administrativas e de gestão que permitam a integração dos diferentes organismos e comunidades do setor. O texto aborda, no primeiro lugar, uma aproximação ao conceito de turismo comunitário e seu estado da arte. No segundo lugar, apresenta os diagnósticos e a composição do produto turístico nas localidades de Ciudad Bolívar, Usme e Sumapaz no Distrito Capital de Bogotá. Depois, resenha as atividades que são desenvolvidas atualmente nestas comunidades em matéria de turismo comunitário, sob o auspicio do governo distrital e algumas entidades como universidades e ONGs. Para finalizar, são descritos os avindos quantitativos e qualitativos alcançados com o tra-balho de campo, representado em resultados tabulados das pesquisas, indagações, observações participantes e entrevistas efetuadas pelos investigadores e auxiliares. Palavras chave: turismo, empoderamento, plano estratégico, desen-volvimento. * Este artículo fue redactado a partir de la tesis de grado "Agotamiento del derecho de marca", adelantada para optar al título de Máster en Análisis Económico del Derecho y las Políticas Públicas, ofrecido por la Universidad de Salamanca Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 42 43 1. Introducción El agotamiento del derecho de marca ha sido un tema recurrente en las legislaciones internas de propiedad indus-trial y en los bloques económicos con el fin de impulsar el libre comercio. Es una pieza angular que permite la libre de circulación de mercancías, la libre competencia en la distribución de productos en el mercado interior y, por lo tanto, un resultado eficiente del mercado al aumentar la competencia en la distribución y generar efectos positivos para el consumidor. Actualmente existe un amplio análisis de agotamiento del derecho de marca en el Espacio Económico Europeo (eee) gracias a los abundantes pronunciamientos del Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Europea (tjce) porque el ago-tamiento es un instrumento clave para la libre circulación de mercancías y la libre competencia en la distribución de productos en el mercado interior comunitario. Es decir, el agotamiento de derechos de propiedad intelec-tual, y en particular el agotamiento del derecho de marca, se erige en un mecanismo jurídico fundamental para la construcción de un mercado único europeo sin fronteras geográficas ni políticas, regido por la libre competencia. Así pues, la concepción del agotamiento de marca es un punto de partida que nos permite comparar cómo este se ha desarrollado en otros ordenamientos comunitarios o regionales, en especial en el principal bloque económico suramericano: la Comunidad Andina de Naciones (can). 2. Derechos exclusivos otorgados por la marca y el agotamiento del derecho de marca Los bienes que hacen parte de la propiedad industrial tienen como función principal impulsar la competencia en el mercado. Las marcas, como propiedad intelectual, son una creación del intelecto derivada del talento humano y constituyen, como signos distintivos fruto de la creación, un bien incorporal o inmaterial al que la ley protege a través de norma especial, otorgando a su titular un derecho exclu-sivo sobre ellas (Bercovitz, 2002; Fernández, 2001). Las marcas son signos distintivos que fomentan la competencia en el mercado al evitar el riesgo de asociación y confusión entre los usuarios y, así mismo, otorgan una posición en el mercado a los productos bajo la marca. Una marca, entendida como cualquier signo que sea apto para distinguir productos o servicios en el mercado (Decisión 486, 2000, art. 134), cumple cuatro funciones principales en el plano económico: la función indicadora del origen empresarial, la función indicadora de la calidad de los productos o servicios, la función publicitaria y la función de condensación de la reputación o goodwill de la marca. Es un instrumento que les permite a los empresarios su actuación en el mercado y sirve para asegurar que todos los productos o servicios distinguidos con ella tienen el mismo origen empresarial (Bercovitz, 2008, p. 124), así mismo, la marca constituye el control de garantía por la cual una empresa es responsable de la calidad (Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Europea, 2002, C-299/99, p. 10). y permite a su titular organizar su participación en el mercado y la comercialización de sus productos o servicios dentro del mismo (Bercovitz, 2008, p. 125). Por último, la marca es de gran utilidad para la protección de los consumidores, en la medida en que permite identi-ficar y distinguir los diversos productos o servicios que se ofrecen, posibilitando así la elección entre ellos (Bercovitz, 2008, p. 125). En este sentido, la reputación que genera la marca es una herramienta del mercado para evitar las ineficiencias causadas por la asimetría de la información entre consumidores y productores, así, esta busca el buen funcionamiento del mercado mediante la transparencia de la información y, por lo tanto, logra una competencia leal. Dadas las anteriores características, el titular de la marca adquiere una posición jurídica cuyo contenido esencial es el derecho exclusivo sobre la marca (Galán, 2008, p. 532). Sobre el particular, la can establece que: El registro de una marca confiere a su titular el derecho de impedir a cualquier tercero realizar, sin su consentimiento, los siguiente actos: a) aplicar o colocar la marca o un signo distintivo idéntico o semejante sobre productos para los cuales se ha registrado la marca […], b) suprimir o modificar la marca con fines comerciales, después de que se hubiese aplicado o colocado sobre los productos para los cuales se ha registrado la marca […]; c) fabricar materiales que reproduzcan o contengan la marca, así como comercializar o detentar tales materiales […], d) usar en el comercio un signo idéntico o similar a la marca respecto de cualesquiera productos o servicios, cuando tal uso pudiese causar confusión o un riesgo de asociación con el titular del registro […], e) usar en el comercio un signo idéntico o similar a una marca notoriamente conocida respecto de cualesquiera productos o servicios, cuando ello pudiese causar al titular del registro un daño económico o comercial injusto por razón de una dilución de la fuerza distintiva o del valor comercial o publicitario de la marca, o por razón de un aprovechamiento injusto del prestigio de la marca o de su titular, entre otros. (Decisión 486, 2000 art. 155) El derecho conferido por la can, así como la mayoría de ordenamientos, hace referencia a la vertiente negativa del derecho de marca ius prohibendi, ya que la marca es un bien inmaterial en el que cabe la utilización y posesión simultá-nea por otros, por lo cual, para crear una escasez artificial es esencial que se reconozca la prohibición de utilización de la marca a terceros. De esta manera, el titular de la marca tiene derecho le-gítimo a su uso, a introducir, comercializar, publicitar, importar, exportar, almacenar, transportar o vender los productos o servicios identificados con la marca en el mercado (Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio, 2008, p. 33) y autorizar a un tercero a usar la marca a través de las licencias. Sin embargo, el derecho del titular de la marca no es absoluto (Concepto 02007889, 2002, párr.19), ya que el derecho de exclusividad supone una restricción al libre comercio. El derecho de exclusión otorgado al titular no tiene como finalidad prohibir todos los usos de la marca, sino limitar los actos o los usos de la marca susceptibles a causar confusión en el público, por lo tanto, cuando no hay riesgo de confusión, no hay acto de infracción de marca (De las Heras, 1994, p. 113). En consecuencia: Una vez la marca ha cumplido su función no puede tolerarse el mantenimiento de aquellos derechos, ya que ello supondría permitir al titular de la marca controlar, de forma injustificada y en contra de los principios competitivos, la ulterior comercialización de los productos realizada al amparo de aquel derecho exclusivo. (Fernández, 1990, p. 171) Por consiguiente, el titular de la marca tiene un monopolio de decisión sobre la forma, modo de comercialización, cantidad, precio, calidad características esenciales, etc., otorgado por el derecho exclusivo de la marca, hasta la primera venta del producto. Pero una vez comercializado el producto, el titular pierde el control sobre las sucesivas comercializaciones, a menos que venda directamente el producto al consumidor final o lo haga mediante canales de distribución (Martin, 2001, p. 72). Es necesario señalar que mientras el mercado común se basa en la libre circulación de mercancías, el derecho de marca, restringe esa libertad de circulación y competencia al reconocer el derecho del titular de la marca a oponerse a la comercialización ulterior de los productos contraseñados con la marca. En este sentido, el derecho de marca y la libre circulación de mercancías son opuestos. No obstante, el principio de agotamiento del derecho de marca permite conciliar los intereses del titular de la marca y del público contra los actos de confusión, así como de los importadores paralelos. De esta manera, la función de la marca cumple un doble papel en la libre competencia. Por una parte la restringe, al excluir a los demás de participar en una actividad económi-ca específica, y por la otra, favorece la actividad competitiva (Parra, 2002, p. 23). Por lo anterior, las normas sobre defensa de la libre compe-tencia, respecto a las marcas, han buscado no solo impedir las restricciones a la libertad de competencia sino también Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 44 45 las restricciones al principio de libre circulación (Roncero, 1999, p. 351). El Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Económica Europea (tjcee) sostiene que el titular de la marca tiene el derecho exclusivo sobre la primera comercia-lización del producto, protegiéndolo de competidores que pretendan abusar de la posición y del prestigio de la marca vendiendo productos designados indebidamente con ella (Asunto 17/74, 1974, p. 486). Pero una vez cumplidos los fines esenciales de la marca, el titular del derecho no puede limitar la libre circulación de las mercancías invocando este derecho (Roncero, 1999, p. 353). Si no se agota el derecho exclusivo del titular de la marca después de la primera comercialización, se generaría un obstáculo a la libre circulación de mercancías y con ello a la libre competencia en la distribución, ya que el titular podría invocar el ius prohibendi para oponerse a cualquier comercialización ulterior del producto, aun cuando no esté justificado. Además, como lo señala el tjcee, el titular de la marca tendría la posibilidad de compartimentar los mercados nacionales, dando lugar con ello a una restricción en el comercio entre los Estados miembros, sin que dicha restricción sea necesaria para garantizar el contenido del derecho exclusivo derivado de la marca (Asunto 17/74, 1974, p. 486 ). En definitiva, puede decirse que la regla del agotamiento constituye una norma promotora de la libre competencia insertada en la legislación de propiedad intelectual y, en particular, en la legislación marcaria, para limitar (o de-limitar) el alcance del derecho exclusivo en pro de la libre competencia en el sector de la distribución de mercancías. Ante la creciente expansión de redes de distribución con-troladas por el fabricante o licenciatarios de su marca, el agotamiento se muestra como un engranaje fundamental para facilitar el comercio paralelo o mercados grises en el sector de la distribución comercial; siempre que con ello no se afecte negativamente las funciones esenciales de la marca, los intereses del titular de la misma ni de los con-sumidores o usuarios en la capacidad de elección libre de las opciones que se ponen a su disposición en el mercado. El sistema de marcas es un instrumento destinado a pro-mover la libre competencia: la marca es un instrumento para competir. Su función esencial es permitir identificar los productos y permitir que los consumidores se informen. En este sentido, el derecho otorgado por la marca no tiene como fin que el titular de la marca controle la posterior distribución de las mercancías ni busca restringir la libre competencia (Martin, 2001, p. 73). Sin embargo, así como el derecho exclusivo de la marca no es absoluto, el agotamiento tampoco lo es, ya que este no se aplica cuando existen motivos legítimos que justifiquen que el titular se oponga a la comercialización ulterior de los productos. Esta excepción al agotamiento de marca se justifica en la medida en que se busca salvaguardar las funciones del signo. Por lo tanto, el titular de la marca podrá oponerse a la co-mercialización del producto contraseñado una vez agotado su derecho cuando exista el riesgo de crear confusión en el público acerca de las características esenciales del producto o de su origen empresarial (Martin, 2001, p. 73). Si el ti-tular de la marca no pudiera imponer su ius prohibendi en los casos en los que se realicen actos que puedan generar confusión en el público, no solo se estarían vulnerando los derechos de los consumidores, sino que no se protegería la lealtad de la competencia en el mercado. La can ha incluido en su legislación de marcas la posibi-lidad de que el titular de la marca se oponga a la posterior comercialización de los productos contraseñados, aunque, como veremos, poco se han desarrollado estas excepciones. 3. Clases de agotamiento de derecho de marca Existen tres regímenes de agotamiento del derecho de marca: el agotamiento nacional, el comunitario y el inter-nacional. Cada uno de ellos genera posiciones distintas del titular de marca frente a importadores paralelos. El agotamiento nacional se produce cuando el producto es comercializado por primera vez por el titular de la marca o por un tercero con su consentimiento en el mercado nacio-nal. Así, el agotamiento del derecho está supeditado a que la primera comercialización se haya producido dentro del país. Esta opción es adoptada en aras de la unidad del mer-cado nacional y del libre comercio interior (De las Heras, 1994, p. 26) y ha sido implementada por países como Brasil. El agotamiento comunitario se origina cuando el producto es comercializado por primera vez por el titular de la mar-ca o por un tercero con su consentimiento en el mercado comunitario o regional. En este caso, el agotamiento del derecho supone como requisito que la primera comer-cialización del mismo se produzca dentro del mercado comunitario o regional. Este régimen tiene como objetivo el fortalecimiento y la libertad de comercio en el mercado común (De las Heras, 1994, p. 26), y supone la creación de una barrera al comer-cio internacional (Martin, 2001, p. 31). De esta manera, se configura el "agotamiento comunitario como excluyente del agotamiento internacional" (Ruiz, 2005, p. 353). La Unión Europea (ue) es, por excelencia, el representante de esta clase de agotamiento. Finalmente, el agotamiento internacional se produce cuan-do el producto es comercializado por el titular de la marca o por un tercero con su consentimiento en cualquier país, es decir, en el mercado nacional, comunitario o regional, o en un mercado extranjero. El agotamiento internacional signi-fica "la libertad plena de las importaciones y subsiguientes ventas paralelas de los productos de la marca auténtica en el Estado importador en que esa marca estuviese registrado" (Martin, 2001, p. 27). Este régimen de agotamiento ha sido adoptado por la can y por Estados Unidos. La elección entre el régimen comunitario y el régimen internacional ha generado varios debates en la ue. Diversos han sido los argumentos que se han señalado para mante-ner el régimen comunitario del agotamiento del derecho de marca, entre ellos que la adopción del agotamiento internacional haría que las compañías europeas tuvieran que enfrentarse a una competencia en desventaja, ya que el proceso de integración no ha ocurrido todavía en el ámbito mundial. Sobre el particular, el Comité Económico y Social Europeo emitió un dictamen sobre el agotamiento de los derechos conferidos por la marca. En el documento se sostiene que el régimen actual mantiene una cierta calidad de los productos y unos servicios postventa, características que los importa-dores paralelos no proveen a los consumidores europeos. Así mismo se señala que un cambio de régimen a largo plazo podría inhibir la inversión en nuevos productos o hacer que marcas registradas retirasen productos ya es-tablecidos en el mercado ante la falta de competitividad con los productos importados. También establece las grandes diferencias en materia de normas socio-laborales, administrativas y medio ambientales entre la ue y aquellos países en los que los importadores paralelos se proveen de los productos. Sostiene que el agotamiento comunitario garantiza que los consumidores europeos cuenten con la disponibilidad de los productos en todas sus posibilidades y gamas; y que un régimen de agotamiento internacional puede favorecer el aumento de productos falsificados en la ue, lo que generaría un efecto negativo sobre el crecimiento económico europeo (2001/C 123/05, 2001, pp. 31-32). De acuerdo con el dictamen, los aspectos positivos del agotamiento del derecho internacional referente a la dismi-nución de los precios en beneficio de los consumidores son contrarrestados por la consideración de que la introducción de nuevas tecnologías genera que los consumidores puedan acceder a una gran variedad de productos a precios más bajos (2001/C 123/05, 2001, p. 32 ). Respecto al comercio con terceros países ha señalado que no se puede comparar la integración europea y el esfuerzo por terminar con las barreras que impiden la libre circula-ción de mercancías con otros procesos, además, dado que las compañías europeas que compiten en un mercado global tienen que enfrentarse a compañías con costes bastante más bajos a los europeos en materia de producción, el régimen de agotamiento comunitario defiende de alguna manera a estas compañías, así como a las compañías no europeas que trabajan en el mercado único. Algunos autores indican que "el agotamiento comunitario no solo no beneficia a las empresas de la ue, sino que las perjudica" (Fernández, 2005, p. 32), ya que se ven discri-minadas en la medida en que las empresas comunitarias que fabrican en países comunitarios ven agotado su derecho de marca con la primera comercialización del producto en países comunitarios (De las Heras, 1994, p. 35). También se ha dicho que las empresas importadoras comuni-tarias se ven afectadas en la medida en que las importaciones de productos auténticos comercializados por el titular de la marca o con su consentimiento en terceros Estados pueden ser impedidas por el titular de la marca. Igualmente, los consumidores se ven afectados, ya que no pueden disfrutar del aumento de la competencia y, por ende, de la disminución de precios y el aumento de la oferta. 4. Agotamiento del derecho de marca e importaciones paralelas El agotamiento del derecho de marca está íntimamente relacionado con las denominadas importaciones paralelas (Fernández, 2005, p. 1) o, en términos más generales, el comercio paralelo o comercio gris. Este último se produce cuando el precio en un país exportador es más bajo que en el país importador, de tal manera que los comerciantes parale-los aprovechan la diferencia de precios y ofrecen los produc-tos importados, a precios más bajos, en el país exportador. Estos dos temas adquieren relevancia debido a la supresión de barreras al comercio, suscritas tanto en los mercados comunes como en los tratados de libre comercio (tlc) suscritos de manera bilateral y multilateral. Así, la apertura de los mercados facilita la libre circulación de bienes, no obstante, "también aumenta la producción y distribución de falsificaciones de los productos originales de la marca" (Fernández, 2005, p. 4), lo que permite la aparición del mercado gris. Como lo señalan los análisis de distintos autores (Fernán-dez, 2005, p. 3), en el agotamiento del derecho y de las importaciones paralelas entran en conflicto los intereses Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 46 47 de varios agentes del mercado. Por una parte, el titular de la marca busca impedir las importaciones paralelas, no solo para conseguir vender a precios más altos, sino para evitar que esas importaciones infrinjan sus intereses legítimos en la medida en que las modificaciones o alteraciones a los productos, para facilitar su introducción en el mercado importador, menoscaban la reputación de la marca o per-judican la garantía de origen. Los consumidores, por otro lado, se ven beneficiados en la medida en que el libre comercio aumenta el número de productos entre los que puede elegir, y genera un aumento de competencia que disminuye los precios, ya que estos se acercan al coste marginal (Mankiw, 2008, p. 241). Por con-siguiente, se han buscado mecanismos que equilibren tanto los derechos del titular de la marca como los de los consu-midores, facilitando así la libre circulación de mercancías. 5. Agotamiento del derecho de marca en la can La búsqueda de integración de Bolivia, Ecuador, Colom-bia, Perú y Chile se llevó a cabo mediante el Acuerdo de Cartagena (ac), suscrito en el año 1969, acuerdo que tiene como objetivo promover el desarrollo de los países miem-bros mediante la integración y la cooperación económica y social, con miras a la formación gradual de un mercado común latinoamericano. De esta manera, la can, conocida en ese entonces como el Pacto Andino, se puso en marcha. En 1973 Venezuela se adhirió al acuerdo y se retiró en 2006, así mismo, en 1976 Chile abandono la can. Uno de los objetivos para llevar a cabo esta integración fue el programa de liberación, que tiene por objeto "eli-minar los gravámenes y las restricciones de todo orden que incidan sobre la importación de productos originarios del territorio de cualquier país miembro" (Decisión 563, 2003, art. 72). Más adelante surgieron otros intentos, tales como el acta de La Paz, firmada en 1990, que tenía entre sus objetivos conformar una zona de libre comercio al 31 de diciembre de 1991 mediante la aceleración del programa de liberali-zación para la desgravación automática; y el acta de Bara-hona, firmada en 1991, que establecía el funcionamiento de la zona de libre comercio a partir de 1992, que empezó a funcionar finalmente a partir de 1993. En materia de propiedad industrial, la can se ha pronun-ciado mediante la Decisión 85 de 1974, que fue reem-plazada por la Decisión 313 de Régimen Común sobre Propiedad Industrial, en el año 1991. Actualmente rige la Decisión 486 del 1.° de diciembre de 2000, por medio de la cual se adopta el nuevo Régimen Común sobre Propiedad Industrial. Tal como lo afirma Rubio (1996), citado por Parra (2002, p. 24), en función del libre comercio, la Decisión 486 del 1.° de diciembre de 2000 utiliza, entre otros mecanismos, el agotamiento del derecho de marca y la admisión de las im-portaciones paralelas "para garantizar que el ejercicio de los derechos derivados de la propiedad industrial no desborde el límite impuesto por un sistema de libre competencia". La importancia del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la can radica en que es un instrumento que permite consolidar un mercado común. Este precepto adquiere aún más relevancia si se tienen en cuenta el proceso y los esfuerzos adelantados por los países miembros para crear un mercado común en el marco de un proyecto integrador (Basombrio, 2004, p.14) En la can, a diferencia de otros ordenamientos comunita-rios, en especial del eee, el derecho que otorga el registro de la marca se limita al territorio en el que se otorga la respectiva concesión, y esta no puede extenderse más allá del territorio del respectivo Estado (Concepto 02065886, 2002, párr.2). Esta interpretación se desprende de lo establecido en el artículo 154 de la Decisión 486 (2000), que señala que el derecho al uso exclusivo de una marca se adquirirá por el registro de la misma ante la respectiva oficina nacional competente. Respecto al comercio paralelo, los países miembros de la can lo han señalado como "una consecuencia lógica de economías liberalizadas", y que por lo tanto han reconoci-do que ese tema "va a adquirir mayor importancia con el aumento del tráfico de mercancías entre Estados" (Organi-zación Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual, 2002, p. 15). Aun cuando su importancia es evidente, el desarrollo de los supuestos en los cuales se produce el agotamiento, así como las excepciones que le permiten al titular oponerse a la comercialización de los productos contraseñados, no han sido tan desarrollados como en el eee. Como lo indica Lombeyda (2013, p. 192) el tjca no se ha pronunciado frente al agotamiento del derecho de mar-ca, únicamente ha realizado breves referencias al tema. Igualmente, la doctrina andina se ha limitado a un aná-lisis superficial, aun cuando la importancia del desarrollo de supuestos en los cuales se produce el agotamiento, así como las excepciones que permiten al titular oponerse a la comercialización de los productos contraseñados, es evidente, lo que indica que el grado de integración de los países miembros es todavía incipiente. Finalmente, cabe resaltar que los países miembros de la can señalan tres consecuencias específicas del comercio paralelo generado por la adopción del agotamiento inter-nacional del derecho de marca. Para el titular de la marca, es relevante Cuando existe una diferencia de precios sustancial […], ya que en ese momento es que a él le interesaría obtener una compensación del importador paralelo. Para los consumidores implica un aumento de la oferta del producto original, una competencia de precios y una disminución de los precios, así como fuentes alternativas de obtención. Para el sistema de libre empresa, entre los beneficios reconocidos se encuentran el fomento a competencia, una mejor satisfacción de la demanda y el incremento de la oferta. (Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual, 2002, p. 15) 6. Requisitos para el agotamiento del derecho de marca Para que se configure el agotamiento del derecho de marca en la can existen unos requisitos específicos, a saber, pro-ductos introducidos en el comercio (requisito objetivo), por el titular o por un tercero con su consentimiento (requisito subjetivo) y, dado que el agotamiento es internacional, esta introducción puede llevarse a cabo en cualquier país. Requisito objetivo: productos introducidos en el comercio Como requisito objetivo, la legislación comunitaria andina indica que el agotamiento del derecho de marca se da una vez los productos hayan sido introducidos en el comercio por el titular del registro o por otra persona con consenti-miento del titular o económicamente vinculada a él. Nótese que, a diferencia del agotamiento comunitario europeo, la can no utiliza el término "comercialización", sino que utiliza la introducción en el comercio para referirse al requisito objetivo. Por lo tanto, surge el debate acerca de si la introducción de productos en el comercio hace referencia a los actos asociados a la comercialización, por ejemplo la importación de productos sin que estos hayan sido comercializados, o si, por el contrario, la introducción en el comercio se entiende en el sentido restringido de la comercialización de los mismos. La elección de uno u otro concepto es determinante, ya que sus diferencias y sus efectos en la aplicación del ius prohi-bendi por parte del titular de la marca son distintos. Si se acepta la introducción de un producto en el comercio como la importación de mercancías con la intención de vender el producto, sin que este llegue a venderse, por ejemplo guardar una cantidad de un producto contraseñado con una marca en un almacén o en un depósito, habría lugar al agotamiento del derecho inmediatamente estos productos fueran importados; mientras que si la introducción de un producto en el comercio se entiende como la comerciali-zación del mismo, se estaría haciendo una interpretación semejante a la que hace el tjce, en el sentido de que la intención de vender un producto no transmite al tercero el derecho de disponer de los productos designados con la marca y no le permite al titular hacer efectivo el valor. Por lo tanto, el agotamiento del derecho se daría únicamente con la venta del mismo. En este sentido, la ompi aclara que cuando se hace refe-rencia a la introducción en el mercado de los productos o servicios identificados con la marca, no solo se alude exclusivamente a la comercialización, sino que también se incluyen aquellas actividades preparatorias o conectadas con la comercialización (Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual, 2002, p. 7). Por lo tanto, el ago-tamiento del derecho de la marca en la can, a diferencia de las condiciones que plantea el legislador de la ue, no se restringe a la comercialización, sino que se amplía a todo su proceso (Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual, 2002, p. 7) Requisito territorial: cualquier país A diferencia de la ue, que señala como requisito previo al agotamiento del derecho de marca la comercialización por primera vez de los productos en el eee, la can apunta al agotamiento de marca internacional. Esta interpretación se desprende del hecho de que el artículo 158 de la Decisión 486 se refiere al agotamiento del derecho de marca después de que ese producto se hubiese introducido en el comercio en cualquier país. El tjca afirmó el agotamiento de marca internacional al señalar en la interpretación prejudicial que el agotamiento del derecho de marca está exceptuado de territorialidad (Proceso 17-IP-98, 1998, pp. 9-10 ). Así mismo, en el seminario de la ompi para los países andinos sobre la observancia de los derechos de propiedad intelectual en la frontera, dispone que, de acuerdo con el alcance territorial, el agotamiento adoptado por la can es el internacional, ya que con la primera comercialización de los productos identificados con la marca en un mercado extranjero se configura la limitación. "Significa la plena libertad de las subsiguientes ventas de los productos identificados con la marca auténtica tanto fuera como dentro del país en que se encuentra registrada, una vez su titular la ha comercializa-do en cualquier lugar del mundo" (Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual, 2010, p. 14). Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 48 49 Requisito subjetivo: consentimiento del titular El agotamiento del derecho exclusivo de marca se da en virtud de la facultad que tiene el titular de la marca de comerciar esos productos o servicios con identificación de su marca, así en la faceta negativa esa facultad se traduce en la prohibición que puede lograr el titular para que terceros vendan productos o suministren servicios bajo el amparo de un signo igual o similar (Proceso 66-IP-2000, 2000, p. 7). De esta manera, la condición para el agotamiento del derecho de marca es que el producto haya sido puesto en el comercio por el titular o por un tercero, con el consen-timiento o económicamente vinculado a él (Decisión 486, 2000 art. 158). El consentimiento dado por el titular de la marca puede ser explicito, implícito o tácito. El consentimiento expreso se desarrolla a través del otorgamiento de una licencia sobre la marca. El consentimiento implícito se produce cuando el producto es comercializado por agentes o representantes autorizados o por filiales del fabricante que registran la marca a su nombre en los países donde se va a producir la comercialización por parte de la filial (Carbajo, 2009, p. 150). En este caso, la actuación fiduciaria no le permite al titular oponerse a su posterior comercialización. Por lo tanto, es fundamental aclarar qué tipo de consentimiento adopta, es decir, si este consentimiento debe ser expreso, implícito o tácito, en especial en cuestiones referentes a las importaciones paralelas y a la distribución selectiva. La interpretación prejudicial del tjca dispone en varios procesos que, conforme al sistema andino, la única forma de adquirir el derecho al uso exclusivo de la marca es por medio del registro, el cual le permite a su titular ejercer el ius prohibendi para impedir que terceros utilicen su mar-ca, sin su expreso consentimiento, en bienes o servicios idénticos o similares, a tal extremo que pueda causarle confusión al consumidor, que es a quien protege, en esen-cia, el derecho marcario. En este sentido, la interpretación prejudicial apunta a que la condición del agotamiento del derecho de marca está sujeta al consentimiento explícito por parte del titular (Proceso 33-IP-2000, 2000, Proceso 116-IP-2004, 2004). Es necesario hacer referencia a las importaciones paralelas para determinar si el titular de una marca puede impedir que terceros importen un producto originalmente marcado cuando estos productos han sido producidos o introduci-dos en el mercado extranjero por él mismo o por personas vinculadas económicamente a él. Este debate responde a la tensión que existe entre el reconocimiento del derecho exclusivo de marca, que se circunscribe al ámbito nacional, y el alcance del agotamiento del derecho de marca, que obedece al terreno internacional. 7. Excepciones al agotamiento de marca La legislación andina ha determinado excepciones al ago-tamiento del derecho de marca. Al respecto señala que: El registro de una marca no dará el derecho de impedir a un tercero realizar actos de comercio respecto de un producto protegido por dicho registro, en particular cuando los productos y los envases o embalajes que estuviesen en contacto directo con ellos no hubiesen sufrido ninguna modificación, alteración o deterioro. (Decisión 486, 2000, art. 158) De lo anterior se puede deducir que una vez que se ha agotado el derecho, en los casos en los que el producto y envase o embalaje que estuviese en contacto directo con él hubiese sufrido alguna modificación, alteración o deterio-ro, el titular puede invocar su ius prohibendi para oponerse a la ulterior comercialización del producto contraseñado con la marca. Sin embargo, este no es el único caso en el que el titular de la marca puede invocar ius prohibendi una vez agotado el derecho, ya que el legislador, al decir "en particular", acepta que existen otras situaciones en las se puede permitir que el titular de la maca se oponga a su comercialización. Las excepciones al agotamiento del derecho de marca son importantes, en la medida en que favorecen que la marca cumpla su función esencial, es decir, que sirvan como indicadora del origen empresarial. Como se vio antes, aunque estas excepciones suponen una restricción al libre comercio, son necesarias en la medida en que fomentan la libre competencia y evitan la competencia desleal. Siguiendo lo dispuesto en la ue en cuanto a las excepciones al agotamiento de marca, haremos referencia a la altera-ción de los productos y al menoscabo de la reputación de la marca como causas por las cuales el titular de la marca puede invocar su ius prohibendi. Respecto a la modifica-ción de los productos, la Secretaria General de la can ha dispuesto que, si bien es cierto que el registro de una marca no le concede a su "titular el derecho de impedir a un tercero realizar actos de comercio respecto del producto protegido por dicho registro, ello está permitido, si y sólo si estos productos no hubiesen sufrido ninguna modificación, alteración o deterioro" (Resolución 590, 2002, p. 2). Es decir, el ordenamiento jurídico de la can prohíbe de manera expresa que los productos protegidos por una marca puedan ser modificados y comercializados, lo que consti-tuye una de las situaciones en las que el titular del derecho puede oponerse a la ulterior comercialización del mismo una vez se hayan dado las condiciones para el agotamiento del derecho. Ahora bien, el tjca no se ha pronunciado sobre los casos en los que estas modificaciones son necesarias para que el importador paralelo pueda acceder a los mercados de los países miembros. Sobre el particular, si llegase a realizar una interpretación similar a la sostenida por el tjce, en cuanto a las condiciones para el reetiquetado, reenvasado y sustitución de la marca, las restricciones sobre el comercio serían las mínimas posibles, ya que permitirían la modifi-cación de los productos (fomentando el libre comercio) y, al mismo tiempo, impondrían una serie de requisitos que garantizan la función esencial de la marca, con lo que se protege tanto a los consumidores como a los titulares de la marca de los actos de competencia desleal. Por otra parte, si opta por hacer una interpretación contraria, en la que no llegase a permitir ninguna alteración o modificación a los productos, estas medidas supondrían restricciones aún mayores al libre comercio en el mercado común. En cuanto al menoscabo de la reputación de la marca como excepción al agotamiento del derecho de marca, el tjca no se ha pronunciado. Sin embargo, es posible analizar en parte esta cuestión a la luz de la función esencial del derecho de marca. El tjca, mediante interpretación preju-dicial, ha determinado que "la finalidad que persiguen las acciones derivadas del ius prohibendi está dirigida a evitar que el doble uso de una marca idéntica o similar introduzca confusión en el mercado" (Proceso 11-IP-96, 1997, p. 34). La interpretación que hace la ompi en este sentido señala que el titular de la marca recobra su derecho de prohibir a terceros que realicen actos de uso de la marca que sean susceptibles de confundir al público consumidor sobre la verdadera procedencia empresarial del producto. Por lo anterior, en principio parece válido aceptar que el menoscabo a la reputación de una marca en la can consti-tuiría una excepción al agotamiento del derecho de marca, sin embargo, el tema no ha sido debatido por el bloque económico andino, entre otros factores porque allí no se ha desarrollado un mercado de productos de lujo y de prestigio tan ampliamente como en el mercado comunitario europeo. 8. Legislación interna y autoridad nacional competente El artículo 276 de la Decisión 486 señala que los países miembros de la can pueden regular aquellos asuntos no comprendidos en ella. El tjca, mediante interpretación prejudicial, ha concluido al respecto que los alcances de la regulación interna deben estar "inscritos en la filoso-fía y armonía jurídica que deben guardar con la norma comunitaria siempre prevaleciente" (Proceso 10-IP-94, 1995, p. 19). De esta manera, las disposiciones internas de los países miembros de la can en materia de agotamiento del derecho de marca solamente pueden reglamentar los vacíos o temas no tratados en la Decisión 486. En este sentido, en cada país andino hay una oficina nacio-nal competente y una autoridad nacional competente. La primera hace referencia al órgano administrativo encargado del registro de la propiedad industrial, mientras que la autoridad nacional competente es el órgano designado al efecto por la legislación nacional sobre la materia (Decisión 486, art. 273) Bolivia: Servicio Nacional de Propiedad Intelectual La oficina nacional competente en Bolivia es el Servicio Nacional de Propiedad Intelectual (Senapi). Fue creada por la Ley 1788 de 1997 y su misión es administrar en forma desconcentrada e integral el régimen de la propiedad intelectual en todos sus componentes (Decreto Supremo 28152, arts. 3 y 4). Para cumplir las funciones que le atribuye la ley, el Senapi cuenta con direcciones técnicas que se encargan de la evaluación y el procesamiento de las solicitudes de dere-chos de propiedad intelectual. La Dirección de Propiedad Intelectual, en particular, es la encargada de velar por el cumplimiento de las leyes, reglamentos, decretos, resolu-ciones, convenios, acuerdos internacionales y decisiones en materia de marcas y otros signos distintivos (Decreto Supremo 28152, art. 1 y 16). La ley reglamentaria de marcas, de 15 de enero de 1918, es la norma nacional que regula temas tales como los propietarios de marcas y de su registro de extinción, y las formalidades para el registro de marcas. Colombia: Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio Para Colombia, la oficina competente es la Superinten-dencia de Industria y Comercio (sic). El artículo 1.° del Decreto 2153 de 30 de diciembre de 1992 la define como "un organismo de carácter técnico, adscrito al Ministerio de Desarrollo Económico, que goza de autonomía admi-nistrativa, financiera y presupuestal". Su estructura fue reestructurada mediante el Decreto 4886 de diciembre 23 de 2011. Entre las funciones de este organismo, y que se relacionan con el agotamiento de derecho de marca, se encuentran: Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 50 51 62. Administrar el Sistema Nacional de la Propiedad Industrial y tramitar y decidir los asuntos relacionados con la misma. 63. Expedir las regulaciones que conforme a las normas supranacionales corresponden a la oficina nacional competente de propiedad industrial. 64. Impartir instrucciones en materia […] propiedad industrial […] y señalar los procedimientos para su cabal aplicación. (Decreto 4886, art.1) La legislación interna en materia de propiedad intelectual ha sido desarrollada por el Decreto 2591 de 2000, que reglamenta la Decisión 486. En este decreto se regulan, entre otros, las marcas y diseños industriales. En cuanto al agotamiento del derecho de marca, la Superintendencia no lo reglamenta en su derecho interno, por el contrario, sus conceptos y resoluciones se refieren al artículo 158 de la Decisión 486 y a las interpretaciones prejudiciales que realiza el tjca. Así, la doctrina colombiana se ha referido al agotamiento del derecho exclusivo de marca en el concepto 02007889 del 04 de abril de 2002. En especial, ha señalado que res-pecto a las importaciones paralelas: Un licenciatario con pacto de exclusividad sobre el uso de un signo puede verse eventualmente afectado con ocasión de la importación paralela y lícita por parte de terceros, de productos marcados con el signo objeto de la licencia. En este evento, tales productos en principio ingresarían al mercado local provenientes no directamente de operaciones de exportación realizadas por el licenciante, sino de operaciones de exportación realizadas por personas distintas del mismo, a partir de otros mercados donde los productos de este se encontraran. (párr. 26) Ecuador: Instituto Ecuatoriano de Propiedad Intelectual En Ecuador la oficina competente es el Instituto Ecuato-riano de Propiedad Intelectual (iepi). Creado por la Ley de Propiedad Intelectual en 1998, el iepi es "el organismo administrativo competente para propiciar, promover, fomentar, prevenir, proteger y defender, a nombre del Estado ecuatoriano, los derechos de propiedad intelectual […]" (art.3). Para cumplir las funciones asignadas, el iepi cuenta con la Dirección Nacional de Propiedad Industrial, que tiene en-tre sus funciones administrar los procesos de otorgamiento, registro o depósito, marcas, y administrar en materia de propiedad industrial los demás procesos administrativos contemplados en la ley (Ley de Propiedad Intelectual Codificada, art. 347 y 359). A diferencia de países como Colombia y Bolivia, que no hacen una trasposición a la legislación interna del agota-miento del derecho marca, Ecuador, mediante la Ley de Propiedad Intelectual, en su versión codificada, hace refe-rencia a la limitación del derecho que confiere el registro de marca para prohibir la ulterior comercialización de los productos: El derecho conferido por el registro de la marca no concede a su titular la posibilidad de prohibir el ingreso al país de productos marcados por dicho titular, su licenciatario o alguna otra persona autorizada para ello, que hubiesen sido vendidos o de otro modo introducidos lícitamente en el comercio nacional de cualquier país. (art. 219) Perú: Instituto Nacional de Defensa de la Competencia y de la Protección de la Propiedad Intelectual La oficina competente en la Republica de Perú es Instituto Nacional de Defensa de la Competencia y de la Protección de la Propiedad Intelectual (Indecopi). Creado por el Decreto Ley 25868, tiene entre sus funciones administrar el sistema de otorgamiento y protección de los derechos de propiedad intelectual en todas sus manifestaciones, conforme a lo previsto por la ley (Decreto Legislativo 1033, art. 2). El Indecopi cuenta con la Dirección de Signos Distintivos, que tiene como función, entre otras, proteger los derechos otorgados sobre marcas; así, puede otorgar, reconocer o limitar tales derechos luego de un debido procedimiento (Decreto Legislativo 1033, arts. 42 y 36). La Ley de Propiedad Industrial regula el tema referente a las marcas, así mismo, en el Decreto Legislativo 1075, de 27 de junio de 2008, se señalan disposiciones comple-mentarias a la Decisión 486, entre ellas, las relativas al registro de marcas. Sin embargo, este no hace referencia al agotamiento del derecho de marca, por lo que la legislación peruana no hace una trasposición interna del artículo 158 de la Decisión 486. 9. Conclusiones En referencia al agotamiento del derecho de marca en Su-ramérica, este ha sido desarrollado por los dos principales bloques económicos en la región: la can y el Mercosur, con el fin de fomentar el libre comercio. En este sentido, aunque las principales jurisprudencias han establecido el mismo límite al derecho de marca, han surgido diferencias respecto a su extensión y excepciones. Así pues, de los bloques económicos en Suramérica, la can es la que más ha profundizado en el tema, al imple-mentar una legislación armonizada para todos los países miembros. Frente a lo desarrollado por este bloque, son varios los puntos que hay que analizar. La primera cuestión es si el régimen adoptado por la can realmente aporta a los objetivos de fortalecimiento del mercado común, toda vez que hasta el momento estos bloques económicos no se han consolidado debido a las diferencias que afrontan sus países miembros. La can ha optado por el régimen internacional del ago-tamiento del derecho de marca y, dado que este bloque económico no ha alcanzado un alto grado de consolidación, es debatible que lo haya adoptado, puesto que el régimen comunitario brinda mayor fortalecimiento y consolidación del mercado común. En ese sentido, fomentan en mayor medida los objetivos de señalados en el ac, tales como la integración económica, la formación gradual de un mer-cado común latinoamericano, la disminución de la vulne-rabilidad externa y el mejoramiento de la posición de los países miembros en el contexto económico internacional. El agotamiento internacional, por su parte, sitúa en posi-ción de desventaja a las empresas de los países de la can frente a empresas de otros bloques económicos o países que adoptan el agotamiento comunitario o nacional. Aunque algunos autores han resaltado los efectos positivos que el agotamiento internacional tiene frente al agota-miento comunitario, no son claras las razones que llevaron al legislador andino a adoptar este régimen. Lo anterior da lugar al planteamiento de que si lo que se buscaba era fortalecer el mercado común y el libre comercio intracomu-nitario, optar por el agotamiento comunitario hubiera sido una mejor opción, en la medida en que permite proteger la economía, las inversiones nacionales o comunitarias e impulsaría el comercio entre los países miembros. Por otra parte, el tjca ha interpretado la normatividad andina del agotamiento del derecho de marca en algunos aspectos, entre ellos, lo que se entiende por introducción en el comercio, respecto del cual se contemplan los actos de comercio y no únicamente la comercialización, a diferencia del agotamiento de marca en el eee. La Decisión 486, por medio de la cual se determinan el Régimen Común sobre Propiedad Industrial en la Comu-nidad Andina y las demás normas que la rigen, solo puede ser interpretada por el tjca, ya que es el único órgano competente, de acuerdo a lo dispuesto en su tratado de creación y, sobre todo, porque con ello se asegura una apli-cación uniforme de las normas en toda la can (Concepto 02031947, 2002, párr. 5). En este sentido se entiende que la decisión es normativa o legislativa. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, es necesario precisar que el tjca no se ha pronunciado acerca de algunos temas específicos del artículo 158 de la Decisión 486 sobre el agotamiento del derecho de marca. Es decir, existen cues-tiones que no han sido objeto de interpretación prejudicial debido a que, hasta el momento, no se han presentado casos o situaciones que así lo requieran en este tema. Entre las cuestiones que se encuentran pendientes por aclarar se encuentra el consentimiento del titular, es decir, si este puede ser tácito o únicamente se acepta un consen-timiento expreso cuando un tercero invoca el agotamiento del derecho de marca. Por otra parte, tampoco ha aclarado si el consentimiento debe referirse a cada ejemplar del producto respecto del cual se invoca el agotamiento, aunque, al parecer, una interpretación semejante a la que hace el tjce sería la solución más viable. Ahora bien, la legislación andina considera que varios pue-den ser los casos en los que una vez agotado el derecho de marca el titular del derecho puede oponerse a su posterior comercialización. Ha manifestado que cuando los produc-tos y los envases o embalajes que estuviesen en contacto directo con ellos hubiesen sufrido alguna modificación, alteración o deterioro, el titular de la marca puede oponerse a los actos de comercio realizados por un tercero. Es decir, la modificación de los productos una vez comercializados le permite al titular del derecho invocar su ius prohibendi para impedir posteriores comercializaciones. Hasta el momento, el tjca no ha se ha referido a alteración de los productos cuando esta se sustente en la necesidad del importador para acceder a los mercados, y tampoco ha he-cho referencia a la reputación de la marca como factor que permita invocar su derecho cuando este se haya agotado. Respecto a este último, además de las consideraciones he-chas, cabe plantearse si el tjca adoptaría una interpretación similar a la que hace el ttjce para el caso específico de la comercialización de productos que gozan de una imagen de prestigio por parte de distribuidores autorizados o comer-ciantes paralelos en aquellos casos en los que la infracción Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 52 53 de las condiciones de comercialización impuestas por parte del titular de la marca producen un menoscabo de la sensación de lujo que emana de los productos. Finalmente, es necesario señalar que en la medida en que avancen en la integración del mercado comunitario andino, estas cuestiones serán desarrolladas por la legislación, ya que son necesarias para garantizar la función de la marca como instrumento para competir y para lograr el correcto funcionamiento del mercado. Referencias bibliográficas Basombrio, I. (2004). Integración andina: instituciones y derecho comunitario. Recuperado de http://www.cepal.org/brasil/ noticias/paginas/2/22962/BASOMBRIO-INTEGRA-CION% 20ANDINA-INSTITUCIONES%20Y%20 DERECHO.pdf Bercovitz, A. (2002). Apuntes de derecho mercantil (13ª ed.). Na-varra: Thomdon Reuters Aranzadi. Bercovitz, A. (2008). Concepto de marca. En Bercovitz, A. (Coord.), Comentarios a la Ley de Marcas (2ª ed.). Thom-son- Aranzadi. Callejon, M. (2001). Economía Industrial. Madrid: Civitas. Carbajo, F. (2009). La distribución selectiva y el comercio paralelo de productos de lujo. Bogotá: Grupo Editorial Ibáñez. Comisión de la Comunidad Andina. (14 de septiembre de 2000). Decisión 486. Recuperado de http://www.comunidadan-dina. org/Normativa.aspx?GruDoc=07 Comisión de la Comunidad Andina. (25 de junio de 2003). Decisión 563. Recuperado de http://www.sice.oas.org/ trade/JUNAC/Decisiones/DEC563S.asp#ACart1 Comisión del Mercado Único y Asuntos Jurídicos. (2001). Audición sobre el agotamiento de los derechos conferidos a las marcas registradas. Recuperado de http://www.europarl. europa.eu/meetdocs/committees/juri/20010410-hearin-g/ 4-ontribution-BeteluBazu-ES.doc Comité Económico y Social Europeo. (2001). Dictamen del Comité Económico y Social sobre el tema "El agotamiento de los derechos conferidos por la marca registrada". Recuperado de http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/ PDF/?uri=CELEX:52001IE0042&from=ES Comunidad Andina. (2004). III Cumbre Presidencial Sudamerica-na Declaración del Cusco sobre la Comunidad Sudamericana de Naciones. Recuperada de http://intranet.comunidadan-dina. org/Documentos/DInformativos/SGdi693.doc Congreso Nacional de la República de Ecuador, Comisión de Le-gislación y Codificación. (2006). Codificación de la Ley de Propiedad Intelectual Codificación 2006-013. Recuperado de http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/es/ec/ec031es.pdf Consejo Presidencial Andino. (1990). Acta de la paz. Recuperado de http://www.comunidadandina.org/documentos/actas/ act30-11-90.htm Declaración de Guadalajara: Cumbre de América Latina, el Caribe y la Unión Europea. Recuperado de http://www.integra-cionsur. com/americalatina/CumbreALatinaEuropaD-clGuadalajara. htm Decreto Supremo 28152. (17 de mayo de 2005). Recuperado de http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=198190 De las Heras, T. (1994). El agotamiento del derecho de marca. Madrid: Montecorvo. Espinoza, K. (s. f.). El acto de confusión como acto de compe-tencia desleal y el riesgo de confusión marcaria como infracción a los derechos de la propiedad industrial. Revista de la Competencia y la Propiedad Intelectual, (5), 121-140. Recuperado de http://servicios.indecopi.gob. pe/revistaCompetencia/castellano/articulos/primave-ra2007/ ESPINOZA.pdf Fernández, C. (1990). Derecho de marcas. Madrid: Montecorvo. Fernández, C. (2001). Tratado sobre derecho de marcas. Madrid: Marcial Pons. Fernández, C., García, A., Framiñan, A. (2007). Jurisprudencia comunitaria sobre marcas. Granada: Comares. Fernández, M. (2005). Los motivos legítimos que impiden el agota-miento del derecho de marca. Granada: Comares. Galán, E. (2008). Derechos conferidos por la marca. En Berco-vitz, A. (Coord.), Comentarios a la Ley de Marcas (2ª ed.). Thomson-Aranzadi. Gorriz, C. (2007). Distribución selectiva y comercio paralelo. Navarra: Civitas. Herrero, M. (2010). La Contratación en el sector de la distribución comercial. 2ª ed. Navarra: Aranzadi. Lombeyda, M. (2013). Tratamiento del agotamiento del derecho sobre la marca en la Comunidad Andina. Iuris Dictio, 15, 191-204. Recuperado de http://www.usfq.edu.ec/ publicaciones/iurisDictio/archivo_de_contenidos/Do-cuments/ IurisDictio_15/iurisdictio_015_010.pdf López, Q. (2006). Instituciones y Derecho de la Comunidad Andina. Valencia: Tirant Lo Blanch / Universidad de la Coruña. Marco, L. (2011). El ámbito territorial del agotamiento del derecho de marca en el ordenamiento comunitario y en el sistema normativo de la Organización Mundial del Comercio. En Galán, C., Carbajo, F. (Coords.), Marcas y distribución comercial (pp. 97-152), Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. Mankiw, G. (2008). Principios de Economía (4ª ed.). Paraninfo. Martin, A. (2001) El llamado comercio paralelo en el derecho mer-cantil europeo. Madrid: Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Martín, P. (2008). Agotamiento del derecho de marca. En Bercovitz, A. (Coord.) Comentarios a la Ley de Marcas (2ª ed.). Thomson-Aranzadi. Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual. (2002). Seminario de la ompi para los países andinos sobre la obser-vancia de los derechos de propiedad intelectual en la frontera. Recuperado de http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/lac/ es/ompi_pi_sem_bog_02/ompi_pi_sem_bog_02_1.pdf Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual. (2010). Reu-nión regional de directores de oficinas de propiedad industrial y de derecho de autor de América Latina. Recuperado de http://www.inapi.cl/portal/prensa/607/articles-1347_re-curso_ 1.pdf Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo. (2008). Directiva 2008/95/ CE. Recuperado de http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-con-tent/ ES/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008L0095&rid=1 Parra, C. (2002). Relación entre propiedad intelectual y de-recho de la competencia: mucho más que asuntos de competencia desleal. Revista La Propiedad Inmaterial, 5. Recuperado de http://portal.uexternado.edu.co/ pdf/5_revistaPropiedadInmaterial/rpi5/revPropieda-dInmaterial05. pdf Presidencia de la República de Perú. (24 de junio de 2008). De-creto Legislativo 1033. Recuperado de http://www.wipo. int/wipolex/es/text.jsp?file_id=195678 Robles, G. (1995). Las marcas en el derecho español. Madrid: Civitas. Roncero, A. (1999). El contrato de licencia de marca. Madrid: Civitas. Ruiz, J. (2005). Agotamiento comunitario de la marca y agota-miento internacional de la doctrina del tjce. En Vilata, S. (Coord.), El papel de la jurisprudencia del tjce en la armoni-zación del derecho europeo. Situación y perspectiva tras cincuenta años (p.p. 353-392). Valencia: Universidad de Valencia. Secretaria General de la Comunidad Andina. (24 de enero de 2002). Resolución 590. Recuperado de http://intranet.comunida-dandina. org/Documentos/Gacetas/GACE755.PDF Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio. (2002). Concepto 02007889. Recuperado de http://www.sic.gov.co/recur-sos_ user/historico/d2011sic8503.htm Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio. (2002). Concepto 02031947. Recuperado de http://www.sic.gov.co/recur-sos_ user/historico/d2011sic8303.htm Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio. (2002). Concepto 02065886. Recuperado de http://www.sic.gov.co/ recursos_user/documentos/conceptos/2002/Agos-to/ 02065886.php Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio. (2008). Marcas. Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo / Superin-tendencia de Industria y Comercio. Bogotá. Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (17 de marzo de 1995). Proceso 10-IP-94. Recuperado de http://intranet.co-munidadandina. org/Documentos/Procesos/10-IP-94.doc Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (29 de agosto de 1997). Proceso 11-IP-96. Recuperado de http://intranet. comunidadandina.org/Documentos/Gacetas/gace299.pdf Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (21 de abril de 1998). Proceso 17-IP-98. Recuperado de http://www. comunidadandina.org/Normativa.aspx?GruDoc=09 Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (31 de mayo de 2000). Proceso 33-IP-2000. (MP Guillermo Chahin Liz-cano). Recuperado de http://intranet.comunidadandina. org/Documentos/Gacetas/gace581.pdf Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (4 de octubre de 2000). Proceso 66-IP-2000. (MP Rubén Herdoiza Mera). Recuperado de http://intranet.comunidadandina.org/ Documentos/Gacetas/GACE613.PDF Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (13 de enero de 2005). Proceso 116-IP-2004 Recuperado de http:// intranet.comunidadandina.org/Documentos/Gacetas/ Gace1172.pdf Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. (16 de noviembre de 2005). Proceso 167-IP-2005. Recuperado de http:// intranet.comunidadandina.org/Documentos/Proce-sos/ 167-IP-2005.doc Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Económica Europea. (31 de octubre de 1974). Asunto 16/74. Recuperado de http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/PDF/?uri=- CELEX:61974CJ0016&from=EN Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 54 55 Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Europea. (23 de abril de 2002). Asunto C- 143/00. Recuperado de http://oami. europa.eu/es/mark/aspects/pdf/JJ000143.pdf Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Europea. (18 de junio de 2002). Asunto C- 299/99. Recuperado de http://oami. europa.eu/es/mark/aspects/pdf/JJ990299.pdf Turienzo, R. (2007). Proceso de integración en Sudamérica. Un proyecto más ambicioso: La Comunidad Sudamericana de Naciones. Recuperado de http://www.idee.ceu.es/access. php?file=/secure/PDF%20WEB%20OK%20Doc%20 n%BA%2027%20Raquel%20Turienzo%20serie%20 Uni%F3n%20Europea%20(IUEE)%20(Docuweb).pdf Uzcategui, M. (s.f.). Exclusividad de la marca y derechos de la libre competencia. Recuperado de http://www.cjp.ula.ve/ gpi/documentos/LIBRECOMPETENCIA.pdf Zuñiga, H. (2014). Jerarquía e interacción de fuentes en el marco del derecho comunitario andino. Revista de Economía y Derecho, 11(41), 7-27. Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55 Conceptualización y análisis del agotamiento del derecho de marca en la Comunidad Andina de Naciones. Laila Katrina del Pilar Rojas Santana, págs 40 - 55

Issue 11.3 of the Review for Religious, 1952. ; A.M.D.G. Reviewfor Religious MAY 15, 1952 Newman: Defender of Mar~y . John A. Hardo~ Custody of-,the Senses " Evereff J. Mibach" The S°acred Heart . ~. ~4;chaoIJ. Lap;e,re ¯ Quinquennial Directive, III . Joseph F. Gallen Questions and Answers Summer SesSions~ Book Reviews VOLUM~ XI NUMBER 3 RI::VI W FOR RI::LIGIOUS VOLUME XI MAY, 1952 NUMBER 3 CONTENTS CARDINAL NEWMAN, APOLOGIST OF OUR LADY-~ J~h~ A. Hardon, S.J . 113 SUMMER SESSIONS . 1 IGNATIANSPIRITUALITY Augustine G. Ellard, S.J . 125 CUSTODY OF THE SENSES--Everett J. Mibach, S.J . 1'~3 THE SACRED HEART: A THOUGHT FOR RELIGIOUS-- Michaei J. Lapierre, S.J . OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 150 THE QUINQUENNIAL REPORT: OBLIGATIONS AND DIREC-TIVES, III Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. 151 TEN YEAR INDEX--NOW AVAILABLE . 158 UNIQUE SCHOLARSHIP . 158 PIUS XII ON THE RELIGIOUS LIFE . 158 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 13. Restoration of Solemn Vows . ". . . 159 14. Dispensation from Eucharistic Fast . 160 15. Revenue from Ceded Property . 160 16. Is Ranching Permitted? . 161 17. Prescriptions for Privacy . 161 18. Obligation to Confess Doubtful Sins . 162 VOCATION PAMPHLETS . 162 BOOK REVIEWS-- The Mystical Evolution in the Development and Vitality of the Church; The Breviary Explained . 163 BOOK NOTICES . 165 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 167 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, May, 1952. Vol. XI, No. 3. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Jerome Breunig, S.J.; Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Adam C. Ellis, S.J. ; Gerald Kelly, S.J. Copyright, 1952, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.' S. A. Before writlncj to us, pleas~ consult notice on Inside back cover. ' Cardinal Newman, :Apologist Our,La y, . Joh'n A. Hardon, S.J. IN THEIR formal prote~t in 1950 against the definition of Our Lady's As, sumpt!on, the~Anglic~n bishops Of England declared,. "We profoundly-regret that the Roman ~Catholic Chm:ih has chssen .b~; this act to increase dogmatic differences in Christendom a'nd has thereby gravely injured the .growth of understand!ng be-tween Christians based on a common possession, of the fundamental . truths of the Gospel." ¯ (London Times,. August 18, 19 51J.). We may assume that the'Bis.hops of Y, otk and Can[erbur'y were sincere in m~aking-this decli~ration, but how should we estimate and deal with their attit&de of mind, which is so common among ,Chris-tians out'side the true Church? Why should, faith in Mgr}', as one~ Prote.stant theologian phts'.it, be the "swordof separation", between .Catholic and non-Catholic Christianity? Fortu_nately we havean excellent guide ifi this matter in "Cardinal Newman, ~ho himself ~p~ssed through all the stages of-p)¢judi~e'ag'ainst Catholic devotion to.the Blessed Virgin !VI, ary, and finally became an outstan.ding de-fender. of her dignity against the attacks 6f.her enemies. " Newm, an'~ Anglican Deuotion to Ma~rtt ' Newman became a Catholic in 1845, afte~ forty-fou~ years in the established Church of England. L.oqg before his conversion,' however, 1~ was already devbted to the Blessed,Virgin Mary. Among the ~arly, influences in his life at Oxford .was Hurrel[ Froude who "taught me to look with admiration towards the Church of Rome. He fixed deep' in me the idea of devotion to the Blessed.Virgin." Froude had "a high. seyerefidea of the intrinsic excellence of Virgin-ity: ¯ and be considered the Blessed. Virgin 'its great Pattern.~' (A., 22, 23.) ~ - Througl~olat his Anglican. days, Newman often preached on the digni~y of.Christ's Mother, stressing esl~ecially her transcendent. purity and nearness t6 God. "He never.tired of repeating that Christ was born of a'Virgin "pure and.spotless.'" To his mi,nd, it Was in-lThe key [t~ the references is: A. Apologia (1~47) : P. Pdrochial and Pia~n Serf mons, II (1~18); L.'P. "Letter to,Pusey" in Di~culties o~-Anglicans (1907). 3OHN'A. HARDON Review [or Religious conkeivable that the only.-beg~tten Son of God should have come. into the World' as other men. "The thought may not be suffered that He,should have been the son of shame and guilt: He came by a new ~nd living way: He selected and purified a tabernacle for Himself. becomlng the immaculate seed of the woman, forming His body miraculously from the substance of the.Virgin Mary" (P., 31). On the Feast of the Annunciation in 1832. he preached a sermon on Mary's sanctity in which he was accused of teaching ~he Immacu-late Conception."That whicti % born of the flesh," he said, "is flesh." So that no one can bring what is clean from what is un-clean. In view of her prospective digr~ity-as the Mother of Christ, Mary was endowed Withgifts of holiness that are be~.ond descrip-tion. "What must have been the transcendent purity of h'erwhom the Creator Spirit. condescended to overshadow with His miraculous presence . This contemplation runs to a higher subje~t, did we dare follow it: for what, think you, was the sanctified humanstate of that human nature of which God.formed His sinless Son?" (P., 132.) Newman would not draw the illation, but his audience did. Later in life he referred tot this sermon as a witness to his abiding affection f~r the Blessed Virgin"Mary. "I hid a true devotion to the gl~ssed ViFgin.". he says, speaking of his Oxford. days, "in whose college I lived, whose Altar I served, and whose Immaculate Purity I had in one of my earliest printed sermons made much of"-(A. 149). Early Prejudices against "'Mariotatr{ ': Against this inspiring background, we are surprised to find cer~ tain blindspotsand inconsistencies in Newman's Anglican devotion to the Virgin Mother. Until a few years before his conversion, he hesitated to call Mary the Mother of God. Convinced, it seems, of the fact of her divine maternity, he could not bring.himself to give her this exalted title. The Son of God. he preached, "came into this World, not in the clouds but born of a woman; He the Son of Mary, and she (if it may be said)"the Mother of God" (P., 32). gome of Newman's critics have remarked on the length of time he spent in coming to a d~cision about entering the Roman Church. Ten, fifteen years before his conversi6n he' spoke of "the high gifts and strong claims of the ChUrch of.Romd on. our admiration, rever-ence, love and gratitude." He wbuld ask himself how a non-Catholic "can withstand her attractiveness, how he can "refrain from being melted into tendernessand rushing into commun'ion" with her, on Ma~ , 1.957. " OUR LADY, S DEFENDER beholding the Church's bea~;.,of doctrine and vindication of he~ Newman answers for himself. On the one hand he. found the Roman Church most attractive in her doctrine an'd ritual; on the o~ber hand be resisted her advances. "My feeling," he .confessed, "was something like that of a man who is obliged in a court of jus-tice'to bear Witness against a f~iend" (A., 50). There was a con-flict between "reason and affection," between what be thought hi~ reason told him against the errors of Rome, and what his si3ontane-ous Christian affections loved inRoman Catholicism. Now the strange fact i~i~hal~ Newman. reduced all his Anglican objections ~o the Chtlrch of Rbme'tb o,rie b~t~ic element in her system, namely, her devotion to" the saints and partictilarly to the Mother of God. "Writing as.a Catholic, he.says, "I thought¯ the essence of her (the Roman Church's) offence to consist in the h0nours which she paid to the Blessed Virgin and the saints, ,and the more I grew in devotion, both to the saints and to our L~dy, the more impatient I was at the Roman.pr~tctices, as if those glorified creations Of God ~nust be severely shocked, if pain could be theirs, at the undue ven-eration of which they were the objects". (A., 48). One¯day, as an Anglican. he summarized the pros and cons for becoming a Catholic. Point six ~n a series of nine is clear: "I could not go to Rome. while she suffered honours to be paid to.~he Bl~ssed Virgin and the Saints which I thought in my ¯conscience to be incom-i~ atible with the Supreme, Incommunicable Glory of the One In-finite and Ete'rnal" which belong solely to God-(A:, 134). Four years before his conve?sion, in 1841, he received an appeal from a zealous Catholic layman urging him not to hesitate any longer about submittingto Rome, when so little doctrinal difference separated the Anglicans from the true Church. Newman replied in a long letter, in which he said. "I fear I am .going to pain you by telling you, that you consider the approaches in 'doctrine on our part towards you closer than they really are: I cannot help repeating what I have many tim~s said in print that your ~ervices and ,devo-tions to St. Mary in matter of fact do rfiost deeply pain me. I am or~ly stat~rig it as a fact." (A. 173.) A year later. Newman wrote to Dr. Russ~ll to thank him for an English translation of St.,.Alphonsus L. iguori's sermons. Dr. Rus-sell. who was president of Mayno.oth in Dublin. had. says Newman, "perhaps more todo with my conversion than anyone else." In ,the 115 ,. JOHN A. I~ARDON Ret~idW f6"r l~tter, NeWman asked his friend whether anything had been left out in the transla'tion of Liguori'~ sermons, and was, tg.ld that there had been omissions in One sermon about'the Blessed Virgin. This small detail appears to have been,the turning,point in Newmail's apl~roach, to the .Church. D'escribing ivin the Apologia he says, "It must be "observed. ihat the writings of St. Alfonio,~is I knew-them by the extracts commonly mad~ fror~ them. prejudiced me as much agaifi~t~ 'the Roman Church a~ anything, el;e, on accou, nt of what was called tl~eig .'Mariol.atry.'.'' But, and this i~ significant, ~'there is nothing of the kind in this book" which Russell had sent hirn2 "This omis-sion in.the.case of a book intended for Catholics. at le~t showed that such passages as are fdund in the works of Italian authois were not acceptable to every part of ,the Catholic world. S~ch de~r~tid~al. ~ manifestations in honour of our L~dyhad be~n .my great crux as re- "~ ~ards ~atholicism." (A.,.176.) Once he became cdnvinced that the, Roman Church was willing to d~mngu)sh between faith arid external piety in devotion to Mary,. and to recog,nize that piety,-unlike fa'ith, canbe different for dlfferent people, his entrance, into the Church was only a matter of time. e 'letter-to Dr. Russell was sent iri November. 1842, and in February of the following year. Newman made a formal public retraction "of all the hard things which I had said.against the Church of Rome" (A., .1,81). - - _. In Defehse of Mar~'s Honor . ¯ A~ter his cdnversion. Newman drew fre~luent!y on his own ex: ¯ perience tohelp remove ~he obstacles which 6thers had to face in their" journe~y to" Rom~---notably the (ommon prejudice against so-called Catholic excesses in devotion to the Blessed Virgin. However, for the most part this was 0nly private and persbnal, assistance to pros-pec~ ive converts or in answer ,to specific"charges made by ir~dividual Protestant~,. Not until 1865~ did he have.an opportunity to defe'nd :l~Iary's honor and .to vindicate~the Roman piety.in her.regard in a way.that was to win for.him the gratitude 6f generations 6f Ehglish-speaking Catholics. In 1865 his old f'riend Edward Pus£y published.~he Eireni~on, im which he promised a peaceful settlement of the differences between Canterbury ~ind Rome, if only Rome Would meet certain conditions' .which'he recommended. One of the major obstacles which had 'td ¯ be removed in .~he. interest of re-ufiion was the Roman Church's cultus~f th~ Mother of God. "I believeY he said, "the system jn 116 May, 195'2" . Ouk LADY'S DEFENDER regard to the Blessed Virgin iLthe.chief hindiance~to ~e-union." Of all the objecti, ons which the.average ]~gli~hmanhas against Rome. "the vast system as to the:Blessed:Virgin ¯ . to all of us has been the, special, ciuxof the Roma~a system." (Eirenicon, 101.) Pus'ey' opposed the ~urrent.Catholic devotion to the Blessed Vir-gin on two scores: he claimed it was simply excessive, and it lacked a solid'foundation.in Cfiristian tradition. He singled out fo.5~special censure the dogma°.of the Immaculate Conception Which had just" been definedeleven'years,before. This was the quintessence of papal presumption~ in.defining as revealed doctrine what only a handfu'l of zealots had originally believed to be true. Puse)~'s main diffictilty, however was similar to what Newman's hhd been, that Catholic piety towards Mary was derogating.from -the h0northat was rightly du~ to her Son. St~itements like "God does not will to give anything except through the Blessed Viigin," and "He has pl~aced her between Christ and the Church" were unin-telligible, he thought, if Christ is. the sol~ Mediator between God.and man. -Granted that."the'devotion of the peo'ple to the Blessed Vir-gin outruns the judgment of the priestL" but what "if the whole weight of Papal authority is added to the popular doctrines, and the people a.re bidden . . . to bestill more devoted to the Ble'~sed Virgin ¯ . . one sees not ~here there shall,be any pause or bound short 6f thal~ bold conceptioln that 'every prayer, both of individuals and of th~ Church. should b~ addressed to St. Mary.~ ""(Eir~ni~o.n, i86~, 187.) Newman's answer to Pusey, while called a Letter, extends tO 170 pages~in Longmans' edition. Thebody of the letter.fails into .three parts, each dealing with a separate charge made by Pusey. has been justly called a "inaste.rpiece of Marian literature," which-deserves to be better known not on~ly as a revelation of Newman's 6wn love for Our~Lady, but.as a source book. of apologetics to.de-fend our Catholic devotion to the Mother of God. " Marian Doctri;~e not Marian Devotion "I begin," .say~s Newman, "l~y making a distinction--the dis-tinction between faith and. devotiom" By faith.in the Blessed Vir-g~ n he means all that Catholics~believe has be~n revealed to us about the Mother of God. By. devotion he .mean~ such'religious honors and expiessions of affection as follow f~m the faith.' "Faith and ' dev6tion are as distinct in fact as they are in idea. We cannot. in-deed. be de~out without faith, but we may believe with6ut feeling 117 JOHN A. HARDON Reaiew for Religious devotion." .-Against the Protestant Objection that Catholic doctrine about Mary has grown by adcretion over the centuries, Newman an.2 ¯ swers that what has grow.n is subjective de;cotion, that is, r~aliza, tion and expression of faith, but not ttJe faith itself. And again, in detrain countries Catholics are accused of makin'g almost a goddess of the Madonna, while elsewhere their piety is mo~e restrained. The same distinction applies: without defer~ding genuine¯ excesses, it is still true t.hat some Catholics are more affectionate and expressive in their devotions than others, but the doctrine about Mary'is always the same. ~ "This distinction," for Newman, "is forcibly brought home to a convert as a peculiarity Of the Catholic religion, on his first intro-duction to its worship. The fiii.th is e~erywhere the same, bul~ a large liberty is "accorded to private judgment and inclination, as regards matters of devotion . No one interferes with his neighbor: agree-ing, as it. were, to differ, they pursue independently a common end, ,~lnd by paths, distinct but converging, present themselves before God." (L. P., 28'). Starting from this distinction, Newman pr6ceeds to explai'n. some of the fundamental doctrines which" Catholics ~hold regarding the Blessed Virgin. Her Immaculate Conception, for ,example, is a stumbling block to non-Catholics because they do not knob¢ what we mean by original ~in. "Odr doctrine of original sin is not the same as the Protestant. We with the Fathers think of it as some-thing negative, Protestants a~ something posit!ve."' . They.hold that '~'it is a disease, a radical.change of nature, an.active poison internally ¯ corrupting the soul, infecting its primary elements, and disorganizing it; and they fanc'y we ascribe a different nature, from ours to the Blessed Virgin, different from that of her parents, and from that of fallen Adam~" .We hold nothing of the kind. "We consider that. in Adam she died as others; that she was included, together with the whoIe race, in Adam's sentence, . .but we. deny that she had original sin; for by original si'n we mean something negative, the deprivation of tfiat supernatural unmerited grace .which Adam and Eve had on their first formation." Catholic belief .ir~ the'Immacula'te C~nception is only a natural ~orollary to the more fundamental truth' of the Divine Maternity. Newman is a specialist here, tracing the clear lines of tradition from the earliest Fathers of the Church. "To the Greeks she was Theoto-kos, to the Lati~as Deipara, to us the Mother of God. Intoone para-graph he crowds the testimony of the. ages on the elemental dignity 118 JOHN. A. HARDON - - Reuieu~ fo~" Religiou* of the Virgin Mary.°. "our:Go~' Was carried in the womb of Mary," says Ignatius who was martyred A.D:-106. "The Maker of all," says Amphylochius, "is born of a.Virgin.'.' "God dwelt in a womb," says Proclus. Cassian says, "Mary bore her Author." "~The E;~'er-lasting," says Ambrose, "came into the. Virgin.' . He" is' made in thee," }ays St. Augustine. "Wh6 made thee~" (L. P., 47,~ 65.) On the practical side, !Newman deals With the question of Mary's intercessory power which, he explains, follows "from two basic truths: first that it is good a~ad useful to invoke the saints, and sec-ondly that the Blessed Virgin is singu, larly dear to her Son. The first may be assumed among believing Christians, but the second notso obviods. ¯ Granting tfiat prayer of intercession is "a first prin- .ciple of the Church's life. it is certain again that the vital fofce' of .that intercession~, as an availing l~ower, is sanctity.The words of the man born blind speak the common-sense of nature: 'If any man be a-worshiPper.of God, him He heareth.' " What thin must be the position Of the Blessed Virgin before the throne of God? . If the Lord was willing t$ spare Sodom and Gomorrha in answer to Abra-ham's piayer, if the prayer of Job for his friends saved them from the anger of God, if Elias b~.his prayer Shut and opened the hea-v~n~, if Jeremias, Moses, and Samuel were great mediators between God and His people, ."what offence is it to affirm the like of her.who was not merely," as Abraham,. Moses, and Elias, "the friend, but was the very Mother of God." (L. P., 71,'72.) Doctrine about Mary °Alfect~ed by Devotion Having laid the doctrinal foundhtion for Mariah piety, Newman examines the charges made by Pusey that Catbollc devotion tO the Blessed.Vi~gin i~ exc~siy~ and out of proportion.to its dogmatic basis. This accusation would be. justified only if man were all intel-lect and his religi6n were only intellectual. But "religion acts on the affections." And "who is to hinder these, when once roused, from. gathering in their strength and running wild? Of all passions; love is themost unmanageable; nay more,, I would not give:much for that ¯ -love which is never extravagant, which always .observes theproprie-ties, and can move about in perfect good taste, under all circum-stances. What motbeg, what husband or wife, what youth or maiden in love, but says a thousand foolish tbifigs, in the way of endear-ment, which the. s~eaker wouldI be sorry for strangers to hear, ye~ they ~re not on that account unWelcome'to .the parties to whom they are addressed " (L. P., 79, 80.)! \ i 119 JOHN A. HARDON Ret~ieto for Religious "Let me _apply' what ~ have been saying to the teaching of., the Church on the" subject of the Blessed Virgin . When once we haste mastered the idea that Marry bore. suckled, and handled the Eternal in th, e fo~m of a child, wh~t limit is conceivable to the rush and flood ,of thoughts wfiich0such a doctrine involves?¯ What.awe and ~urprise :must attend upqn th~.knoWledge tha't a creature has. been brought :so'dose to the Divine Essence? "It was the creation of a new idea and of. a new sympathy, ofa new faith and worship, when the holy Apostles announced that God had become inc~irnate; then a supreme love and devotion ~ to Him became possible, which see~ed hopeless before¯ that revelation. ,.This was the first consequence of their teaching. But besides this,'a second range of though}s ~vas opened on mankind, unknown before, and unlike any other, as soori as it was understood }hat that Incarnate God had a mother." (L. P., 83.) Mariolatry is a familiar "reproach on the lips of Protestantsand of Newman himself before his conversion¯ But it is based on a libel.¯ The two ideals of Christ as Mediator and of Mary as mediatrix are perfectly distinct in the minds of Catholics, and there i~" no inter-ference,. between them,. -"He is God m~de low, she is woman inade high.-.When~he became man, He brought home td us His incom-mun'icable attributes with a distinctness which pr~cl~des th~ possi-bilit~ r of lowering Him me'rely by~ Our exalting a creature. He alone has an entrance-into our sou/, reads our secret th.oughts, ~pe~aks to our" heart, applies~ to us ~piritual pardon and strength . Mary is only our, Mother by" divine appointment, given us from the Cro~s: her presence is abgve,,not on earth; her office is external, not within us. Her power is indirect. It is her prayers that av, ail, and her pray-e'rs a~:~ effectual by the tiat of Him Who i~ our all in all." .It is ~rue that Mary occupi~s.a center in Catholic devotion and" worship, but that center is infi.nitely removed from divinity. "~f we placed our Lad~; inthat centre,~ we should only be, dragging Him from His throne, and making Him an Arian kind of God, that is. no God at all." q-?ben followsa ~errible¯ indictment .~gainst his°own contemporaries and those modern Protestants--who accuse Catholics of adoring the Virgin Mother. "He who charges uL" says Newman ~ "'with making Mary a divinity, is thereby denying the divinity of desus. S~ch a man does not know what divinity is." ,(L. P. 83- 85.) Catholic Excesses In thee final part of his lettek. Newman han"dles the accusation 120 ,May, 1952 . OUR LADY'S DEFENDER that devotion to,Mary obscures the dev6tion to Christ. Pro, testants . say that "our 'devotions to-our Lady must" necessarily throw our Lord,into the shade: and there, by relieve themselves of a great deal of trouble. Tl~en they catch at. anystray fact which countenances or. .seems to countenanee,their prejt~°dices. Now I say. plainly, I Tillnever defend or screen any one from' you jus~ r~buke who, through false devotion to Mary, forgets~l~us. ~But I should like the fact to be ,. proved first, I cannot .h~sti.l.y. ~dmit it. ° There is this b~oad fact the o, ther way: --that if we lo0k.~hrough Europe, we shall find, on ~l~e. ¯ whole, that just those nations and countries have lost their faith in the divinity of ChriSt. 9¢hb 15~ve given up devotioia to His Mother, .and that those on t~e other .hand. who had been foremost .in her honour, hav~ re'tained their brtl~odoxy. Contrast, for instance, the Calvinist~ With ~l~e Greeks, orFrance w~th the North~ of,Germany, or the Protestant ~nd Cath~li6'commumons in-Ireland. .In' the- Catholic Church M~ry has shown herself, not the rival, but the min-ister 6f her Son: she has prbtect~d Him. as in His infancyl,soino the whole h~story of theRehg~on. (L. P., 92, 93.) , " ¯ Non-Catholics make much of the fact that Catholic .churches are filled with statues and p~ctures of the Blessed Virgin, that there are so many prayer~ in her honor, that she is given so import_ant a place in-the liturgy. .Newman answers with t.w_o distinctions: first Jris not .true that Mary enjoys rile center of" devotion in.th~ liturgy, and secqndly~ Protestants judge Catholics by themselves when they as-sume that v~hat, should 15e idolatrous ~ or dishonorable, to Christ among the~nselves is also th~ ~ame among Catholics. Thus "when stranger's ar~ so unfa~cora.bly impr(ssed with us, because they see'Im-ages of our Lady in our,,. Churches and crowds floc.king aboht her, . they forget that there "is a Pres~nce within the sacred walls infini'te-ly more awft~l, which claims_ ahd obtains~from us a worsh!p tran-scendently different from any devotion.~'we pay toher. That devotion. might, indeed, tend to'idoiatry, if it were encouraged in Protestant churches, where ~here is nothing higher than it to attract the wor-shipper; but. all the images that a Catholic church ever contained, all' the Crucifixes at its Altars brought together, do not so affect its fie.- quenters,, as the lamp which betokens the p.resence or absence there ol ~the Blessed Sacramer~t." "'The Mass againconveys .tous the same lesson of the sovereignty of the Incarnate Son: it is a return to Calvary, and Mary is scarcely named in it.'" In the same way, Hoiy Commianion, "which is, give~ in the 121 JOHN A, HARDON Review for Religious mor_ning, is a solemn unequivocal act of faith in the Incarnate God, if any be such; arid the most grakious admonitions, did we need one. of Hissovereign and sole right to-possess us. I knew a lady, who on her. deathbed was Visited by an excellent Prote}tant. frieni:l. The latter, with grea~ tenderness for her soul's welfare, asked her Whether herprayers to the Blessed Virgin did not at that awful hour, lead tb forgetfulness of her Sa¢iour. 'Forget Him?' she replied, 'Why. He was just now here.' She had been keceiv!ng Him in communion." (L. P., 95, 96.) Newman had one last and the most difficult rebuttal to make. Pusey had drawn up a list of quotations from various Catholic writers who speak of the Blessed Virgin in terms of extravagant ~a~ection. But this is an unfaircriticism. "Some of your authors." Newman admits. "are Saints: all. I supp6se, are spiiitual writers and holy men: but the majority are of no great celebrity,: even if they bare any kind of ~¢eight. Suarez has no-business among them at all, for, when he says that no one is saved without the Blessed Virgin, he is speaking not of devotion to her. but of. her intercession. 'The greatest nam~ is St. Alfonso Liguori: but it never surprises me to read anything extraordinary in the devotions of a saint." Howeyer. when faced directly with Pusey's quotations.Newman confesses, "I will frankly say that when I read them in your volume, they affected me with grief and almost with angei: for they seemed to ascrib~ to the Blessed Virgin-a power of searching the re'ins and hearts, which is the attribute of God alone: and I said to myself. how can we any longer prove our Lord's divinity from Scripture, if those cardinal passages which invest Him wiih divine prerogatives; after all invest Him with.nothing beyond what His Mother shares with Him? -And how again, is there anything of incommunicable greatness in His death and passion, if He who was alone in the gar-den, alone upon the cross, alone in .the resurrection, after all is not alone, but shared His ~olitary work with His Blessed Mother. And then again, if I hate those perverse sayings so much, how much more must she. in proportion to, her love of Him? and how do we show our love for bet, by wounding her in the very apple of her e.ye? This I felt and feel: but then on the other band I have to observe that these strange words after all are but few in number: that most of them exemplify the difficulty of determining the exact point where tri~th passes into. error, and that they are allowable in orie sense or connec-tion, though false in another. .Thus to say that .pgayeg (~nd. the 122 Mag, ,1952 OUK LADY'S'D~FENDER ¯ Blessed ~ Virgin's prayer) is omnipotent, .is a harsh expression, in every-day prose; but, if it i~ explained':to mean that there is nothing whi_ch~prayer may not 0bta~in from God, it is nothing else than th'e very promise made us in Scrlpture. '. (L-. P., 103, 104.) Pusey's worst accusatlqn was that according to c~rtain Catholic writers devotion to the Blessed Virgin' is necessary for salvation. Newman challenges this statement, "by Whom is it saidthat to pray to our Lady and the SaintsI is necessary to salvation? The proposi-tion of St. Alfonso ig, th~at 'God gives no grace except through Mary, that is through her intercession. But-intercession is one (hing, devotion another." If devotion to the Blessed Virgin were nece~sa[y, then "'no Protestant could l~e saved: if it wereso, there would be -grave; reason for doubting of the salvation of St. Chrykostom or St. Athanasius, or of the ~rimitive Martyrs; nay, I should like to know whether St. Augustine, in all his voluminous writings, in-vokes her once. Our Lord ~tied for those he~ith~n Who did not know Him; and His Mother intercedes for those Christians who do not know bet: andshe intercedeshccording to His will, and, when He wills to sav~ a particular sloul, she at once prays for it. I say, He wills indeed ~ccording to heI, r. prayer, but then she prays according to Hisw ~i"ll .". (L. "P., 105, 106.) " .Newman s Apologetic Method It no exaggeration to say that Newman's Letter to Pusey is'the outstanding work of' Marla, n apologetics written m Enghsh. ~n the ¯ past century. Its stholarship and transparent honesty made it wel-come to those outside the Church. even to Pusey, as he admitted in a letter to Newman. But morI-e important, it gave to Catholics a pro-found analysis of the prinCiples on which their devotion to the Mother of God should be l~as~d. It alsg"gave them an object lesson in the method they should follow in dealing with non-Catholic Christians, with a ~iew to conver. nng them to'the true faith. The method must be a consummate respect for the non-Catholic's sin-cerity, and should recognize that ¯after all ,is s~id and done, faith is a free gift of God to be obtained in answer to humble prayer. Thus in the beginning I ¯ ¯ of his letter, Newman makes ~t clear that he considers the opposition, to. be m good faith. I know, he says, "the joy ~it would give ~hosle conscientious men [Pusey .and/his lol-iow~ rs] to be one with ourlselves. I know how.their hearts spring up with a spontaneous tran what yearning .is I~heirs aft~ ;port at the very thought of union;~ and r that great privilege, which they have 123 SUMMER SESSIONS - not, .communio.n with th~ see of Peter, and.its present, pa.st ~nd fu-ture,."' (L. P., 3.) But~ after all the clafms of ~onscience are settled by reason and argumentati6n, the most important thing is still n~eded. And so in tfi~' last paragraph of his letter Newman c6dclud~s'with a prayer. He asks Go~l to."firing us'all togethkr in unity . to destroy all bitterness on your side and ours.to quench all jealous, sour. proud, fierce an-tago, nism on'our side: and-to dissipate all captious, carping, fastidious ¯ refinements of reasoning on ~'ours.". And finally, "May that bright and gentle L~idy, the Blessed Virgin Mary, overcome you with her ¯ sw, eetness, and revenge herself on.her foes by interceding effectually fo~ their conversion." (L. P.,. 118.) ,.,S ummer Sessions The Department of Religious Education, ,Fordham University, New york, offers gradu.ate courses in the following, branches of"the-ol6gy during the 1952 Summer SeSsion: Sanctifying Grace-by Rev. Elmer O'Brien, S.~3. (Toronto) : the sacraments 6f Penance and Extreme" Unction by Rev. Paul Palmer S.d. (Toronto); Com-m~ andmefits I-IV by R~v. doseph Duhamel. S."3. (Woodstock Col-lege) : Church History by Dr. Donnelly (Fordham) : and Methods of Teaching Religion in High School l~y, Rev. ,l~hn F. Dwyer, S.,I. (Fordham). Each course carries two points of c~edit. Concurrently with the Sfimmer Session. the Graduate School and the School of Education will jointly conduct a FRENCH INSTITUTE FOR SISTERS exclu~iyely. 06 duly 21 and 22, the Division of. Educational Psy-chology, Meagur~ments and Guidance will sponsor its second annual two-davy INSTITUTE ON RELIGIOUS AND SACERDOTAL VOCATIONS. This Institute. will be .held-for the diocesan: a.nd regular clergy, for ¯ ~eligious brbthers and sisters. Its purpose will be to discuss the prol~lems involved in recognizing, encouraging ~ind fostering voca-. tions to the diocesan priesthood and to the religious. "The Summer Session extend~ from duly 7th to August 14th. , For further infor-mation, address the executive .secretary of the Sfimmei Session, F6rdham University, New York, 58, New York. [Additibnal announcemen~s dr'summer sessions are given in~ the March number. pages 95-96. A note for deans of summer schools is given in the ,January -num-ber, page 56. ] '124 Ignat:ian Spirit:u, li y Augustine G. Ellard. | ~NATIAN spirituality is c~iae of.the modern" schools. It acknowl- ~ ]edges itk junior status,¯ u ir~heritance that the oldeafn, ds~.~dlhadolo'lys aonfd' ,C gartahtoefliucl lsyp aircict.euia~lt s',t rtahdei rtiiodnh have put at its disposal Father Eludon, in his St. Iqi~atius. of Loyola, devote~ the whole of ch~ipte, r twelve to showing thal~ just .w.hen he was wo_rk[ng out his own ideas and ideal~ St; Ign.atius °was u'nd.er't.he i~nfluenc~ of a rattier large number of different currents'of spirituality. The two principal instruments of his conversion were the Life of Cbri'st by Ludolph-~of Saxony and the Liues of the Saints by Jac0p? de V'oragine. The' former wa~a Carthusian, and the latter a'Do-mini~ an. Ignatius of(eia thought: "St. Dominic did this., St. FranciSo. that: shc~uld not I also do as they?" fiis a matter of fact, for a time, he thought of becominga Carthusian. His favorite book through-out life was Thomas ~l Kempis: thus he put himself in debt to the Devotlo M~derna" that the B'roth~ers of' the Common Life arid the monks of Wi'ndesheim were. propagating. Th~se three w~rks were majbr forces in.his formation. In addition to these he came under the personal'influence of the Ber~e,dictines at Montserrat, of the Do-minicans with whom he.lived at Manresa, of'th~ Franci~cans, of the Hieronymites, of the C, ister~cians, and probably of others ~llso. "It is the,opinion of at least one man who has made a very Speciai study"bf Igna'tian spirituality, "namely Boeminghaus. that Ignatius 'fused two streams of spirituality'which before him had come down in more or less p~irallel lines .(B,oeminghaus, Die Aszese der "lgnatia~- ischen EScercitien. 10-34). These traditions were those typified by Thomas ~ Kempis and St. Fraficis of Assisi. ]During tl~e later years of ~tbe Middle Ages the~scbool of spirituality ~hat was most fresh and vigqrous was that of the Cbristi~in Renaissance, just referred to under ¯ the Latin name:.tbat it u~ually goes by, n~mel]z, "Dev,0tio Moderna " It m~i~ked a reaction ¯against "excessive speculation--in piety and stressed the supreme importance of beihg 2or.dctical in one's religious life. " In particular, it tended to put more method into the spiritual" life arid especia.lly into the mental pray~r that should animate and vivify it." In a word, one may ~ay that its asceticism was that which we are' all familiar with from the Imitation of Christ. The second stream was the Franciscan. 'It t.aught ~i0uh. souls to . 125 t AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD Review for .Reliyious take the~Gospel literally, to seek evangelical simplicity and poverty, to look to qesus in His ,human nature as He really existed in time and place, to respond to Him as a person" with love and dev6tion, to keep unitedowith Him as intimately as possible, and finally¯ to live and Work with Him. Hence vitality, enthusiasm, and personal response characterize it, 'as practical method¯ add earnestness marked the other. Boeminghaus sums u'p his idea in suggesting that, to a gr~it extent, St. Ignatius took his method from the Christian Renaissance group and the content of his system from the Eranciscan tradition, and then united them in his own original way. I.n these pages Ignatian spirituality is taken to include not only the teachin~ of St. Ignatius himself, but also that ofhis order. For the saint's o(vn doctrine the priinary written sources are, besides.his Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions o~ the.Societal of Jesus, his Spiritu'al JoUrnal and some of his letters. Certain letters are very important and do not always get the attention they deserve by. those who profess to :present his doctrine, especially on mental prayer. Some of the letters, too, are equivalent to liitle didactic tre;itis~s; examples ~ire the.celebrated Epistle on Obedience and the letter on perfection, to the students of the Society at Coimbra (May 7, 1547). The spiritual teaching of the Jesuits is to be found partly in certain official documents, for instance,, letters of the Fathers General, and principally in the numerous published works of Jesuit ascetical and mystical authors. Moreover, Ignatian spirituality is Understood to comprise both that according to which Jeguits themselves try to live, including a certain conception of the ~eligious life, of the ~'ows, and .especially of obedience, and also that which tb?y propose for others who accept their instruction. Of course, it ~s not implied in presenting Jesuit ideals that all Jesuits fully realize them. I, BASIC IDEAS The fundfimental element in any school of spirituality is the theory or set of ideas underlying it and giving it life" and direction. There must be some definite conception, for example, of God, of Christ, of human nature, and of the world. Different initial views on these fundamental realities or their relations necessarily give rise to different attitudes of will and divergent practical principles¯ St. Ignatius's mentality was not at all theoretical. .Hence the genera.1 intellectual outlook in his system is simple and concrete¯ It is 126 May, 1952 IGNATIAN SPIRITUALITY ¯ decidedly, akin to that of the Synoptic Gospels rather than to St. John or St. Paul. It is no~ learned o~-theological, like, for instance, that of the Dominican Fathers or of the French Oratory. God is conceived, mostly as'a great and good king, as a grand monarch on the divine scale. It is emphasized esp.ecia]]y that He is the creator and hence the so~'ereign lord of all. St. Ignatius liked to refer to God as "His Divine Majesty," or "~he Suprem~ Goodness." Among the divine attributes libe.rality is often, singled out for men-tion. God is not thought of as "All in ~all". or as "Prime Mover" or as "the Divine Spouse." Christ, the God-man, is so rich in various aspects that no ,one ~p~erson or group of Hi~ disciples could exhausl them all. Hence different schools of spirituality "emphasize different phases Of the great reality that He i~. One. c6uld consider Him as an adorable divine king sitting at.tl~e righ~t hand of the Fathe.r, surrounded by a heavenly court of angels arid saints, and receiving the homage of prayer and work from devout,men 'on earth. Another could con-centrate attention and affectibn above all on the scenes of the crib and the cross. A third, utilizing the concepts of theology, could make mt~ch of the Word.Incarnate. St. Ignatius sees Christ mostly as the. son of the divine King,*and a king Himself, but with a king-- dom still to be conquered. He is a crusading king, at the head of his army, announcing, his intentions, and inviting men to qolur~teer for service. T.he pecu, liar temper of a school may depend much on how it conceives human nature. To cite"an historical' example.: ancient Alexandrine spirituality took intelligence rather than any other fac-ulty to be the great thing about man and acco{dingly it stressed the place of contemplation in the perfect life. The modernFrench School (Cardinal de B~rulle) is noted for its pessimistic" (onception of human nature and the effects upon it of original sin. St. Ignatius is characterized in this mat.te~ by a certain optimism and voluntarism. Human natuie is indeed sor~ethirig that needs chastening and. training, but basically it is good and to be dev~loped and put to work ¯ in the cause of Christ. If all creatures have their value, a Fortiori humannature has; in fact man is the end and purpose of all other things. Bodily 'strength is not to be diminished by indiscreet aus-terities, but ~o be brought under control and made effective for the service of God. The voluntarism of St. Ignatius .is abundantly illustrated throughout the Exercises; he never ceases to refer'to "what I wish." 127 AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD Rebiew [or R~ligious ¯ The Ignatian view of the world, too, is°rather distinctive. Un-like many ascetics of old he did not look upon it °as something' evil to be fled from and shhnned.as much as possible. Nor like St. Ber-nard" did he consider it better to avoid creatures than~ to use them. He did not share St. Francis's tender sentiment toward lowly¯ crea-tures as brothe~s¯ and sisters. St. Bonaventure'~ and many holy t - men of the Mi~tdle Ages stressed the fact that all things are likenessesof~ God'and should be looked upon as enlightening us about Him and attracting us to Him. St. Ignatius is more utilitarian and practical. For him everything in creation is a means tO help men to work out .their d~stiny; everything is to' be rega.,rded and treated solely with'. ~" reference to that purpose. , . . .- ~,~ Co[responding to the ideas that one conceives of God and of.m~ will be ond's ideal of pedec[ion, tha't is, what one takes tobe the . completely right relation between God and man. ,Of course, the 'ggod disciple.of St. Ignatius ~uld be entirely submissiv~ to his Cre-ator and Supreme Lord. He would make God's ends-'his own and seek to,achieve them by the means that God prefers. .To the divine libe?ality he also .rdsponds with magnanimous liberality. Enrolled in the apostolic campaigh ~ith Christ, he endeavors to agsociate him-self as closely as possible with hik great leader, to work with Him as effedtiv~ly as~ossible, and to imitate Him in all respects, but espe- "cially in b~aring pdverty and~humifiation nobly. Thus in_ every-thing he strik, es to love and serve the Divine Majesty. He conforms his will altogether to that of God. "What I wish", becomes pre-cisely whatGod wishes. ~ II. LEADING PRINCIPLES " Logically and fiaturally the basic ideas of a system of spirituality, . "in themselves more or less theoretical, give rise to practical principles indicating the appropriate action that should follow. I. The Divine Purpose,~ arid Plan The first and supremeprinciple of Ignatian asceticism, is oto seek the e~d. for which God created one. "Man is created to praise, rever-ence, and serve God our Lord, and by thi~ means'to'sa+e his soul": ~the "First Principle' and Foundation" in the Spiritual. Exercises (23) .1 ' ~Quotations from" the .Exercises ~re from Loui~ ~J. Puhl's'translation; the figure~ re-fer to' the paragraph enumeration introduced by the editors of the critical edition, Madrid, 1 ~ 19. ~ 28 IGNATIAN SPIRITUALITY As God begins,' ~nd we may also add, ends, wi~h a certain definite purpose, so does St. Ignatius, and so too will hi~ disciple. In fact, man is invited to intend just what:"God intends. Between God and man there are to be no cross-purposes. .Moreover and especi,ally, one. should seek, not a .part of what God intends, but all df it, and to work it out always by using, precisely the means and method pre-ferred t~y God: what is'this but to have just the same iglan as God? Praising and referencing God is substantially, the same as.glori-fying Him. -Striving for the greater glory of God, ."Ad majorem Dei. gloriarff," is very .probably. ~vhht th~ name of Ignatius. is most a'pt ~o .suggest to most people who .have some knowledge of him. It is,well known that whenever SI~. Ignatius wrote or dictated he was cofistantly referring to the glory of God[. In the little book of the Exercises the glory or praise of God is p_roposed as.the end no less than thirty-three times.In the C~nstituffons of ttie Society the ref-efence 6ccurs about-135 times in ~2i47 .pages (the" edition of 1937: so Lawlor, "Doctrine of Grace in the Spiritual Exercises'" THEO-LOGICAL STUDIES, 1942, 524). Nor Was the expression always on his lip.s only. Seeking to make God be'tter known and loved" was ever in his thoughts .and aspirations and supremely strong and do}ni-nant among them.- Hence explicit and uninterruptedaiming at. thh' greater glory of God is a conspicuous mark°6t: Jesuit spirituality. A similar and more, or less equivalent idea that .was a great ~avorite with St. Ignatius and Occurs still more frequently is "serv~ ice)' "Locutions such as 'to the greater s~rvice of God," 'to the greate~r service of God and the help of soul~.' andtheir-like, are re-peated 157 times in the Constitutions" (lb'id.). Servin~ God is bf course the same'as Working out His purpos.es or .extending His glory, and it may be said to be central in Ignatius's whole conception of what-man's relations and activities tbward God should be. Some religious leaders wduld'no doubt put prayer or e~en mortification in the, central pl~ace; for Ignatius, everything, "prayer. recollection, self-a. bnega~ion, and so on, mu~t be subordinated to the glory and seroice of God~ Int(hding what God intends, seeking His glory, serv.mg Him~-all this implies the need and use of means. St. Ignatius is broad enough f0 regard all created things as these~mean~. "He is insistent too that they are to be used neither more nor less than in the measure of their ~utility with respe& to,the final end. " In no way or degree are they to .be sought for their.own sake as goals.if, they be pleasant.and attrac- °" " ~ : 129 AUGUSTINE G'. F~LLARD Ret~ieu) for Religious rive, and no repugnance to a useful but disagreeaigle mean~ "is to be allowed to interfere v~ith Using it. To the noblest end the best means is alwa,ys, to be chosen. Hence, another celebrated term and idea 6f Jesuit spirituality: namely, indifference. 2. AssOciation with Christ. A second leading principle in St. Ignatius's system is "'Associate gourself with Christ as closely as possible." or '.'Know, love, and imitate Christ as far as possible." Tb~ divine purpose and plan become more specificaIly the progra.m 6f Christ. All Christiahs of course strive to associate themselves with Christ, or to" know and' love and imitate Him, but not all in precisely the Ignatian.way, that is. in the spirit of "The Kingdom" and tl~e~ "Tw, o Standards." As we have seen. St. Ignatius likes to consider Christ as ;'Our Lord, the .E~ernal K~ing,'" a prince who is"organizing a military ex- ¯ pedition or crusade, to conquer the whole worId and bring it back to loyal" submigsion to itsdivine sovereign. He summons all good men to become recruits in his army, to share his warfare, and then. to rejoice with him in the fruits of victory. Both the royal commander and his soldiers are to live and fight-under the same conditions of toil.-combat. and suffering, that subsequentl~r they. may enjoy the ~same glories of victory together. The motives for enlisting are con-sidered so attractive that nobody with good sense could decline: one v~ould.at least join the expedition as a.common soldier. But with. this degree St, Ignatius is not at all satisfied. In view of the.singularly magnetic qualities.of the Leader and the excellence of His cause, anybody with a spafk of spirit about him will volunter for distinguished service. He will be glad to show. his love and affection by offering himself for deeds of greater value b~yond the call and strict requirement of duty. He will not wait to be attacked, but Will himself take the offensive and carry tb~ war into the enemy's te(ritory .("acting against"), in particular be will first make a perfect conquest of his own interior foes, and a~gres'- sively overcome his own "sensuality and carnal and w0rJdly love." He Will prof.ess himself ready to imitate his great king in bearing humiliations and poverty. It is thergfore, a cardinal principle of Ignatian spirituality that to the summons of Christ the.King,one should respond with all the magnanimity ~n'd generosity that one can muster. ' The eager new recruit soon gets lessons ir~ the basic principles df strategy of his own leader and also ~f the enemy 'chief. These are 130 May, 1952 IGNA'I~IAN SPIRITUALITY presented in the colorful exercise called "A Meditation oh "Two Standards." They are further deve!oped affd enforced in rules for, the discernment of spirits. Lucifer's'tacticsare to be {~nderstood well, and since they are insidious one is ever to be on guard against his deceits. His general ruse is first to seduce men into an inordinate quest for riches and honor, these being indifferent, and then into pride and finally into all vices. The intention of Christ is just the" contrary,~that is, by example and precept He induces men to cultivate" the spirit of poverty, or even actual poverty itself, to conceive "a desire for insults andcontempt," to acquire the. virtue of humility, and thus then to attain all the different virtues. It will be noticed that St." Ignatius 'makes gre, at eff0rys to have his discipline look espe-cially to. t~o aspects of Christ's moral cha~acte), namely, His poverty and His humility. In the Constitutions of his order and in certain of his letters he adds a third great virtue, tha't is, obedience. At least for the mem-bers of'the Societ~ this gets so much emphatic commendation and i,nsistence that it,is in a sense the point in which Jesuits are supposed to specialize. 3. The Third Mode of Humilitv ~The "'third mode of humititg" is so highly characteristic of St. , Ignatius's whole¯ doctrine and so important in itself that it should, it seems,.be proposed ~a third leading principle. It is pre-sented in ~he Exercises as 'the last disposition to be sought in the ideal prepakation of soul to discern and choose the will of God in o.rdering one's.life. It" is also the highest point that one.could re~cb in conquering self, in achieving the victory over one's .disorderly and rebellious impulses, and in-bringing them into that order.which the divine plan and the program of Christ¯req'u!re. In the first mode of humilisy man submits to God in everything that is' of serious, obligation. The second degree disposes one so to submit as to avoid not only venial sin but also every defect of in-difference and hence all positive imperfections (failure to "carry out counsels). In the third. kind" '.'whenever the prfiise and glory of God would be equally served, I desire, and choose poverty with Christ poor, rather than riches, ir~ order toimitate and be in reality more like Christ our Lord,; Icho~se insults with Christ loaded with them, rather than honors; I desire to be accounted as worthless and ¯ a fool for Christ, rather than to be este,emed as w)se and prudent in 131 AUGUSTINE G. ELL~ARD ' Reuieu~ [or Religious thi~:.world. So Chr.ist wastrea~ed before me" (Exqrcise~, 167). In a_ word,, the p~fect associate of Jesus makes himself like,Him~as far - as possible, iriall virttles, but especially, other consideration} being equal, in pove, rty and humility.° l~vidently reverence and love'and dexiotion to Him rango no farther. Practically one'piefers just what, Christ prefers. " " 4. To Love God . - A fourth leading principle in Ignatian spiritual training'is "'in all things to live and serde the Divine Majesty" (Exercises, 233). Eveiy schodl of spirituality, merel~r to be Christian, must keep in the ¯ forefront the primacy of.love: , Some people have b'een, dishppointed that in expr.essing the end for which God created man St. Ignatius did not mention love. True, it is not named ~here: but as surely and as fully as it enters into the divi~e plan and intention, it is ther'e implication. " The constaht desire,.'too, to choose only thatwbich is most conducive tO the end would invol-ie much love" for God. Even. inmeditating upon. hell it is St. "Ignatius's.mind that love should have a certain priority~' one prays :'that if. through my fault~ I fc~rget the love of the eternal Lord, at ieast the fear of.thes~ punishments ~vill keep me.' fr6m falling into sin''~ (Exercises, 65,). Throughotit. the second, third, and fourth weeks of the Exercises the preva.iling general objective is to 'achieve. with an intimate l~nowl~dge and exact imitation, an ardent love for ~he God,man. The. climax is reached in the celebrated "Contemplation to, a[tain the Love°of 'God" (Exercises,- 2 3 O- 2 3 7). , Love shows that it is genuine by '~de~ds rather than. wqrds." It consists especially "in a mutual sharing of goods." 0n-His part God presents us with the whole gamut of creation, the to~ality of Hi~ ~xternhl goods, :and then in addition ':the same Lord desires to give H'imself to~' His beloved "according to His divine decrees."" In graieful and. generous respqnse one breaks Out into the,"Suscipe,'" relinquishing to the great Infinite Lover the complete possession an'd disposal ofoneself. Every word.in this rnagn!ficen~ exercise prepares one to love the ingffable Divine Goodness literally." with all the ener-gies. of one's soul and bod~r and to demonstrate the truth ofonUs affection by.' reall~dciing everything that,¯pleases God and nothing that could.displease Him. Before worl~ing out the ConstituiiOns for his Society~St. Ignatius laid:it dowri as the first principle that it was not any ~xterior regu-lations that were to g~uide the order, but rather the interior law of 132 Mag,1952 IGNATIAN SPIRITUALITY love and charity.tl~tt the~ Holy Spirit inscribes in the human.heart. One of the Society's first rules is tl~at its members shouldstrive in all their acts to serve and plea~e.the,infiniteiy ~oi~d God for His~ own sake and with. a view to repaying His 10ve and His immense li~eralit~ to them. Hope 'for rewar, ds or fear.of.pu6ishment are to,have only as~cbndary~ role. God is to be .loved in all His creatures, and con-versely too they all in Him. ÷ A distinction has been drawn between two philos0phies.of love: 6he. called pb~tsical, emphasizes the tendency of love to base itself'on unity and~to proceed, to ever greater unior~: it is seen for exa~nple, in ¯ the desire to be with one's parents or relatives. The other; termed ecstatic, emphasizes duality or. diviSion and the iffclination in certain cases for a love} to go outside of himself, as it were,.or t6 give him-self up for the sake,of the beloved: it is exemplified in the self-sacrifice. of mothers for their children or of soldiers for their country-men.-. ,Likewise attention has been.called to .two theological concep-, tions of charity: one, that of personal desire, we might, say, considers the act whereby one wills the Infinite Good to oneself to be charity; so, for'instance, St. Bonaventure. The-other, that of pure benevo-lence, regards this act ds belonging to hope and excludes sucb s~If-reference from charity: so"Sdarez; it would love God. Simply and ab~olutely_.for His infihite goodness 6~ ~or Himself. - C6rresponding to these two philosophical and t'.he01ogical views one may digcern two general, ty, pe~ of spirituality;: the .first centers around the direction of seeking greater:union with'God, It would firid Gospel .warrant in the text: "That they ~ill may,be one: that, as Thou, Father. art in M~, and. I am in Thee. they als0 may be one in us" (John 17:21,, Spencer version)¯ It, wbhld lik~ to save its life.' °A mystery of predil.ection for it is the .Ihcarnation. the supreme~ union of God and ma.n. It is illustrated in the li~ds and doctrines of Saints Augustine. Thomas, Teresa John bf the Cross, John Eudes, and many otber~. It makes for contemplation, and would 'likb to "'taste" or "'enjoy': God. The second type of spirituhlity takes rather the direction of self-giving. It gets inspiration from tbe text: "Greater love has no. .one'than this that one should lay down one's life for one's friends" (J~hn 15:13). ILisglad to lose its life ' (Mark 8!35). Naturally the passionand death of Christ are favorite mysteries. M]~,rtyrdom would be its ' great consummation. Repres_entatives of this type are . St.° Fr~in~is of Assisi, Thorhas ~l Kempis, Francis de Sales apparently, AUGUSTI~qE G.F.LLARD " Reoiem (or Religious arid "~ertainly Margaret Mary Alacoque. St. ,Th~r~se/s idea of love Was "to give all, na~, to give oneself!" .Clearly with these latter, exemplifying the ecstatic tendency of love, and the pure-benevolence conception of c~harity, and the self-sacrificihg type of spmtuahty, St. Ignatius and his school are to be ranged'., The whol~ tenor of his spirit, with its climax in the third mode of l~umility, or in serving the Divine Majesty in everything, is not toward union, but service; not toward enjoyment, but sacrifice; not to~vard rest in God, but work for Him (See De Guibert, ~tudes de Th~ologi~ Mystique, 239-281). 5. Union and Familia(it~ u;ith God Finally, a fifth major principle in St. Ignatius's generaI method .concerns umon and [amiliarit~ toith God. He'was wont to formu-late it in some such terms as these: "to seek God in all things"; "to fifid God in all things": to be a-pliable "instrument" in "the divine hand." Ih the Constitutions, IX, 2, St. Ignatius givds a rather long and particularized account of what the ideal general of the Society should be. Naturally this picture is at~tbe same time a characterization.of the Saint himself. Among the qualifications required in a future gen-eral the first is as ~ollows: "that he should be most fully united with God our Lord and familihr with Him. as well in prayer as in all his actions." Similar prescriptions are made for other~ who are to, be appointed to lesser offices (Epitome Instituti,No. 740). Thus the Founder showed his supreme concern that above all else members of the Society Should cultivate the closest and most intimate union withGod. The iarge.place which work holds.in the Jesuit ideal and the re-lations between prayer and work in it are highly characteristic. In no other school, as far as I know. is there so great a tendency, to favor work at th~ expense of prayer. A deep' foundation ofmortifi-cation and solid virtue being presuppos'e.d, from, say, the novitiate, or some similar training and including a thirty-day retreat, praye~r is to be cultivated until one has the proper disposition, that is, the will to love God with all one's heart and to carryout the whole of the divine design for one. Butthen, in view of the grave nedessitles.of souls and the needs of the Church, one should leave prayer and give all one's energies to doing God's work, saving-and.sanctifying men, long ago pronounced to be, of all divin~ things, the divinest. When a man goes about his work precisely as God's, doing just what He 134 Marl, 19 ~ 2 IGNATIAN Si~IRITUALITY indicates, because He Wills it, a'nd in tb~ manner that He wisbes, it is relativel~r easy and natural to pass back and forth between pra~rer and work, Striving to'do God'~ work according to the mind and in the spirit ,of God may be said to be itself not the least f~rm of prayer. Faithful disciples of St. Ignatius are "contemplatives ~in action." To illustrate the union that shoulci exist between one who works for God and God Himself, a favorite comparison of St. Ignatius was that of instrumental adaptation. "l=he .human worker should bea completely pliant instrument in the divine hand. A perfect personal instrument would be fully sensitive and responsive to all the motions of that hand. To give one such instrumental flexibility is, according to St. Thomas, the tendency of the gifts of theHoly Spirit (I, IL 68, 3). The most exquisite docility to the Holy Spirit is a capital aim" in the doctrine of one of the Society's most distinguished spir-itual masters, Ft. Louis Lall~mant. III. DISTINCTIVE PRACTICES Certain practices are characteristic of Jesuit asceticism. Nowadays some of these are more or less universal in the Church. But in origin, or at Ieast in their wide difft~sion, they are due largely tothe influence of Ignatius. I. Spiritual Exerciseg, Retreats perhaps the practice that is most obviously distinctive of those who follow the Jesuit ~chool is that they make retreat~ and attacl~. great lmpor.tange to them. And more pafticulhrly, they do'it accord- . ing to the scheme and sequence of exercises sketched out long ago by the knight-conver~ .at Manresa. The Exercises were'originally cab culated to last for a solid month, and in this in~egral, form they are made by all Jesuit novices and again by young Jesuit priests, toward the end of their training. Other Jesuits regularly repeat them in a condensed form for eight days every year. $6 als.o, for varying peri-ods, .do many who do not belong to the Society and still make use Of ,its.spiritual a.,ids.The numerous students in Jesuit high schools .and, colleges throughout the world.make annual three-day retrea,ts. More-over m.a~y dev0u~ lay men and women make Jes.uit retreats annuall,y. .,.:~.S~.~.Ign.atiu.s himse.l.f did not advocate regular retreats. The cus-tom gradu,~,.lJ;¥.-gre.w in tb, e. Sgciety and w~s made. a-matter of rule only in 1609. ' It is very.!argely due tO Ignatius's influence, directly o~r ~nd~rectly,. that now the practice of making annual or regular re- 135 AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD °, Reoie~o [.or 'Retigiotis 'treats is f, oi religious and clerics a point of. canon lavi, and a received~ ascetical usage in the C~hu~ch. . ¯ o , : . .'~ :2. The Particular Examen Another" practice that was originally most characteristic of l~fie Ign~tian approach, is ,the particular examination 9[ conscience. Essen-tially it is :nothing el~e than using in the. war with one's'.faults ~bat ancient priii~iple ot: strategy: "Divide and con'quer!" In'more mod-ern and universal terms one might say that it exemplifies the rule,: "Specialize! 'Concentrate on a .l!m!ted field!" The,particular examen was always a great.favorite with St.-Ignatius. It is now one of tlqe common techniques of Catholic asceticism. Sometimes,. it iS censured by men who concentrate all if/dr strutiny of it upon some minor, de-tail or other .in the method and overlook What is substantiaia~out 'it. On tlqe other harrd, even some ~f the minor features of it have of late been getti,ng ~ommendation from scientific psyc.hologists. . 3. Directi6n A~ third practice.that is distinctive in its way of I~natian spir-ituality is its idea of direction. S't. Ignatius considered it especially useful,, if-nbt, necessary, to prevent one from ~alling victim to the illusions that may come either from one's own imagination and ~mo-tions 0~ from the deceits and snares of the evil spirit. As compared with (h~ older school~, Stl Igna'tiu~ advocates., if I mistake not, a more thorough-going and a more.methodicM'u~e of it. On the .other hand. he did not employ it like St. Francis de Sales or others in seventeenth-century France. The Exercises were originally designed ¯ to be made individually with a private and.experienced director and the exercitant was'urged to be very frank and open with him. In the Societyit is expe'ct~d that subjects should make themselves, even their innermost co~nsc.iences, all their good and bad points; culpable or in-culpable, fully known to their superi6rs orconfessors and in return . receive individual~pat~nal guidance. Any eager adherent of 3esuit asceticism will, if possible, seek constant expery direction from an-other in the problems of his in(erio~ life. Complete candor of soul and docility toward a director or supe,rtor fit in very' well with cer-tain qualities of character that wer.eparticularly dearto St. Ignat!us: namely.his preferences for mortifitation that is interior, of judgment and will; for prudence, humility, discipline, and obedience. 4. Mental Pra~er " " An~ outs.tanding, mark of any system of asceticism is its doctrine 136 May, 19~ 2 [GNATIAN SPIRITUALI~'~ on prayer. If one compares the' modern theory and practi~e of.p~aye.r with the.ancient or the medieval,' One will n~tice great differences in the relative positions of vocal ~nd m~ntal prayer. T.he cha~g~s had been coming of. necessity inthe historical evolution of the spir~itual and the religious life. In determining the. actual extension.anti fO~m" that they have taken since" the sixteenth centu.ry th~ ,influence of St. Ignatiu~s, direct or indirect, was a major factor. In making the Exercises and then later irl striving "to arrive ~at perfecti6n in whatever state or way of life God our Lord .may gra.nt. us to 'choose';- (135), it is ~onkidered most {¢ital that one's koUl' should be illled with "the iiatimate understaqdjng and rql~sh'of the" ¯ great Christ~ian truths (2). Often. eno~ugh pegple refe~ to the first ineth~d of mental, prayer ifi th~ Exercises:, ~h~ on~ ~here named from '~tiSe thr~e powers .of the soul," fi's "'the.Ign'atian method." As a matter of fact, in that little-booklet the Saint proposes at least six methbds, and thi~ c~ne,0used for the consideration of abstract truths, is almost immeasurably out-numbered by the ~'qontefiaplations," according ~o persons, words, ~nd actions, that deal especial,l~ with the life and pa~ssion of Christi o Except.~when misconceived by ill-informed critics or misu'sed by ignorant persons, Ignatian methods of prayer do not hinder liberw of spiri~ or stand in the~ w~y bf ~he Hgly Ghost:s irispiration~s. It is the most rudimentary¯ principle of ,Jesuit spirituality to keep the ~na clearly, in: mind, to preserve lib.erty with respect to the mearts, and, to select and use the most apt .of the means. Even in the Exercises/writ-ten qspecially for beg)nners.to aid them in the. specific and passing task of rightly d~t~rmining their vo.cat.ion, the admonition is given: .It "should be noted:. I will remain quietlymeditating upon the point in.which I have found what I desire, without e?gerness~ to go on till I. have finished"-(76). And again later on: "If in contempl~- ~tion, say., on the Our Father,he finds in,one or two words abundant -matter forethought and much relish and consolation, he should not b~.anxious to go on,~though the whole hour be taken t~p with what he has found" (254)., Incidyntally; one.may notice that thus from the start St.~Ignatius promotes the tendency to pause in contempla-tion rather ~h:in to busy onesel, f with discursive or analytic reflections: Outside of retreat time ,Jesuits and their followers may and should cultivate those'$orms of mental pra~er, including'the?highest "degrees of cqnteml~la~tion, that will: most effectively advanc~ them in loving God'and in.execating His d.~signs. Naturally,. off course, .th~ . / AUGI.JSTINE G. ELLARD Reoiew for Reliqious prayer of aposto!ic workers will differ from that of cloistered Carme-lite nuns. Similarly 'the'inspirationsof the Holy spirit will be in harmony with one's divine ~;oc~tion, nbt coiatrary to it. St. Ignatius was a great mystic himself, as his Spiritual dournal amply attests. In others asa rule he looked to solid virtue 'and mor-tification rather" than exalted'st'ates of prayer. If we may generalize" , from a letter to Francis Borgia while the latter was still the Duke of Gan~ia, that form of prfiyer is to be considered-best in which divine ¯ favbrs are received most liberally: "The .best thing for each particu-lar person is that in which God our Lbrd communicates Himself most freely, bestowing His most holy gifts and "s'piritual graces, be- ;cause 'He sees and knows what is most suitable fo~ him, and, asguring of His gifts. F6r."strengtb is madeperfect in weaknesk." "He scattered the proud in the co'nceit of their hearts.", and "the rich He sent a~ay empty." ." If'we reflect:but a .little we.soon learn that convent eficl0sures are not necessarily a barrier to Gdd;s d~signs. While'furnace walls con-taih ~he raging fire~ within them. they_do not prevent the heat from going out to the objects roond about. While'they contain, they also protect; and by pr0tecting,~they enable the heat to b~ intensifie~l., Cloist~r has a purpose m ways the sam~. Within its shelter religiofis can protect and intensify their ,knbwlei:Ige and their love of God. ~Should this love become lively enPugh, its influence will flow out beyond the convent walls ifito the minds of other men. Jhst as'in the natural organism"the hidden organ's make thei~ inflhence' felt in different ways throughout the whole boffy so i'n .the organism which is the.Mystical Body of Christ._ the hidden organs to which, among others,, we. may liken the lives and work'of religious, advance and consolidate .the "b~ilding .upof the Body :of Christ, until we all at-tain to the unity of the Faith and of the deep Kr~6wledge of the Son of ~od, to.perfect manhood, to the mature measure of the. fullness of Christ". (Eph. 4: 12). And, in truth, if each religious in every mon-', aste?y throughout the world, burned according to the measur~ 0f.his grace," with an intense love of the Sacred Heart and with a desire" to repair the outrages heaped against that love, he could surely hope to ¯ find ~n" the world about h~m. instead of doubt greater, faith m God's 149 MI~HA'EL 3. LAPlERRE \ truth, instead of degpai,r greater hope in God's promises, instead of hatred greater love for the Person of the Word Incarnate. If the Sacred.Heart, by the choice of a contemplative, as the mis-sioner of this d~votion, intended to point out to religious," that ' He expected to find~ in them devotees of His Truth and dyrlamos bf His Love, He certainly, wl~ile giv.ing us cause for joy in such a. compli-ment, made it clear to all, that He felt greatly disappointed in His expectations. For in His fourth appearance to St. Margare~ Mary, He made this complaint to her, "Behgld this Heart which has so loved men that it has spared nol~hing but has been poured out .totally and has been consumed as a pro.of of its love; and for gratitude, I receive from the greater part of men only ingratitude by their acts of irreverence and by the coldness, and the conte.mpt they ha~'e for Me in this sacrament of Love. But what touches roe closest is that the very hearts which are consecrated to roe act thus." It is a smarting, rebuke; it stings to the quick .the'person conse-crated to Jesus Christ. And each of us, if I' may dare to spdak for each; may strike his breast humbly confessing With th'e publican, "'Lord be merciful to me'a sinner." Yet this is not a reason for dis- .couragement. While we are aware that the Sacred Heart,expects to find in His chosen soflls a cradle for the growth and a beacon for the shining of'His love, we, mindful of our emptiness, may take to heart th~ese other words to St. Margaret Mary, "And for the accomplish-ment of this ~reat design, I have chosen you as an abyss of u~awortbi-nes~ and ignorance, in order that all should be wrought by Me." If. we can do nothing else,, we can,with divine grace, try to see ourselves as we are and gladly permit the Sacred Heart to inflame our souls. with His divine Love and to radiate through them into the minds and hearts of men too easily forgetful, amid their works and worries, of His Divine Presence. If we open our hearts to Him, the Sacred Heart will do the Jest; if we do this little, we shall do much. "Amen I say to you this poor widow has put in more than all those who bav~ been putting money into the treasury.For they all have put in out of their abundance; but she ,out of her want' has put in all that she badd' (.Mark 12:43.) OUR CONTRIBUTORS MICHAEL J. LAPIERRE. a new contributor, writes from the ,Jesuit Seminary, Toronto, Ontario. AUGUSTINE (3. ELLARD, professor of ascetical and mystical the, ology, and EVERETT 3. MIBACH, a, former missionary from China, are at St., Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. dOHN A. HARDON teaches ,fundamentai theology at West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana. dOSEPH F. GAL-LEN, who teaches Canon Law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland, con-. dudes his series on the Quinquennial Report in this issue. 150 The, Qu!nquennial .Report: Obligatiohs and Directives !11. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. ¯ " IX. A~breuiating and Prolonging the l~ostutanc~ . t!~iVi~.AS th6 time assigned by. the common law (c. 539) or by W' the Constitutions for the postulantship abbreviated or prolbnged: if so. for bow long a time and by what authority?" Pontifical. 147: Diocesan, 134: Independent Monas-teries. 74. " The law of the Code demands the postulancy only for li.~eity and not for the validity of either the noviceship or the professions. By the common law of the Church the postulancy is demanded only. in ins{~tutes of perpetual vows. in which all religious women but in institutes of men only-the lay brothers are obliged to make a postu-lancy of six months. The particular constitutions may and fre-quently do prescribe postulancy in institutes of perpetual vows for the classes of religious not obliged to the postulancy of the Code. for example, teaching brothers. The constitutions may also prdscribe a postulancy longer than six months. This is rare.ly done. Thus one congregation, whose constitutions were approved by" the Holy See in 1937, has a postulancy of a yea.r. This postulancy can be prolonged for six months. The noviceship in t, his institute- is two years in duration. Another institute has a postulancy of nine months, but it can be pro.10nged for only three months. The duration of the postulancy prescribed by canon law is com-puted in the same way as the.canon'ical year of noviceship. Therefore, a pgstulanc.y of six months that begins on 3anuary 1 ends and the noviceship may be begun on July 2. Any considerable abbreviation of the postulancy is .forbidden. However. rgligious superiors may for a jUSt reason abbreviate the postulancy, for a few days. The usual reason will be that all the postulants of a group may receive the l~abit and be~in the noviceship on the same day. It is d.ifficult t6 see how th~s abbreviation permitted to religious superiors can be longer tl4an two weeks. For a more extended abbreviation recourse is to be made to the. APOstolic Delegate. Higbe( superiors also have the right ofprolonging the postulancy but not be~rond six months. Here ai~o an extension.of a ~ew d. ays 151 JOSEPH F. GAL~LEN Reviet~'for°Religi~u~ m'ay be-made that all the p0s~ul~nt~ 0f a gro, up may b~egin' the novice-. ship ~n the.same day. Outside of this case I believe that the reasons for a prolongation, of the postulancy-must be peculiar to an indi- ~'i~tua!, and the reason will ~ractically alwaysbe a doubt of the suit-. ability of the postulant for admission to the noviceship. ~ greater .- liberty is permitted to the higher'superiors .it the constitutions pre-scribe a duration of, "at least six months." However, When the con-stitutions enact precisely that. "the prescribed time of the postu-fancy is six months," I believe ii is illicit to exte'hd l~he posttilancy annually and.for all postulants ~o nine months or more, for ~xample, that all may. complete a scholastic year ,of studies during the postu-° lancy. A law whose observance is cominonly and.habitually not en-forced is an anomaly. A human law admits an excuse and dispensa- . tions in parti~ula, r cases, but piesumably a law tends to l~he Common good and is therefore to be at least commonly observed. The H01y See in approving constitutions, is now wont to insist that the dura-tion be stated as-six months and riot for at least six ~nonths. This is an md~cat~on that the Holy See does not, wish the-duration of the postulancy to be ,cornpietely under (he" contiol of higher.super!ors. Another indication of the mind Of the Holy See is that.the Norma~ of 19~1 permitted a prolongation only in' particula, r cases)s Fur-thermore, the prolongation of a determined postulancy, even in an individual case, for thesake of siudids seems to me to b6 beyo~nd th~ power.0f prolongation granted bythe Code to higher supe[iors. believe it is~the implicit intention of the Code that the reason for the pr01'ongation should be a doubt as to the postulant's suitability for admission to the novic~ship: It is not to be forgotten that a postu-' lant who has satisfac~torily completed the time of a determined postulancy has ~ulfilled all the donditions demanded from.him by law for admission to the noviceship. Is it like'ly, that highel superiors are acting legitimately in postponing that admission? An extension of the postulancy 'for studies in'the case ofeither an individual or a group demands a dispensation from,the competent authority. If the higher superiors of an institute inten,d to make such. an extension a .Pe[mandnt practice, they should give" thought to ~'change. in this article of the cbnstitutionsl We then have the anomaly of a law that no one obsdrves .or dntexids to observe. Not all canonists will agree with these interi~retations. Thd Apostolic Ddlegate,has the faculty of abbreviating or prolo.n'ging,thi postulancy prescribed by the Cod~. ~SNormae Secundum Quas S. Congr. Episcoporum et Regularium Procedere Solet in Approbandis novis Institutis Votorum Siraplicium, 28 iun. 1901, n. 65. 152 . May'~ 1952 "QUINQUENNIAL REPORT It is certainly; illici~ to -prolong the noviceship o for ,the" sake ,of studiets. Canoii 571, § 2 explicitly demands a doubt of the suitabil-ity of the novice "for" profession as the reason fora prolongation, of the novlceship. It is equally illicit, without an induh from the Holy See, to transfer the canonical.year to the second year.of no~riceship for th~ sake of studies. '" The, adtual cases discussed above are indications of a ~ider and more serious problem that should be faced by many cong~egatio.ns.of brothers and sisters, that is, are'they unv~isely lessening the period of,' spiritual form~ation for the sake.bf~ a more rapid,intellectual training? Cahon lair does not forbid a'fo~mal and intensive course of ~tfidies during the postulancy and the ~econd y~ar of noviceship, but it.would b~ very imprudent.to assume that every~hihg not forbi.dden by posi-tive law is by t, hat. v, ery fact praiseworthy. The Code-also does not, command nor recommend ~uch a course and it implicitly forbids a -course that destro~rs or seriously impedesthe p.rimary purpose Of the pqstula~y and, especially.of the second year. of noviceship. It can be doubted that a~full college ,course is compatible with the intensive dedication to sp, irit-uaYthings that i~ ~the primary purpose also of the second year of noviceship. It see~as strange that this.year of novice-ship: which has been introduced by some institutes to)give a deeper spiritual formation, should l~e so ~ompletely de;coted to s, tudies. Con-gregations of brothers and sisters should sincerely face a. very impor-tan. t question: has the, factual system of only one yea'r Of inten~iv~ spiritual formation' produced satisfadtory resufts? . X, Poverty '-'Is a perfect-.common life acc6rding to c. 594-. the RUI~ and the C0nstltut~ons, observed everywhere, but ~specialIy .in novitiates and house~ of studies ~(cc. 554 § 3:587 § 2)? "W.hat has beeh done' and-is being donne positively. to'safeguard andpromote .,th~ vibtue ~and sp)rit 9f poverty ? "Do Superiors and officials, out of, religious charity and in order to ward off. for. the religious o.cc'asions, of .sinning against pgverty, provide within the limits of poverty, "wha~ is necessary and appro-priate, in the'way df food, clothes and~othe~ things? " "Do they allow the religious to ask for or receive these. ihings from externs ? "Are there complaints about these things; are these complaints seriously considered, and are a~uses on the part of Superiors and sub-° jects alike'corrected with, equa! severity?''~. Pontifical, 206-210: Di- 153 JOSEPH F: GALLEN " Reoieu; f,o'r Rdigioua" ocesan, 189-193: Independent Monasteri_ed, 117-120. . Poverty in all its aspects of the vow. of law, especially of com-mon life, and ot~ Spirit has been repeatedly emphasizedand explained in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. This policy is, only. an imitation of ,that of the .Church and is sanctioned by the experience and wisdom of the ages, which have always seen the deterioration of religious in-stitutes forewarned by the symptom of 'a weakene.d poveriy. It is most interesting to note that only 6ne'of the que.s.tions listed ¯ above, and that only partially, the third question, directly touches the vow of p.overty One is on the spiri~ of poverty, tiredall the other four are on the laws of common life. The great.source, of abuses in poverty is in the neglect of the laws on common life. Since so much has been written on poverty in this REVIEW, it will suffice to underline again the matter of the fourth question, "Do they allow the re.ligious to ask for or receive these,things from externs?" ¯ The law on common life on this point prescribes ,that religious should at least habitdall~ and ordinarily procure their, material neces-sities from their own institute. This law does not forbid a religious from receiving an occasional and exceptional free gift of such a neces-sity, provided this is done with permission, .the proprietorship apper~ tains to the institute, and the quantity¯and quality do not exceed what would have been given by the institute. The reasonableness of this law is evident. No spiritually sanereligious will.hold that the "degrees'of pove.rty are proportioned to the wealth of our families and friends.¯ ¯However, it is not unthinkable that some superiors have given permission for such things as vacations, vacanons at home, -trips, and courses of studies, "'provided ~l?u get the. money.'" An ancient law of the Church commanded that a monk who was found at death in possession of a notable¯ amount of money should be buried outside ihe .monastery, in a dunghill as a sign~ of perdition, and that his money should be buried with him. We can be assured that this law has been abrogated: it belongs to the ages~of mote masctiline and prlm~tlve penance¯ We can, however, neglect the ~sperity but lmltat.e the vigor of this law by burying in oblivion that ill-sounding per- .mission: "You may do it, provided~dou get the"roone~j." XI9 Vacations at Home andoutside the Institute "Is it allowed by reason or under color, of a vacation, that time b~ spent with one's parent,s or outside a house.of the Institute?" Pontifical, 2~4; Diocesan, 244. ¯ The implication of this question is not to deny a vacation to reli- Mag, 195Z QUINQUENNIAI~ ]:~EPORT gious. It can even be doubted that the summer program, of many religigus permits, the vacation they should have and need. Canon 606 § 2 forbids religious superigrs to permit rtheir subjects to live outside a house of-'their own'institute except for a serious reason and for as brief a period of time as possible. The pro, per place, therefore[ for.the rest- that religious, need is a vacation house of the institute it-self. Prudence more than commends the principle that r~ligioils should work for seculars but.relax wi~h their own. We can detect in the question quoted abovea fr6wn and perhaps the beginning of ascowl at vacations at home and outside the insti-tute. The same lack of merriment had been noticeable in the writings of canoni~ts. Father Creusen, S.J., had written: "The constitutions which permit' the. spending of vacations With one's fdinily are not. ocleaHyabrogated by this canon (can. 606, § 2)."19 The most ben!gn interpretation .could not construe these words as laudatory. The same author had also stated: "Although a certain amount ofstrictness in. forbidding visits to one's, family may at first stir up. ~ome resistance on the part of.relatives, it is usually a source of great edification, pre- .,serves religi6us from numerot~s, imperfections and faults, and draws to the institute souls desirous of a truly interior life.''20 In this strict-ness he was s.upported by Bastien.21 ¯ Three most repiatable canonistsl Vermeersch,'22 Coronata?3 and De Mees~er24 hre even stricter. They hold that vacations at home are in themselves~'foreign to the religious state but the difficulty of abolishing the practice is a just reason for tolerating a very brief.absence of this kind. This question of the. Holy See can lead us to a more sincere and prayerful study of the text: "If any man come to me, and hate not his father, and mother . he cannot be my disciple." All religious know that these wdrd~ dan be interpreted too harshly; not all are equally aware, that they can be interpreted too s6ffly. Vacati6ns at home and outside the in-stitute ase forbidden by the law of common life if they ar~ given only to those who can secure the money, from their families or friends. XII. Work and t.be Spiritual Life . "DoSuperiors carefully see to it that. {he work of teaching be pr6perly harmonized with religioudsls "ciphne? Pontifical, 303 ; Diocesan, ~283. ~gCreusen-Ellis, R61igious Men and Women in the Code, n. 292, 3. 20Creusen-Ellis, ibid., n. 29f, 2. "- 2~Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 592, 4. 22Vermeer¢ch-Creusen, Epitome Iuris Canonici, I, n. 763,~ 1. 23Coronata, Institutiones Iuris C~nonici, I, n. 612. ?4Br~s, Juris Canonici Compendium, I, n. 661. 155 ',JoSePH F. GALLEN. ¯ " :Re~vie~w for Religtous. 'The aspect, of work that causes the most exte'nsiye, practical ob- , stacle to religious disc.ipline-is 6verwork~. The dail¢, teaching sched~- ule of brothem and sisters in "parochial ,and high., sc~hgols is sufficient labor in itself. ~,Vhen extracurrici~lar and parish activities andworks, ¯ extension and' summer cburses, vacation schools, and domestic duties in the ~eligious house are added, the burden .is more tl~an intolerable and will leave.°very little energy and even time for the spiritu~l life. Som~ Bishops in their didcesan statutes touch this. very pr~a~ical matterof work'incompatibie with the life and duties of sisters. ,The statutes of C~66kston0 enunciate the basic prificiple-very clearly: :'Neither ~ill SiSters. be permitted to do any church or parish work ~- without the permission of, the Bishop. Let i~ be borne in mind that their fieed all time possible to perfect themselves in their sa~red pro.'- fession of teaching, nursing, and caring for orphans, apart' from thei~ ~eligio~s exercises and necessary relaxation.''2s~ Th~ .wording of this law would exclude all housework, all duties of clerks and stenogra-phers in the .rect~ory, and also the. position of sacristan ifi parish ~hurches. Thediocese of Richm6fid affirms more briefly the sa~e principle as that contained in,.the. Crook;ton legis.lation.26 The' . Pitts.burgh statutes" forbid a sister, wi.thout the, perm.issibn of the. Bishop, to be a sacristan, jan.itress, or to do any servile work in s~ic~ risties, sanctuaries, orchurches.2~ The statutes of Cincinnati also forbid sisters' to be sa~'ristans in parish chfirches.28 A very conspicuous source of work that interferes with the reli-gious life and with teaching in institutes.of religious women is the addicti6n to domestic duties. The lustre of. flobr and furnitu?e ~ shou.ld not,be ranked as the primar.y purpose of a convent. It is hardly reasonabl~ to dust the dustless or to polish" the lustrgus. The r~ligious teacher in her free., moments shotild naturalist gravitate to prayer, study, and readi~ag, but it.is not an exaggeration to state that ~n s0me.institutes of religious women .domestic duties are very apt to exclude free moments and toconsume free moments. .The time as-si~ g~{ed to prep'aration for class endangers good teaching and excludes progress in knowledge. The excessive occupation in manual work can be rooted blindly ~in°the traditions and training of the particular institute. It. begiiis in the post,ulancy and novicesh, ip. Many a young ¯ girl enters religion thirsting for sanctity but she soon acquires a spir- 2SCrookstdn, p'. 26. 26Richmond, ~n. 188. 2vPit.tsburgh, n. 64. 28Cincinnati. p, 82. 156 May, 1952"J ', QUINQUENNIAL REPORT itual throat that is forever parched b~" a. riovi~eship spent i_na.laundry, Safictit9 is not encouraged¯ when (l~e greatest emphasis and praise is given, to th~ accomplishme.nt of the dustless floor,' the gleaming chair, and to skill in 6perating a dishwashir~g machine. An institute of religious women can not only ~blind but als0 cheat itself. It can be, conten~ with a mere legalistic observance of the laws on the (anonical year. The ¯postulants and isecohd~year novices are v~ithout scrfi°ple .completely occupied in studies. ,The canonical novices are kept With-. in the novitiate, but ~lSe.y are employed for half¯ the week in ~a l~iundry or in similar dombstic duties andothey receive very litt'le instruction. The net result is a savin~ df expense andl the p.roduction of pc~orly trained religious. The'Cash balance is "in the bl~ick," but the human balance is-"in the. red." , Materi.al debts ar~ a heavy bhrden to r~li- ~ious institutes but they are ultimateIy paid. " A great, practical truth that ~eligi~us institutes should never, forget, is that human liabilities are on our books until their death. Higher superiors should sincerely arid ¯conscientiously reflect on the. constant principle of ~he Holy See in appro~ving constitutions that novices may not be employed in do- " mestic duties toan extent that interferes with. the prescribed' exercises' of the novic~eship. A primary obligatibn-of every'higher superior is the proper training of' the .postulants and novices. XIII. Communication o~ the Pro~essed with ihe Novices . ¯ ~'Are the novices, according to law.and the Constitutions. kept separate from the professed, and is any undue communication be-tween them tolerated (c. 564. §§~1, 2)?'-' Pontifical. 1-66; Diocesan. 153; Ind.ependentMon~s.teries, 87. Ihdependent monasteries and, religious °houses are l~ractically;con- .fined to orders of nuns. So~me of the questions proposed to the'se in-stitutes.' such as the difficultie~ experienced in the observahce of cloi-ster and the ability of the monastery to ha~ecompetent officials for the various posts of government, religious formation, and ~vcork are of general interest. H6wever. these matters now appertain more to a study of the apostoli~ Constitution "Spobsa Christi. Canon law forbids communication between the professed and the novices in all institutes, and one of'the ques, tion.s, proposed.also to independent monasteries, asks whether this law has been observed. A, professed in the sense of the Code is one who has made at least the first_religious,profession.' The professed .of ~,tern~.porary vows, eyen' , though they may be called .novices" in some instituters, 0canonically a~e not nowces but professed rehgmus. They are therefore ~forbidden to 157 JOSEPH F. GALLEN RevieW'for Religio~s. have communication with the novices. It will be interesting to see what the Sacred Congregation will do about ~he usage that is found, e~pecially in independent mon0steries, of treating th~ professed of temporary v:ows as novices and of keeping them with the novices for the entire period of temporary profession. TEN'YEAR INDEX--NOW AVAILABLE ' The Teri-Year Index of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (1942~ 1951) is now,available. It is a green-covered booklet of sixty-four pages including a general index with a.n integrated listing of all ar-ti'cles, authqrs, editorial comments, questions, and answers, communi.- cations, decisions of the Holy See and other items of interest to reli-gious, and a separate index of all books reviewed and noticed. The engries in the content index have been grouped according to subject matter, for instance, admission to religious life, beatifications', con-fession, indulgences, mariology, novitiate, . poverty, vocations, vows, and the like. All the articles of an autho'r are listed beneath his name. We appreciate the ~nerous response we have already received and. the encouraging ~omments. Kindly do not ask us to bill you. The, cost is one dollar per copy. Pleas4 send the money with the order to REVIEW F~)R RELIGIOUS, St. Mary's College, St. Mar, ys, Kansas. UNIOUE SCHOLARSHIP The "Walter Springs Memorial S~holarsl~ip," "at-Regis College, Denver, seems to be something truly unique. Walter Springs, a Negro student .of the early 1940's[ died a victim of race prejudice while in the armed forces in thi~ country. While at Regi~ he was a good student, a splendid athlete, very popular with the st_u'dent body. He was a convert, baptized in the Regis chapel. Some of his classmates .recently decided to perpetuate his memory with a s~holarship--~ *dual scholarship which each year will take care of one Negro student and on4 white student, "s~pplying each with books, tuition, board and room, and whatever other expenses are neces- PLUS Xll ON THE RELIGIOUS LIFE An English translation'of the address of the H'oly Father.to the First Congress of Religious at Rome, December 8, 1950; which was summarized by Father De Letter, .S.3.; in his article, "Contemporary Depreciation of the Religious Lif~" .(R.EVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 3anuary; 1952), is given in the April, 1952,-number of Life of the Spirit. This magazine can be obtained from Blackfriars. Publications,~ 34 Bloomsbury Str~'et, London, W. C. 1,.England. . ¯ .158 .Ques!:ions andAnswers Our chapter has voted ÷hat we should now fake solemn vows accord-' ing'÷o ÷he prescriptions of "Spo~sa Christi." Are ~he minority wh~ did not wish ÷o assume ÷his privilege bouffd to fake solemn vows with ~'he rest? ¯ Similarly, are ÷he lay Sis÷ers wffh perpetual vows, ~s well as ÷hecholr Sis-ter~ wi÷h ÷empor~ry vows who h~d no p~r÷ in the election, bound .~'o ~÷~ke solemn vows, or m~y provisions be mede for those who prefer if, to con-tinue ~ith dmple vows? Fi"rst. it may b.e~ well to call a'ttention to the text o~ the general statutes of the Apostolic Constitution. "Sponsa Christi." Article 3. § 2: "All.[monasteries in which 0nly simple.vows are taken can ob-tain a r~storation o~ solemn vows. Ifideed, unless trul~ grave reasons prevent it, tl~e~ will be solicitous about tal~ing, them again." These words do not contain a permission to take solemn vows without more ado, but theF extend an ~nwtanon to such communities to re-quest the ~avor ~rom'the ~oly See through the' Sacred Congregation o£ Religious. Naturally, tb~ first step will be to ~nd out the ff~ind o~ the communitF by a vote o~ the chapter, I~ that proves ~avorable. then a petition should be sent to the Hol~ See through.the local'or-dina~ y of the monastery, requesting permission to take solemn vows. The permission is granted under the ~ollowing conditions, taken ~rom a recent decree to that effect: 1. "In the a~oresaid monasterF, the nuns, °having first made temporar~ vows according to the norm 8~ canon 574. may take s~olemn, vows. 2. "The papal, cloister, as prescribed by the Code o~ Canon Law and by the Apostolic Constitution 'Sponsa Christi' and the In-struction of the Sacred Congreganon o~ Religious 'Inter. Praeclara' (ofNovember 23; 1950), should be observed. 3. "When all these circtlmstances have been provided for, the local ordinary, either personall~ or through a delegate, can in the name o~ the HolySee receive the solemn vows o~ the superior o~ the m0naster~; she, in turn,.can recmve the solemn pro~ession o~ the otbe~ nuns, provided they have.been professed for at least three,years.' 4. "If any of the present membdrs of the community wish not [to oblige themselves by sdlemn yowls.,, they are free to 'remain v~ith simple vows, but they must realize that they are nevertheless bound 159 QUE.STIONS AND AI~SWERS . . Reuieu.; [or Religio/us to a strict observance of all the lhws of papal cloister. 5. "Extern Sisters, having completed their period of ter~porary vows, are tc~ be admit'ted 6nly to simple perpetual vows. 6. "Finally, it is committed to N.N. (the local ordinary) to p~blish, this decree in the monastery of N.N. once he is certain that the required conditions have beew fulfilled. A document attesting -to the publication "a~nd execution of this decree is to be_preserved in . the archives of' the monastery, and a copy of that document is tO be sent to this Sacred Congregation." No comment is needed since the document Sl~eaks for itself, We maynote, however, that the opening~words of n. 4: "if any of the present, members of. the community." seem to imply~ tha~ all futu're members will be obliged to take solemn vows. " A religic~us who is suffering f~om. gastric, ulcers must ~'ake medicine during the nlght~ How can he oBtaln'a dlsp~ehsafio~ from the ,eucharistic fast so that he mayreceive H