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One of the major concerns of African scholars is the wide linguistic and educational gaps that exist among different ethnic groups within the same country. To bridge the gaps between inter-ethnic class and struggle, there is a need to put into consideration, the linguistic and educational set up of the country. Overall, this paper examines Nigerian languages, ethnicity and formal educational practices. It contributes to the very large literature on the conformity, formation and the question of identity, culture and language in Nigerian formal education. This work concurrently links linguistic identity to educational choice in Nigeria. The work concludes that ethnicization has become the highest level of threat to national integration thereby causing a lot of wobble in our democracy. One can then deduce that ethnic sentiments spring from man's innate (linguistic) and educational tendency to display allegiance to a particular group. The work suggests a review of the National Policy on education. The study also suggests ways of managing ethnicity and developing educationally and culturally through interaction with government agencies that disseminate policies through various indigenous languages. It also recommends the sustainability of functional education.

Formal thought disorder (FTD) is clinically manifested as disorganized speech, but there have been only few investigations of its linguistic properties. We examined how disturbance of thought may relate to the referential function of language as expressed in the use of noun phrases (NPs) and the complexity of sentence structures. We used a comic strip description task to elicit language samples from 30 participants with schizophrenia (SZ), 15 with moderate or severe FTD (SZ + FTD), and 15 minimal or no FTD (SZ −FTD), as well as 15 first-degree relatives of people with SZ (FDRs) and 15 neurotypical controls (NC). We predicted that anomalies in the normal referential use of NPs, sub-divided into definite and indefinite NPs, would identify FTD; and also that FTD would also be linked to reduced linguistic complexity as specifically measured by the number of embedded clauses and of grammatical dependents. Participants with SZ + FTD produced more referential anomalies than NC and produced the fewest definite NPs, while FDRs produced the most and thus also differed from NC. When referential anomalies were classed according to the NP type in which they occurred, the SZ + FTD group produced more anomalies in definite NPs than NC. Syntactic errors did not distinguish groups, but the SZ + FTD group exhibited significantly less syntactic complexity than non-SZ groups. Exploratory regression analyses suggested that production of definite NPs distinguished the two SZ groups. These results demonstrate that FTD can be identified in specific grammatical patterns which provide new targets for detection, intervention, and neurobiological studies. ; This research was supported by the Northumberland, Tyne and Wear NHS Mental Health Foundation Trust, including Research Capability Funding; and the Arts and Humanities Research Council (grant number AH/L004070/1 to W.H.), and the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spanish Government (grant FFI2016-77647-C2-1-P to W.H.). We would also like to thank Olivia Bailey, Laura Pearson, Jonathan Kat, Charlotte Richardson, and Sophie Clews for their transcription help. In addition, we would like to acknowledge Sarah Page and Kelsey Stoddart for their assistance in building the database.

Die sprachliche Situation Luxemburgs zeichnet sich durch eine besondere Komplexität aus, zu der nicht nur die drei offiziellen Landesprachen – Luxemburgisch, Französisch und Deutsch – sondern auch die migrationsbedingte Diversität der Bevölkerung sowie die tagtäglichen GrenzpendlerInnen aus den Nachbarländern beitragen. Der frühkindlichen Bildung kommt hierbei eine Schlüsselrolle zu – sowohl in Hinsicht auf die Vorbereitung einer erfolgreichen Bildungsbeteiligung im mehrsprachigen luxemburgischen Schulsystem, als auch bezüglich des sozialen Zusammenhalts einer äußerst heterogenen Gesellschaft. Der Vortrag gibt zunächst einen Überblick über die sprachliche und organisationale Verfasstheit des Luxemburger Bildungs- und Betreuungssystems und präsentiert dann Einblicke in drei verschiedene Forschungsbereiche an der Universität Luxemburg, die sich dem Thema aus unterschiedlichen disziplinären, methodischen und konzeptionellen Perspektiven annähern. Claudine Kirsch gibt Einblicke in zwei Projekte zur Förderung der Mündlichkeit, zum einen anhand der App iTEO mit 4- bis 7-Jährigen in der "école fondamentale", zum anderen durch Bildliteralität mit 2- bis 6-Jährigen in Kindertageseinrichtungen und Vorschulen (Projekte "iTEO" und "Multilingual oracies"). Claudia Seele stellt erste Befunde aus ihrer ethnographischen Forschung zur alltäglichen Sprachpraxis in staatlich geförderten Kindertageseinrichtungen für 0- bis 4-Jährige vor. Pascale Engel de Abreu geht schließlich der Frage nach, wie man zentrale sprachliche und kognitive Prozesse bei mehrsprachigen Kindern fördern kann. In diesem Zusammenhang stellt sie die Projekte "Multilinguaalt Léierpotenzial fërderen (POLILUX)" und "Lauter lëschteg Lauter" (LITMUL) vor. Abschließend werden einige übergreifende Fragen zur Diskussion aufgeworfen, beispielsweise zum Verhältnis zwischen Forschung, Politik und Praxis, zu den Möglichkeiten und Grenzen eines Transfers wissenschaftlichen Wissens, zur Bedeutung und Ausgestaltung von Aus- und Weiterbildung sowie zur Zusammenarbeit mit Fachkräften und Familien.

J. Sneddon reviews the book "Bahasa Tetanggaku: a notional-functional course in Bahasa Indonesia" by Ian J. White. Sneddon discusses the teaching of formal, informal or a combination of both forms of Bahasa Indonesia in Australia. He points out that far from being a conservative language, formal Indonesian has undergone more rapid change than informal and nonstandard varieties. (DÜI-Sen)

Industries like telecommunications, medical, automotive, military, avionics, and aerospace use complex real-time systems. Specification and Description Language (SDL) is one of the leading domain specific languages that is formally defined by international standards and well established in describing such systems. To check system properties abstracted model of the system is prepared in selected modeling language. We use Spin (Simple Promela Interpreter) model checker that is one of the leading tools for verification of complex concurrent and reactive systems. This paper focuses on modeling the SDL timer construct. It is one of the SDL constructs that is not easily modeled with Promela, but is present in many SDL systems. After an overview of the related work we propose a new Discrete Time Model for Promela (DTMP) that is seamlessly integrated in our framework for modeling SDL systems and can be used with the mainstream version of the Spin tool. To the best of our knowledge, this is not possible with the existing solutions. We describe how DTMP can be used to model SDL systems that use timers. Experimental results demonstrate its applicability to non-SDL systems with Fischer's mutual exclusion protocol and the Parallel Acknowledgment with Retransmission that were used in prior studies. We compare state-space requirements with one of the existing solutions DT Promela and DT Spin. With that, virtues and shortcomings of this high-level solution are exposed. We have shown that DTMP is effective when an extensive range of timer expiration values are used, which is usually the case in real-life SDL systems.

[EN] In this work, we analyze the computational power of Watson-Crick finite automata (WKFA) if some restrictions over the transition function in the model are imposed. We consider that the restrictions imposed refer to the maximum length difference between the two input strands which is called the delay. We prove that the language class accepted by WKFA with such restrictions is a proper subclass of the languages accepted by arbitrary WKFA in general. In addition, we initiate the study of the language classes characterized by WKFAs with bounded delays. We prove some of the results by means of various relationships between WKFA and sticker systems. ; This work has been developed with the financial support of the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 952215 corresponding to the TAILOR project. ; Sempere Luna, JM. (2021). On the Languages Accepted by Watson-Crick Finite Automata with Delays. Mathematics. 9(8):1-12. https://doi.org/10.3390/math9080813 ; S ; 1 ; 12 ; 9 ; 8

Chapter 1. Discourse coherence — From psychology to linguistics and back again (Maxime Amblard, Michel Musiol, Manuel Rebuschi) -- Chapter 2. Linguistic Recursion and Danish Discourse Particles, Language in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (Patrick Blackburn, Torben Braüner, Irina Polyanskaya) -- Chapter 3. Reasoning in multiparty dialogue involving patients with schizophrenia (Ellen Breitholtz, Robin Cooper, Christine Howes, Mary Lavelle) -- Chapter 4. Picturing Questions and Answers – a formal approach to SLAM (Maria Boritchev, Maxime Amblard) -- Chapter 5. Incoherences in Dialogues and their Formalization Focus on Dialogues with Schizophrenic Individuals (Christophe Fouqueré, Jean-Jacques Pinto, Myriam Quatrini) -- Chapter 6. Metaphorical Thinking and Delusions in Psychosis (Felicity Deamer, Sam Wilkinson) -- Chapter 7. The myth of irrationality: a Wittgensteinian approach to delusions and to the principle of charity (Mathieu Frérejouan) -- Chapter 8. (In)Coherences in the discourse of the schizophrenic: an anthropological approach to the mind (Fabrice Louis) -- Chapter 9. Conversations with madness, Meaning, Context and Incoherence (Valérie Aucouturier).

The study of the behaviour of non-deterministic automata has traditionally focused on the languages which can be associated to the different states. Under this interpretation, the different branches that can be taken at every step are ignored. However, we can also take into account the different decisions which can be made at every state, that is, the branches that can be taken, and these decisions might change the possible future behaviour. In this case, the behaviour of the automata can be described with the help of the concept of bisimilarity. This is the kind of description that is usually obtained when the automata are regarded as labelled transition systems or coalgebras. Contrarily to what happens with deterministic automata, it is not possible to describe the behaviour up to bisimilarity of states of a non-deterministic automaton by considering just the languages associated to them. In this paper we present a description of a final object for the category of non-deterministic automata, regarded as labelled transition systems, with the help of some structures defined in terms of languages. As a consequence, we obtain a characterisation of bisimilarity of states of automata in terms of languages and a method to minimise non-deterministic automata with respect to bisimilarity of states. This confirms that languages can be considered as the natural objects to describe the behaviour of automata. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. ; This work has been supported by the grant MTM2010-19938-C03-01 from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion (Spanish Government). The first author has been supported by a research project from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, No. 11271085). The second author has been supported by the predoctoral grant AP2010-2764 from the Ministerio de Educacion (Spanish Government). We also thank Jean-Eric Pin and Jan Rutten for their helpful comments. Finally, we are indebted to the anonymous referees for their careful reading of the paper and for bringing to our ...

Developments in the political and legislative spheres have a significant impact on marketing decisions made by an educational establishment. Moreover the great impact is made by the economic environment that determines the level of income for enterprises and purchasing power of the population. Changes in the economic environment cause not only quantitative but also structural shifts in education, the demand for educational services. So, in recent years, when the economic conditions of some enterprises in Ukraine have stabilized to some extent and they began to reach the level of international cooperation, the need for learning foreign languages by the employees of the enterprises and organizations has increased.Demographic characteristics play a particularly important role in the market demand for educational services. General decline in population, mainly due to the decreasing of the new generations being the main consumers of educational services, has significantly undermined the market of both formal and additional education branches. In addition, one of the main problems that hinder the development of paid education in Ukraine is the small size of the middle class being the major support of the development of demand and market taken in whole. The article considers the adult's attitude towards requirements raised by time and technologies – to communicate in several foreign languages as well as how non-formal foreign language education helps develop new approaches and methods for developing fluent and accurate foreign language speaking abilities.

Developments in the political and legislative spheres have a significant impact on marketing decisions made by an educational establishment. Moreover the great impact is made by the economic environment that determines the level of income for enterprises and purchasing power of the population. Changes in the economic environment cause not only quantitative but also structural shifts in education, the demand for educational services. So, in recent years, when the economic conditions of some enterprises in Ukraine have stabilized to some extent and they began to reach the level of international cooperation, the need for learning foreign languages by the employees of the enterprises and organizations has increased.Demographic characteristics play a particularly important role in the market demand for educational services. General decline in population, mainly due to the decreasing of the new generations being the main consumers of educational services, has significantly undermined the market of both formal and additional education branches. In addition, one of the main problems that hinder the development of paid education in Ukraine is the small size of the middle class being the major support of the development of demand and market taken in whole. The article considers the adult's attitude towards requirements raised by time and technologies – to communicate in several foreign languages as well as how non-formal foreign language education helps develop new approaches and methods for developing fluent and accurate foreign language speaking abilities.

The article considers the content of formal, non-formal, and informal learning of foreign languages. It is noted that formal education is education that is institutionalized, intentional, and planned through public organizations and recognized private institutions and together they create a system of state formal education. Non-formal education is education that is institutionalized, intentional, and planned by the subject of educational activity. Informal education is a form of education that is intentional or conscious, but not institutionalized. The author analyzes the main differences between formal, non-formal, and informal learning. It has been emphasized that learning, whether formal or informal, is intentional and partly accidental, but informal learning is purely accidental. It has been outlined that in the short term it makes more sense and, of course, more accessible to involve volunteers in the organization of social activities that promote non-formal and informal language learning, instead of immediately organizing official language courses. If such measures are properly designed and effectively implemented, they can motivate and encourage students to participate in formal language courses at a later stage. It has been noted that formal education characterizes education on the negative side due to certain limitations, namely the curriculum is based on norms and laws approved by the government/institution, while the students' needs and interests are not taken into account. When the students' needs and interests are taken into account, the students will be more interested and more willing to participate in various activities. On the other hand, non-formal education manages to transform the interests and needs of students into a flexible and adapted form of learning. ; У статті розглянуто зміст формального, неформального та інформального навчання іноземним мовам. Автором проаналізовано основні відмінності формального, неформального та інформального навчання. Наголошено, що у короткостроковій перспективі має більший сенс і, безумовно, доступніше залучати волонтерів до організації соціальних заходів, які сприяють неформальному та інформальному вивченню мов, замість того щоб відразу організовувати офіційні мовні курси. Якщо такі заходи розроблені належним чином та ефективно виконані, вони можуть вмотивувати та заохотити студентів брати участь в офіційних мовних курсах на більш пізньому етапі.

У статті розглянуто зміст формального, неформального та інформального навчання іноземним мовам. Автором проаналізовано основні відмінності формального, неформального та інформального навчання. Наголошено, що у короткостроковій перспективі має більший сенс і, безумовно, доступніше залучати волонтерів до організації соціальних заходів, які сприяють неформальному та інформальному вивченню мов, замість того щоб відразу організовувати офіційні мовні курси. Якщо такі заходи розроблені належним чином та ефективно виконані, вони можуть вмотивувати та заохотити студентів брати участь в офіційних мовних курсах на більш пізньому етапі. ; The article considers the content of formal, non-formal, and informal learning of foreign languages. It is noted that formal education is education that is institutionalized, intentional, and planned through public organizations and recognized private institutions and together they create a system of state formal education. Non-formal education is education that is institutionalized, intentional, and planned by the subject of educational activity. Informal education is a form of education that is intentional or conscious, but not institutionalized. The author analyzes the main differences between formal, non-formal, and informal learning. It has been emphasized that learning, whether formal or informal, is intentional and partly accidental, but informal learning is purely accidental. It has been outlined that in the short term it makes more sense and, of course, more accessible to involve volunteers in the organization of social activities that promote non-formal and informal language learning, instead of immediately organizing official language courses. If such measures are properly designed and effectively implemented, they can motivate and encourage students to participate in formal language courses at a later stage. It has been noted that formal education characterizes education on the negative side due to certain limitations, namely the curriculum is based on norms and laws approved by the government/institution, while the students' needs and interests are not taken into account. When the students' needs and interests are taken into account, the students will be more interested and more willing to participate in various activities. On the other hand, non-formal education manages to transform the interests and needs of students into a flexible and adapted form of learning.