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An important part of conservation practice is the empirical evaluation of program and policy impacts. Understanding why conservation programs succeed or fail is essential for designing cost-effective initiatives and for improving the livelihoods of natural resource users. The evidence we seek can be generated with modern impact evaluation designs. Such designs measure causal effects of specific interventions by comparing outcomes with the interventions to outcomes in credible counterfactual scenarios. Good designs also identify the conditions under which the causal effect arises. Despite a critical need for empirical evidence, conservation science has been slow to adopt these impact evaluation designs. We identify reasons for the slow rate of adoption, and provide suggestions for mainstreaming impact evaluation in nature conservation.

The aim of this article is to contribute to the development of ecological-economic incentives in conservation policy. Our approach uses strategies for establishing habitat networks as an example to develop spatially-oriented incentives in urban landscapes. The incentives should ideally consider aspects both of ecological effectiveness and economic efficiency. Our understanding of ecological-economic incentives reaches beyond this stage: not only must economic incentives in environmental policy be based on ecological knowledge, but also, they have to consider social aspects of implementation and acceptance. The ecological analysis of strategies for species protection in urban landscapes leads to management recommendations as a basis for the specification of environmental policy goals. Based on ecological knowledge, which shows where to invest scarce resources, the economic perspective aims at analysing and evaluating environmental policy instruments for their suitability and efficiency. The ecological and economic research is to be combined with a sociological approach, which investigates the choice and application of environmental policy measures as a system of social action. The analysis of problems of implementation and acceptance will be used to support the introduction of new instruments or to improve existing incentive systems related to nature conservation in urban landscapes. For this purpose, a survey was carried out on the use of environmental policy instruments (regulation, planning, economic incentives, communication, information) in German cities in 1997. Furthermore, two existing economic instruments in German nature protection policy are analysed in detail: the compensation charge as part of the impact regulation and incentive programmes on the level of the German federal states that offer financial incentive measures for nature protection.

Throughout the world, areas have been reserved for their exceptional environmental values, such as high biodiversity. Financial, political and community support for these protected areas is often dependent on visitation by nature-based tourists. This visitation inevitably creates environmental impacts, such as the construction and maintenance of roads, tracks and trails ; trampling of vegetation and erosion of soils ; and propagation of disturbance of resilient species, such as weeds. This creates tension between the conservation of environmental values and visitation. This review examines some of the main features of environmental impacts by nature-based tourists through a discussion of observational and manipulative studies. It explores the disturbance context and unravels the management implications of detecting impacts and understanding their causes. Regulation of access to visitor areas is a typical management response, qualified by the mode of access (e.g., vehicular, ambulatory). Managing access and associated impacts are reviewed in relation to roads, tracks and trails ; wildlife viewing ; and accommodations. Responses to visitor impacts, such as environmental education and sustainable tour experiences are explored. The review concludes with ten recommendations for further research in order to better resolve the tension between nature conservation and nature-based tourism.

• Opsomming: Hierdie artikel word gewy aan 'n baanbrekerspoging om stedelike natuurbewaring in Suid-Afrika toe te pas. Die dorp Sandton het in 1969 tot stand gekom toe aan voorstedelike gebiede en kleinhoewes noord van Johannesburg plaaslike selfbestuur toegeken is. Uit die staanspoor het die Stadsraad die regte verhouding tussen stads- en natuurgebiede probeer bewerkstellig ten einde die lewensgehalte van die inwoners te bestendig en om dele van die hoëveld in die dorpsgrond te bewaar. Hoewel die Stadsraad destyds geloof is vir sy versiendheid en onverskrokke optrede, geniet bewaring nie meer voorkeur sover dit Sandton se plaaslike bestuur aanbetref nie. Die Sentrale regering tree nou egter op om te voorkom dat die natuurlike omgewing heeltemal deur stedelike ontwikkeling vernietig word. ; • Summary: In this article one of the pioneering efforts to conserve nature in urban areas in South Africa is examined. The town of Sandton was founded in 1969 by combining suburbs and small-holdings to the north of Johannesburg in an independent local authority. From the outset the Town Council had attempted to balance the urban and natural environments in order to enhance the quality of life for the residents and to conserve portions of the highveld within the town lands. Although these far-sighted and bold moves were widely acclaimed at the time, conservation is no longer a priority in Sandton's local government. The central government, however, is now taking steps to ensure that the natural environment is not completely obliterated by urban development.