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This chapter introduces the main features of Russian youth policy and focuses on how it is being implemented in the territories classified as the Arctic zone by Russian law. While Russia does not have a specific law on youth or on the Arctic, both are strategically important for the development of the country, and numerous legal and political measures are implemented for youth in the Arctic. The chapter analyses three levels of regulation pertaining to youth in the Arctic, reflecting the organizational levels of the Russian state, that is, the federal, regional and municipal. We first trace how the main principles of national youth policy are interpreted differently in the regional administrative units of the Arctic. We then illustrate the implementation of particular municipal programmes through case studies from the cities of Neryungri (Yakutia), Novy Urengoy (Yamal), and Kirovsk/Apatity (Murmansk Region). We conclude that Russian law cannot currently handle the challenges facing Arctic youth, because it is too fragmented and antiquated. Furthermore, funding is lacking for its implementation, rendering some legislation tokenistic in nature and limited in effect. Federal laws on youth and the Arctic might solve that problem if backed by budget programmes. In the region, the main focus of youth policy is producing qualified personnel for the extractive industries, a focus too narrow to make the Arctic attractive enough to youth as place in which to realize their dreams. However, our cases show that there is more agency in Russia's Arctic regions than the image of a strong centralized federal state with a strong president might suggest.

"The true value of this work, it is firmly believed, rests in its 'firstness, ' and in its heuristic effects. Thus, the ultimate conclusions and implications are yet to be drawn." It was with these words that I concluded my book Russian Youth - Law, Deviance, and the Pursuit of Freedom in 1995. So, here we are now, some 20+ years hence. What can be said -- what can I say -- about any further and "ultimate" conclusions and implications? In the generation that has passed, what have we learned about the rule of law, legality, legal reasoning, and deviance in Russia? And what about the general subject of legal socialization - how young people learn about rules, norms and laws; what their attitudes about rules and laws are; and, if and whether this knowledge and these attitudes shape their behavior? These were all areas that were the subjects of Russian Youth. Before venturing into what can now be said about these various topics - which is a fair amount - let me mention at the outset what I cannot say. Russian Youth was built around two empirical studies - surveys of youth - conducted first in the period 1987-1990, and then subsequently in 1992. Both American and Russian young persons were included in these surveys"--

Preliminary Material /William A. Angel -- The Historical Framework of the Source Documents on the International Law of Youth Rights /William A. Angel -- Conventions and Recommendations on Youth Rights Adopted by the International Labour Conference 1919–1937 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights and Responsibilities Adopted by the Governing and Expert Bodies of the League of Nations 1923–1933 /William A. Angel -- Major International Youth Non-Governmental Organizations Active in the Promotion of Youth Rights and Responsibilities through The League of Nations 1926–1940 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions of the League of Nations Committee of Representatives of International Student Organizations 1926–1940 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions of the World Youth Peace Conference Eerde, Overijsel, Holland, August 17–26, 1928 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions of the First League of Nations World Youth Congress Geneva, Switzerland, August 31–September 16, 1936 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions of the Second League of Nations World Youth Congress Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, August 16–23, 1938 /William A. Angel -- Declaration for an International Students' Day Adopted by the International Student Conference London, England, November 17, 1941 /William A. Angel -- Declaration of the International Student Assembly in Washington, D.C., U.S.A., September 2–5, 1942 /William A. Angel -- Call to Action: Recommendations of the International Youth Conference in London, England, November 14–15, 1942 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights Adopted by the General Assembly and Economic and Social Council of the United Nations: 1965–1993 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights Adopted by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and Related Meetings 1969–1993 /William A. Angel -- Conventions and Recommendations on Youth Rights and Responsibilities Adopted by the General Conference of the International Labour Organization 1946–1993 /William A. Angel -- Convention and Resolutions on Youth Rights and Responsibilities Adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1960–1993 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights and Responsibilities Adopted by the World Health Assembly 1974–1993 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights and Responsibilities Adopted by Special United Nations World Conferences 1968–1993 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights and Responsibilities Adopted by World Youth Conferences Related to the United Nations System 1964–1994 /William A. Angel -- Resolutions on Youth Rights Adopted by the United Nations Regional Commissions /William A. Angel -- Towards a New and Stronger International Instrument, Programme of Action and Machinery to Promote and Protect the Rights and Responsibilities of Youth on a Global Basis /William A. Angel -- Preliminary Material /William A. Angel -- Editorial: International Law of Youth Rights – Sources and Challenges /William A. Angel -- Charter of the United Nations /William A. Angel -- Core Human Rights Treaties /William A. Angel -- General Comments by UN Treaty Body System /William A. Angel.

This article considers the impact that constitutional law can have on penal policy through an analysis of current developments in the law governing youth prisons in Germany. It sketches the emergence of constitutional guidelines for the development of German prison law generally and then pays close attention to a recent decision of the German Federal Constitutional Court on the constitutionality of current provisions on the implementation of youth imprisonment. The implications of the judgment of the Court for future German legislation in this area are outlined. Particular attention is paid to the emphasis that the legislator is expected to place on international minimum standards and to the role research on treatment plays in setting limits to legislative discretion. The conclusion considers the wider implications for penal policy of combining a formal rule that constitutionally guaranteed rights of prisoners can only be restricted by primary legislation, with substantive constitutional requirements for the objectives of penal legislation and for how these objectives should be met. It argues that such a rule is potentially applicable not only in Germany but also in other countries with similar constitutional traditions.

AbstractSocial influence through awareness of law abidance and enforcement is uncertain in preventing youth radicalism. Accordingly, the effects of the social norm for law abidance and deterrence on radicalism are unclear or debatable. To clarify these effects, this study randomly surveyed 883 Chinese youth in Hong Kong, where the national security law has recently launched to tackle radicalism. Results show the significant inverse effects of awareness of national security law enforcement, awareness of support for law abidance, and agreement on law abidance on radicalism. Nevertheless, the effect of awareness of the enforcement slightly weakened with education, the agreement, or awareness of the support. This weakening suggests situational deterrence. These results imply the preventability of youth radicalism by law, including its awareness, abidance, and enforcement.