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Background: In 2010 new legislation in Australia led to the establishment of the Australian Health Practitioner Regulatory Authority standards, now used to manage nursing and midwifery registration and the annual re-registration requirements for midwives and nurses. These clearly articulate the continuing professional development (CPD) requirements together with a guiding framework. Individuals need to engage in adult pedagogy which makes explicit the need for self-examination to identify and prioritise their learning needs. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate how existing registered midwives approach and are challenged by these changed statuatory requirementsin Australia, particularly completion of CPD activity. Design: This paper reports findings from phase one of a two phase, longitudinal, case study in which midwives describe their experience during in-depth qualitative interviews. Setting: Australia Participants: A sample of 20 female participants was recruited nationally from four states using a purposive sampling approach to provide maximum variation to explore the issue. Methods: Each participant took part in an in-depth interview. In order to facilitate reflection on experiences each participant was asked to discuss an object that held professional value or meaning to them. Results: A key theme in the findings is the relationship between motivation which influences the decisions that midwives are making about CPD, their ongoing registration and practice context. The findings reveal implicit values and beliefs about practice relationships and how these function as motivational factors that influence midwives decisions about CPD and practice options. Conclusions: The findings provide insight into the need for system wide dialogue to devise ways to support midwives to maintain as well as to continue to develop their practice, through CPD and to acknowledge the challenges faced by those midwives who currently hold dual registration as a registered nurse in the context of the changed requirements.

A synthetic cohort analysis of the probability of employment and participating in the labour force for Indigenous and non‐Indigenous Australians is presented in this article.

Data from the 1986, 1991 and 1996 censuses are used to conduct a synthetic cohort analysis of the income distributions for Indigenous and non‐Indigenous males and females. The advantage of this approach is that statistical techniques can be used to control for unobservable differences between the Indigenous and non‐Indigenous populations, such as ability and schooling quality, as well as assimilation, discrimination and other attitudes. The results demonstrate that the failure to control for unobserved differences in existing studies of Indigenous income will induce a significant bias in both empirical and policy analysis. Trends in relative income are also identified and are related to broad changes in labour force status. The deliberate policy shift in the early 1990s to paying welfare to individuals ('individualisation') has resulted in an increase in financial independence among many females. The other insight from the analysis is that the generosity of welfare payments or improved targeting of benefits has materially advantaged extremely poor Indigenous people. While this is a positive outcome in its own right, policy also needs to take into account the interaction between tax, welfare, productivity and incentives to work.

Deterrence theory has been repeatedly used to explain individuals'choices to commit vs. not commit crimes. Its utilitarian premise is that individuals will choose to commit or not commit crimes based on the certainty, swiftness, and severity of punishments. This study examines the perceived certainty of sanctions among offenders mandated into intensive probation and the effects of varying levels of perceived sanction certainty in deterring offenders from violating probation requirements. Data from an Intensive Supervision Probation program in New Jersey are used. Results support the salience of offenders'perceptions of sanction certainty on their intensive probation outcomes, and implications for policy are discussed.

1. Background issues -- 2. Indigenous health status in perspective -- 3. Comparing like with like: analysis by income -- 4. Per capita health expenditure by income and Indigenous origin -- 5. Further information on the usage of health services by equivalent income -- 6. Health status by equivalent income -- 7. Conclusion.