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Many assume that young Americans are apathetic, self-absorbed, and
indifferent to civic matters. It is a turned-off generation, we are
told. But nothing could be further from the truth. A host of data
suggests young Americans give their energy, time, and money to their
schools, community, and nation. A recent report by the Center for
Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE),
for example, suggests young Americans volunteer at higher rates than
do older Americans (Lopez 2003). The frequency of pitching-in has
also increased: In 1990 some 65% of college freshman reported
volunteering in high school, and by 2003 that figure had risen to
83%. Rates of volunteer work for those under 25 are now twice as
high as for those over 55. Perhaps this is the
activist generation.

The authors provide data on mental health sequelae of residential crowding among children, demonstrating significant associations between the number of persons per room and an index of psychological health. These relations are shown in two independent samples of urban and rural children living in poverty. The density–mental health link among the rural, low-income sample is qualified by a gender interaction indicating that boys are more vulnerable to negative outcomes. This interaction was not found among the smaller, inner-city sample. In both samples, children from higher density homes are less likely to persist in an achievement, problem-solving context. The authors did not find support for their hypothesis that learned helplessness would at least partially account for the relation between residential crowding and mental health among children.

This book is a 1990 account of the ways in which young Aborigines were at a disadvantage before laws and legislation had been introduced, intended to improve their position. Aboriginal Youth and the Criminal Justice System focuses on South Australia, where detailed statistics are available, in a sophisticated analysis of the exact nature of the discrimination experienced by young Aborigines. Fay Gale, Rebecca Bailey-Harris and Joy Wundersitz examine the criminal justice system in operation; from the initial intervention by a police officer, through the process of screening and assessment to the final outcome - which all too often is a criminal record. The research clearly shows that at every point where discretion was exercised within this system, Aboriginal youths received the harsher option. Thus disadvantage is heaped on disadvantage until young Aboriginals were imprisoned at 23 times the rate of other young Australians. Even for those who escaped detention, participation in the criminal justice system was often such an ordeal that it became a form of punishment in itself. Discretion, though preferable to inflexible rules could operate against a group whose lifestyle and values differed from mainstream society

UK NHS contracts mediate the relationship between dental and medical practitioners as independent contractors, and the state which reimburses them for their services to patients. There have been successive revisions of dental and medical contracts since the 1990s alongside a change in the levels of professional dominance and accountability. Unintended consequences of the 2006 dental contract have led to plans for further reform. We set out to identify the factors which facilitate and hinder the use of contracts in this area. Previous reviews of theory have been narrative, and based on macro-theory arising from various disciplines such as economics, sociology and political science. This paper presents a systematic review and aggregative synthesis of the theories of contracting for publicly funded health care. A logic map conveys internal pathways linking competition for contracts to opportunism. We identify that whilst practitioners' responses to contract rules is a result of micro-level bargaining clarifying patients' and providers' interests, responses are also influenced by relationships with commissioners and wider personal, professional and political networks.

Purpose
This paper aims to examine the need for outcome research in secure children's homes, explaining the problems for young people and how we can remedy this.


Design/methodology/approach
This is a discussion paper raising issues of importance as to who these children are, what is provided and how well they work in providing what is a very expensive service.


Findings
There is a great need to investigate the efficacy of secure children's homes by assessing outcomes.


Originality/value
As far as the authors are aware, this topic has not been previously discussed in academic journals.

Fine-scale landscape features such as scattered trees are increasingly thought to be critical for dispersal, and need to be considered in connectivity modelling and planning. Yet existing modelling approaches struggle to adequately take fine-scale features and threshold dynamics of dispersal behaviour into account, in part because of computational limitations. We present a framework for modelling connectivity at fine spatial resolutions over large spatial extents. Our framework involves a novel approach to characterising fine-scale dispersal behaviour within the context of existing modelling methods, and uses key parameters of dispersal behaviour to link models and their interpretation at multiple scales. We address computational limitations by creating a gap-crossing threshold layer, which identifies areas where dispersal is possible because of the presence and spacing of fine-scale connectivity elements. This layer is combined with a dispersal-cost layer within a graph-network analysis to identify the optimal least-cost path between patches. Graph metrics are used to assess the importance of specific patches at the regional-scale and to describe connectivity for the whole landscape. A local-scale connectivity model using the Circuitscape software complements the regional analysis outputs by considering all possible pathways across a landscape simultaneously rather than a single least-cost path. The framework was designed specifically to be applied by land use planners who need to quantify the impacts of property development on fine-scale connectivity, yet need to assess implications at the regional scale. We demonstrate the framework by applying it in the Lower Hunter region, Australia. ; This project was funded by the Australian Government Sustainable Regional Development Program in conjunction with the National Environmental Research Program's Landscapes and Policy research Hub.

Despite the proliferation of connectivity modelling approaches, static models have limited usefulness for decision-making by policy-makers and land managers, particularly where significant changes in land uses might be expected into the future. This study presents a flexible, scenario-based approach for modelling fine-scaled connectivity using graph-theory with least-cost paths for modelling connectivity at the regional scale and circuit theory at the local scale. The method allows for the assessment of a range of scenarios based on varying land use practices. Using the Lower Hunter region, Australia as a case study we tested five scenarios that describe the impact of different development choices on connectivity, ranging from high rates of urbanisation to revegetation of a designated green corridor. The changes in connectivity from the current state were assessed by visualising component boundaries and link locations and calculating patch- and landscape-scale graph metrics. In the Lower Hunter we found the green corridor scenario increased connectivity both visually and quantitatively, as shown by a 105% increase in the integral index of connectivity (IIC) which measures habitat availability (reachability) at the landscape scale. In contrast the urbanisation scenario resulted in a decrease in connectivity, with a 39% decrease in the IIC. The approach outlined in this paper is flexible, enabling a range of interests to be included, depending on the datasets available and the issues that need to be addressed. Such methods can be readily and rapidly applied by consultants or government agencies, in this region and elsewhere, to incorporate connectivity modelling into development plans.

Despite the proliferation of connectivity modelling approaches, static models have limited usefulness for decision-making by policy-makers and land managers, particularly where significant changes in land uses might be expected into the future. This study presents a flexible, scenario-based approach for modelling fine-scaled connectivity using graph-theory with least-cost paths for modelling connectivity at the regional scale and circuit theory at the local scale. The method allows for the assessment of a range of scenarios based on varying land use practices. Using the Lower Hunter region, Australia as a case study we tested five scenarios that describe the impact of different development choices on connectivity, ranging from high rates of urbanisation to revegetation of a designated green corridor. The changes in connectivity from the current state were assessed by visualising component boundaries and link locations and calculating patch- and landscape-scale graph metrics. In the Lower Hunter we found the green corridor scenario increased connectivity both visually and quantitatively, as shown by a 105% increase in the integral index of connectivity (IIC) which measures habitat availability (reachability) at the landscape scale. In contrast the urbanisation scenario resulted in a decrease in connectivity, with a 39% decrease in the IIC. The approach outlined in this paper is flexible, enabling a range of interests to be included, depending on the datasets available and the issues that need to be addressed. Such methods can be readily and rapidly applied by consultants or government agencies, in this region and elsewhere, to incorporate connectivity modelling into development plans.

New tuberculosis vaccines have made substantial progress in the development pipeline. Previous modelling suggests that adolescent/adult mass vaccination may cost-effectively contribute towards achieving global tuberculosis control goals. These analyses have not considered the budgetary feasibility of vaccine programmes. We estimate the maximum total cost that the public health sectors in India and China should expect to pay to introduce a M72/AS01(E)-like vaccine deemed cost-effective at country-specific willingness to pay thresholds for cost-effectiveness. To estimate the total disability adjusted life years (DALYs) averted by the vaccination programme, we simulated a 50% efficacy vaccine providing 10-years of protection in post-infection populations between 2027 and 2050 in India and China using a dynamic transmission model of M. tuberculosis. We investigated two mass vaccination strategies, both delivered every 10-years achieving 70% coverage: Vaccinating adults and adolescents (age ≥10y), or only the most efficient 10-year age subgroup (defined as greatest DALYs averted per vaccine given). We used country-specific thresholds for cost-effectiveness to estimate the maximum total cost (C(max)) a government should be willing to pay for each vaccination strategy. Adult/adolescent vaccination resulted in a C(max) of $21 billion (uncertainty interval [UI]: 16–27) in India, and $15B (UI:12–29) in China at willingness to pay thresholds of $264/DALY averted and $3650/DALY averted, respectively. Vaccinating the highest efficiency age group (India: 50–59y; China: 60–69y) resulted in a C(max) of $5B (UI:4–6) in India and $6B (UI:4–7) in China. Mass vaccination against tuberculosis of all adults and adolescents, deemed cost-effective, will likely impose a substantial budgetary burden. Targeted tuberculosis vaccination, deemed cost-effective, may represent a more affordable approach.