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Twenty-two years after the withdrawal of the Soviets, Afghanistan is steeling itself for the exit of US troops by 2014. Thomas H Johnson explains how ethnic and political divides, coupled with weak institutions, provide seeds for a return to a heightened conflict after troops leave.

NBR Special Report #22 ; This essay examines the social and political roles of religious !gures in southern Afghanistan in an attempt to develop a more nuanced understanding of the present insurgency.

The article of record may be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2013.740228 ; Since 1978, insurgents in Afghanistan have endured a state of constant conflict, facing two occupying forces that have fielded modernized, highly capable militaries with a multitude of numerical and technological advantages over them. The asymmetry of these conflicts drove a rapid cycle of adaptation and innovation on the part of the insurgents that continues today. The Taliban way of war and approach to governance focuses on turning populations against political weakness and fielding simple and effective governance at the local and provincial levels. The Taliban has proven to be a highly adaptive, innovative, and resilient organization, drawing on tactics from conflicts in Iraq, Pakistan, and their own experience in Afghanistan to fight an effective and enduring defensive jihad. The introduction of improvised explosive devices, suicide bombers, and more recently a rising rate of assassinations all demonstrate the Taliban's ability to adapt tactically and innovate at the strategic level. These innovations are even more significant when one considers the cultural, social, and ideological barriers to change and how the Taliban overcame those barriers to include in their arsenal formerly taboo actions, such as suicide bombing. Understanding the innovation shown by insurgents in Afghanistan provides critical insights into the conflict the US-led coalition faces today and how it may be fought tomorrow.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09592310701674176 ; The Taliban has recently re-emerged on the Afghan scene with vengeance. Five years after being defeated by a US coalition, the resurgent Taliban, backed by al-Qaeda, are mounting an increasingly virulent insurgency, especially in the east and south, near the Afghanistan-Pakistan border. The Taliban now represents a significant challenge to the survival of President Hamid Karazi's government. This article assesses the narrative strategy the Taliban has employed to garner support with the Afghan people. Specifically, this paper assesses the narratives of Taliban shabnamah, commonly referred to as 'night letters' in an effort to unravel what the Taliban represents.

Is Afghanistan approaching unheralded success or tragic failure? It depends upon whom one asks. Several years after an international coalition and US-backed Afghan insurgents removed the ruling Islamic fundamentalist Taliban from power, experts differ as to Afghanistan's future: will it be stability and democracy, or a return to its chaotic and turbulent past?

Critical Issues Facing the Middle East: Security, Politics, Economics. By: James A. Russell, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 ; On October 9, 2004, Afghanistan held a prehistorical presidential election. Three and a half months later, on January 30, 2005, the people of Iraq participated in their first open election in 50 years. Both of these elections were of intense interest to the United States and the Bush administration because they represented the initial recognition of a central aspect of the radical post- 9/11 shift in U.S. foreign policy strategy and tactics - the aggressive pursuit of global democracy.

Afghanistan, relative to democratic development, has become a country of contrasts. Afghanistan has made great strides since the demise of the Taliban regime. In less than five years, the country hosted the first democratic elections in its history; drafted and ratified a new constitution; and has laid the foundation for numerous seemingly democratic institutions. Yet much is left to be accomplished before Afghanistan can be considered a democratic nation.