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Coal dominates energy production of modern India, shaping the economic and political milieu of the country and dictating its energy future. But invisible to the state's view of coal running the nation, are roles played by this commodity in the livelihoods of millions of poor who live on the coal tracts of the country. In this paper, I argue that there are four coal economies — with yet another one lurking within or following behind as a shadow — in India. Each of these economies has different meanings of coal to those who are involved in the economy, producing the'diverse worlds' of coal. To substantiate my argument, I critically analyse official and field-based primary data within a'diverse economies framework' to present the intricate interlinkages among these worlds. I show that the multiple coal worlds are neither tiered in a hierarchical manner, nor'parallel' in the sense of dualism implied in a simplified formal-informal dichotomy. Rather, these worlds of coal have different actors, and their domains are ruled by different norms and values about the qualities of coal as a material commodity; yet they overlap and intersect with each other through their complex labour regimes. ; I thank the Australian Research Council (Grant ID: DP130104396, Beyond the Resource Curse) for funding one part of this study.

This paper argues that feminisation is beginning to occur in the mining industry, a process associated with an expanded notion of mining as a livelihood in the radically changing political economy of extractive industries. It demonstrates that new gendered geographies are being created as grinding rural poverty pushes large numbers of women into informal mining (also known as artisanal and small-scale mining or ASM)-a fundamentally different type of economic activity from the capitalised, industrialised mining operated by large corporations. Further, it shows that a number of civil society initiatives, industry measures, policy processes and action-research with large-scale mining corporations are currently underway in response to an overall enhanced awareness of gender mainstreaming. It argues that these initiatives, ensued from women's struggles and feminist contributions, are helping to integrate gender more firmly in a wide range of extractive environments, and how these have enhanced the visibility of women and gender in mining. The paper ends by indicating the existing gaps in inquiry and possible directions for future research by feminist geographers into these gendered economic spaces.

Gender is the key explaining factor for why the social and environmental impacts of mining do not affect communities in a homogeneous manner. Deliberate neglect of gendered power dynamics within the community often engineers a shift to, or enhances, masculinities associated with mining projects in the Global South. Drawing on a feminist political ecology perspective, this chapter argues that a rights-based approach to the study of mining impacts on communities must also integrate gender considerations when thinking about changes in water quality and quantity caused by large mineral extractive operations.

Gender is the key explaining factor for why the social and environmental impacts of mining do not affect communities in a homogeneous manner. Deliberate neglect of gendered power dynamics within the community often engineers a shift to, or enhances, masculinities associated with mining projects in the Global South. Drawing on a feminist political ecology perspective, this chapter argues that a rights-based approach to the study of mining impacts on communities must also integrate gender considerations when thinking about changes in water quality and quantity caused by large mineral extractive operations.

This paper proposes a theoretical approach to hybridity, a flexible or "wet" theory that does not pretend to be universal, that can accommodate flux, and that is contextualised in locational terms and comfortable with empirical facts. More specifically, it argues for reconsideration of one of the foundational binaries, that of land and water, within the rubric of hybrid environments. The paper suggests that it is possible, thinking through the historical production of water/lands, for geographers to move beyond what has become an indissoluble dichotomy. To make these points, it takes readers to the floodplains of Bengal, which have conventionally been seen as products of fluvial action, and shows the critical roles played by colonial (and postcolonial) interventions - including changes in land tenure and revenue collection - to have produced hybrid environments that can potentially destabilize the conventional water-land binary characterised by their uncertain existence, their indeterminacy, and their fluid liminal presence as ambiguous temporal, cultural, and political geographies.

This paper proposes a theoretical approach to hybridity, a flexible or "wet" theory that does not pretend to be universal, that can accommodate flux, and that is contextualised in locational terms and comfortable with empirical facts. More specifically, it argues for reconsideration of one of the foundational binaries, that of land and water, within the rubric of hybrid environments. The paper suggests that it is possible, thinking through the historical production of water/lands, for geographers to move beyond what has become an indissoluble dichotomy. To make these points, it takes readers to the floodplains of Bengal, which have conventionally been seen as products of fluvial action, and shows the critical roles played by colonial (and postcolonial) interventions - including changes in land tenure and revenue collection - to have produced hybrid environments that can potentially destabilize the conventional water-land binary characterised by their uncertain existence, their indeterminacy, and their fluid liminal presence as ambiguous temporal, cultural, and political geographies.

Social science research is emerging on a range of issues around large and small-scale mining, connecting them to broader social, cultural, political, historical and economic factors rather than purely measuring the environmental impacts of mining. Within

Women's use of water differs from men in essentially one aspect: in cleansing the body of menstrual blood. The pledge of the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector to place 'women at the centre' of development has in recent years, therefore, come to

Community participation, an imperative ingredient in any intervention, in spite of all the recent emphasis, it has continued to remain a form of collective bargaining. Instead of reversing its position in face of community opposition, governments are tempted to reinforce it by seeking the scientific opinion from experts. By favouring this opinion as the rational approach, the government undermines the essence of community participation. To illustrate this point, the paper traces the recent history of M5 East Motorway Tunnel Exhaust Stock located in a residential area of Sydney. I show how, between two modes of knowledge systems of two groups opposing each other, a privileging process subordinates citizens' preferences and understandings to those held by experts. Thus the process of participation becomes circumscribed by the government's implicit preferences that are imposed on the community in the name of a more 'scientific' view irrespective of citizen opinions.

Informal mining activities provide livelihoods for millions of poor in mineral-rich developing countries. Yet, they continue to remain one of the least understood areas in mineral resource management. While its poverty reduction potential is acknowledged, the heterogeneous forms of mining that come under its purview are not well discussed. This article aims to draw attention to the politics of definition by briefly introducing the reader to the nomenclature currently used to describe such mining activities. Then the article examines the nature of informality that justifies the name, and then illustrates the claim by documenting a range of informal mining practices in India with cited examples from other Asian countries. It illustrates the variations in social-economic, technical and legal characteristics, by putting such mining in a community and participatory framework. Finally, the article discusses ways to move towards sustainable development with community participation in mineral-rich areas of developing countries.

Social science research is emerging on a range of issues around large and small-scale mining, connecting them to broader social, cultural, political, historical and economic factors rather than purely measuring the environmental impacts of mining. Within

Women's use of water differs from men in essentially one aspect: in cleansing the body of menstrual blood. The pledge of the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector to place 'women at the centre' of development has in recent years, therefore, come to

Community participation, an imperative ingredient in any intervention, in spite of all the recent emphasis, it has continued to remain a form of collective bargaining. Instead of reversing its position in face of community opposition, governments are tempted to reinforce it by seeking the scientific opinion from experts. By favouring this opinion as the rational approach, the government undermines the essence of community participation. To illustrate this point, the paper traces the recent history of M5 East Motorway Tunnel Exhaust Stock located in a residential area of Sydney. I show how, between two modes of knowledge systems of two groups opposing each other, a privileging process subordinates citizens' preferences and understandings to those held by experts. Thus the process of participation becomes circumscribed by the government's implicit preferences that are imposed on the community in the name of a more 'scientific' view irrespective of citizen opinions.

Informal mining activities provide livelihoods for millions of poor in mineral-rich developing countries. Yet, they continue to remain one of the least understood areas in mineral resource management. While its poverty reduction potential is acknowledged, the heterogeneous forms of mining that come under its purview are not well discussed. This article aims to draw attention to the politics of definition by briefly introducing the reader to the nomenclature currently used to describe such mining activities. Then the article examines the nature of informality that justifies the name, and then illustrates the claim by documenting a range of informal mining practices in India with cited examples from other Asian countries. It illustrates the variations in social-economic, technical and legal characteristics, by putting such mining in a community and participatory framework. Finally, the article discusses ways to move towards sustainable development with community participation in mineral-rich areas of developing countries.