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AbstractBetween the 1940s and 1970s, Spain used a variety of economic policies that hindered international trade. Because the mix of tariffs, quotas, administrative barriers, and exchange rate regimes varied greatly over time, the quantification of the effect of the various trade policies on international trade in this period is particularly elusive. In this paper, we use historical bilateral trade flows and a structural gravity model to quantify the evolution of Spain's border thickness, a summary measure of its barriers to international trade. We find that Spain's borders in the period 1948–75 were thicker than those of any other country in Western Europe, even after the liberalization of trade that started in 1959. These comparatively higher impediments to international trade implied substantial negative effects on consumer welfare. We estimate that accumulated welfare costs over the period 1948–75 exceed 20 per cent of a year's total consumption.

Artículo de revista ; The economic, political and institutional ties between Latin America and China have become closer as the Chinese economy has grown. Indeed, as a result of its rapid economic growth, China now plays a systemic role in the world economy. However, since the global financial crisis, the Chinese economic model has shown signs of exhaustion and controlling the rate of growth may prove to be a particularly difficult challenge, taking into account the profound structural transformation to be addressed and the high level of debt of the Chinese economy. Against this backdrop, the article provides an empirical analysis of the effects on the Latin American countries' growth of their trade and investment relations with China. It also analyses the channels through which the Chinese economic slowdown is transmitted to the region. The study shows that, through the trade channel at least, an unexpected slowdown in China could have a negative impact on economic growth in Latin America

Artículo de revista ; In 2019 the European Union (EU) and the Latin American countries that make up the Common Market of the South (Mercosur) reached a political agreement to sign, ratify and implement a trade agreement between the two blocs. This agreement is expected to bring trade and welfare benefits on both sides of the Atlantic. The impact estimated for the EU will be similar to that of other recent agreements, such as that entered into with Japan. However, the EU-Mercosur "agreement in principle" has raised concerns owing to its potential impact on the environment and climate, even though it includes strict provisions in these areas and entails very few changes to the tariff and non-tariff measures adopted for agricultural imports from Mercosur. This article focuses on a specific aspect of the EU-Mercosur agreement's potential environmental impact, namely, the change envisaged in global CO2 emissions. Despite the uncertainty associated with such estimations, when using a standard general equilibrium model, the increase in CO2 emissions deriving from this agreement is found to be limited. Moreover, in certain plausible scenarios, application of the very stringent environmental standards provided for in the agreement in principle could even lower emissions in Mercosur countries.

Artículo de revista ; The Argentine economy is in a complicated transition phase. To correct the major fiscal and inflationary imbalances built up in the previous decade, the new government that took office in December 2015 opted for a gradual fiscal adjustment, supported by a situation of abundant international liquidity. In parallel, the Argentine central bank assumed ambitious inflation-reducing objectives. However, in 2018 the lack of progress on the inflation front, the tightening of international financial conditions and a severe drought placed Argentina under the market's gaze and prevented it from pursuing the financing of this gradual adjustment ; accordingly, the government decided to apply for IMF financial assistance. The agreement with the Fund, approved in June and amended in October 2018, plans for a rapid fiscal and monetary adjustment that will provide for a reduction in its twin deficits (fiscal and external alike) and an effective decline in inflation, moving the economy onto a stable growth path. The success of the programme, to which the Argentine authorities have made a clear commitment, is nonetheless subject to internal and external risks, and poses a significant challenge for the country