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Inhaltsangabe: The rapid adoption of wind energy in the renewable energy mix can be seen in many industrialized nations in the past decade, in particular the need to agreed greenhouse gas reduction and stable energy supply are seen as a sound vision for a sustainable energy policy. In an emerging market such as South Africa there are abundant renewable resources including wind energy, however there is low adoption observed to date. This study investigates barriers to entry in the South African wind energy sector and what the priorities are to remove such barriers for successful deployment of wind technology. Therefore, it was required to examine successful deployment of wind energy in the European Union and how such barriers were removed; this was set in the current status of the renewable energy sector and existing barriers in South Africa. It was necessary to gain insight of the inter-related issues on opening a traditional fossil fuel based energy market to a transitional implementation of renewable energy provisioning, considering the current utility monopoly based energy landscape in South Africa.The author works in the area of Global consulting in Environment, Infrastructure Utilising Renewable Energies multiple sectors. He is also published author on Zimbabwe's Heavenly Ruins investigating the building architecture and connections in ancient history.

From the introduction: The rapid adoption of wind energy in the renewable energy mix can be seen in many industrialized nations in the past decade, 'in particular the need to agreed greenhouse gas reduction and stable energy supply are seen as a sound vision for a sustainable energy policy'. In an emerging market such as South Africa there are abundant renewable resources including wind energy, however there is low adoption observed to date. This study aims to investigate barriers to entry in the South African wind energy sector and what the priorities are to remove such barriers for successful deployment of wind technology. Therefore, it was required to examine successful deployment of wind energy in the European Union and how such barriers were removed; this was set in the current status of the renewable energy sector and existing barriers in South Africa. It was necessary to gain insight of the inter-related issues on opening a traditional fossil fuel based energy market to a transitional implementation of renewable energy provisioning, also considering the current utility monopoly based energy landscape in South Africa. Chapter one considers the global shift for the need to implement renewable energy and highlights key issues such as security of supply, carbon reduction linked to climate change. Section three looks at the global benefits of renewable energy within the energy mix. Section four highlights key policy shifts and wind energy potential and section five gives an overview of South Africa's renewable energy policies. Chapter two looks at the research question of the need to answer what barriers exist and how to remove these in South Africa. Section three and four describe the qualitative research method applied and the setting of sampling. Section five, six and seven look at the tools used for telephone interviews. Section eight and nine describe the literary research applied, the key institutional papers reviewed and barriers identified. Chapter three describes the lessons learned in a global context on policies for renewable energy to deploy wind energy successfully. Section three looks at the background on European lessons learned with key European wind markets focused on such as Denmark, Germany, Spain and UK. Sections four to thirteen look at the barriers to entry, key mechanism such as feed-in tariffs, tendering, effectiveness of support schemes in various EU markets and conclusion on support schemes. Sections fourteen to twenty two look at specific barriers to entry, offshore, grid access, distribution, socio-economic effects, public and environmental issues with conclusion on removal of barriers. Chapter four sections one to three look at the energy mix, policy status and wind potential in South Africa. Sections four and five look at current support mechanisms and provincial initiatives. Sections six to eight describe distribution and small scale wind barriers and socio-economic considerations. Section nine and ten look at non implementation at regulatory and legal level, issues on power purchase agreements, and inconsistencies in integrated resource planning. Chapter five looks at the survey methods used the raw data analysis and limitations of the survey. Chapter six looks at the qualitative findings in South Africa. Section two to six describes the analysis is themed on successful initiatives, unsuccessful measures, barriers to entry, on priorities to remove barriers. Chapter seven presents the discussion based on the results. Chapter eight draws conclusions and chapter nine recommends and identifies further areas of research.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Abstract3 Acknowledgements5 List of Abbreviations8 List of Illustrations9 Introduction9 Background and aims of study10 1.1.1Reasons for renewable energy in a world context12 1.2Global lessons on barriers to renewable energy12 1.3Global benefits of renewables in the energy mix14 1.4South Africa's Emissions15 1.5Scaling up wind energy17 1.6South Africa's wind energy potential18 2.Research Question20 2.1Research objective20 2.2Research method20 2.3Qualitative research method20 2.4Defining the qualitative research setting: Sampling21 2.5Method Tools21 2.6Questionnaires22 2.7Stakeholder interviews22 2.8Literary research outline22 2.9Academic sources23 3.Lessons from Europe24 3.1Lessons from Europe background24 3.2Barriers to entry25 3.3Support mechanisms26 3.4Regional harmonisation of support schemes26 3.5Tendering26 3.6Feed-in Tariffs27 3.7Fiscal mechanisms overview27 3.8Evaluation of specific support schemes29 3.9Effectiveness of support mechanisms29 3.10Effective mechanism in key wind markets in Europe31 3.11Conclusion on EU support mechanisms32 3.12Exploring barriers to entry33 3.13Gale force offshore barriers33 3.14Grid access34 3.15Smart grid and decentralized electricity34 3.16Renewable energy and socio economic effects35 3.17Public acceptance and property35 3.18Environmental impact assessment36 3.19Adverse Effects: Noise, visual and electromagnetic impact36 3.20Conclusion on removal of barriers37 4Energy Landscape in South Africa38 4.1Background38 4.2Renewable energy policy status40 4.3Barriers to wind energy in South Africa41 4.4Eskom and renewable energy sector42 4.5Barriers - Mapping the wind potential43 4.6Support mechanisms for removal of barriers45 4.7Provincial and local Initiatives47 4.8Distribution and decentralized Energy48 4.9Small scale wind49 4.10Renewable energy and socio-economic Impact50 4.11Measures remaining to remove existing barriers51 4.12Slowly off the mark – Refit53 4.13Priorities for removal53 5.1Survey Methods54 5.2Data analysis54 5.3Stakeholders interviewed55 5.4Limitations56 6.1Qualitative Findings57 6.2On current status of the South African RE sector57 6.3On successful support initiatives for renewable energy58 6.4On unsuccessful measures59 6.5On barriers to entry60 6.6On removal of barriers61 6.7On priorities to remove barriers61 7.1Discussion63 7.2Institutional and administration barriers63 7.3A question of liberalization63 7.4Market transformation65 7.5RE tradable certificates66 7.6Grid access66 7.7Issues of rising land prices67 7.8Skills transfer and training67 8.Conclusion67 9.Recommendations, Research and Development69 Appendix 1Energy from Wind70 Appendix 2Historical Overview of Promotion Strategies in European Countries73 Appendix 3Inventory of Current Support Systems74 Appendix 4Questionnaire Example78 Appendix 5Summary Research Results from Coded Analysis79 References80Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.15, Smart Grid and Decentralised Electricity: The further liberalisation of the energy markets in Europe has made decentralised energy (DE) more feasible as seen in the RE sector in Germany. A combination of RE sources and more cost effective control can balance out short-term fluctuations. Providing reliable electricity from 100 percent RE sources is shown in the combined power plant (CPP) projects linking 36 wind, solar biomass and hydropower installations throughout Germany. This follows, the World Alliance for Decentralized Energy claims that potential for DE in realizing electrification objectives is great anda far cheaper method of supplying power to local areas than grid extension including environmental benefits. Denmark for example benefits from a fifty percent shift to DE such as in case of wind turbines placed along transmission corridors, highways or train tracks. DE could therefore be of importance in the context of this investigation on support strategies in rural community electrification programmes in South Africa and improving energy efficiency. A wide range of technologies are available from the RE sector to benefit local ownership. However, barriers remain in the EU where it is recognised that inadequate progress has been made on lighter procedures for small projects implementation at local ownership level. The introduction of digital technology could present a further opportunity in form of the smart grid which allows more-efficient use of existing power capacity and of transmission and distribution, in addition to better handling of fluctuations in energy from wind and sun. Renewable Energyand Socio Economic Effects: The adoption by the European Council of the Renewable Energy Directive for 2020 sets ambitious targets for each Member State to achieve a twenty percent share of RE. In a study the EU investigated the macro- economic gross effects and net effects of RE policies in Europe, more specifically the findings suggest that the RE sector is already a very important one in terms of employment and value add. 'An estimated 2.8 million jobs by 2020 and 3.4 by 2030 will be created'.As a result of the RE support policies, the positive investment effect is currently based on installations in Europe and exports globally. However, it is recognized that inherent uncertainties about the future support of RE sources exist. In this context in the UK, the employment opportunities had been hitherto significantly underestimated. It is claimed an additional '130,000 jobs in the wind sectorby 2020 are a possibility'. Contrary to the report which claims that from a current 5000 jobs in the wind, wave and tidal energy sector, an increase to as many as 60,000 employees by 2020. However, the report suggests ' that the UK does not yet have a coherent approach to training' and step changes are required to achieve this goal. Whilst in Germany, the wind energy industry now employs close to 100,000 people. Public Acceptance and Property: In terms of property or land prices near wind farms, there appears to be conflicting and subjective evidence. A Canadian study noted that buying decisions are effected by different criteria's near wind farms such as some people finding it interesting and others do not like the look. (Wind farms and Land Values 2003 p.1) In further studies in the UK 60 percent of respondents in a Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors survey experienced negative impact on house prices. However, the EWEA observes the social acceptance of wind farms depends on the way they are developed and managed. This also means authorities learn from past experience and find mechanisms to maintain and expand public engagement in wind development. Environmental Impact Assessments: The European Directive on Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) would suggest a common approach, this however is not the case and carried out 'in different ways, in different countries and requires a more unified approach'. With specific regard to the approach in Germany, the Federal Building Code regulation is important as wind energy plants are regarded as so called 'privileged projects'. The local authorities thereby can allocate zones for wind energy utilization, or restrict construction (BWE 2009). Therefore, EIA can facilitate in this important decision process, at the same time regulation appears to give room for development. In the UK the combination of EIA and local planning may have hindered more rapid wind energy deployment as opposed to Denmark, Germany and Spain. As in other EU countries the majority of wind farm projects in the UK an Environmental Statement (ES) is required and used as a decision tool, identifying the environmental, social and economic impacts of a development. Whilst engaging local communities is a vital process in the successful deployment of RE such as wind technology. Contrary to this, however it is recognised that a more streamlined approach may be required to drive delivery of targets through the planning process. This appears to acknowledge the large body of studies on implementing EIA,linked to existing barriers as part of the planning process in the UK wind sector. Adverse Effects of Wind Technology: Noise, Visual Impact, electromagnetic interference Broadly, some observers cite concerns such as turbine noise and aerodynamic noise, in addition to electromagnet interference and migrating birds. Whilst wind turbine noise studies observe that the siting of wind turbines must take sound levels in consideration. A large body of literature exists confirming such barriers exist to implementation. Further, visual impact is a concern that has been raised and many studies have been made in this regard for on and off shore wind that can adversely effect deployment. In the wider context of environmental impact however, it is generally acknowledged that wind energy has a key role to play in not only combating climate change but also reducing CO2 emissions from electricity generation.

Wind is a valuable renewable resource supporting a rapidly growing wind energy industry. Executive Order 13212, signed by President George W. Bush in 2001, tasks the Departments of the Interior, Energy, Agriculture, and Defense to work together in support of wind energy development on public lands in the eleven western states. Over 28% of the land area in the eleven western states that is suitable for wind energy production lies under U.S. military training airspace. Since the wind turbines are vertical obstructions to both Special Use Airspace (SUAS) and military training routes (MTRs), this level of geospatial convergence threatens to reduce the viability of this valuable renewable resource. Technological innovation and modernization within the wind energy industry have pushed wind turbine heights higher into the airspace, beyond the minimum altitudes of some training airspace. This geospatial convergence creates a significant potential for encroachment. To support Executive Order 13212, while protecting training airspace from encroachment, this project assesses the geospatial relationship between military training airspace and wind energy development in the eleven western states. In follow-on analysis, this project transitions from the regional eleven western states perspective to a focus on the Fallon Range Training Complex (FRTC) in northern Nevada, analyzing 17 areas of interest (AOI) and assessing the potential for encroachment. The objective of the FRTC analysis is to further examine the encroachment conditions around the FRTC and quantify potential encroachment scenarios. The client is Navy Captain Scott Ryder, the Commanding Officer of Naval Air Station Fallon who is responsible to a large extent for the oversight of northern Nevada's military training airspace. From the perspective of the client, this project yields valuable knowledge and an improved geospatial understanding of the physical relationship between wind energy development and military training airspace. That knowledge and understanding will be directed towards the development of the most appropriate management policy and procedures. This project effectively predicts the amount of wind energy related encroachment that could occur within the study areas. It also identifies the most likely encroachment points around the FRTC perimeter, where encroachment will most likely occur, and from what direction it will likely come. The project effectively demonstrates fundamental GIS problem solving concepts, integrating many relevant factors, and demonstrating the power and advantage of GIS. This analysis presented in this project does not limit wind energy development, but identifies potential encroachment as well as where wind energy developers should focus and where they should limit their exploration.

By the end of 2012, world wind power capacity reached 273 GW, an eleven-fold growth from the 24GW installed in 20011 . Supported by ambitious national targets for renewables2 and in the case of the European Union, enforced through its Directive on Renewable Energy (2009/28/EC)3 this impressive growth has clearly been a reaction to the energy crisis brought about by the combined threats of climate change, energy security and peak oil and facilitated by technological innovation, supportive regulatory regimes and market support mechanisms. As the wind energy sector continues to grow, it faces a range of technological and economic challenges, yet the social aspects of renewables, particularly the relationship with host communities, is often overlooked. While this is not always a problem, there are indications that as wind energy schemes become more prevalent, so do the concerns of local communities. In some areas it is the level of community acceptance of these projects that will come to define the upper limit of wind energy deployment. For this reason it is imperative that we develop a better understanding of the issues that drive community attitudes to wind energy projects and develop strategies and good practice that developers, regulators and other stakeholders can adopt to increase community acceptance.

Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Acknowledgements -- Introduction -- Materials and Structures -- 1.1 How Will Multi-scale Modelling Improve Materials and Structures? -- 1.1.1 Missing Links in Current Damage and Failure Process Predictions? -- 1.1.2 Multi-scale Experimental Observations? -- 1.1.3 Linking (Microscopic) Damage State with Macroscopic Observations into Health-Based Strategies -- 1.2 How Can New Materials Be Developed? -- 1.2.1 Materials Science -- 1.2.2 From Material to Application -- 1.3 How Do Joints Really Work? -- 1.3.1 Connections -- Wind and Turbulence -- 2.1 How Should We Characterise the Dynamical Inflow Conditions? -- 2.1.1 Parameters for Wind Turbulence -- 2.1.2 Pattern of Wind -- 2.1.3 Orographic Dependences -- 2.2 What Is the Importance of Open Questions on Turbulence? -- 2.2.1 Small-Scale Turbulence -- 2.2.2 Structures Within a Turbulence Situation -- 2.2.3 Turbulence Validation -- 2.3 How Can One Model Wind, as an Energy Resource, in Space and Time? -- 2.3.1 Forecasting Weather and Climate -- 2.3.2 Limits of Predictability -- Aerodynamics -- 3.1 Is the Acceleration of CFD Codes the Main Challenge, or Do We Still Have Physical Problems to Solve in Rotor Analysis? -- 3.1.1 Improvement of Simplified and Low-Fidelity Models -- 3.1.2 Hybrid Models and Eulerian-Lagrangian Formulation -- 3.1.3 Uncertainty Quantification -- 3.1.4 Experimental Simulation and Model Validation -- 3.1.5 Unsteady Fluid-Structure-Control Interaction -- 3.2 How Can the Aerofoil Concept Be Extended Towards an Unsteady Three-Dimensional Flow? -- 3.2.1 Flow Separation and 3D Stall -- 3.2.2 Roughness, Transition and Turbulence -- 3.2.3 Flow Control Devices and 3-D Unsteady Flow -- 3.2.4 Aerofoil Aeroacoustics -- 3.3 How Do Wake and Wake-Wake Interaction Effects Depend on Near-Wake and Blade Flow Details?.