Suchergebnisse

Alongside the destruction of habitat, the impact of invasive alien species (IAS) is considered as one of the most important threats to global biodiversity. Therefore, international directives as well as national legislation call for measures to prevent the further spread of already established IAS as well as to limit their negative effects on native flora and fauna. This study deals with one of these non-native species – the American mink (Neovison vison). In order to get information about ecology and behaviour of this semiaquatic carnivore, a small population in a north German fishpond area, where mink has been spreading since the 1970s, was investigated. During the years 2003 to 2006 data about annual and circadian activity patterns, space use, territorial system as well as feeding habits and their variations during different seasons were collected. For this purpose, altogether 14 individuals (nine males, five females) were monitored using radio-telemetry. Based on the results, the potential impact of American mink on indigenous species was discussed and implications for mink control and management were deduced. American mink are difficult to radio tag. The small difference between their head and neck circumferences mean that the radio collars must be worn tightly to prevent loss. A methodological evaluation of conventional collar transmitters revealed that in six out of eight cases serious skin injuries on the necks were the consequences. Therefore, all radio collars were removed and radio transmitters were surgically implanted in the peritoneal cavity of mink by veterinarians. One male bit open the sutures and died after emergency surgery, but in 13 cases implantation did not affect survival or reproduction of the mink. With reference to animal welfare, intraperitoneal implantation of radio transmitters (in combination with observation and quarantine for several days after operation) instead of external radio collars were recommended for long term telemetry studies of American mink. Analyses of annual activity patterns revealed significant differences in seasonal activity rates. Both sexes reduced their average activity rates in cold winter months (October to February) to about 23 %. This energy-saving strategy is possible because of sufficient food availability, especially of fish, at this time. In March, male as well as female mink considerably increased their activity to almost 40 % due to the mating season. In summer months, during the pup-raising period (May to August), female activity continued to be high (between 40 and 50 %). However, male mink which are not involved in rearing the young, were less active (about 30 %) until July. But in August and September, the time of juvenile dispersal followed by changes in the territorial system and intraspecific aggression, activity rates of males increased again up to 43 %. Circadian activity rhythms differed markedly between sexes. All investigated females exhibited a perennial diurnal pattern. Three of five investigated male mink showed typical nocturnal activity throughout the year. Two males displayed arrhythmic behaviour; they did not prefer any time of the day for activity. On the one hand, gender differences in annual as well as circadian activity patterns of American mink reflect the diversity in ecological constraints, primarily the investment into reproduction. On the other hand, the different temporal strategies of sexes may have the potential to reduce intraspecific, especially intersexual competition. Investigating territorial systems and space use of mink, in comparison to other European studies, relatively large home ranges combined with a quite low population density were observed. In summer months male mink used on average 15.4 km length of waterway and female mink used on average 9.3 km length of waterway. In accordance with the trend of activity rates, male and female mink reduced their large summer home ranges by more than half during the cold winter period. But all-season male mink used significantly larger areas than female mink. High intersexual overlapping rates of home ranges and low levels of intrasexual overlapping of neighbouring home ranges confirm intrasexual territoriality of American mink. Probably, the low population density (0.6-0.7 individuals/km2) allows such high variations in seasonal and sexual home range size. During the mating season males considerably enlarged their home ranges and roamed nearly through the entire study area in search of receptive females. The shifting of stable temporary home ranges observed within one season or between the same seasons of consecutive years demonstrates the highly dynamic nature of spatial behaviour among American mink. The recorded characteristic features of spatial and temporal behaviour should be considered when planning monitoring- and management measures of this invasive carnivore. For instance, the reduced home ranges and activity rates during winter months should be taken into account in mink trapping projects. Analyses of more than 2500 scatsamples of radio tracked mink show that investigated animals principally prey on fish, small mammals and birds (eggs inclusive). There were significant seasonal variations of diet composition. In spring, the three categories of prey - fish, mammals and birds (eggs inclusive) - were hunted in similar amounts. During summer, birds and their eggs made up the main part of the diet followed by mammals. In autumn, the proportion of birds in the mink diet decreased, whereas fish gained in importance. This trend continued during the winter period, when mink preyed almost exclusively on fish. Throughout the entire year amphibians, crustaceans, insects, molluscs and reptiles were found only occasionally in scatsamples. Among birds, the mink preyed mainly on the Eurasian Coot (Fulica atra) followed by the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Mammalian prey was clearly dominated by the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) and among fish, mink hunted especially perch (Perca fluviatilis), roach (Rutilus rutilus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Results clearly demonstrate that mink is an opportunistic predator, which hunts its prey according to availability and vulnerability, respectively. Despite the high portions of fish in the autumn and winter diet, the economic damage to fishery caused by mink seems to be low. Perch and roach were preyed on in higher frequencies than the carp which is economically relevant. However, high predation on birds and their eggs during the breeding season indicates a potential negative impact of mink on waterfowl. To summarise, it can be noted that characteristic features of the anthropogenically influenced study area affect feeding habits, activity patterns, space use and density of local mink population. In this regard the management of fishponds, which influences seasonal availability of habitat- and food resources for mink, plays an important role. American mink is regarded as "invasive", because a negative impact on native species has been proved by several European studies. Consequently, this study recommends management with a focus on effective monitoring and, if necessary, control or exclusion measures adapted to the specific local requirements. Furthermore, to prevent additional introductions into the wild, the still existing farms have to be protected against outbreaks and liberations. In the long term, a general ban on the trade and keeping of American mink would be desirable.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34 ; Der Einfluss invasiver, gebietsfremder Arten wird neben der Habitatzerstörung als eine der größten Gefährdungen der Biodiversität weltweit angesehen. Sowohl internationale Umweltvereinbarungen als auch die nationale Gesetzgebung fordern daher Maßnahmen, die eine weitere Ausbreitung bereits etablierter invasiver Neozoen verhindern und deren negative Einflüsse minimieren. Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit einer dieser Neozoen - dem Amerikanischen Nerz bzw. Mink (Neovison vison). Um Erkenntnisse zu Ökologie und Verhalten des semiaquatischen Musteliden in Deutschland zu gewinnen, wurden Daten zu tages- und jahreszeitlichen Aktivitätsmustern, zu Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem sowie zur Nahrungswahl und den jahreszeitlichen Unterschieden im Beutespektrum der Art erhoben. Dafür konnten in den Jahren 2003 bis 2006 in einem Fischteich-Gebiet in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, wo sich Minke bereits seit den 1970er Jahren etabliert haben, insgesamt 14 Individuen (neun Männchen, fünf Weibchen) radiotelemetrisch überwacht werden. Anhand der Ergebnisse wird einerseits der potentielle Einfluss des gebietsfremden Raubsäugers auf einheimische Arten abgeschätzt und diskutiert. Andererseits werden die Ergebnisse herangezogen, um effektive Monitoring- und Managementmaßnahmen abzuleiten. Eine methodische Evaluation von Halsbandsendern zeigte, dass in sechs von acht Fällen die getesteten Halsbänder, die aufgrund des sehr ähnlichen Hals-Kopf-Umfanges der Individuen relativ eng angelegt werden müssen, Hautverletzungen verursachten. Infolgedessen wurden die Halsbandsender gegen durch Tierärzte operativ in die Bauchhöhle eingesetzte Implantationssender ausgetauscht. Auch bei allen nachfolgend gefangenen Tieren wurden die Sender implantiert. Bei insgesamt 14 durchgeführten Erstimplantationen beeinflussten mit Ausnahme eines Falles (Tod durch Aufbeißen der Naht) die Implantate weder das Überleben, noch die Reproduktion der Minke. Daher ist v.a. in Hinblick auf Tierschutzaspekte die Senderimplantation (in Kombination mit einer Mehrtages-Quarantäne) anstatt der Verwendung von externen Halsbandsendern zu empfehlen. Die Analyse der circannuellen Aktivitätsmuster ergab signifikante Unterschiede der saisonalen Aktivitätsraten. Während der kalten Wintermonate (Oktober bis Februar) zeigten beide Geschlechter mit durchschnittlich etwa 23 % eine vergleichsweise geringe Aktivität. Diese energiesparende Verhaltensweise war möglich, da auch im Winter ein ausreichend hohes Nahrungsangebot, vor allem an Fisch, vorhanden war. Im März kam es sowohl bei den Männchen als auch bei den Weibchen zu einem durch die Paarungszeit verursachten, beträchtlichen Anstieg der mittleren Aktivitätsraten auf fast 40 %. In den Sommermonaten (Mai bis August) waren die weiblichen Tiere, durch die Anforderungen der Jungenaufzucht bedingt, anhaltend häufig aktiv (zwischen 40 und 50 %). Die Aktivitätsraten der nicht an der Jungenaufzucht beteiligten Männchen dagegen nahmen im April wieder ab, um bis zum Juli auf einem vergleichsweise geringen Niveau von etwa 30 % zu bleiben. Sie stiegen jedoch während der Monate August und September erneut auf etwa 43 % an. Zu dieser Zeit wandern gewöhnlich die Jungtiere ab und suchen sich ein eigenes Streifgebiet (= Aktionsraum), dadurch kommt es zu Änderungen im Territorialsystem und damit einhergehenden innerartlichen Auseinandersetzungen. Beide Geschlechter unterscheiden sich stark in ihren tageszeitlichen Aktivitätsrhythmen. Alle Weibchen waren ganzjährig tagaktiv. Von den fünf untersuchten Männchen zeigten drei typische Nachtaktivität im gesamten Jahresverlauf. Die beiden anderen männlichen Tiere verhielten sich in ihren Aktivitätsrhythmen indifferent, sie zeigten das ganze Jahr über keine Präferenzen für eine bestimmte Tageszeit. Die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede sowohl in den circannuellen als auch in den circadianen Aktivitätsmustern spiegeln zum einen die verschiedenen Anforderungen an die Geschlechter wieder, vor allem die Investitionen in die Fortpflanzung. Zum anderen können die geschlechtsspezifisch unterschiedlichen Zeitnutzungs-Strategien zu einer Minimierung der innerartlichen, vorzugsweise der intersexuellen Konkurrenz führen. Die Analyse der Telemetriedaten hinsichtlich Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem ergab im Vergleich zu anderen europäischen Studien relativ große individuelle Aktionsräume verbunden mit einer geringen Populationsdichte im Untersuchungsgebiet. So erstreckten sich die durchschnittlich genutzten Sommerstreifgebiete der Männchen auf 15,4 km und die der Weibchen auf 9,3 km Flusslauf bzw. Teichufer. Entsprechend dem Trend der saisonalen Aktivitätsmuster, reduzierten beide Geschlechter ihre großen Sommerstreifgebiete während der Winterhalbjahre um mehr als die Hälfte der Fläche. Allerdings nutzten die Männchen zu allen Jahreszeiten wesentlich größere Aktionsräume als die weiblichen Minke. Große Streifgebietsüberlappungen zwischen den Geschlechtern sowie verhältnismäßig niedrige Überlappungsraten der benachbarten Streifgebiete von Tieren des gleichen Geschlechts bestätigen die intrasexuelle Territorialität der Art. Die erheblichen Unterschiede der saisonalen und geschlechtsspezifischen Aktionsraumgrößen werden vermutlich durch die ermittelte, vergleichsweise geringe Populationsdichte (0,6-0,7 Individuen/km2) ermöglicht. Die ausgedehnte und sich fast über das gesamte Untersuchungsgebiet erstreckende Raumnutzung der Männchen während der Paarungszeit ist durch die Suche nach fortpflanzungsbereiten Weibchen bedingt. Die Raumnutzung der untersuchten Minke unterliegt einer hohen Dynamik, dies wird durch die häufige räumliche Verschiebung temporär stabiler Streifgebiete innerhalb einer Jahreszeit oder auch zwischen den gleichen Jahreszeiten aufeinanderfolgender Jahre verdeutlicht. All diese ermittelten charakteristischen Besonderheiten im Raum-Zeit-Verhalten der Art sollten bei der Entwicklung von Monitoring- und Managementkonzepten berücksichtigt werden. So müssen beispielsweise bei der Fallenjagd im Winter die zu dieser Zeit stark verkleinerten Streifgebiete und die reduzierten Aktivitätsraten Beachtung finden. Die Analyse der über 2500 Losungsproben telemetrierter Minke zeigte, dass sich die untersuchten Tiere hauptsächlich von Fisch, Kleinsäugern und Vögeln (inklusive deren Eiern) ernährten. Dabei traten allerdings signifikante saisonale Unterschiede in der Nahrungs-zusammensetzung auf. So wurden im Frühjahr die drei Beutekategorien Fisch, Kleinsäuger sowie Vögel und deren Eier in ähnlichen Anteilen erbeutet. Während des Sommers bildeten Vögel und Vogeleier die Hauptbeute, gefolgt von Kleinsäugern. Im Herbst verringerte sich der Vogel- und Kleinsäugeranteil im Beutespektrum zugunsten von Fisch. Dieser Trend setzte sich bis in den Winter fort; in dieser Jahreszeit ernährten sich die Minke fast ausschließlich von Fisch. Amphibien, Reptilien, Krebstiere, Insekten und Mollusken wurden im gesamten Jahresverlauf nur gelegentlich gefressen. Innerhalb der Gruppe der Vögel prädierten die Minke vor allem Blässhühner (Fulica atra), gefolgt von Stockenten (Anas platyrhynchos). Das Kleinsäuger-Beutespektrum wurde eindeutig von der Schermaus (Arvicola terrestris) dominiert und unter den Fischen erbeuteten die Minke vorzugsweise Flussbarsche (Perca fluviatilis), Plötzen (Rutilus rutilus) und Karpfen (Cyprinus carpio). Die Ergebnisse der Nahrungsanalyse bestätigen den Mink als einen opportunistischen Prädator, der seine Beutetiere je nach Verfügbarkeit bzw. dem erforderlichen Jagdaufwand nutzt. Trotz des hohen Fischanteils in der Herbst- und Winternahrung ist der durch den Mink verursachte ökonomische Schaden schätzungsweise relativ gering. Flussbarsch und Plötze wurden in höheren Frequenzanteilen erbeutet als der wirtschaftlich relevante Karpfen. Die starke Prädation von Wasservögeln und deren Eiern besonders in den Frühjahrs- und Sommermonaten weist allerdings auf einen potentiell negativen Einfluss des invasiven Raubsäugers auf diese Tiergruppe hin. Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass die spezifischen Charakteristika des anthropogen geprägten Untersuchungsgebietes sowohl Nahrungsökologie und Aktivitätsmuster als auch Raumnutzung und Populationsdichte der lokalen Minkpopulation beeinflussen. Eine besondere Rolle hierbei spielt die Bewirtschaftung der Fischteiche, denn vor allem daraus resultiert für die Minke eine saisonal unterschiedliche Verfügbarkeit an Lebensraum und Nahrung. Negative Auswirkungen des Amerikanischen Nerzes auf die einheimische Tierwelt wurden in anderen europäischen Ländern belegt und rechtfertigen die Einstufung dieser Art als "invasiv". Demzufolge wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein Management empfohlen, bei dem der Focus auf einem effektiven Monitoring und gegebenenfalls auf zweckmäßigen, an die lokalen Bedingungen angepassten Fang- oder Abwehrmaßnahmen liegt. Zudem sollten, um einer weiteren Ausbringung in das Freiland vorzubeugen, die wenigen noch existierenden Minkfarmen besser gegen Ausbrüche bzw. Freilassungsaktionen gesichert werden. Langfristig ist ein generelles Besitz- und Vermarktungsverbot für die Art wünschenswert.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34

Recovery and resilience, the ability to operate under the conditions of uncertainty– these challenges are now becoming the key tasks for each organisation. The research of the organisation's concept of resilience is primarily linked to ecological sciences, followed by studies in social sciences linked to vulnerability and resilience of social groups, communities, cities, and organizations as systems. The efforts of scientists to develop the analysis, measurement instruments of resilience, observable resilience indicators systems, indices, regional vulnerability maps, development of regional resilience policies, etc. are visible. Scientists indicate thatresilienceis a complex ability and process and can be defined differently, depending on the contexts, but all of them are united by the notion that it is apositiveeffect in preparing for or after challenges, that it must be encouraged (Lee et al., 2016). The organisation's theoretical concept of resilience is not widely developed and there is a lack of information on how organisations become resilient.The research aims to define the concept of organisation's resilience, its features and factors as well as to reveal the concept of the resilience of hospitals in the theoretical context of the resilience of the organisation. The following research methods were used: the analysis, generalization and systematization of the content of scientific literature, synthesis of ideas based on scientific analysis.The definition of the concept of organisation's resilience is based on a previous empirical research conducted by Barasa et al. (2018) as well as on the latest scientific insights: According to Jucevičius et al. (2017), resilience as the ability to regain strength after changes or errors is conceptually different from the concept of robustness, which describes systems that ignore environmental impacts. The resilience of an organization is the intrinsic ability of an organization to maintain and return to a dynamically stable state. It is the maintenance of resources in a sufficiently flexible form to allow them to be spontaneously adapted in the event of an unforeseen threat. Continuous harmonisation of the monitoring of small errors with improvisation provides employees with expert and wider competencies for more flexible adaptation. The idea proposed by Gricevičius (2019) to link the resilience of the organization to the ability to survive and even thrive during a crisis supports the idea of Gečienė and Raišienė (2019, 2020) that the resilience of the organization should be understood more as a capacity and process than a result, and as adaptation rather than stability (Gečienė et al., 2020). Insight into the fact that we are constantly strengthening the resilience of organisations by adapting to changes at three levels: the potential of the resources available in the system, participants in the internal communication system and variables, creative and flexible responses to the challenges (Holling and Gunderson, 2002, cited in Gečienė, 2020); that the resilience of the organisation must be perceived as a long-term goal (Litz, 2005, cited in Gečienė, 2020). Beuran and Santos (2019) consider that three definitions are important in the organisation's conceptualisation of resilience: resilience as an organisational characteristic; resilience as a result of the organisation's activities; resilience as an identification of disorders that the organisation can tolerate. The theoretical concept of organization's resilience is developed by defining external and internal factors of resilience. The external factors of the resilience of public sector organisations include the following: 1) political factors that directly or indirectly influence organisations' involvement in a greater focus on the organisation's sustainable development, unforeseen challenges in the long term; 2) economic factors (e.g. availability of financial resources); 3) technological factors (e.g. availability of hardware and software; digital progress), social factors (e.g. decentralisation as management practice in the public sector, coordination of systems, greater awareness of resilience in society, etc.). Disseminating the experience of business organisations in adapting to challenges in the media has also become a social factor.According to scientific practice (Barasa et al. (2018); Gečienė (2020)),toanalysethepassiveandactiveresilienceoftheorganisation,we have divided the internal factors of the organization's resilience into two groups: 1.Passive or operational, adaptive resilience of the organisation. The factors are as follows: 1) prudent management of public (physical, economic, organisational, social, human) capital, assets held or entrusted with management; management of organisational change management, absorption, adaptability, reconstruction capacity is essential; 2) a balanced organisational routine and structure; 3) management and continuous improvement of internal information and communication systems; 4) management (managerial) practices; 5) organizational culture.2.Active or planned, strategic, otherwise capability-oriented resilience of the organization. The factors are as follows: 1) the organisation's resilience planning, strategy; 2) the organisation's external policy focused on strengthening resilience; 3) continuous involvement in the analysis, application, development of managerial innovations; 4) leadership and continuous improvement of the organisation's resilience competencies.Hospitals are organisations whose management is subject to the same managerial principles as in budgetary institutions in general, and therefore the analyzed resilience features of organizations are also applicable to hospitals. Due to the specific purpose of organisations (human health is one of the most important values, health care is a constitutionally justified objective and public interest) and relevance during the 2020–2021 pandemic, there is an increase in the discourse of the scientific resilience of the health system, driven also by increased interaction between politicians, scientists and medical professionals. The resilience of the health system and individual health care institutions is becoming a priority objective of public policy, and the issue of resilience is linked not only to post-crisis recovery but also to the active prospect of resilience– to be prepared for future challenges. In addition to adaptive and planned resilience in the discourse of health system, science activates a discussion on the concept of everyday resilience, as hospitals have to deal with unforeseen challenges every day, the consequences of which can affect patients. ; Straipsnyje apibrėžiamos organizacijos pažeidžiamumo ir atsparumo sampratos, organizacijos atsparumo bruožai ir veiksniai (išoriniai ir vidiniai), aktualizuojamas pasyviojo (adaptacinio, operacinio) ir aktyviojo (planuojamo, strateginio, į galimybes orientuoto) atsparumo didinimo derinimas organizacijos valdyme. Teoriniame organizacijos atsparumo sampratos kontekste gryninamas ligoninės atsparumo nenumatytiems įvykiams konceptas, pristatant pandemijos iššauktus empirinius ir viešosios politikos įgyvendinimo priemonių analizės diskursus.

International audience ; Along the edges of the Congo basin forest, where forest-savannah mosaics are the main ecological formation, it is important to determine how this mosaic has developed, particularly for forest protection. Have savannah lands resulted from deforestation or have forest patches expanded into them? Given the long-standing human occupation of this region, this question needs to be addressed through human-environment relationships over time. Combining oral histories of village mobility and geographical analyses of a forest-savannah mosaic in the Bolobo territory (Democratic Republic of Congo) can shed light on the landscape dynamics. This study involved nine months of daily participant observations of human land use practices, 40 individual interviews and 18 focus groups to analyse changing village mobility from the late 19th century to the present. Several maps were produced by combining oral histories of past village mobility with an evaluation of 44 GPS landmarks corresponding to former villages. Two Principal Component Analyses (PCA), based on landscape composition within a 250 m-radius buffer zone around the GPS landmarks, according to a land cover map classifying the landscape into 11 categories, were used to document forest expansion into old abandoned villages and the effect of distance from currently inhabited villages. Forest cover expanded into the abandoned villages and the savannah as a consequence of environmental eutrophication facilitating forest establishment. Forest use decreases with distance from currently inhabited villages as a result of a shift from semi-sedentary livelihoods in small settlements to entirely sedentary livelihoods in larger, extended villages. Livelihood transformations that took place during and after colonisation resulted in a decline in the quality of environmental goods and reduced the well-being of human populations. These insights can help NGO conservation and development efforts to be more sensitive to overlooked local human practices and needs. ; A lo largo de las lindes del bosque de la cuencadel Congo, donde los mosaicos bosque-sabanason la principal formación ecológica, es importantedeterminar cómo se ha desarrollado estemosaico, especialmente para la protección delbosque. ¿Las tierras de la sabana son el resultadode la deforestación o los rodales de bosquese han expandido en ellas? Dada la largaocupación humana de esta región, esta cuestióndebe abordarse a través de las relacionesentre el hombre y el medio ambiente a lo largodel tiempo. La combinación de relatos oralessobre la movilidad de los pueblos y los análisisgeográficos de un mosaico de bosque y sabanaen el territorio de Bolobo (República Democráticadel Congo) puede arrojar luz sobre la dinámicadel paisaje. Este estudio incluyó nuevemeses de observaciones participativas diariasde las prácticas en el uso del suelo, 40 entrevistasindividuales y 18 grupos de discusiónpara analizar la evolución de la movilidad delos pueblos desde finales del siglo XIX hasta laactualidad. Se elaboraron varios mapas combinandolos relatos orales sobre la movilidad delos pueblos en el pasado con una evaluaciónde 44 puntos de referencia GPS correspondientesa antiguos pueblos. Se utilizaron dosanálisis de componentes principales (ACP),basados en la composición del paisaje dentrode una zona tampón de 250 m de radio alrededorde los puntos de referencia GPS, según unmapa de cobertura del suelo que clasificaba elpaisaje en once categorías, para documentar laexpansión del bosque hacia antiguos pueblosabandonados y el efecto de la distancia a lospueblos actualmente habitados. La cubiertaforestal se expandió en los pueblos abandonadosy en la sabana como consecuencia dela eutrofización del medio ambiente, que facilitóel establecimiento del bosque. El uso delos bosques disminuye con la distancia de lospueblos actualmente habitados como resultadode un cambio de los medios de subsistenciasemisedentarios en los asentamientospequeños a los medios de subsistencia totalmentesedentarios en las poblaciones másgrandes y extensas. Las transformaciones delos medios de subsistencia que se produjerondurante y después de la colonización dieronlugar a una disminución de la calidad de losbienes ambientales y redujeron el bienestarde las poblaciones humanas. Estas observacionespueden hacer que las ONG dedicadasa la conservación y el desarrollo aumenten susensibilidad hacia las prácticas y necesidadeshumanas locales, que a menudo se omiten. ; Sur les lisières de la forêt du Bassin duCongo, où les mosaïques de forêt et desavane dominent les formations écologiques,il est important de connaître le moded'évolution de ces mosaïques, notammentpour mieux protéger la forêt. Les savanessont-elles le résultat de la déforestation, ouont-elles été envahies par des îlots forestiers? Compte tenu de l'ancienneté de l'occupationhumaine dans cette région, cettequestion doit être abordée par le biais desrelations humaines avec l'environnement aucours du temps. Le rapprochement entre leshistoires orales sur la mobilité villageoiseet l'analyse géographique d'une mosaïqueforêt-savane en territoire Bolobo (RDC) renseignesur la dynamique paysagère de larégion. La présente étude s'est basée surneuf mois d'observation participative quotidiennedes pratiques d'utilisation des sols,40 entretiens individuels et 18 groupes deréflexion mis en place pour analyser l'évolutionde la mobilité villageoise de la fin du19e siècle à nos jours. Plusieurs cartes ont étéproduites en intégrant les histoires orales surla mobilité villageoise passée et l'évaluationde 44 repères GPS correspondant à d'anciensvillages. Deux analyses en composante principale(ACP) sur la composition paysagèred'une zone tampon dans un rayon de 250 mautour des repères GPS, selon une carte ducouvert terrestre qui distingue 11 catégoriespaysagères, ont permis de documenter l'envahissementd'anciens villages abandonnéspar la forêt et l'effet de la distance depuisles villages actuels. Le couvert forestier s'estétendu dans les villages abandonnés et dansla savane en conséquence d'une eutrophisationenvironnementale favorisant l'installationde la forêt. L'exploitation forestièredécroît à mesure que l'on s'éloigne des villagesactuels en raison de la transition d'unmode d'existence semi-sédentaire dans despetits hameaux vers une existence entièrementsédentaire dans des village étendusplus grands. Les transformations des modesd'existence pendant et après la colonisationont provoqué un déclin de la qualité desbiens environnementaux et du bien-être despopulations humaines. Ces constats peuventcontribuer à une meilleure sensibilisation surdes pratiques et des besoins parfois méconnusdans les efforts des ONG pour la conservationet le développement.

Die Folgen des Klimawandels, sowie damit einhergehende Verluste und Schäden nehmen weltweit zu. Der damit verbundene globale Anstieg von Treibhausgasemissionen, zunehmende Verstädterung sowie ausufernder Konsum machen die Suche nach Anpassungsstrategien zur Vermeidung schädlicher Auswirkungen gegenwärtig wie zukünftig zu einer erheblichen Herausforderung. Diese erfordert ein tiefgehendes Verständnis der Komplexität vom Klimawandelfolgen für landwirtschaftsbasierte Existenzgrundlagen. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es zu einem solchen Verständnis beizutragen. Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit fragt daher danach, wie etwaige Umstellungsprozesse die Anpassungsfähigkeit sowie Resilienz der Bewohner_innen von Bagri, einem kleinen Dorf im Norden Ghanas, erweitern. Die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertationsschrift basieren auf empirischen Erhebungen, die zwischen Februar und Juli 2017 in Lawra District in Nordghana unter Heranziehung qualitativer Fallstudieninstrumente durchgeführt wurden. Zum Einsatz kamen semi-strukturierte Interviews, Fokusgruppendiskussionen, Umfragen sowie ethnographische teilnehmende Beobachtungen. Die so gewonnenen Daten wurden kodiert und mit SPSS (Version 20) kreuztabellarisch sowie anhand verschiedener Variablen ausgewertet. Außerdem wurden Häufigkeiten interpretiert und die Ergebnisse schließlich in Tabellen, Graphen und Prozentsätzen verarbeitet. Des Weiteren wurden inhaltlichen Analysen der qualitativen Daten vorgenommen, die es erlaubten, Muster und Themen aus den Interviews und Diskussionen weiter zu verfolgen. Die Resultate zeigen, dass die Bewohner_innen in der untersuchten Gemeinde über die letzten drei Jahrzehnte eine Reihe klimatischer Veränderungen mit negativen Folgen für die Landwirtschaft erfahren haben. Um sich beispielsweise an die klimawandelbedingte kürzere Dauer der Regenzeit sowie niedrige Niederschlagsmengen anzupassen, greifen Kleinbauern auf schrittweise Anpassungsstrategien wie verbessertes Saatgut und weitere unterstützende Maßnahmen zurück. Paradoxerweise, untergraben Klimawandelextreme derlei Strategien auf mehreren Ebenen und reduzieren Erträge um ein Vielfaches ihres Potenzials, was wiederum finanzieller Verschuldung Vorschub leistet. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigen daher, dass die Überwindung nicht-klimatischer Barrieren landwirtschaftlicher Anpassungsstrategien eine notwendige wenn auch nicht ausreichende Bedingung für eine erfolgreiche Umstellung darstellt. Immer neu aufkommende Schwierigkeiten machen Anpassung zu einem langfristigen Prozess. Eine zweite Erkenntnis dieser Arbeit ist, dass die sich wandelnden klimatischen Verhältnisse zu einer Diversifizierung der Lebensgrundlagen weg von landwirtschaftlicher Produktion hin zu Aktivitäten jenseits der Höfe in Bagri geführt haben. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der Prozess der Diversifizierung abhängig ist von der Einbindung der Haushalte in Gruppenaktivitäten sowie in formelle und informelle Netzwerke. Zusammenfassend gilt, dass Haushalte, die engmaschig in soziale Netze eingebettet sind eine höhere Resilienz gegenüber wahrgenommenen klimatischen Veränderungen aufweisen. Dies liegt darin begründet, dass sie zumeist über einen besseren Zugang zu kritischen – materiellen wie immateriellen – Ressourcen verfügen, welche Diversifizierung maßgeblich ermöglichen. Zudem deuten die Befunde an, wie Gruppenaktivitäten und soziale Netzwerke Marginalisierung und widersprüchlichen Ressourcenumgang befeuern können, die zugleich die Gefahr bergen, soziale und ökologische Resilienz im Dorf zu verringern. Darüber hinaus zeigt diese Arbeit die Mechanismen kollaborativer Anpassungssteuerung auf, indem sie den Fragen nachgeht, warum und wie diese Steuerungsformen Anpassungsfähigkeit befördern. Die Ergebnisse verweisen auf die Beziehungsdynamiken zwischen den relevanten Akteuren sowie Nutzen und Misserfolge und die Herausforderungen nachhaltiger kollaborativer Anpassungsstrategien in Nordghana. Ergänzend, stellt diese Studie heraus, wie machtvolle Akteure Agenden setzen, Problematisierungen generieren sowie Regeln und Anreize schaffen, die im Widerspruch zu den normativen Grundsätzen der kollaborativen Anpassungstheorie stehen können. Ausgehend von der Fallstudie in Nordghana stellt diese Arbeit auch Überlegungen dazu an, wie kollaborative Anpassungssteuerung erfolgreichen Umgang mit klimawandelbedingten Veränderungen weltweit befördern kann. Zusammenfassend, leistet diese Arbeit einen Beitrag zur Schließung theoretischer wie empirischer Wissenslücken im wachsenden Bereich der Forschung zur Anpassung an den Klimawandel. Sie illustriert darüber hinaus den unschätzbaren Wert qualitativer Fallstudien und zeigt auf, wie diese einen Beitrag leisten können zu oftmals abstrakten und schwer fassbaren Themen in der wissenschaftlichen Diskussion und damit ein Fundament für informierte politische Entscheidungen sowohl auf lokaler als auch globaler Ebene legen. ; Climate change impacts, related losses and damages are increasing globally. When these consequences are coupled with increasing global greenhouse gas emission, urban expansion and unsustainable consumption, the pursuit of adaptation to avoid adverse outcomes is a present necessity and a significant future challenge. The overarching aim of this doctoral dissertation is to gain a better understanding of the complexity of climate change impacts on agricultural livelihoods and how adaptation processes enhance adaptive capacity and resilience in Bagri, a small village in northern Ghana. The results presented in this doctoral thesis are based on empirical data obtained between February and July, 2017 in the Lawra District of northern Ghana using qualitative case study research methods: semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, survey and ethnographic participant observation. Data from the survey were coded and inputted into Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 20 and cross tabulation and analysis of different variables and interpretation of frequencies were done and processed into tables, graphs and percentages. Content analyses of qualitative data were done which allowed patterns and themes in interviews and discussions to be derived and interpreted. The findings show that, people in the studied community have experienced a range of climatic changes with negative impacts on agriculture in the last three decades. In order to adapt to the short duration of the rainy season and low rainfall amounts associated with climate change, smallholder farmers use incremental adaptation strategies such as improved crop varieties and other support strategies. Paradoxically, however, climate change extremes (CCEs) undermined these strategies in several instances, causing crop yields to fall short of their actual potential leading to financial indebtedness. The results therefore, showcase that surmounting non-climatic barriers to the uptake of agricultural adaptation strategies is a necessary but not sufficient condition to achieving successful outcomes, as new barriers in the adaptation process beyond uptake are constantly emerging with CCEs being one example. Secondly, the findings show that climatic changes have necessitated livelihood diversification away from crop production and into off-farm and non-farm activities in Bagri. The results highlight how the process of diversification is dependent on household participation in various group activities and formal and informal social networks. Generally, households in dense social networks were found to be more resilient to perceived climate changes because they had access to the critical resources (material and non-material) essential for diversification. Importantly, the findings shed light on how group activities and social networks can create marginalization and conflicting resource use with the potential of undermining social and ecological resilience in the village. Moreover, this dissertation explores the mechanics of collaborative adaptation governance (CAG) addressing questions of why and how this mode of governance facilitates adaptive capacity. The findings illuminate stakeholder relational dynamics, benefits and failures, and the sustainability challenge of collaborative adaptation governance (CAG) in northern Ghana. More importantly, this study unveils how powerful actors set the agenda, frame problems, and implement rules and incentives contrary to the normative tenets of collaborative governance theory. Ultimately, the results highlights the failures, successes and sustainability challenges of CAG in northern Ghana, while also providing insight into the extent to which CAG approaches can facilitate adaptation to climate change globally. In conclusion, this doctoral dissertation responds to both theoretical and emperical knowledge gaps in the burgeoning climate change adaptation research, and illustrates how invaluable, qualitative case studies can contribute to illuminate some of the elusive themes in the literature and provide evidence for policy making at both local and global levels.

Проаналізовано Національну доповідь "Цілі сталого розвитку України" (2017 р.) у контексті публічного управління з позиції біоетики. У стислому вигляді висвітлено 17 інноваційних тез щодо різних напрямків розвитку суспільства – від подолання голоду в світі до вирішення глобальних екологічних та кліматичних проблем, які стосуються Резолюції Генеральної Асамблеї ООН "Перетворення нашого світу: Порядок денний в області сталого розвитку на період до 2030 року", прийнятої 25 вересня 2015 р. Порушено питання необхідності впровадження Цілей сталого розвитку в систему публічного управління в Україні на засадах біоетики. ; Problem setting. It is considered the necessity to integrate the principles of bioethics in the projects of United Nations (hereinafter UN) to transform the world, since the Sustainable Development Summit of this organization adopted the Sustainable Development Goals as a priority task for governments and countries around the world from 2015 to 2030, the implementation of which will ensure a higher stage of development to a number of poor countries and a qualitatively new standard of living to human society as a whole. This organization helps third world countries to overcome problems with drinking water, food shortages, unequal, access to education, work, property, etc. However, public administration authorities should emphasize the problems of the value and dignity of human life, which should be respected and protected from the moment of fertilization to natural death.Recent research and publications analysis. Currently, the attention of both the scientific community and practitioners has been paid to the study of the implementation of sustainable development goals in the context of public administration in Ukraine. The Ukrainian researchers N. Horshkov, N. Walker, S. Kubiv, E. Libanova, S. Kuibida, M. Bilynska, V. Hoshovska, L. Pashko and others studied various aspects of this issue. Nevertheless, the issue of their implementation into the system of public administration on the basis of bioethics requires further investigations and elaboration considering the priority of Ukraine's integration into the European community and launching the course on the implementation of sustainable development goals.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Overall, Sustainable Development Goals have proven to play a positive role in the third world countries, but these projects would have a positive impact on public morals, which could lead to certain changes.The paragraph 2 of the SDG deals with overcoming hunger and developing agriculture. The very formulation of these goals is quite noble, but the public administration authorities need to develop a mechanism that will ensure the control of sowing seed and mineral fertilizers to increase yields.Paragraph 3 is responsible for good health and well-being, but in terms of medical support, public authorities should pay attention to such issues that contradict the principles of bioethics: contraception, abortion, euthanasia, artificial insemination, the use of abortive materials, an unethical method of conducting birth control, which can cause fatal consequences, etc. All these actions are regarded as direct threat to life and health of the nation, primarily its spiritual component.Therefore, bioethics should be given a leading role in the field of medicine. All actions must be consistent with ensuring the dignity, integrity and inviolability of human life. Particular control requires the implementation of paragraph 5 of the SDG, which deals with the so-called "gender equality".It is necessary to introduce such innovations that extend women's rights, provide them with the opportunity of equal access to education, work, decent wages, etc. However, from the standpoint of bioethics, it should be emphasized that Ukrainians are traditional ethnic group, which is inherently respectful of the family institution, as well as such meaningful concepts for each person as "mother-father", "man-woman", etc.Tendencies of a morally unacceptable model as "relative 1 and relative 2" instead of parents and partners instead of "male-female" tandem, and the "freedom" of LGBT-communities are dangerous because they neglect the traditional institution of the family for Ukrainians and they are considered to be direct threat for the family. The use of all other items of the SDG in state-building processes is positive, because they concern the preservation of ecology, resources and the development of society.Paper main body. In order to attract public attention to the issues covered in the article, it is necessary to define priorities correctly. Positive changes, which undoubtedly follow the implementation of the UN program for the transformation of the world, Ukrainian society should reconsider its moral and ethical criteria.The world is moving in the direction of inevitable global processes leading to the elimination of borders between states, national and mental differences, allowing many people in remote regions of poor countries to get education, comprehensive medical care, clean water, ecological food, safe renewable energy.This is certainly very significant, but there is another side of the issue. However, taking positive experience, the most important thing is not to lose your national identity, high moral and spiritual values. It is necessary to create conditions under which the implementation of the SDG in Ukraine will be safe and beneficial for the whole society. Such algorithms are always the result of cooperation.UN projects are based on democratic principles which currently require reconsideration due to the general demoralization, Islamization of European countries and others. The obvious factor is that a number of countries, namely, Great Britain, Germany, and France are experiencing an influx of migrants, and the benefits of multiculturalization of the European community still to be proved.Ukrainians are one of the oldest nations, whose spirituality is an invaluable resource; therefore, it is so important to gain, not to lose from cooperation.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Specific suggestions have been made to public administration at those points where the implementation of sustainable development goals requires the principles of bioethics. Any changes in society should serve to a personality and, consequently, must be coordinated with the principles of bioethics.Perspectives for further investigations in this direction. Public administrators need to involve social institutions represented by reputable bioethics specialists, scientists, doctors, community volunteers, in which the implementation of the sustainable development goals on the principles of bioethics will be safe and beneficial for society.

Проаналізовано Національну доповідь "Цілі сталого розвитку України" (2017 р.) у контексті публічного управління з позиції біоетики. У стислому вигляді висвітлено 17 інноваційних тез щодо різних напрямків розвитку суспільства – від подолання голоду в світі до вирішення глобальних екологічних та кліматичних проблем, які стосуються Резолюції Генеральної Асамблеї ООН "Перетворення нашого світу: Порядок денний в області сталого розвитку на період до 2030 року", прийнятої 25 вересня 2015 р. Порушено питання необхідності впровадження Цілей сталого розвитку в систему публічного управління в Україні на засадах біоетики. ; Problem setting. It is considered the necessity to integrate the principles of bioethics in the projects of United Nations (hereinafter UN) to transform the world, since the Sustainable Development Summit of this organization adopted the Sustainable Development Goals as a priority task for governments and countries around the world from 2015 to 2030, the implementation of which will ensure a higher stage of development to a number of poor countries and a qualitatively new standard of living to human society as a whole. This organization helps third world countries to overcome problems with drinking water, food shortages, unequal, access to education, work, property, etc. However, public administration authorities should emphasize the problems of the value and dignity of human life, which should be respected and protected from the moment of fertilization to natural death.Recent research and publications analysis. Currently, the attention of both the scientific community and practitioners has been paid to the study of the implementation of sustainable development goals in the context of public administration in Ukraine. The Ukrainian researchers N. Horshkov, N. Walker, S. Kubiv, E. Libanova, S. Kuibida, M. Bilynska, V. Hoshovska, L. Pashko and others studied various aspects of this issue. Nevertheless, the issue of their implementation into the system of public administration on the basis of bioethics requires further investigations and elaboration considering the priority of Ukraine's integration into the European community and launching the course on the implementation of sustainable development goals.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Overall, Sustainable Development Goals have proven to play a positive role in the third world countries, but these projects would have a positive impact on public morals, which could lead to certain changes.The paragraph 2 of the SDG deals with overcoming hunger and developing agriculture. The very formulation of these goals is quite noble, but the public administration authorities need to develop a mechanism that will ensure the control of sowing seed and mineral fertilizers to increase yields.Paragraph 3 is responsible for good health and well-being, but in terms of medical support, public authorities should pay attention to such issues that contradict the principles of bioethics: contraception, abortion, euthanasia, artificial insemination, the use of abortive materials, an unethical method of conducting birth control, which can cause fatal consequences, etc. All these actions are regarded as direct threat to life and health of the nation, primarily its spiritual component.Therefore, bioethics should be given a leading role in the field of medicine. All actions must be consistent with ensuring the dignity, integrity and inviolability of human life. Particular control requires the implementation of paragraph 5 of the SDG, which deals with the so-called "gender equality".It is necessary to introduce such innovations that extend women's rights, provide them with the opportunity of equal access to education, work, decent wages, etc. However, from the standpoint of bioethics, it should be emphasized that Ukrainians are traditional ethnic group, which is inherently respectful of the family institution, as well as such meaningful concepts for each person as "mother-father", "man-woman", etc.Tendencies of a morally unacceptable model as "relative 1 and relative 2" instead of parents and partners instead of "male-female" tandem, and the "freedom" of LGBT-communities are dangerous because they neglect the traditional institution of the family for Ukrainians and they are considered to be direct threat for the family. The use of all other items of the SDG in state-building processes is positive, because they concern the preservation of ecology, resources and the development of society.Paper main body. In order to attract public attention to the issues covered in the article, it is necessary to define priorities correctly. Positive changes, which undoubtedly follow the implementation of the UN program for the transformation of the world, Ukrainian society should reconsider its moral and ethical criteria.The world is moving in the direction of inevitable global processes leading to the elimination of borders between states, national and mental differences, allowing many people in remote regions of poor countries to get education, comprehensive medical care, clean water, ecological food, safe renewable energy.This is certainly very significant, but there is another side of the issue. However, taking positive experience, the most important thing is not to lose your national identity, high moral and spiritual values. It is necessary to create conditions under which the implementation of the SDG in Ukraine will be safe and beneficial for the whole society. Such algorithms are always the result of cooperation.UN projects are based on democratic principles which currently require reconsideration due to the general demoralization, Islamization of European countries and others. The obvious factor is that a number of countries, namely, Great Britain, Germany, and France are experiencing an influx of migrants, and the benefits of multiculturalization of the European community still to be proved.Ukrainians are one of the oldest nations, whose spirituality is an invaluable resource; therefore, it is so important to gain, not to lose from cooperation.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Specific suggestions have been made to public administration at those points where the implementation of sustainable development goals requires the principles of bioethics. Any changes in society should serve to a personality and, consequently, must be coordinated with the principles of bioethics.Perspectives for further investigations in this direction. Public administrators need to involve social institutions represented by reputable bioethics specialists, scientists, doctors, community volunteers, in which the implementation of the sustainable development goals on the principles of bioethics will be safe and beneficial for society.

Accurate interpretation of recent variability observed in fish populations, species compositions, distribution ranges or ecological indicators, depends on knowledge of their past dynamics and historical states. The onset of systematic fisheries data collection typically lagged decades or even centuries behind modern fishing exploits. As a consequence, pre-disturbed reference points and descriptions of subsequent change are rarely available. A remarkably detailed set of historical trawl survey data from South Africa provided such a rare opportunity. Government-funded exploration of the Agulhas Bank fishery potential resulted in meticulously-documented trawl survey data from 1897-1904, when prior human impacts on those resources were negligible. Although they used less effective technology, the information recorded and methods used were similar to modern surveys. This thesis investigated change in demersal fish fauna of the Agulhas Bank and documents comparisons between historical trawl surveys and modern re-enactments at the same locations. In comparing trawl survey catches over multiple decades or among different periods, unquantified changes in fishing power pose a key challenge. The shape, size, materials, mesh sizes and speed at which trawl nets are dragged, interact with the behaviour, size and shape of fish, influencing fishing performance. To accurately compare current catch rates with those of historical trawl surveys, the same trawl gear and methods were carefully replicated in repeat surveys at three sites. An investigation of literature and photographs of the original vessel and equipment were conducted to support the construction of a replica 'Granton' otter trawl net. The net was composed of Manila hemp with a headline length of 27 m (90 ft) and was attached to flat wooden trawl boards. The historical towing speed was estimated as 1.34 m s⁻¹ (2.6 knots). Three parts of the shallow Agulhas Bank that were surveyed 111 years prior, were re-surveyed in 2015. Species composition was contrasted between the historical and re-survey periods by way of unconstrained ordination, permutational multivariate analysis of variance and tests of the homogeneity of multivariate group dispersions. Taxa discerning between periods were identified with similarity percentage analyses. Changes of standardised catch between periods were tested for 27 taxa, using a non-parametric bootstrap approach. Proportions among size-classes, recorded for three taxa, were tested using Fisher's exact test. Results revealed a substantially transformed demersal catch assemblage, where the period effect explained almost half of the measured variance among samples. These changes included the disappearance or heavy depletion of kob (Argyrosomus spp., absent in re-surveys), panga (Pterogymnus laniarius; 2.4% of historical catch abundance) and east coast sole (Austroglossus pectoralis; 4.6% of historical catch abundance), which had jointly contributed 70-84% of historical catch composition. Average re-survey catches were largely made up of gurnards (Chelidonichthys spp.; 3 792% of historical abundance), horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus; 4 738% of historical abundance), spiny dogfish (Squalus spp.; 3 121% of historical abundance), hake (Merluccius capensis; 558% of historical abundance) and white sea catfish (Galeichthys feliceps; 13 863% of historical abundance). Analysis of available length information confirmed the expectation that fish sizes (specifically M. capensis and A. pectoralis) had declined. This implies that comparisons by weight would be more severe for declined abundances and less severe for those that increased, relative to contrasts of numerical abundance. Habitat preferences as well as geographic and depth distribution appeared to separate the taxa that increased from those that declined. These factors, together with reproductive and growth characteristics, as well as indirect trophic impacts, likely shaped the responses of demersal fauna to fishing and other human impacts during the 111 years between trawl surveys. An assessment of distribution changes of 44 common demersal taxa was undertaken. These analyses were restricted to the last 30 years of trawl survey data as the units and spatio-temporal resolution of prior data were incompatible. Standardised catches were used from annual spring and autumn south coast trawl surveys conducted by the government fisheries department. Geostatistical delta-generalised linear mixed models were used to predict species distribution functions, which were used to calculate annual estimates of latitude/longitude centres of gravity and effective areas occupied by each population. Average trends over the study period (1986-2016) were assessed using a Bayesian state-space model. Of nine species found to have a trend in average location, six moved westward or south-westward, while three moved eastward or north-eastward. Two species showed a trend of contracting spatial extent and one showed an expansion. Across the entire assemblage combined, there was a significant contraction in extent and a westward shift in average location. These assemblage-wide average trends are interpreted to be driven by climate forcing. Fishing impacts are expected to have contributed to the eastward movement in centre of gravity for kob, lesser sandshark (Rhinobatos annulatus) and white stumpnose (Rhabdosargus globiceps). Interpretation of these distribution shifts is hampered by a lack of knowledge on subsurface hydrographic trends on the Agulhas Bank, which is identified as a research priority. My research revealed substantial change in demersal fish communities on South Africa's Agulhas Bank and adds novel insight to the history underlying current states of demersal ecosystems. Valuable additions include a) documentation of the extent to which demersal assemblages have transformed during the last century at three representative inshore sites; b) estimates of current abundances relative to pre-disturbed baselines at those sites, which c) highlights drastic local depletion for certain taxa and d) reveals substantial abundance increases of certain species during the post-industrial fishing period; e) novel evidence of distribution trends in south coast demersal species; and f) identification of trends in the average distribution of the demersal fish assemblage, suspected to be climate-forced. Long-term comparisons, using minimally-disturbed baselines, revealed drastic transformation of the fish assemblage during a century of industrialisation, which points to trawling-induced alteration of benthic habitats and substantial changes in ecosystem structure. Besides the provision of novel historical context for current and future studies and decision-making, this work counters the erosive nature of shifting baselines in South Africa's marine environment.

Within the methodological framework of the academic research, this study focuses on the urban development specific to shrinking cities. This interest raised from a broader interrogation on the professional practice of urban architects and the making of the city ongoing in this early XXIth century, with regards to contemporary debates about cities that are resilient, economical, self sufficient toward ecological, socio-economical and political crises. The shrinking city offers thus an interesting framework to study architects-urban planners reactions to such contexts and constraints adaptation. Furthermore the German programm Shrinking Cities and the reflexions raised by the German architect and researcher Philipp Oswalt have been a trigger component. He claims that the shrinking city was a new playground to explore new architectural and planning thoughts. He demonstrates it from a gathering of experiences around the world. Today, we suggest to follow this reflexion and raise the following issue: which lessons are to be learned from those experiences for today's professional practice and imagine the city of tomorrow ?From this initial questioning, we took for granted that those new ways of seeing architecture and urban project (concepts, architectural languages, urban shape, etc.) lead to new leaving standards territories (uses, urban patterns, landscape, leaving conditions, etc.), changing thus the making of the city in this beginning of XXIth century. Indeed, those processes would be influential in the identification of favourable lands for a reasoned gestion of the city and the development of new tools and acting processes imagined by architects and urban planners.To answer to our hypothesis, we focus more specifically on projects initiating a deep mutation of the urban fabric, on its form and its uses that we would call here urban reshaping. Our analysis is based on six processes meant to be "innovative", realized or no, one of them being built by inhabitants. They illustrate this practice in different shrinking cities since the 20 past years. Those case studies are located in different urban fabrics contexts to illustrate the diversity of situations that one can be facing. In parallel of two French case studies (Saint-Etienne, Livradois-Forez), we will observe other experiences in two foreign contexts, pioneers in terms of local initiatives and urban policy: Germany (Halle-Neustadt, Dessau) and the United states (Detroit). The diversity of projects, in terms of approach and scale does not constitute a comparative study. We suggest instead a more relevant approach consisting in questioning them to understand the political, socioeconomic and environment consequences on the process of project making and the capacity of those projects to initiate a transformation of urban fabric and of the city.Our goal will be to understand the originality and specifies of those initiatives, but also potential contributions to the contemporary debates on the city and its evolutions. This approach seeks bringing a prospective dimension about the shrinking city. ; Dans le cadre de la recherche, nous nous intéressons à la pratique du projet urbain dans les villes en décroissance (ou ville rétrécissante), plus connues sous le terme anglophone de shrinking cities. Cet intérêt est né d'un questionnement plus large sur la pratique de l'architecte-urbaniste et la fabrique de la ville en ce début du XXIe siècle, où les débats se multiplient sur la ville résiliante, économe, autosuffisante face aux crises écologiques, socio- économiques et politiques actuelles. La ville en décroissance offre ainsi un cadre intéressant pour nous confronter à cette problématique où l'architecte-urbaniste se retrouve à devoir s'adapter et se réinventer face à de multiples contraintes. Par ailleurs, le programme allemand Shrinking Cities et les réflexions portées par l'architecte-chercheur allemand Philipp Oswalt ont été un élément déclencheur. Ce dernier revendiquait l'idée que la ville en décroissance était le nouveau terrain de jeu pour explorer de nouvelles pensées architecturales et urbanistiques. Il le démontre à partir d'un travail de collecte d'expériences à travers le monde. Aujourd'hui, nous proposons de poursuivre cette réflexion et de nous poser la question suivante: quels enseignements pouvons-nous tirer de ces expériences pour notre pratique et imaginer la ville de demain ? À partir de ce questionnement, nous faisons l'hypothèse que ces nouvelles pensées architecturales et urbaines (concepts, langages architecturaux, formes urbaines, etc.) participeraient à la formulation de nouvelles formes d'habiter les territoires (usages, modèles urbains, paysage, modes de vie, etc.), permettant d'envisager différemment la fabrique urbaine en ce début du XXIe. Ces démarches seraient par ailleurs actrices dans la reconnaissance de terrains favorables pour une gestion urbaine raisonnée et dans le développement de nouveaux outils et protocoles d'action imaginés par les architecte-urbanistes.Pour répondre à notre hypothèse de recherche, nous nous intéressons plus spécifiquement aux projets impulsant une mutation profonde du tissu urbain, dans sa forme comme dans ses usages que nous nommons ici par remodelage urbain. Notre analyse se base sur six démarches dites « innovantes », théoriques et réalisées, dont un cas est mis en œuvre par des habitants. Elles illustrent cette pratique dans différentes villes en décroissance depuis ces vingt dernières années.Ces cas d'étude sont situés dans des tissus urbains différents (habitat dense en centre-ville et dans les bourgs ruraux, grands ensembles, habitat pavillonnaire) pour montrer la diversité des terrains auxquels l'architecte-urbaniste peut être confronté. Parallèlement aux deux cas français (Saint-Étienne, Livradois-Forez), nous observerons d'autres expériences dans deux contextes étrangers, précurseurs en termes d'initiatives locales et de politiques urbaines : l'Allemagne (Halle- Neustadt, Dessau) et les États-Unis (Detroit). La diversité des approches et des échelles de réflexion de ces projets ne permet pas de conduire une étude comparative. Plus adaptée à notre démarche, nous proposons leur mise en discussion pour comprendre l'impact du cadre politique, socio-économique et de l'environnement urbain sur le processus de projet ainsi que la capacité de ces projets à amorcer une transformation du tissu urbain et de la ville.Notre objectif sera ainsi de comprendre l'originalité et les spécificités de ces démarches, mais aussi leurs apports potentiels dans les débats actuels sur la ville et ses évolutions. Cette démarche cherche à apporter une dimension prospective sur le sujet de la ville en décroissance.

ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATIONHow do Native Hawaiian Concepts of Well-being Inform the Meaning And Social Function of Food?ByDarrah Leigh Goo KurataniDoctor of Philosophy in Public HealthUniversity of California, Los Angeles, 2015Professor Marjorie Kagawa Singer, ChairIt is well known that indigenous communities are vulnerable to the plight of the social gradient of health and are overly burdened by chronic diseases. One common risk factor for the major chronic illnesses among indigenous communities, such as heart disease, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and cancer is obesity. The indigenous people of Ka Pae Aina (the Hawaiian Islands), the Kanaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians), reside as minorities in their native land, and have the poorest health outcomes. They also have one of the highest rates of obesity in the world. Even though obesity rates have risen for all groups nationally, Native Hawaiians are almost twice as likely to be obese. In Hawaii, Native Hawaiians have the highest obesity rate (47%) when compared to other ethnic and racial groups, including Non-Hispanic Whites (NHW) (21%), Japanese (16%), and Filipinos (21%) (HHDW, 2013). The epidemiology clearly shows that the problem exists, but current research does not explain why the obesity rate for Native Hawaiians is so incredibly high. Such reasons remain poorly explored, and this lack of knowledge undermines efforts to effectively reduce the rates of obesity. The U.S. colonized native Hawaiians in 1898, and colonial culture and laws have worked to marginalize, stigmatize and alienate Native Hawaiian people from the larger society. The overarching impact of imposed and embedded colonial denigration of the Native Hawaiian people has been reported to be the perpetuation of negative self-image and their social position has been restricted to the bottom of the political hierarchy. The consequences of both these forces generally has been to limit their lifestyle choices and options about their own health and well-being. Yet these factors are rarely included as active factors in the theoretical frameworks used to address the health status of this population. Rather, studies that address Native Hawaiians and other indigenous peoples, often intimate that their culture is a large part of the problem. However, interventions designed to improve the negative health status of native peoples and Native Hawaiians, in particular, do not seem to identify what it is about culture, and in particular, whose culture, may actually be influencing the behaviors that lead to overweight and obesity. Previous interventions that have integrated cultural values and practices in weight loss programs with Native Hawaiians have shown initial benefit, but were unable to sustain long term results. This is likely because the focus was on individual level beliefs and practices. The larger social and political forces that address daily realities of work and low incomes, and institutionalized discrimination towards Native Hawaiians were not addressed. Individual level strategies are necessary, but not sufficient to sustain healthier choices if these contextual forces are not addressed. In the 1970s, the Hawaiian Renaissance was founded and became an emotional and political turning point for Native Hawaiians. Its goal was to reinvigorate cultural pride and interest in the values and wisdom of Native Hawaiian culture in contrast to the 120 years of explicit denigration of Native Hawaiian culture, and explicit pressure to assimilate into white European Christian culture. The spirit of the Hawaiian renaissance has given rise to a counter consciousness and spurred an ongoing struggle to recognize and reconcile the two competing sets of cultural messages for the native peoples and, primarily, the political power and social structure of Hawaiian society today. This study applied a socio-ecologic conceptual cultural lens to understand the concepts of well-being among Native Hawaiians to investigate if and how social, political, and historical contextual forces may still affect Native Hawaiians' sense of self, and if and how these forces may impact their conceptualizations of and decisions regarding health. The intent was to investigate how a multi-level, multidimensional concept of culture might better elucidate how we understand the relationships of these contextual forces on the meaning of well-being and food, the use of food in social relationships, and, ultimately, its potential relationship to rates of obesity. This ethnographic study was conducted on the island of Oahu with participant, observational, archival investigations and one-on-one inductive qualitative, interviews with twenty-nine Native Hawaiian participants. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. The conceptual frameworks that guided this study included, the Cultural Framework for Health (CFH), and the philosophical and theoretical concept of empathy. The CFH recognizes and incorporates an explicit definition of culture as a scientifically grounded, multidimensional, and multi-level construct, inclusive of biopsychosocial and ecological frameworks and recognizes and incorporates geographical, historical, social and political realities of diverse communities. The findings show that Native Hawaiians' conceptualizations of well-being are based on five core Native Hawaiian cultural values: 1) ohana (family), 2) aloha (love, care, and compassion), 3) kokua (to help without being asked), 4) lokahi (harmony), and 5) mana (life force, energy, power). One of the key ways these values are expressed and manifested interpersonally is symbolically through the meaning and use of food. Food was found to be a key component in how Native Hawaiian identity is conceptualized and as a way to express and access love, compassion, and comfort. Notably, the findings showed that the conceptualizations of well-being extend beyond the individual and include family, community, social, political and historical issues and structures that have the potential to provide a sense of worth and empowerment. This study suggests that the use of food may also be a coping mechanism for Native Hawaiians to seek comfort from the feelings of powerlessness and denigration by the overarching social structure that has relegated them to being "the forgotten people." Health interventions would likely be more effective and long lasting if this more comprehensive and scientifically grounded cultural analysis informed the design and implementation of such efforts.

The present global environmental condition is a consequence of the increasing consumption of natural resources whose depletion exceeds what is physically possible to sustain in the long term. The construction sector is a considerable contributor to this resource depletion and sustainability is adopted in the form of the theory of ecological modernization. The implementation depends to varying extents on sustainability demands at the global, national, regional, local, corporate and individual levels. In addition, there appears to be a lack of new knowledge transfer from the international research community to local construction project managers, particularly in the process of construction works in line with the objective of sustainability. According to environmental legislation, it is the client who is the responsibility party, performing activities as owner and administrator of construction works. The aim of the research is, first, to define what sustainability in construction works is. The understanding and meaning of sustainability can vary considerably through the perspective of a client and a construction project manager, within corporate organizations and through sporadic knowledge transfer. A critical review of the use of the terminology of sustainable construction and sustainable building is carried out and a model for enabling a client to manage sustainability matters in relation to construction works and then validate this model within a defined context is established. The construction sector is complex and fragmented and has, therefore, a tendency to resist changes leading towards sustainability. Clients and project managers are facing barriers to the implementation of sustainability, e.g. lack of pro-active sustainable measures, conflicts in real and perceived costs and inadequate implementation expertise. A common misunderstanding is that sustainability in construction works is more expensive in terms of investment costs compared to 'normal' mainstream buildings. It is critical to transfer knowledge from the research community to mainstream practitioners efficiently to help facilitate the implementation of corporate sustainability without delay or confusion of methodology. By adopting the standard ISO 15392: "Sustainability in building construction – General principles", it is possible to interpret sustainability for construction works accordingly, despite the different backgrounds of stakeholders. Therefore, different and confusing interpretations of sustainable building, sustainable construction or green building can be avoided. To meet the holistic conditions of sustainability according to the standard above, it is crucial to implement a platform of multiple corporate management systems such as those focused on quality-, environment-, work safety-, stakeholders-, and knowledge into an integrated system of sustainability. By utilizing the STEPS (Start-up, Take-off, Expansion, Progressive, Sustainability) maturity roadmap, it is possible to achieve continual improvement in knowledge management in a 'many-small-steps' approach on the corporate level. It is also crucial to transfer knowledge horizontally, to formulate a sustainability policy regarding sustainability, to translate corporate activities into adequate key figures/ indicators in order to fulfil the commitment of continual improvement, and meet the community´s sustainability objectives. This information should be placed within the property instead of being held by the owner. A framework of assessment is necessary, objective-led, taking into account site-specific, corporate-specific and service-life issues. The STURE (Stakeholder-Urban Evaluation) model is a product of the research and represents an approach that optimizes the sustainability demands and abilities of a client, stakeholders and authorities relevant to a single or multiple construction works. Five cases of construction works were used as input to validate the STURE model in line with the principles of the ISO 15932 standard. The cases studies were drawn from different phases in the life-cycle of construction works and in different stages of construction process. Furthermore, the cases represented buildings with different functions. The result of the validation implies the possibility to use the STURE model with some minor adjustments, to assess construction work or works in order to determine whether or not it is heading towards a sustainable, a partly sustainable or non-sustainable development. The proposed STURE model connects to the STEPS maturity roadmap on the corporate level and the combinations of ISO standards are a way of structuring stakeholder demands or outcomes of expectancy with regard to sustainability objectives, optimized from national, regional, local and corporate levels together with technical and functional demands. Use of these methods also promotes continual improvement in project performance and basic organizational activities. This is, as noted earlier, a 'many-small-steps' approach and depends on the client's ability, level of knowledge and inclination. The aim is not to be a world leader, but rather to recognize that improvement comes through successive small steps and, thus, creates a means for measuring improvement along the path of sustainability in the field of construction works. Progress towards sustainability in construction works is rather slow, in spite of the short timescale before potential irreversible damage occurs from climate change. In the long run it is not enough to sustain on the level of present environmental depletion; it has to be a regenerative development. By these means, it is time for action by transferring current and new knowledge from the research community into an adaptive and practical framework for implementation. This knowledge must be complete with clearly defined economic incentives, and the gap between researchers and practitioners must be bridged with arguments of economic value. It is also important to bridge the gap of knowledge transfer in both directions between industrialized and developing countries, as local decisions and solutions affecting the built environment have both local and global impact. Last, it is the client/owner/developer, as the responsible performer of activities concerning construction works, who has the main responsibility concerning construction works and the obligation to commit sustainability. At the same time, there is an opportunity and a challenge to make the built environment more sustainable and begin regenerative development in the earnest.

Случайно или закономерно все, что происходит с Российской цивилизацией в XX веке? Было ли "торжество реального социализма" так же, как и его крах, результатом активности каких-либо внутренних или внешних политических сил, отклонившей Россию от ее естественного исторического маршрута, или это следствие закономерного развития этнокультурной системы, центром которой является русский этнос? Попытка ответа на эти вопросы в терминах этноэкологической модели содержится в данной статье. ; The author makes an attempt at clearing up the peculiarities of political, social and cultural development of the Russian ethnos in the XXth century as a consequence of the Russia's transition from the extensive mode of development to the intensive one. The Russian ethnos is a unique ethnos of Eurasian Continent which expanded almost continuously its living territory during all its history. Thus the new natural resources were involved into the living sphere: land, woods, minerals etc. Human resources were also unlimited as high rate of population growth was typical for the Russian ethnos. It grew especially in late XIXth — early XXth centuries during the demographic transition period. The non-limited character of all kinds of resources allowed to cancel contradictions inside the ethnos. For example the stability of the social basis of the Russian rural community — was achieved through an outflow of "superfluous" people beyond the borders of the main area of population. Contradictions arising in the process of extensive urbanization were also solved through involving of the practically unlimited human and natural resources. The community's stability limited the quantitative growth of towns. And the lack of dense network of urban settlements preconditioned by hugeness of the territory restricted the collapse of rural community, hindering the growth of labor productivity. Therefore the vicious circle existed, which was broken as a result of the first crisis of the extensive development and the Great October Revolution became a political embodiment of the crisis. The main reason of the crisis consisted in the impossibility of the further extensive development of the agricultural technologies being traditional for the Russian ethnos. At the same time the outcome of the crisis was possible only due to the forced development of the basic traditions of ethnic culture for a moment of the crisis. This stage of the Russian ethnos development continued within the life period of three generations and corresponded to the period of construction of "real socialism". It was historically inevitable, making evident discrepancy of the extensive culture principles and new situation. The Russian ethnos in twenties and thirties of the XXth century was not ready yet for the development of democratic institutions of power, nor for "implementation"of market relations. The mentality of people masses being thrown out from villages to towns and having formed marginal strata could not form the basis for the development of these institutions. Namely in the process of socialism construction the system of predominating valuables was changed immensely, making possible a new step in transition from the extensive model of development to the intensive one. The condition of transition to the intensive model of development consists in exhausting of three sources having provided for centuries the possibility of attraction of unlimited quantity of resources for solution of intrinsic conflicts: of high natural population growth, of newly mastered lands, of super cheap raw materials (ore, fuel etc.). The new stage of the Russian ethnos and the whole civilization development is connected with transition of urbanization processes from the stage of quantitive growth of towns (mainly in connection with migration) to the stage of formation of qualitatively new urban local substructures. To the end of the XXth century the demographic conditions for an emergence of real urbanistic culture in Russia were quite different from the European ones. In the end of the XXth century the Russian ethnos entered the principally new stage of its development — the stage of final transition from extensive to intensive development model. Therefore the Russian ethnos will be changing qualitatively and these changes will effectuate the ethnos structure as well as the content of the Russian history in wide sense.The main directions of the structural changes are differentiation of the Russian ethnos, cristallization of stable groups (territorial, social, ethnic and cultural). Stabilization of migration mobility as well as revival of local markets will inevitably lead to localization of processes inside the Russian ethnos and to localization of the Russian society as a whole. The society of the "developed socialism" period was characterized with relatively movable borders of local and social groups. Localization of ecological and demographic processes will in its turn, increase the influence of local element in culture and in structure of ethnic self-consciousness. At the new stage the role of competition as a factor influencing all the elements of social life of the Russian ethnos will grow, since in the process of extensive development competition was canceled on account of attraction of additional sources. So the role of social and cultural mechanisms regulating the results of competition will increase. In particular the role of laws in society's life as a management principle in comparison with personal regulation will be necessarily higher. Formation of the intensive culture is the long-term process of confirmation of an experience of contradictions solution in the ethnos culture. Contradictions between principles of the extensive and the intensive culture will arise at the intergroup level, for example between the groups, having mastered the principles of intensive cultures and the groups preserving preference of the extensive norms as well as at the level inside the group and even at the personality level. It will lead to the psychological tension growth in the ethnos environment. As a whole perception of the main principles of intensive model by the Russian ethnos is inevitable. Still its culture was formed initially as the extensive one and it is not clear if would lead to a loss of its best qualities or even of integrity. The Russian culture is the last extensive culture of the mankind, and the question of possibility of its revival in new conditions is very important because its loss may become fatal for the whole civilization.

Abstrak Karya sastra merupakan miniatur dari dunia nyata, dimana sebuah karya sastra biasanya mengungkap beberapa masalah yang berkaitan dengan makhluk hidup termasuk isu-isu tentang hubungan manusia dengan alam. Manusia lebih cenderung melakukan kerusakan pada lingkungan daripada menjaganya, hal ini menyebabkan kehancuran bumi beserta isinya. Hal ini tergambar pada novel The Road karya McCarthy dimana lingkungan yang menjadi setting utamanya hancur berantakan. Lansekapnya tertutup oleh abu yang berterbangan. Dan ketika salju turun, ia berwarna abu-abu. Langitnya juga terlihat gelap. Oleh sebab itu, ada beberapa masalah yang berhubungan dengan kehancuran bumi yang tergambar pada novel yang kemudian memunculkan dua dasar pertanyaan (1) bagaimana kehancuran bumi digambarkan dalam novel The Road karya McCarthy? Dan (2) bagaimana kehancuran bumi memberikan dampak terhadap karakter utama dalam novel The Road karya McCarthy?. Untuk melihat masalah ini perlu teori yang pas yang biasa disebut ecocriticism. Ecocriticism melihat kehancuran bumi sebagai hasil dari tingkah laku manusia terhadap lingkungan misalnya: eksploitasi dan colonialisasi. Seperti yang dikatakan Lawrence Buell bahwa kondisi lingkungan itu ditentukan oleh manusia. Ecocriticism adalah suatu istilah yang berada dibawah payung postcolonialism dimana seorang postcolonialist meyakini bahwa kolonialisasi mempunyai campur tangan dalam penghancuran bumi. Para penjajah merasa percaya diri untuk mengeksploitasi bumi karena dianugrahi kekuatan oleh modernism. Untuk mendapatkan analisis yang jelas, skripsi ini menggunakan metode descriptive quality dimana kualitas data menjadi poin utama daripada jumlah data. Jadi, terlihat jelas bahwa kehancuran bumi terjadi diseluruh lapisan lingkungan; yaitu atmosfer, permukaan tanah, dan laut. Seluruh atmosfer dipenuhi oleh abu, debu dan karbon, tanahnya terkikis, tandus dan gundul, dan lautnya berubah menjadi abu-abu. Kehancuran bumi ini juga memberikan kesuraman tersendiri kepada tokoh si bapak dan si anak. Mereka harus melalui hidup yang keras, susah untuk bernafas, susah untuk menemukan sesuatu yang bisa dimakan dan secara mental mereka selalu takut akan ancaman-ancaman dari kehancuran bumi. Kata Kunci: kehancuran bumi, ecocriticism, postcolonialism, modernism. Abstract Literary work is a miniature of larger world or reality, whereas a literary work reveals some problems related to humans being including issues of human relationships with the environment. Humans tend to do damage to the environment rather than maintaining it, thus it causes devastation of earth. It is reflected in McCarthy's the road where the environment is devastated. The landscape save the ash on the wind, and when the snow falls, it is gray. The sky is also dark. Therefore, there are some problems of knowledge about how the devastation of earth portrays in the novel, which are delivered to two main questions of (1) How is devastation of earth depicted in Cormac McCarthy's The Road? and (2) How does devastation of earth give impacts to the main characters in Cormac McCarthy's The Road?. In case to observe these problems, it needs a suitable theory which called ecocriticism. Ecocriticism sees the devastation of earth as the result of humans' behaviour such as exploitation and colonialism of the environment, as Lawrence Buell says that the condition of the environment is determined by humans. Ecocriticism is under umbrella term of postcolonialism in which postcolonilist believes that colonization has intervention in devastating the earth. Colonizer is encouraged to exploit the nature because of power that is given by modernism. To get a clear analysis, this thesis uses descriptive quality method; it means the quality of the data becomes the reference to work rather than the quantity of the data. Thus, it is seen clearly that devastation of earth happened in the whole layers of environment; atmosphere, land and sea. The atmosphere is occupied by ash, dust and carbon, the land has eroded and barren and the sea have changed into gray. This devastation also gives a misery to the father and the son as the main characters. They have to undergo hard life; hard to breathe, hard to find food and mentally they are haunted by the devastated earth's threatens. Keywords: devastation of earth, ecocriticism, postcolonialism, modernism. INTRODUCTION Humans often feel indifferent toward nature. For them, nature is something considerably as a 'mystic' thing, when it goes right, humans forget it, when it goes wrong, they worry it. People tend to prefer natural environments more than built environments, and built environments with water, trees, and other vegetation more than built environments without such features (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). On the other word, humans tend to permit the nature walks down by itself. They seem to just let it flow without thinking how to keep and maintenance the nature. The study of humans' relation with nature which is known as ecology was begun since years ago when humans lived in harmony with the nature. However, in line with development the nature also changes. Unfortunately, this natural changes brings devastation on earth, as Donald Hughes says that looking back to our historical ecology, Humans have related in multiple ways to the Earth's systems; some of these ways promise a sustainable balance with them, while others are destructive (Hughes, 2001: 269). Historically, through devastation of earth Humans have made major changes in their environments. This is happened almost in the whole surface, as Hughes says that devastation of earth has happened in every historical period and in every part of the inhabited Earth (2001: 1). In order to observe those processes of change that affect the relationship, ecologist studies the mutual effects that other species, natural forces, and cycles have on humans, and the actions of humans that affect the web of connections with non-human organisms and entities (id. at 4.). This ecologist's study shows that devastation of earth is the result of humans' behaviour toward environment. This bad behaviour has changed the environment that will bring devastation to the humans themselves. Humans seemingly don't care of the environment. Severity, humans tend to be more destructive. It forces some Ecocritics who concern in literary study and environment in late nineteenth criticized humans' behaviour toward nature. This criticises show how important avoiding that kind of behaviour toward nature which brings devastation of earth merely, it signed that the study of literature which related to the environment has to be discussed. There were in fact some isolated calls for an ecologically oriented criticism during the 1970s (Rigby, vol 2: 2). However, it was not until the end of the twentieth century that the study of literature and the environment was finally recognized as 'a subject on the rise'. In studying of literature, humans ordinarily focus on the relation between humans and others (society) or between humans and themselves (psychology), whereas, the relation between humans and environment actually is tightly connected. Unfortunately, the study of literature which related to the earth was often forgotten, whereas, the study of literature which related to the environment is greatly important. The study of environment is not merely observing of the nature or nonhumans aspect but it tends to study the relation among nature, earth and the humans themselves. Human actually is a part of environmental system, and therefore the environment has the crucial role in humans life in which it is become the main point of literary study. In some respects, it is perhaps not surprising that the study of literary texts should be coupled with such forgetfulness of the earth. Thus it is needed a study of humans' relation and environment. The study of literature and environment got a full attention when modern era begun to destruct the environment. Since last decade ago, especially years ago, humans consciously realized the impacts of their behaviour toward nature, moreover when they become crazier of invention, exploration and exploitation of the nature. Surely, this impact is indirectly causing ecological changes. However, actually what people do about their ecology depend on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them. Human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny (White 1996, 6). It can be imagined when humans were only thinking about themselves and forgetting the nature or they were just considering their needs without considering the nature needs, it can be ascertained that the nature will vanish and be extinct. This idea or thought about indifference toward nature is criticized by the Ecocritics. Ecocriticism maintains that literature may be approached in a way that examines humans as part of an ecosystem; they are neither master nor slave to it, but simply one part of an intricate system. Literature and environment truly can't be separated each other. Moreover, Lawrence Buell argues in his book The Truth of Ecology as quoted by Dana Philip that literature would be environmental. It would evoke the natural world through verbal surrogates, and would thereby attempt to bond the reader to the world as well as to discourse (Philip, 2003: 7). It can be assumed that through the literary work, the reader will be brought to the environmental world and devastation of earth. Indirectly, literature causes the reader's interpretation of the environment. Thus, it is important to understand the relation between humans and environment through literary work. It needs to notice that ecology is not a slush fund of fact, value, and metaphor, but a less than fully coherent field with a very checkered past and a fairly uncertain future (Philip, 2003: 45). By understanding the relation between humans and environment, it is beneficial to determine the act effectively on the impact of natural destruction and to integrate knowledge and actions. The study of literature and environment works in tandem in determining humans' perception and interpretation toward nature. As Lawrence Buell says that literature and environment studies must make their case for the indispensableness of physical environment as a shaping force in human art and experience, and how such an aesthetic works (2001: 9). It can be assumed that environmental interpretation is a humanistic inquiry. In other word, what people think about nature, and how they have expressed those ideas is what people interpret of the nature. Generally what people expressed the idea of the nature is a Realistic depiction of the world. Thus, it needs a tool to see this depiction. Surely Ecocriticism is a proper tool to see the depiction of the world. Ecocriticism is the most suitable binoculars to telescoped ecological issue and ecological changes in such literary work, as Sheryl Glotfelty (1996: xviii) says that Ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment, Ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies. Only Ecocriticicism observes the relation between humans and nonhumans aspects. What Ecocritics do, in short, is attempting to discover nature as absence, silence in texts, and construe environmental representation as a relevant category of literary (Buell, 2005: 30). Ecocriticism encourages the changing of canonisation through entering literary works which carry up natural issue. Ecocriticism ecologically oriented critique of the way in which Nature is constructed in certain canonical texts. Environmental literature constitutes the third way in which Ecocriticism recasts the canon. According to Lawrence Buell (1995, 7-8), an environmentally oriented work should display some characteristics; first, the nonhuman environment is present not merely as a framing device but as a presence that begins to suggest that human history is implicated in natural history. Second, the human interest is not understood to be the only legitimate interest. Third, Human accountability to the environment is part of the text's ethical framework. The last, some sense of the environment as a process rather than as a constant or a given is at least implicit in the text. In such literary work; Cormac McCarthy's The Road the nature as the setting represents ecological changes. Surely, this change causes devastation of earth. Nothing is more miserable on earth but devastation. The world which is the closest place we live at is not convenient again when it was devastated. Thus, literary and environment has interrelation that cannot be separated. Then, it is important to analyze such literary work through Ecocriticism. Ecological issue commonly represented by the presence of natural thing such as; tree, land and also circumstance in the novel which it become the setting. In other word, ecological issue become a centre point of setting. One of great writers in narrating the setting is Cormac McCarthy. Not only known as a king of the setting, McCarthy also has known as famous environmental setting as Addy Haddock (a writer of McCarthy's bibliography) says that his ability to provide eloquent descriptions with smoothly rolling darker undertones and poetically dismal nuances makes him become a writer with powerful setting. Thus, McCarthy is a right author referenced as a study of Ecocriticism. Indirectly, McCarthy's proficient is caused by his settled at a barn near Louisville, Tennessee. All the stones he gathered, all the wood he cut and kiln dried by himself to renovate his small house. Seemingly, McCarthy's life is not far away from the nature. Years later, after marrying fellow student Lee Holleman in 1961, he and she moved to a shack with no heat and running water in the foothills of the Smoky Mountains outside of Knoxville. These experiences of life sharpen his idea toward nature. McCarthy reveals that he is not a fan of authors who do not deal with issues of life and death; it can be assumed that his writing tends to be explored issues of life including devastation of earth. Recalling blithely the months he spent without electricity in a house in Tennessee. Without money, and he had run out of toothpaste and he was wondering what to do when he went to the mailbox and there was a free sample. It made him become more sensitive facing the nature and more respect it. In 2006, McCarthy writes The Road that grants him a change to be interviewed by Oprah Winfrey. Surely, this interview related to his writing especially devastation of earth and won Pulitzer Prize for fiction. McCarthy told Winfrey that related several stories illustrating the degree of outright poverty he endured at times during his career as a writer. He also states that his novel; The Road inspired when he was standing at the window of a hotel in the middle of the night, his son asleep nearby, he started to imagine what El Paso might look like 50 or 100 years in the future. He just had this image of these fires up on the hill. It shows the condition of the nature at the time which the hill was fired up. McCarthy can be categorized as a weird person. People usually gathered with other people who have same hobby or pleasure. However, it doesn't apply for McCarthy. As a writer, he doesn't like to gather with other writer. He would rather hang out with physicists or scientist than other writer. He does not know any writers and much prefers the company of scientists. No doubt if his knowledge of nature is rich. His knowledge of the natural world is vast and includes many of the Latin names of birds and animals. His pleasure gathering with physicists and scientist caused by his interest in science and environment, by absorbing the intelligence scientists, he realizes that in 100 years the human race won't even be recognizable. For him, what physicists did in the 20th century was one of the extraordinary flowerings ever in the human enterprise, which would much prefer to befriend a scientist than another writer. Most of McCarthy's novels are portraying about life or reality which many of them associated to ecological issue. In 1985, Blood Meridian was published. Blood Meridian portrays the desolate and indifferent 1850s Texas-Mexico borderlands. The extreme violence which takes place comments implicitly on both the environment and human nature. The novel's full title- Blood Meridian, or The Evening Redness In The West- is indicative of the novel's portrayal of the environment. A relationship between location, nature and violence is created in the symbolism of the sun as a "blood meridian". To call McCarthy's environments as constructed in Blood Meridian simply violent is an unsatisfactory conclusion. What is more appropriate and evident in the text is that man is inherently violent and the indifference of nature to this creates an amoral setting. In 1979, McCarthy published his fourth novel, Suttree. In short, Suttree tells the reader about a man named Cornelius Suttree, a fisherman, disillusioned scholar, alcoholic, nihilist, existentialist and transcendentalist. The attention to detail identified earlier in Suttree is telling in terms of his relationship with his environment. Generally, to an Ecocritical reading Suttree shows that, stripped of societal anthropocentrism, man is forced to reassess his relationship with nature. It could be said that McCarthy's prose style is often atavistic (anti-civilization, anti-materialism, anti-industrialism, anti-progress and pro-Nature) in that it both reflects natural processes and often appears primitive, stripped of culture. In 1973, Child of God was published. It was inspired by actual events in Sevier County. Child of God begins with Lester Ballard's dispossession from his parent's house. McCarthy's description of Ballard's lone nomadic wandering after he inadvertently burns down his squat uses the same free indirect discourse. Child of God can also be described as an existential text, particularly for the authenticity of its protagonist. Lester Ballard's atavistic tendencies bring him closer to an animalistic level. From those all of McCarthy's novels, The Road which was published in 2006 by Vintage book publisher is the most representative novel which is related to the study of Ecocriticism. The novel is generally thick of environments' issue. The issue for instance is the fire of woods that happened along the country which give the reader an image of burned land, ash and dust everywhere and so on. Because of this reason, the writer felt that The Road is interested to be analyzed through ecological critics. In short, the novel portrays a journey of father and son as the main character in a burned land in America. The issue of devastation of earth becomes the centre point of interest which grasps the whole setting of the novel. The Road brings the readers onto 'the future' in as much as it is set in a time after an ambiguous 'end' has occurred and society has collapsed. The reverse of the most recent reissue claims that it is the first great masterpiece of the globally warmed generation. It is also the first of McCarthy's novels to have provoked Ecocritical study. This wide appeal to the novel relies strongly on its environmental themes. The use of allusion to genre and form elsewhere in McCarthy's novels can be said to universalise his appeal but in The Road the key concern is the 21st century's most immediate global problem; the irrevocable damage global industrial capitalism is doing to our environment. It is difficult to read The Road without feeling the overwhelming cumulative force of the novel's desolation, and this desolation is most prominently present in the landscapes McCarthy portrays. The setting is almost entirely bereft of life; the little that is found is often malign humanity. The Road greatly represents a study of Ecocriticism. It portrays the colourless world because of devastation of earth. This devastation issue is common object of the Ecocriticism study. The Road continually reminds us of the bleakness of the landscape in the earth. As readers, we only experience bright colours through the characters' dreams or memories, if someone happens to bruise or bleed, or through fire or flare guns. The rest of the time we see a gray ash covering the landscape. As a reality, our landscape is actually green and natural. However, The Road shows the possibility of devastation of earth when humans did devastation to the nature and they can't live in harmony with the nature. Therefore, there is no doubt that The Road becomes the most influencing novel toward environment. It proves from the acclaim written in the novel by George Monbiot, an environmental campaigner that says "It could be the most important environmental book ever. It is a thought experiment that imagines a world without a biosphere, and shows that everything we value depends on the ecosystem." According to the brief story in background of the study that gives perception about the devastation of earth in the novel, it appears two questions as the problems: 1. How is devastation of earth depicted in Cormac McCarthy's The Road? 2. How does devastation of earth give impacts to the main characters in Cormac McCarthy's The Road? METHOD The used method is descriptive quality; it means the quality of the data becomes the reference to work rather than the quantity of the data. Besides, a technique is needed to understand the data. Technique of interpretation must be used to interpret and analyze the data. Through interpretation the analysis can be worked. Interpretation is a crucial step that has to do before analyzing the data. Then, extrinsic approach is used as an approach toward the analysis in which environment belongs to it. According to method above, the first thing that has to do is collecting data. In collecting data this research focuses on reading and documentation. Reading novel. In this step, novel becomes the object of the research. The novel is entitled The Road, written by Cormac McCarthy. To collect the correctly data, it needs reading more than once, because to get interpretation, it needs understanding all contents completely with all possibilities both intrinsically and extrinsically. Inventorying data. This step is collecting data through noting the quotations related to the statement of the problems and objectives of the study, it is including in words, sentences, and discourse that can represent devastation of earth in Cormac McCarthy's The Road. Thus, all data that will be analyzed are started and sourced through the novel's contents. Classification data. It is appropriate to the statements of the problems about devastation of earth in Cormac McCarthy's The Road. Tabling the data. It is to simplify reading the data and classify data that is used in the analysis for the readers. Continuously, the selected data or the collected data, which are related to the statements of the problems and the objectives, are analyzed through Ecocriticism in depicting the devastation of earth and its impacts to the main characters in Cormac McCarthy's The Road. MODERNISM The word "modern" closely means to up-to-date, abreast of the times, and going beyond the past in more than a temporally or chronologically literal sense (Greenberg, 1979; 2). Marshall Breman as quoted Jan Rada defines modernism as a trend of thought that affirms the power of human being to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge technology and practical experimentation (2008; 6). Breman then argues that modernism is as any attempt by modern men and women to become subjects as well as objects of modernization, to be modern is to find ourselves in an environment that promises us adventure, power, joy, growth, transformation of ourselves and the world-and, at the same time, that threatens to destroy everything we have, everything we know, everything we are (Berman, 1982; 5; 14). The development of modernism emerged two poles that confront each other; science and technology and natural degradation. As Helena J. Keler explanation that the image of 'creative destruction' is very important to understanding modernity precisely because it derived from the particular dilemmas that faced the implementation of the modernist project. This destruction of a holistic universe in the modern era shatters the conception of human beings and societies as total entities, instead inaugurating an era characterized by a never-ending process of internal ruptures and fragmentations within itself (Keler, 2005: 4). According to Horkheimer and Adorno as quoted by Helena, modern capitalist society is engaged in a pattern of domination: the domination of nature by human beings, domination of nature within human beings, and this system of domination is driven by fear of the human and nonhuman unknown the Other (Keler, 2005: 3). Movement of modernism manifests itself in the self-destructive nature of symbolism: when pushed to its logical extreme, the symbolist aesthetic starts to forgo any notion of an organic, necessary relationship between signifier and signified, and simply imposes a particular motif as an arbitrary symbol of something else (Hutchinson, 2011; 58). Modernism often demonstrates the destructive rather than constructive nature. Modernists argue that the ecologically destructive projects are not viable because of climate change but modernism movement (Johnston, 2012: 207). Specifically, Barbara Rose Johnston states that Human conduct that contributes to the destruction of our ecological balance. Such interpretations of environmental change, however, can have undesirable effect of deflecting responsibility, since blame is placed on a cycle of time about which a person can do nothing (Johnston, 2012: 212). Global environmental change, which spans natural sciences, policy and development studies, is currently experiencing its first waves. Perhaps it is time to recognize that already some people are getting their feet wet. On what criteria should one decide to retreat to higher ground or stick it out unmoved until the tide turns. Modernism challenges the modern project of understanding global environmental change and doing something about it when it causes problems (Blaikie, 1996: 81). According to Piers M. Blaikie, modernism First, it challenges all embracing world views or 'meta narratives' which tend to be highly teleological and assume the validity of their underlying assumptions and their claims. Thus, the role of environmental scientists in policy making as 'talking truth to power' and as the only rational and legitimate brokers between the 'real' environment and the rest of us, is rejected. Second, it challenges the tendency that is more pronounced in areas of global environmental change where the local hands on experience of the environment (land degradation, desertification and biodiversity). Third, it challenged that reality is socially constructed. An epistemology which builds models of society and environment with causal connections is challenged by one which is constituted as a series of descriptive accounts according to different actors' perceptions (Blaikie, 1996: 81). Modernism encourages people and countries to over-exploit natural resources, and contribute to reductions in spending on social and environmental welfare (Huckle, 1999: 36). Moreover, environmental reductions being blamed on the impact of foreign cultural domination this has allegedly eroded and damaged the 'essential harmony' between humans and nature (Mawdsley, 2001: 96). Evernden contends that the second instrumental vision of control and domination over nature is the historical product of modernity, more specifically of Renaissance, when a new mode of knowledge, based on reason and experimentation replaced the medieval search for knowledge as contemplation and wisdom (1992). This argument is supported that Modernity is thus responsible for creating Nature by abstracting from nature, and with it a whole history of conquest and domination comes to be enacted. In the words of C. S. Lewis: "We reduce things to mere Nature in order that we may "conquer" them. We are always conquering Nature because "Nature" is the name for what we have, to some extent, conquered" (Lewis, 1978: 42). Latest, Environmental problems and other risks encompass less than the globally catastrophic. More and more disaster experts, development agencies, and citizens' groups are supporting that the globalisation is largely responsible for such human misery (Huckle, 1999: 36). Modernism signed by the development science and technology (Somerville, 2006: 17-18). Further, given the increasing production by technologically advanced capitalism of risks that threaten us all ironically that technology induced catastrophes and environmental disasters (Simon Cottle, 1998: 8). Since the Enlightenment, technology, especially science-based technology, has offered the promise of a better world through the elimination of disease and material improvements to standards of living. On the other hand, resource extraction, emissions of dangerous materials, and pollution of air, water, and soil have created conditions for unprecedented environmental catastrophe and have already caused irreversible damage to the biosphere (Vergragt, 2006: 7). Ironically, the persisting contradictions between a better life created and supported by technology for the wealthy few, also caused the increasing environmental degradation and persistent poverty for the vast majority calls for a deeper exploration and understanding of the nature. Philip J. Vergragt then, states that technology will support and enhance a "good life" for all of its citizens, in both rich and presently poor countries, without compromising the Earth's ecosystem or the prospects of later generations (Vergragt, 2006: 8). Thus, science and technology which shaped to the sophistication give man a power to colonize the earth. POSTCOLONIALISM Environmentalism in post-colonial discourse has its beginnings in Alfred Crosby's account of the impact of European incursions into the Americas and the Pacific (Ashcroft, 2000: 71). This incursion of course destructs not only the country; physical building and ideology but also the environment and nature. The conquest and colonization of so many extra-European environments produced irreversible changes in land use, in flora and fauna and frequently damaged beyond repair traditionally balanced relations between indigenous communities and their environments, a relationship unlike that of their conquerors crucial to their understanding of their 'being' as of the land rather than merely on it (Ashcroft, 2000: 71-72). He adds that imperial incursions and colonization have been regarded as environmentally destructive, yet as Richard Grove argues, the perception of what had already been lost in Europe, the sense of intrinsic connection between the 'more-than-human' and the human, and thus the urgency of environmental preservation became strikingly evident in Europe's colonies, particularly in the late nineteenth century. Much environmentalism in theory and practice has emanated from former imperial centres such as Europe and the United States. While belated recognition of the crucial importance of other forms of life on earth is both welcome and necessary, its export and sometimes imposition on postcolonized cultures invites the obvious charge of hypocrisy and generates resentment against former imperial states which having degraded their own and their colonies' environments in the 'interests' of progress and 'development' now encourage (or impose) the theory and practices of environmental preservation on other peoples (Ashcroft, 2000: 72). This also frequently creates division within post-colonized cultures themselves, where, for instance, peoples are moved off their traditional lands to make way for game parks, essentially for the benefit of wealthy tourists. Demands for the 'global' preservation of endangered species frequently clash with the policies of post-colonized governments eager to use their regained environmental sovereignty in the interests of a modern capitalism from which it is difficult for them to escape. Devastation of earth has highlighted how human–environmental vulnerabilities are amplified not only by anthropogenic climate change but also by the capitalist exploitation of natural resources (Carrigan, 2005: 1). Harmful environmental conduct exposes several broader dimensions such as the nation's ability to use its resources as determined by domestic political processes, such as; it changes the natural forest microclimates that have been transformed into new microclimates increasing sunlight and lowering humidity (Nazzal, 2005: 6). The ecological crisis is not merely an isolated event but has its roots in the modern materialistic civilization that makes man becomes the butcher of earth (Huggan and Tiffin, 2010: 1). They argue that one way out of this morass is to insist that the proper subject of postcolonialism is colonialism, and to look accordingly for colonial/imperial underpinnings of environmental practices in both colonising and colonised societies of the present and the past (Huggan and Tiffin, 2010: 3) Colonialism greatly changed the environmental condition of colonized country. Alfred W. Crosby (Crosby 1986) as quoted by Aschroft describes the ways in which the environments of colonized societies have been physically transformed by the experience of colonial occupation, imperialism/colonialism not only altered the cultural, political and social structures of colonized societies, but also devastated colonial ecologies and traditional subsistence patterns (Ashcroft, 2000: 69). Indirectly, colonization influences ecological changes in the past which cause ecological destruction in the present day. More importantly, based on Crosby statement in Aschroft explain that introduced crops and livestock not between colonizer and colonized country only supported conquering armies and colonizing populations, radically colonizer altered the entire ecology of the invaded lands in ways that necessarily disadvantaged indigenous peoples and annihilated or endangered native flora and fauna (2000: 69). Arguably this has led to one of the most profound ecological changes the world has seen. Colonization or colonialism can be defined as the conquest and control of other people's land and goods (Loomba, 2005: 8). Colonialism means a conquest which is done by the west or European and American country toward Asia and Africa by exploitation the land, surely it causes natural destruction. Elleke Boehmer has defined colonialism as the settlement of territory, the exploitation or development of resources, and attempts to govern the indigenous inhabitants of occupied lands (Boehmer as qtd. in McLeod 2000: 8). The term colonialism is important in defining the specific form of natural exploitation that developed with the expansion of Europe over the last 400 years (Ashcroft, 2000: 40). With the end of the cold war, global infatuation with neoliberal economics has intensified the peripheralization of the South along economic, political, social, cultural and natural lines (Geeta Chowdhry and Sheila Nair, 2002: 1). Postcolonial critique bears witness to those countries and communities - in the North and the South (Bhabha, 1994: 6). The assumption of postcolonial studies is that many of the wrongs, if not crimes, against nature are a product of the economic dominance of the north over the south (Young, 2001: 6). Thus, the Norh represents the West and the South represents the East. Postcolonialism sees the natural destruction on the South as the impacts of colonization The northern environmentalism considered as the rich (always potentially vainglorious and hypocritical) and the southern environmentalism considered as the poor (often genuinely heroic and authentic) (huggan and Tiffin, 2010: 2). However, northern needs of the natural need were supplied from the south in the name of colonization. Colonialism granted imperial powers the rights to arrogate and exploit the territory of a subject people as well as to appropriate unlimited property rights, post-colonial states acted quickly to regain control over their natural resources both through expropriation of foreign property interests and through the legal arena (Nazzal, 2005: 10). Colonialism, through both practice and discourse, has separated man from his natural surroundings and has given him a false idea about the meaning of nature: on the contrary, nature is not there to be plundered, but to be cared for, tended and made to yield its produce. Then, Man is ennobled by the relationship with the environment, by his power to make things grow and watch over their growth, but the reverse also holds true: devastation returns man to his primitive condition. It is not surprising when the the nature did reverse destruction to the humans. It is the result of what they do exploit to the nature. On the other world, man as the colonizer has colonized the earth which caused the devastation of earth. (Chrisman and Williams, 1994: 1–20). Thus, postcolonialism can be considered as umbrella term of ecocriticism in which it criticizes the relation between human and nature including criticizing humans' behaviour precisely humans' exploitation toward nature. ECOCRITICISM Humans truly can't be separated with environment. human beings are engaged in the eternal search for connection, for that which connects us to others and for that which connects us to ourselves, culture, language, history, belief systems, social practice, and other influences on human development are as much a part of place as the physical landscape one crosses (Dreese, 2002; 2-3). She emphasizes that environmental factors play a crucial role in the physical, emotional, and even spiritual configurations that determine our ideas of who we are. All human beings develop their own sense of place through life that determines why they love certain regions or feel utterly alien in others. The study of relations between humans and environment called ecology. Lawrence Buell defines ecology as the study of the interactions between organisms and the environment (Buell, 2005; 139). Meanwhile, Glen A Love defines ecology as not as merely a study of the relationship between organisms and their living and nonliving environment but also a combination of science and a sense of responsibility for life (2003; 37-38). Ecology as Lawrence Buell say above is drawn in the life circle; the life processes of many organisms put into their surroundings environment whose presence of other organism affects the life processes of these and other organisms sharing the same environment. When these processes are cut by such destruction, e.g. chemical by-products of the life processes of one species (or occupational group) are harmful to another species; the relationship between the two species is "antagonistic." Increased population density increases the probability of antagonistic interactions (Catton, 1994: 80). It is essential to be aware of the environmental damage which caused by ecological changes. The development of humans' ecology slowly damages the environment. The ecology of human development involves the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1979: 21). Imbalance fine relations between humans and environment emerged a critic called ecocritic or ecocriticism (Buell, 2005; 2). John Elder as quoted by Dana Philip says that The science of ecology confirms the indivisibility of natural process: each feature of a landscape must be understood with reference to the whole, just as the habits of each creature reflect, and depend upon, the community of life around it (1999; 581). Ecology when it counts as science tends to be a lot more reductive, thus many of the core concepts of ecology once notable for their expansiveness have in recent years been cut down to size, made more particular, or abandoned altogether. It now appears that even the ecosystem concept may not be valid biologically, but valid concept or not, an ecosystem is primarily a theoretical entity, and therefore could never be the reality that somehow underwrites poetry, even if that poetry is of the good old-fashioned, supposedly "organic" sort (Philip, 1999; 582). By that kind of reason, Elder argues that culture too may be understood organically: it is the field of relationship between organisms and, as such, a complex organism in its own right (Philip, 1999; 582). Ecology is not merely bound to science and technology, but also moral and politic. Greg Garrard assumes that ecology itself is shifting and contested, the emphasis on the moral and political orientation of the ecocritic and the broad specification of the field of study are essential (2004; 4). Problems of ecology are features of our society, arising out of our dealings with nature, from which we should like to free ourselves, and which we do not regard as inevitable consequences of what is good in that society (Garrard, 2004; 5). Lynn white, Jr argues in his article on Cheryll Glotfelty's The Ecocriticism reader: landmark in literary ecology that environmental crisis is fundamentally a matter of the beliefs and values that direct science and technology and dominating attitude toward nature (1996; 4). Discoveries in ecology and cellular biology revolutionize our sense of self, teaching us that there is no such thing as an individual, only an individual-in-context (Neil Evernden, 1996; 93). Discoveries of course get much of invention. Unconsciously, humans' behaviour (ex: exploitation) toward environment was changed. Industrial Revolution affected humanity's conception of its relationship to nature, warning that technology has created the false illusion that we control nature, allowing us to forget that our "unconquerable minds" are vitally dependent upon natural support systems (Harold Fromm, 1996; 31) Ecocritic or Ecocriticism is an umbrella term, used to refer to the environmentally oriented study of literature and (less often) the arts more generally, and to the theories that underlie such critical practice (Buell, 2005; 138). Cheryll Glotfelty simply writes the definition, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment, ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies (1996: xviii). Ecocriticism might succinctly be defined as study of the relation between literature and environment conducted in a spirit of commitment to environmental praxis (Lawrence Buell as quoted by Dana Philip, 1999; 583). Ecocriticism is, then, an avowedly political mode of analysis, ecocritics generally tie their cultural analyses explicitly to a 'green' moral and political agenda. In this respect, ecocriticism is closely related to environmentally oriented developments in philosophy and political theory (Greg Garrard, 2004; 3) Ecocentrism is more compelling as a call to fellow humans to recognize the intractable, like-it-or-not interdependence that subsists between the human and the nonhuman and to tread more lightly on the earth than it is as a practical program (Lawrence Buell, 2005, 102). Ecological criticism shares the fundamental premise that human culture is connected to the physical world, affecting it and affected by it. Ecocriticism takes as its subject the interconnections between nature and culture, specifically the cultural artefacts of language and literature (Cheryll Glotfelty, 1996; xix). The majority of ecocritics, whether or not they theorize their positions, look upon their texts of reference as refractions of physical environments and human interaction with those environments, notwithstanding the artifactual properties of textual representation and their mediation by ideological and other socio-historical factors (Lawrence Buell , 2005; 30). Literary theory, in general, examines the relations between writers, texts, and the world. In most literary theory "the world" is synonymous with society-the social sphere. Ecocriticism expands the notion of "the world" to include the entire ecosphere or nonhuman, which is physical environment. Several things that have to be seen are: • Transforming this concept becomes social movement that will bring the humans into conscious of the equality between human and their environment and doesn't consider the nature into binary opposition between dominate and dominated. • Ecocriticism encourages the changing of canonisation through entering literary works which carry up natural issue. • Ecocriticism is not only an approach but also a pendadogis tool. • Ecocriticism connects the literary study with the earth to see how is the relation between humans and earth where they stand (Cheryll Glotfelty, 1996, xxii) The majority of ecocritics, whether or not they theorize their positions, look upon their texts of reference as refractions of physical environments and human interaction with those environments, notwithstanding the artifactual properties of textual representation and their mediation by ideological and other sociohistorical factors (Buell, 2005; 30). It can be assumed that Ecocrtiticism sees the text as the refraction of physical environment. Another denigrates attempts to recuperate realism as restricting the field of environmental writing, as ludicrously foreshortened in focus ("its practitioners . . . reduced to an umpire's role, squinting to see if a given depiction of a horizon, a wildflower, or a live oak tree is itself well painted and lively"), and in any case bogus, since "mimesis presumes the sameness of the representation and the represented object" (Phillips 2003: 163–4, 175). Buell has added that this is a conviction that contact (or lack ofcontact) with actual environments is intimately linked, even if not on a one-to-one basis, with the work of environmental imagination, for both writer and critic (Buell, 2005; 31). Ecocriticism can explore what we can call a discursively manipulated nonhuman world in literature, and discuss how it gets marginalized or silenced by, or incorporated into the human language (Legler, I997: 227). Nonhuman environment must be represented as an active presence and player within the text made some astute readers inclined to be sympathetic of the environment (Buell, 2005: 51). The task of ecocriticism, then, is to formulate a conceptual foundation for the study of interconnections between literature and the environment. Literature can be perceived as an aesthetically and culturally constructed part of the environment, since it directly addresses the questions of human constructions, such as meaning, value, language, and imagination, which can, then, be linked to the problem of ecological consciousness that humans need to attain. Within this framework, ecocritics are mainly concerned with how literature transmits certain values contributing to ecological thinking (Glotfelty, 1996: xxi). Ecocriticism offers researcher a way how to analyze such literary work through three steps. First is seeing the representation of nonhuman aspect. This first step is looking how is the nature like rice field, village, wilderness, forest, sea, beach, hill, mountain, valley, river, animal (or treatment toward animal) and city environment pictured in the text. Second is seeing the accusation toward ecology issues. The second step destructs how the natural issue is portrayed with the different way. For instance, the nature is pictured as an inconvenient place again for humans because of the emergence the new value; technology, capitalism, extinction of local knowledge, and development of building which is not oriented to the environment. Last is taking part of text's ideology. In this case examines the relations between writers, texts, and the world. This third step is seeing and taking part of the ideology that contains in the text. How the author's view and commitment toward the nature (Cheryll Glotfelty, 1996, xix). DEVASTATION OF EARTH Those all theories mentioned above are related to the word "devastation" which happened on earth. Modernism granted colonizer a power to devastate the earth in which postcolonialism and ecocriticism tend to criticize that devastation. Certainly, what is actually the meaning of devastation of earth? The word "devastation" itself according to Merriam-Webster dictionary means the state or fact of being rendered nonexistent, physically unsound, or useless. In other word, devastation is deterioration, destruction, vanishing of the earth through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil. Devastation of earth can be defined as a destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. Devastation of earth is a term used to describe a situation in which a part of the natural environment (the earth) is devastated or damaged. According to Shakhashiri, earth is areas of land as distinguished from sea and air (2011: 1). It means that the earth is composed by three parts; land, sea and air. Thus, it can be ascertained that if the devastation happened on earth, it will strike those all of earth's parts. The devastation which strikes the air will harm the condition of air in the atmosphere or known as devastated atmosphere, devastation which strikes the land will harm the condition of the soil and change it into erode and barren, and devastation which strike the water will contaminate the clean water into the dirty one. The earth as mentioned above that composed from three parts; certainly those each parts have a role. Land is the surface of the earth where the creatures are growing and developing; the plantations (trees) grow well, the animals breed and the humans dwell the life. Air is the mixture of gases which surrounds the Earth in which it contains a lot of vital substances such as oxygen and ozone. And water is a clear liquid, without colour or taste, which falls from the sky as rain and is necessary for animal and plant even human life. Water is also available in the river and sea. All of those parts of the earth greatly have advantage when it states in the normal/natural condition. However, when it was devastated, the earth turns into less natural and more miserable. That is the picture of the devastation of earth. DEPICTION OF DEVASTATION OF EARTH The devastation of earth as Hughes says has happened in every historical period and in every part of the inhabited Earth (2001: 1). It means that devastation of earth happened in the whole surface of the earth. Devastation has stroked the whole environment; atmosphere, land, and sea. Postcolonialism argues that colonialism has an intervention on devastating the earth. Colonialism has devastated the earth as Ashcroft says that the conquest and colonization of so many extra-European environments produced irreversible changes in land use, in flora and fauna and frequently damaged beyond repair traditionally balanced relations between indigenous communities and their environments (2000: 71-72). He adds that imperial incursions and colonization have been regarded as environmentally destructive. Devastation of earth happened over earth. It means that devastation happened on land, atmosphere and sea. The land has changed into gullied, eroded and barren. This changing surely as the impact of devastation of earth which is done by the colonizer in colonizing the land. Everything which stands on the land has changed, There was no reborn flora and fauna in McCarthy's The Road. However, the presence of the flora and fauna is the rest of the previous world. Indeed these flora and fauna have changed as the impact of colonialism. Flora in McCarthy's The Road is dominated by the trees. However, most of the trees have changed into gray, dark and black. It is so pathetic when the father and his son faced the standing black trees and they realized that it changes. Horribly, it seems like ghost of trees. The changing of the trees is not underlined on the changes of its colour but also its presence. It means that the trees are not only changing into dark and black with its standing but also there are many trees which die and fall to the ground. The changes of fauna can be seen when the father and his son was camp in the forest and listening for any sound, it draws that the bird has changed its behaviour by holding migratory to circle the earth. The birds can no longer life in harmony with the environment by occupying the forest. It is caused the changing of trees which turn into dead. Thus, it forces the birds to change themselves. Other fauna changing draws when the father who found an odor of cows. However, the cows are extinct since years ago. He asked to himself whether the cows are really real or not. He finally realized that it is extinct. It shows that the cows are changed from the presence to absence. The burning of a certain thing; such as the trees, surely produces a residue or combustion. It can be carbon and ash. It can be imagined how large the amount of ash will be produced if the whole land of forest were burned. Certainly, the ash will cover everything that has seen. A horrible fire of forest has produced a horrible ash too till everything is covered by ash. The ash has moved along the wind till it covered the city and everything in the city, The fire of forest makes the amount of ash become uncontrolled. The moving of ash filled the air and atmosphere in which it makes everything coloured covered by ash and dust. Hence, everything becomes colourless. The ash changes the landscape become gray. It can be assumed that the graying landscape is no other causing by the moving ash. The occupying of ash in the atmosphere makes the day become unseen and dark. The result of the residual combustion is not ashes merely, but also carbons that harm the environment. Ash and carbon both fill and occupy the atmosphere. As the greenhouse effect idea, that the ash and carbon also dust which in a large amount and uncontrolled in atmosphere will form a mantle which wrapped out the whole of earth. This causes our sight of the sky become dark and gray.The sky and cloud are devoured with ash. The cloud becomes ashen and gray. Severity, the ash and carbon have contaminated everything in the air including the sea water vapor. Then, the result is clouds of ash. Ash and dust have affected the form of the cloud to become gray. Probably its content has been also affected. When the clouds changes into gray, it can be predicted that the rainwater which come down from the clouds will also be gray. It is supported with the presence of the ash mantle that wrapped up the earth. Certainly, everything which come down from the sky; rainwater has to pass this mantle, consequently the rain water will be coloured as gray by the ash mantle. The ash mantle has coloured the rain water. The rainwater which drips down to the earth is seen as the gray sheets of rain. Rainwater that is usually used by humans to fulfil their needs such as to irrigate the fields has been contaminated by ash and carbon so that its contents no longer can be used for the benefit of man. Consequently, there will be no crops and there will be no natural food. Mantle of ash has blanketed the earth during the unknown time. As described above that everything which fell from the sky will pass this mantle so that everything will be contaminated by it. The result, everything which fell will be gray. After several days the father and his son watched the gray sheets of rain, the weather quickly changes into snowy. Everyone knows as it has seen that snow is falling from the sky. The snow actually is similar to the rain, including their formed and their fell. The sea water vapor which is formed into cloud in the sky will fall as the rainwater, however, because of the extreme/cold weather, the rain water freeze into ice and it changes into snow that is white and soft. This falling snow of course has to pass the mantle of ash and it changes into gray. The next devastation of earth is turned to everything which lay on the surface of the earth covered by darkness as the ash effect. Everything stands in the earth turned to be black such as the dead trees which burned by fire forest, and the rain water and snow which fell as gray turn into black in the land. The dead trees which burned by fire forest surely create a black view of trees. The trees which burned in incompletely will make an appearance of burnt and black trees. The rainwater and snow which are grey in their falling turned to be black in the land. The large number of those rainwater and snow gathered as one in the ground create a new colour, more intense and black. The gray flakes which fell down turned to the dark slush. Dark slush can be assumed as the slush which is thicker than a flake. Thus, the slush which is as the result of flakes changes into black. It is also applied in the rainwater; the water in the land is not the whole from the rainwater, some from the river and so on. However, the thick rainwater which fell down in gray proved that its water is dominated to black water. the slush which is melted flows through the ash and turned to the black water. THE IMPACTS OF DEVASTATION OF EARTH ON FATHER'S ATTITUDE Living and dwelling in such devastated earth surely give impacts to the humans who walk over it. The father and his son reveal those kinds of impacts. The father who lived before and after unknown disaster seems undergoing a lot of impacts. It is different with his son who born after that disaster. He tends to be innocent, only watch and observe what his father did. There was an idea to end the life when the father still lived with his woman. She always forces him to end their life because there was nothing else to do in the ruined world. However, the father keep his believe that humans have to struggle. The experience of dwelling the life before the unknown disaster made him stronger. The father realized that what the environment did to him is the result what the humans did to the environment, as Lawrence Buell says that human culture is connected to the physical world; nature and environment, affecting it and affected by it. In other word, humans have affected the environment and have been affected by environment. The woman forces him because they lived in unusual life, they lived like zombie. The devastation of earth causes their life as like as zombie or walking dead in a horror film which the father and his son have a role as the victims. They have to avoid even to face the zombie to keep alive. Dwelling the life in such devastated earth; the air was filled by the ash and dust forces them to wear a mask. The devastated earth; unfriendly air forces him to wear mask (canister mask) and even wear biohazard suit. As the affection of the devastated earth, the father and his son have to worry their life, Mostly he worried about their shoes. Worrying is something that the father in his son has to do. There is no certainty living in such ruined world. It is a common thing for them to worry anytime, worrying of food and shoes. Food is essential thing to keep alive. It is the reason why they worry of food. If they can't find some foods, it means they will die. The shoes are important stuff to hold a journey. As explain before that the weather extremely changes a while. Few days were raining, and another was snowing. Shoes keep the father in his son feet to keep away from coldness and freezing which can take their life. The weather is extremely cold. It is not surprising that the weather turns to colder and colder. The weather has changed anytime; sometime it rains and often snow. The coldness of weather doesn't only force them to eat the food that already fermented as above but also threaten their life. The coldness is very extremely danger for them. Moreover it is pictured that the cold can crack the stone and takes their life off. In such condition surely makes them hard to breathe because in the coldness the air contains thin oxygen. Dwelling the life in such devastated earth actually makes him aware of surrounding even the weather. The sounds like forest fire, fallen trees, and so on makes his ears disturbed and consequently he has to keep awake. Living in such devastated earth makes him to be more aware toward everything that threatens them. The father and his son have experienced many kinds of problems. Everything that happened to him does not break his spirit to keep alive even when they are in starving. He always believes that he would find something to eat. the father always optimistic dwelling life. the devastated earth makes him become more optimistic. Struggle is a must to do to find another thing to be eaten to keep the life. Keep trying is the key for the good guys who living in the ruined environment. By keeping trying, they can survive dwelling the life in such environment. Keep trying is not enough to live in such devastated earth. Always suspect the possibility that may happen has to be done, because no one knows what will happen, but the threat of nature always happen all the time. Thus, another thing that has to do is to remain vigilant about the environment. The devastated earth forces him to become "cautious, watchful" and always "on the lookout". He believes that no one expect a trouble. However, living in the devastated earth, the thing that has to do is to always expect it. Thus he was always wary of something bad that may happen. Nothing can be expected from the nature. The father always believed it. He no longer agrees if people prepare something for tomorrow. Although he always optimistic of what he did, he never believed it. For him, even though he's preparing for tomorrow, he doesn't believe that the nature will prepare for him. What the father believes that is now or tomorrow is the same. This belief keeps the father spirit to face his following days. As a father he would often feel the pain. Physically, he is ill of facing the devastated earth. And mentally, he is ill of the feeling of bearing the responsibility as a father who is responsible for the survival of his son and his own life. However nature should never take the life of his son. He would bet his life for the life of his son. Often he complains to himself about his illness. He pretends as tough man in front his son but actually he felt tremendous pain. It's just that he does not want his son to know. THE IMPACTS OF DEVASTATION OF EARTH ON SON'S ATTITUDE Being born in the devastated earth which the unknown disaster has swept it surely affects the son's behaviour toward environment. The greyscale image of environment has saved well in his mind that forces him to expect something else, something in colour. When they continue their journey, the son had found some crayons. These crayons change his mind that something left on earth in colour. Thus, environment is not filling of gray merely. The crayons seem like a hope for

The advanced state of land degradation affecting more than 3,200 million people worldwide have raised great international concern regarding the sustainability of socio-ecological systems, urging the large-scale adoption of contextualized sustainable land management. The agricultural industrial model is a major cause of land degradation due to the promotion of unsustainable management practices that deteriorate the quality of soils compromising their capacity to function and deliver ecosystem services. The consequences derived from land degradation are especially devastating in semi-arid regions prone to desertification, where rainfall scarcity and irregularity intensifies crop failure risks and resource degradation, compromising the long term sustainability of these regions. Regenerative agriculture (RA) has recently gained increasing recognition as a plausible solution to restore degraded agroecosystems worldwide. RA is a farming approach foreseen to reverse land degradation, increase biodiversity, boost production and enhance the delivery of multiple ecosystem services by following a series of soil quality restoration principles and practices. Despite its promising benefits, RA has been limitedly adopted in semiarid regions. Major reasons explaining this seemingly incongruous mismatch are the scarce and contrasting empirical data proving its effectiveness, top-down research approaches and lack of farmer involvement in agroecosystem restoration projects and decision-making, and the generally slow response of soils to management changes in semiarid regions, which may delay the appearance of visible results discouraging farmers from adopting RA. In the high steppe plateau of southeast Spain, an on-going process of large-scale landscape restoration through adoption of regenerative agriculture was initiated in 2015. The high steppe plateau is one of the European regions most affected by land degradation and desertification processes and represents one of the world´s largest areas for the production of rainfed organic almonds. In 2015, local farmers created the AlVelAl association with the support of the Commonland Foundation, business entrepreneurs, regional governments, and research institutions, and started to apply RA at their farms. The objective was to restore vast extensions of degraded land for increasing the productivity and biodiversity of their agroecosystems, increasing the resilience to climate change, generating job opportunities and enhancing social cohesion in the region, in a time frame of 20 years following Commonlands´ 4-Returns approach. However, the limited empirical information supporting RA effectiveness, the lack of reference examples in the region, and the slowness with which visible ecological restoration processes usually occur in semiarid regions were considered major obstacles hindering RA adoption in the region. To effectively address this knowledge gap, support farmers and expedite RA adoption, this research proposed horizontal research fostering the creation of learning communities between farmers and researchers, putting together local and scientific knowledge to improve the understanding of RA. This thesis presents a participatory monitoring and evaluation research (PM&E) applying a combination of social and ecological methods to evaluate the potential of PM&E to enhance knowledge exchange between farmers and researchers on Regenerative Agriculture in the context of the high steppe plateau. The aim of this thesis is twofold: on one hand, to increase the understanding on RA impacts, on the other hand, to evaluate the potential contribution of PM&E to enable social learning and contribute to the adaptation and long term adoption of RA in the high steppe plateau and semiarid regions in general. To facilitate PM&E of the impacts of sustainable land management and agricultural innovations like RA, Chapter 2 presents a participatory methodological framework that guides the identification and selection of technical and local indicators of soil quality, generating a monitoring system of soil quality for PM&E by farmers and researchers. The methodological framework includes the development of a visual soil assessment tool integrating local indicators of soil quality for farmers´ monitoring. The framework consists of 7 phases: 1) Definition of research and monitoring objectives; 2) Identification, selection and prioritization of Technical Indicators of Soil Quality (TISQ); 3) Identification, selection and prioritization of Local Indicators of Soil Quality; 4) Development of a visual soil assessment tool integrating LISQ; 5) Testing and validation of the visual soil evaluation tool; 6) Monitoring and assessment of sustainable land management impacts by researchers and farmers using TISQ and the visual soil evaluation tool respectively and; 7) Exchange of monitoring results between all involved participants, and joint evaluation of impacts. To facilitate PM&E of RA in the steppe highlands, Phases 1 to 5 were applied through a series of participatory methods including a first meeting with AlVelAl board members for the definition of research objectives, farm visits, participatory workshops, and conducting formal and informal interviews, among others. Technical indicators of soil quality were identified, selected and prioritized by researchers through an extensive literature review and ad-hoc expert consultation with expertise in soil quality assessment and monitoring. Local indicators of soil quality were identified, selected, prioritized and validated by farmers in two participatory workshops. The co-developed visual soil assessment tool, named the farmer manual, was tested and validated during the second workshop. Local indicators selected by farmers focused mostly on supporting, regulating and provisioning ecosystem services including water regulation, erosion control, soil fertility and crop performance. Technical indicators selected by researchers focused mostly on soil properties including aggregate stability, soil nutrients, microbial biomass and activity, and leaf nutrients, covering crucial supporting services. The combination of local and technical indicators provided complementary information, improving the coverage and feasibility of RA impact assessment, compared to using technical or local indicators alone. The methodological framework developed in this chapter facilitated the identification and selection of local and technical indicators of soil quality to generate relevant monitoring systems and visual soil assessment tools adapted to local contexts, thus improving knowledge exchange and mutual learning between farmers and researchers to support the implementation of RA and optimize the provision of ecosystem services. Implementation of RA usually happens gradually due to socioeconomic, informational, practical, environmental and political constraints Thus, RA adoption by farmers, in practice, translates into different combinations of RA practices, with a diversity of management, based on farmer capabilities, environmental conditions, and expected restoration results. To help the design, adoption and implementation of most effective RA practices to optimize the restoration of agroecosystems, Chapter 3 presents the impacts of the different combinations of RA practices implemented by participating farmers on crucial soil quality and crop performance indicators using previously selected technical indicators of soil quality over a period of 2 years. This chapter corresponds to the application of phase 6 of the methodological framework developed in Chapter 2. RA impacts were assessed in 9 farms on one field with regenerative management and one nearby field with conventional management based on frequent tillage, that were selected together with farmers. Fields were clustered under regenerative management based on the RA practices applied and distinguished 4 types of RA treatments: 1) reduced tillage with green manure (GM), 2) reduced tillage with organic amendments (OA), 3) reduced tillage with green manure and organic amendments (GM&OA), and 4) no tillage with permanent natural covers and organic amendments (NT&OA). The impacts of RA compared to conventional management were evaluated by comparing physical (bulk density and aggregate stability), chemical (pH, salinity, total N, P, K, available P, and exchangeable cations) and biological (SOC, POC, PON, microbial activity) properties of soil quality, and the nutritional status of almond trees (leaf N, P and K). Our results show that GM improved soil physical properties, presenting higher soil aggregate stability. We found that OA improved most soil chemical and biological properties, showing higher contents of SOC, POC, PON, total N, K, P, available P, exchangeable cations and microbial respiration. RA treatments combining ground covers and organic amendments (GM&OA and NT&OA) exhibited greater overall soil quality restoration than individual practices. NT&OA stood out for presenting the highest soil quality improvements. All RA treatments maintained similar crop nutritional status compared to conventional management. We concluded that RA has strong potential to restore the physical, chemical and biological quality of soils of woody agroecosystems in Mediterranean drylands without compromising their nutritional status. Furthermore, farming management combinations of multiple regenerative practices are expected to be more effective than applying individual RA practices. In parallel to researchers´ assessment of RA impacts, farmers assessed RA impacts in their farms by using the farmer manual jointly developed in participatory workshops. Chapter 4 presents the RA impact results from farmers´ assessment, and documented farmers´ insights, in the third year of PM&E, on the visual soil assessment process using the farmer manual, and on PM&E outcomes regarding the facilitation of participation and learning processes. This chapter corresponds to the application of phase 6 and phase 7 of the methodological framework developed in Chapter 2. Farmers´ visual soil assessment indicated regenerative agriculture as a promising solution to restore degraded agroecosystems in semiarid Mediterranean drylands, although observed soil quality improvements were relatively small compared to conventional management, and more time and efforts are needed to attain desired restoration targets. The monitoring results on RA reported by farmers were complementary to researchers´ findings using technical indicators of soil quality. Farmers' evaluation of the research project highlighted the PM&E research as an educational process that helped them look differently at their land and their restoration efforts and facilitated the creation of relationships of support and trust, learning and capacity building that are fundamental conducive conditions to enhance farming innovation efficiency and adoption. Farmers confirmed that generating spaces for farmer-to-farmer diffusion of knowledge and on-farm experiences is a key driver to expedite farming testing and adoption of innovations. Farmers insights revealed the need to actively involve them in all decision making phases of VSA tools and support them in initial implementation, in order to develop tools that meet farmers´ needs, to enhance VSA tool adoption, and facilitate reaching restoration goals. Furthermore, farmers´ evaluation of the farmer manual suggested the need to reinforce the multipurpose usefulness and potential benefits of collectively recording restoration progress in a systematized way, to enhance VSA tool adoption. Farmers´ insights on the PM&E research reinforces the importance of developing learning communities of farmers and researchers that provide a platform for exchange of experiences and support, as a crucial factor to favor social learning and support the adoption of long-term agricultural innovations. The success of PM&E research for agroecosystem restoration can be improved by integrating iterative phases where farmers can evaluate and adjust research activities and outcomes. We concluded that the process of PM&E that leads to enhanced social capital, social learning and improved understanding of restoration efforts has as much value as the actual restoration outcomes on the ground. Social learning is considered an important precondition for the adoption of contextualized sustainable land management and farming innovations like RA. The main objective of involving farmers and researchers in PM&E of RA was to enable social learning for enhanced understanding of RA impacts and support adoption of RA. Although there is a growing body of literature asserting the achievement of social learning through participatory processes, social learning has been loosely defined, sparsely assessed, and only partially covered when measured. Confirming that a participatory process has favored social learning implies demonstrating that there has been an acquisition of knowledge and change in perceptions at individual and collective level in the people involved in the participatory process, and that this change in perceptions has been generated through social relations. Chapter 5 presents an assessment of how the PM&E research process enabled social learning by effectively increasing knowledge exchange and understanding of RA impacts between participating farmers and researchers, and multiple stakeholders of farmers´ social networks. Occurrence of social learning was assessed by covering its social-cognitive (perceptions) and social-relational (social networks) dimensions. This chapter discusses the potential of PM&E to foster adoption and out-scaling of sustainable land management and farming innovations like RA by promoting the generation of information fluxes between farmers and researchers participating in PM&E and the agricultural community of which they form part. To assess changes in farmers´ perceptions and shared fluxes of information on RA before starting the PM&E and after three years of research, we applied fuzzy cognitive mapping and social network analysis as graphical semi-quantitative methods. Our results showed that PM&E enabled social learning amongst participating farmers who strengthened and enlarged their social networks on information sharing, and presented a more complex and broader common understanding of regenerative agriculture impacts and benefits. This supports the idea that PM&E thereby creates crucial preconditions for the adoption and out-scaling of RA. This study was one of the first studies in the field of natural resource management and innovation adoption proving that social learning occurred by providing evidence of both the socialcognitive and social-relational dimension. Our findings are relevant for the design of PM&E processes, agroecosystem Living Labs, and landscape restoration initiatives that aim to support farmers´ adoption and out-scaling of contextualized farming innovations and sustainable land management. We concluded that PM&E where the democratic involvement of participants is the bedrock of the whole research process and the needs and concerns of the farming community are taken as the basis for collaborative research represents a great opportunity to generate inclusive, engaging, efficient, and sound restoration processes and transitions towards sustainable and resilient agroecosystems.

Diese Studie untersucht die Gründe und Probleme der Kinderheirat und deren Auswirkungen auf die Schulbildung von Mädchen im Mecha Distrikt von West Gojam, Amhara Region, Äthiopien, wo Kinderheirat die Regel ist und wo die Einbeziehung von Mädchen in die formale Bildung im nationalen, wie auch im regionalen Vergleich, gering ist. Diese Studie basiert auf primären und sekundären Methoden der Datensammlung. Die primäre Datensammlung dauerte sieben Monate von April 2003 bis Januar 2004 in zwei Feldforschungsphasen. Im ersten Monat wurden Vorab-Befragungen in Haushalten durchgeführt, mit deren Hilfe Grundinformationen gesammelt und Fokus-Familien ausgewählt wurden. In den folgenden Monaten wurden Tiefeninterviews in Fokus-Familien und mit Schlüsselinformanten durchgeführt, sowie die Zeit zu teilnehmender Beobachtung genutzt und es wurden Fallstudien und Diskussionen mit Fokus-Gruppen durchgeführt, begleitet von Video- und Foto-Dokumentation. Die Daten wurden also in der Feldforschung nach der "klassischen" Kombination mehrerer ethnologischer Methoden gesammelt. Ich habe meine ethnologischen Feldforschungen in zwei Bauernsiedlungen im Mecha District durchgeführt. Bachema, 5 km von der Distrikthauptstadt entfernt, befindet sich klimatisch in der Tiefland-Klimazone (qolla), während sich Rim, in etwa 40 km Entfernung von der Distrikthauptstadt, auf mittlere Höhe in der wäyna däga zone befindet. Ich habe auch kurze Besuche bei anderen Bauernsiedlungen gemacht, die weiter oben in der däga-klimazone liegen, und habe mich dort in Gesprächen über Heiratsbräuche und Kinderheiratspraktiken informiert. Während meiner ethnologischen Feldforschung in den Siedlungen im Mecha Distrikt wurde die lokale Sprache, Amharisch, als Kommunikationssprache verwendet. Die Studie gibt einer Annäherung an "emische" Sichtweisen und "Detailaufnahmen" den Vorrang vor Generalisierungen. Daraus ergibt sich ein ethnologischer Feldforschungsansatz, der so wenig formalisiert wie möglich ist und sich auf ausgewählte Familien und deren Netzwerke konzentriert. Studien über Frühheirat und Schulbildung von Mädchen wurden bisher auf der Meso-Ebene behandelt und generalisiert, die auf quantitativen Basisdaten beruhten. Folglich wurden die Einflüsse der lokalen sozio-kulturellen Umgebung und der ökonomischen Strukturen auf Frühheirat und Schulbildung von Mädchen vernachlässigt. Während meiner Feldforschung habe ich durch Beobachtung und Teilnahme den Alltag dokumentieren können und konnte an vielen sozialen, religiösen Ereignissen teilnehmen, insbesondere an Hochzeitsfesten. In einer Netzwerkstudie habe ich die Motive, die Eltern dazu bewegen, ihre Kinder, vor allem die Töchter, früh zu verheiraten, genauer untersucht, die ihrerseits den Schulbesuch verhindern, erschweren oder zum Abbruch bringen. In diesem Zusammenhang habe ich den großen Einfluß der Familie, der nahen Verwandschaft und der Dorfgemeinschaft auf die Frühverheiratung erkannt. Der lokale soziokulturelle Druck und die ökonomischen Strukturen in ihrer Auswirkung auf die "Gender"-Sozialisation und die Schulbildung bilden den Kern dieser Studie. Aus dieser Perspektive habe ich den sozialen und ökonomischen Druck beider Geschlechter, Mädchen/Jungen, und Frauen/Männer, untersucht. Im Untersuchungsgebiet wird der Jungfräulichkeit vor der Ehe hoher soziokultureller Wert beigemessen und ein Mädchen über 14 Jahre alt gilt als qomo qär (unverheiratbar, d.h. eheuntauglich). Dieser Umstand wird als Peinlichkeit und Blamage von den Eltern und vom Mädchen selbst empfunden. Das Mädchen wird als ökonomische Last für die Eltern angesehen und ihre häuslichen Aufgaben, wie die ihrer Mutter, werden als unproduktiv gewertet - obwohl ihr Beitrag, allein in Arbeitszeit bemessen, aber auch in ihrer Diversifizierung ökonomischer Aktivitäten, einschließlich der Landwirtschaft, höher ist als der der Männer. Auf der Basis eingehender Interviews mit Familien und mit frühverheirateten Schülerinnen im Untersuchungsgebiet hat diese Studie zu Tage gefördert, daß der Trend des Alters bei der ersten Heirat von 10 auf 7 und von 12 auf 9 Jahre gefallen ist. Mit anderen Worten, die Mehrheit der Mütter hat zwischen 10 und 12 geheiratet, wogegen die Mehrheit der Mädchen heute im Alter zwichen 7 und 9 heiratet. Genauer, das Durchschnittsalter bei der Erstheirat für die Generation der Mütter ist 11 Jahre, hingegen für die Generation der Töchter ist es auf 8 gesunken. Obwohl in der Literatur allgemein bekannt ist, daß Frühheirat in den bäuerlichen Gesellschaften in der Amhara Region Äthiopiens vorkommt, wurde in dieser Studie festgestellt, daß der Trend, entgegen meinen Erwartungen, im Untersuchungsgebiet wächst. Der Grund dieses Trends muß weiter untersucht und analysiert werden. Auf der Basis der vorläufigen Ergebnisse dieser Studie habe ich einen zwietätigen Erkundungsworkshop "Early Marriage and Girls' Education in Mecha Woreda" (Sept. 18 -19, 2004) in Merawi, Verwaltungssitz des Woreda, durchgeführt. Dieser Workshop bot die Gelegenheit, das ethnographische Material, das ich gesammelt habe, zu diskutieren und die tieferen Gründe für die Frühverheiratung herauszuarbeiten. Naturgemäß gibt es vielfältige interaktive und komplexe sozio-kulturelle Strukturen und Druck für die Bewahrung, Akzeptanz und sogar zunehmende Praxis der Frühverheiratung im Untersuchungsgebiet. Die kritischen Faktoren für die Zunahme der Frühverheiratung sind Armut, Landknappheit, daher Fragmentierung des Familienbesitzes, und Lebensunsicherheiten. Die Hauptursachen, warum Eltern ihre Kinder, vor allem die Töchter, früh verheiraten, können folgendermaßen zusammengefasst werden: 1) Ökonomisch gut situierte Bauernfamilien können mit anderen gut situierten Familien nur durch die Heirat ökonomische Allianzen bilden; 2) 18-Jahre alte Söhne aus ärmlichen Bauernfamilien können Land von der lokalen Bauernorganisation nur dann beanspruchen, wenn sie verheiratet sind, wobei nach dem Alter der Braut bzw. Ehefrau nicht gefragt wird; 3) Aufgrund der zunehmenden Armut neigen die Eltern dazu, alle ihre Kinder zeitgleich zu verheiraten, um die hohen Kosten im Zusammenhang mit den Hochzeitsfeierlichkeiten zu verringern; 4) Hauptanliegen von Bauernfamilien ist es, aufgrund der Lebensunsicherheiten, die Zukunftssicherung durch Heiratsallianzen zu bewerkstelligen. Als Ergebnis wünschen sich die Eltern, ihre Kinder verheiratet zu sehen, bevor sie selbst alt werden und sterben. Die Töchter "heiraten aus" aufgrund der patrilokalen Residenz nach der Eheschließung, was aus Sicht der Eltern "verlorene" Investition, z. B. für die Schulbildung, bedeutet. Die "einheiratenden" Mädchen, ihrerseits, kommen mit Pflichten, aber nicht mit Rechten. An dieser Stelle ist erwähnenswert, daß die soziokulturellen Motive der Frühheirat geschlechtsspezifisch sind. Im Vergleich zu den Jungen werden die Mädchen früher verheiratet, um das Alt-Jungfern-Stigma zu vermeiden und um sie vor vorehelichem Geschlechtsverkehr zu schützen - was bei Jungen weniger restriktiv gehandhabt wird. Obwohl ökonomische Motive und Lebenunsicherheiten treibende Kräfte für die Frühverheirat beider Geschlechter sind, tragen auch die sozioluturellen Wertvorstellungen, die man der "Fraulichkeit" und "Jungfräulichkeit" beimißt, zur hohen Rate der Frühverheiratung bei Mädchen bei. Daher besteht ein Bedarf, das kindliche Leben und das Leben von Mädchen unter der Herrschaft der Männer zu untersuchen, und wie diese den Zugang zu formaler Erziehung und deren Erfolg, insbesondere der Töchter, behindert. Die Möglicheiten, mit denen Mädchen und Frauen sich behelfen, die sozialen Erwartungen und die realen Herausforderungen des Lebens in Einklang zu bringen, sind in den Fallstudien dargestellt. In der Tat ist die Spanne der möglichen Verhaltensweisen viel größer, als die akzeptierten sozialen Normen sie ahnen lassen. Die Kluft zwischen dem idealen Verhaltensmuster und dem tatsächlichen Auslebensspielraum ist offenkundig. Diese Arbeit will einen Beitrag leisten zu einer Aufklärung über die schädlichen Folgen der Kinderheirat am Beispiel der Mädchen, deren Entwicklung im allgemeinen sowohl bildungsmäßig, gesundheitlich und sozial behindert wird. Es werden auch Vorschläge für weitere Forschung und für Gegenmaßnahmen unterbreitet. ; This study examines issues pertaining to early marriage and its effects on girls' education in rural Ethiopia, with special reference to Mecha Woreda in West Gojjam, Amhara Region, where early marriage is most common and girls' participation in formal education is very low by national as well as regional standards. The study employed primary and secondary methods of data collection. The primary data collection took seven months (between April 2003 and January 2004) in two phases of fieldwork. The first month was devoted to conduct preliminary household surveys, based on which baseline information was gathered and focus families were selected. The remaining months were devoted to conduct personal in-depth interviews with focus families and key informants, participant observation, extended case studies and focus group discussions coupled with video-tape recording and photographing. In short, in the field, most of the data were collected through the "classical" combination of ethnographic methods. I conducted the ethnographic fieldwork research among Bachema and Rim peasant communities of Mecha Woreda (District). Bachema, 5 km away from the woreda's capital, is situated in the lowland (qolla) ecological zone, whereas Rim, about 40 km away from the woreda's capital, is situated in the midland (wäyna däga) ecological zone. I also made shorter visits to other peasant communities in the highland (däga) ecological zone and conducted informal discussions there about marriage customs and early marriage practices. In conducting the ethnographic fieldwork among the rural communities of Mecha Woreda, the local language (Amharic) was used as a means of communication. The study lays emphasis on in-depth and detailed aspects of the issue at hand rather than on generalization. From this emerged an ethnographic fieldwork approach as little formalized as possible, with special attention paid on focus families and extended case studies. Studies on early marriage as well as girls' education in Ethiopia have focused on meso-level generalizations based on base-line surveys and quantitative methods. As a result, the local socio-cultural and economic structures surrounding early marriage and girls' education have been neglected. In everyday observation and participation over the period of the ethnographic study, I documented the daily life as well as numerous social, religious and especially wedding ceremonies. In a network study, I observed and investigated factors motivating parents to arrange early marriages for their children, particularly for daughters; and to send or not to send them to the locally available formal school. Through this method, I detected the impact of family or kinship networks as well as of social-village networks on parents' decision to arrange an early marriage for their daughters, or sending them to the local formal school. The local socio-cultural pressures and economic structures underlying gender socialization and formal schooling among the ethnographic research settings are the core of this research. From this perspective, I examined the social as well as economic dimensions of both, "boy-men's" and "girl-women's" lives. In the studied agrarian communities, the social and cultural pressures on girls to marry at an early age are very strong. A high social and cultural value is attached to virginity until marriage for girls, and an unmarried girl above the age of 14 is locally labeled as qomo qär (unmarriageable), which is an embarrassment or a disgrace to her family as well as to herself. She is also considered an economic burden to her family since her involvement in domestic tasks at home, like her mother's, is valued as unproductive, though her contribution in terms of time invested in diversified economic, including agricultural, activities is higher than males'. Based on personal in-depth interviews with focus families and with early-married female pupils in the ethnographic research sites, the study reveal that the trend of the age at first marriage is getting down from 10 to 7 years and from 12 to 9 years. In other words, the majority of mothers were married between the ages of 10 to 12, whereas the majority of the daughters are now married between the ages of 7 to 9. More specifically, the average age at first marriage for the mothers' generation is 11, whereas it is 8 years for the daughters' generation. Though it is commonly acknowledged in the literature that early marriage is most common among the rural communities of the Amhara Region of Ethiopia, this study reveal the trend, contrary to my expectation, that the prevalence rate of early marriage is increasing among the ethnographic research settings. The underlying reason behind this trend remains to be further investigated and analyzed. On the basis of the preliminary findings, I have organized a two-day exploratory workshop on "Early Marriage and Girls' Education in Mecha Woreda" (September 18-19, 2004) at Merawi, the woreda's capital. The workshop has proved to be a good opportunity to discuss the ethnographic material which I had collected so far and to identify the root-causes of early marriage and reasons for not sending girls to the locally available formal schools. The workshop has proved to be a good opportunity to identify locally appropriate strategies for challenging the negative aspects of early marriage and then to promote girls' formal schooling in the study area. Of course, there are various interactive and complex economic and socio-cultural structures and pressures accounted for the endurance, acceptance, and even the increasing trend of the practice of early marriage among the studied peasant communities. The most critical factors contributing to the highest prevalence rates of early marriage among the ethnographic research settings are family poverty, shortage of land due to fragmentation of family farm plots, and life insecurities. The major factors forcing parents to arrange early marriage for their children, particularly for daughters, can be summarized as follows: (1) Economically well-to-do peasant families can forge economic alliances with the relatively well-to-do families only through their children's marriage; (2) Sons who attain the age of 18 from land-poor families can claim land from the local Peasants' Association only if they got married, without taking into account the age of their brides. On the other hand, land-rich families with adult sons arrange a marriage for them just to maintain their landholdings. In both cases, the brides are usually below the age of 11; (3) Due to the aggravating family poverty, peasant parents tend to arrange the marriage for all of their children at the same time, in order to avoid the problem of preparing wedding feasts for each of them; (4) Securing children's future through marriage alliance is the major concern of peasant families due to life insecurities. As a result, the parents desire to see their children married or settled before becoming old or passing away. The daughters "marry out" because of patrilocality after marriage, so that their parents consider "investments" in them as a lost. Here it is worth mentioning that the socio-cultural motives behind early marriage are gender-specific. As a result, compared to boys, most girls get married at an earlier age just to avoid the qomo qär-stigma (fear of girls being unmarriageable after the age of 14) and to protect them from pre-marital sex, which is not equally scorned for boys. In this context, though economic motives and life insecurities are the major driving forces of early marriage for both sexes, socio-cultural values related to "femininity" and "virginity" have also contributed to the comparatively higher prevalence rate of early marriage among girls. Hence, there is a need for examining the pre-marital life of girls in the light of the overall control of women's life through men, on the one hand, and how this affects girls' access to and success in formal education, on the other. The ways in which girls and women manage to balance social expectations and real life challenges are demonstrated and analyzed in the extended case studies. My observations reveal that, in reality, the range of possible behavior is far wider than the superficially accepted social norms would suggest. In this context, the gap between the ideal patterns of behavior and the real ones becomes obvious. Furthermore, the gap between the national laws/policies legislating against early marriage/promoting girls' education and that of the local practices and realities is thoroughly examined in the light of the local peoples' reasons for arranging early marriage for their daughters, instead of sending them to the locally available formal school. The study reveals that parents' decisions on arranging early marriage for their daughters are usually based on gender differential expectations and values. In the first place, parents have the fear that their daughters will be unsuccessful in the formal schooling as compared to their sons. For most parents, the only successful vocation for the "girl-child" is to be a wife and mother. This motivates parents to give their daughters in marriage at an early age so that they can achieve social recognition in their community. As a result, parents prefer to invest on educating their sons rather than their daughters. In general, economic and social structures, life insecurities and the gender ideology are the main causes of early marriage, particularly for girls. The study examines the harmful consequences of early marriage on girls' overall-development in general and their participation in formal schooling in particular and concludes by suggesting possible areas for further research and future intervention.

The authors investigate the broad-scale climatological and soil properties that co-vary with major axes of plant functional traits. They find that variation in plant size is attributed to latitudinal gradients in water or energy limitation, while variation in leaf economics traits is attributed to both climate and soil fertility including their interaction. Plant functional traits can predict community assembly and ecosystem functioning and are thus widely used in global models of vegetation dynamics and land-climate feedbacks. Still, we lack a global understanding of how land and climate affect plant traits. A previous global analysis of six traits observed two main axes of variation: (1) size variation at the organ and plant level and (2) leaf economics balancing leaf persistence against plant growth potential. The orthogonality of these two axes suggests they are differently influenced by environmental drivers. We find that these axes persist in a global dataset of 17 traits across more than 20,000 species. We find a dominant joint effect of climate and soil on trait variation. Additional independent climate effects are also observed across most traits, whereas independent soil effects are almost exclusively observed for economics traits. Variation in size traits correlates well with a latitudinal gradient related to water or energy limitation. In contrast, variation in economics traits is better explained by interactions of climate with soil fertility. These findings have the potential to improve our understanding of biodiversity patterns and our predictions of climate change impacts on biogeochemical cycles. ; The study was supported by the TRY initiative on plant traits (http://www.try-db. org). The TRY database is hosted at the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry (MPI BGC, Germany) and supported by Future Earth and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig. We would like to thank all PIs contributing to the TRY database, whose efforts allowed this analysis. In detail, we thank: J.H.C. Cornelissen, R. Milla, W. Cornwell, K. Kramer, S. Gachet, Ingolf Kühn, P. Poschlod, M. Scherer, J. Pausas, B. Sandal, K. Verheyen, J. Penuelas, N. Soudzilovskaia, P. Reich, J. Fang, S. Harrison, R. Gallagher, B. Hawkins, B. Finegan, J. Powers, F. Lenti, S. Higgins, B. Medlyn, H. Ford, V. Pillar, M. Bahn, E. Sosinski, T. He, B. Cerabolini, J. Cavender-Bares, I. J. Wright, F. Louault, B. Amiaud, G. Gonzalez-Melo, P. Adler, F. Schurr, J. Craine, Y. Niinemets, A. Zanne, H. Jactel, M. Harze, R. Montgomery, C. Römermann, T. Hickler, A. Pahl, M. Dainese, D. Kirkup, J. Dickie, W. Hattingh, P. Higuchi, T. Domingues, A. Araujo, M. Williams, C. Price, B. Shipley, L. Sack, B. Schamp, W. Han, Y. Onoda, K. Fleischer, J.P. Wright, G. Guerin, F. de Vries, D.D. Baldocchi, J. Kattge, B. Blonder, K. Brown, D. Campetella, G. Frechet, Q. Read, N. G. Swenson, V. Lanta, E. Weiher, M. Leishman, A. Siefert, M. Spasojevic, R. Jackson, J. Messier, S. J. Wright, D. Craven, J. Molofsky, P. Meir, E. Forey, A. Totte, C. Frenette Dussault, O. Atkin, F. Koike, D. Laughlin, S. Burrascano, K. Ollerer, N. Gross, A. Madhur, P. Begonna, B. Bond-Lamberty, B. von Holle, W. Green, B. Yguel, A. C. Malhado, P. Manning, G. Zotz, E. Lamb, J. Fagundez, Z. Wang, S. Diaz, C. Byun, W. Bond, B. Enquist, C. Baraloto, P. Manning, M. Kleyer, W. Ozinga, J. Ordonez, J. Lloyd, H. Poorter, E. Garnier, F. Valladares, C. Pladevall, G. Freschet, M. Moretti, H. Kurokawa, V. Minden, A. Demey, F. Férnandez-Méndez, J. Butterfield, T. Domingu, E. Swaine, L. Poorter, S. Shiodera, T. Chapin, M. Beckmann, J.A. Gutierrez, M. Mencuccini, S. Jansen, and N. J. B. Kraft. We appreciate the discussions at the MPI BGC. We thank F. Fazayeli for preparing the gap-filled trait data. We thank F. Gans and U. Weber for preparing ancillary data and B. Ahrens for pointing out some soil data availability. We acknowledge Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and its licensor(s) for the Geodata product of the Missions Database 'ArcWorld Supplement' (GMI), published by Global Mapping International and originated from Global Mapping International for producing Extended Data Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 7 and available in ArcGIS software by ESRI. ArcGIS and ArcMap are the intellectual property of ESRI and are used herein under license. For more information about ESRI software, please visit www.esri.com. The authors affiliated with the MPI BGC acknowledge funding by the European Union's Horizon 2020 project BACI under grant agreement no. 640176. We are thankful to the data providers for the SoilGrids, hosted by ISRIC. J.S.J. acknowledges the International Max Planck Research School for global biogeochemical cycles. J.S.J., M.E.S. and M.C.S. acknowledge support from the University of Zurich University Research Priority Program on Global Change and Biodiversity. P.B.R., M.E.S. and M.C.S. acknowledge membership in the US NSF 20-508 BII-Implementation project, 'The causes and consequences of plant biodiversity across scales in a rapidly changing world'. M.E.S. acknowledges the NOMIS grant of Remotely Sensing Ecological Genomics that funds J.S.J. and M.C.S. C.W. acknowledges the support of the Max Planck Society via its fellowship programme. N.R. was funded by a research grant from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG (RU 1536/3-1). K.K. was supported by the project Resilient Forests (KB-29-009-003) of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs. The trait data supplied were co-funded by the EU-FP7-KBBE project: BACCARA—Biodiversity and climate change, a risk analysis (project ID 226299). I.W. acknowledges support from the Australian Research Council (DP170103410). J.P. acknowledges financial support from the European Research Council Synergy grant ERC-SyG-2013-610028 IMBALANCE-P. N.A.S. is financed by a VIDI grant (016.161.318) issued by the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research. The data V.M. provided were funded by II. Oldenburgischer Deichband and the Wasserverbandstag e.V. (NWS 10/05). We thank M. Kleyer for his critical input. P.H. and V.D.P. have been supported by CNPq (grant nos 369617/2017-2 and 307689/2014-0, respectively). C.B. was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (2018R1C1B6005351). A.G.G. was funded by FONDECYT grant nos 11150835 and 1200468. V.O. thanks Russian science foundation (RSF, 19-14-00038) for financial support.