Актуальность. Глобальное демографическое старение актуализировало необходимость поиска эффективных решений по широкому спектру проблем, связанных с благополучием граждан старшего возраста: от финансово-экономических до эмоционально-психологических. Фокусирование общественного внимания на проблемах пожилых людей повлекло за собой требование институциональных изменений, принятия важных общественно-политических решений для повышения качества жизни граждан старшего возраста как самой быстрорастущей социальной группы, совершенствования традиционных и появления новых инструментов оценки и мониторинга прогресса в данной сфере как на индивидуальном уровне, так и на уровне регионов, стран, международных организаций. Кроме хорошо известных в международной практике индексов (Active Ageing Index и Global AgeWatch) в российском исследовательском арсенале есть Российский индекс благополучия старшего поколения (РИБСП), разработанный исследователями Международной научно-образовательной лаборатории технологий улучшения благополучия пожилых людей при Томском политехническом университете. РИБСП объективно не свободен от недостатков, свойственных методу в целом, однако с его помощью можно отслеживать динамику изменений в качестве жизни старшего поколения для России в целом и ее отдельных регионов, сравнивать их рейтинговые позиции в пределах одного или нескольких периодов, выдвигать гипотезы о причинах изменений, анализировать их, формулировать предложения о мерах, способных улучшить качество жизни пожилых людей в том или ином регионе. Цель исследования: по материалам РИБСП за 2014, 2016 и 2018 гг. проанализировать изменения в оценке благополучия по жилых людей в Томской области и по итогам трех раундов общероссийского исследования формулировать выводы о динамике изменений качества жизни пожилых людей. Методы: статистический анализ по оригинальной методике расчета РИБСП на основе микроданных исследования Росстата «Комплексное наблюдение условий жизни населения» (КОУЖ) за 2014, 2014 и 2018 гг. Результаты: анализ показал ухудшение значений практически по всем доменам РИБСП (экономика, социум, здоровье, инфраструктура и качество жизни в региональном измерении) в целом по РФ за весь период наблюдений; ухудшение рейтинговых позиций Томской области по РИБСП в 2016 и 2018 гг. относительно 2014 г.; заметное снижение балльных значений по большинству доменов и частных индикаторов индекса для Томской области в 2018 г. Выводы: по результатам анализа значений РИБСП за три периода наблюдений формулированы выводы как о возможностях и объективных ограничениях в использовании данного индекса для оценки качества жизни и благополучия старшего поколения в РФ, так и для анализа динамики соответствующих процессов в отдельных регионах. Выдвинуты предположения о возможных причинах негативной динамики Томской области в рейтинге по РИБСП в целом и по его отдельным доменам и индикаторам. На основе полученных данных сделаны предварительные выводы о рисках невыполнения национального плана действий по повышению качества жизни пожилых людей. Сделано предположение о том, что рассматриваемые проблемы смогут привлечь больше внимания при внедрении Российского индекса благополучия старшего поколения, разработанного в соответствии с международной методологией. ; Relevance. Global demographic aging has actualized the need to find effective solutions to a wide range of problems related to the well-being of older citizens: from financial and economic to emotional and psychological. Focusing public attention on the problems of older people entailed the demand for institutional changes, the adoption of important social and political decisions to improve the quality of life of older citizens as the fastest growing social group, the improvement of traditional and the emergence of new tools for assessing and monitoring progress in this area both at individual level and at the level of regions, countries, international organizations. In addition to indices well known in international practice (Active Aging Index and Global Age-Watch), the Russian research arsenal includes the Russian Elderly Well-being Index (REWI), developed by researchers at the International Scientific and Educational Laboratory of Technologies for Improving the Well-Being of the Elderly at Tomsk Polytechnic University. REWI is objectively not free from the shortcomings inherent in the method as a whole, however, it can be used to track the dynamics of changes in the quality of life of the older generation both for Russia as a whole and for its individual regions, compare their ranking positions within one or several periods, put forward hypotheses about the causes of changes, analyze them, formulate proposals on measures that can improve the quality of life of older people in a particular region. Objective of the study is to analyze the changes in the assessment of the well-being of older people in the Tomsk region based on the REWI materials for 2014, 2016 and 2018 and formulate conclusions based on the results of three rounds of the all-Russian study in the context of the dynamics of the quality of life of older people. Methods: statistical analysis according to the original method for calculating the REWI based on microdata from the Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat) survey «Comprehensive observation of living conditions of the population» for 2014, 2014 and 2018. Results. The analysis showed (1) the deterioration of values for almost all domains of REWI (economy, society, health, infrastructure and quality of life in the regional dimension) in the whole of the Russian Federation for the entire observation period; (2) the deterioration of the rating positions of the Tomsk region according to the REWI in 2016 and 2018 relative to 2014, (3) a noticeable decrease in the scores for most domains and private index indicators for the Tomsk region in 2018. Conclusions. Based on the results of the analysis of the REWI values for three observation periods, conclusions were formulated both about the possibilities and objective limitations in using this index to assess the quality of life and well-being of the older generation in the Russian Federation, and to analyze the dynamics of the corresponding processes in individual regions. Assumptions are put forward about the possible reasons for the negative dynamics of the Tomsk region in the REWI rating both in general and in its individual domains and indicators. Based on the data obtained, preliminary conclusions were drawn about the risks of non-implementation of the national action plan to improve the quality of life of older people and the incomplete coordination of actions carried out in our country with international programs in this area. Perhaps these problems will be able to attract more attention, efforts and resources for their solution against the background of the immediate prospects for the introduction of the Russian elderly well-being index which is built in accordance with the international methodology.
Комплексні заходи державної та регіональної туристичної політики, підкріплені належним фінансуванням і узгодженістю проектів сталого розвитку туризму в Карпатському регіоні України з проектами інших відомств і міністерств, а також з міжнародними нормативно-правовими актами з регулювання туристичної діяльності створюють передумови для успішного та перспективного розвитку туристичної галузі. При цьому має значно збільшитися обсяг надання туристичних послуг як на внутрішньому, так і міжнародному туристичних ринках, а також буде сформовано на міжнародній арені позитивний туристичний імідж України загалом і Карпатського регіону зокрема. Як і в будь-якій сфері бізнес-діяльності, так і в туристичній галузі існують ризики реалізації проектів сталого розвитку, як би там вони не були підкріплені фінансово, нормативно-правовими актами і підтримкою місцевої влади. Управління ризиками – невід'ємна частина ефективного управління будь-яким проектом. При цьому менеджер проекту, як особа, що планує, управляє та здійснює постійний контроль за всіма етапами виконання проекту, повинен чітко і ефективно управляти ризиками його реалізації. Він також має оцінювати можливість втрат від реалізації того чи іншого заходу і прагнути до мінімізації збитків при настанні ризикованих подій. Впровадження міжнародних стандартів у процес управління ризиками може дати можливість керівникам проектів сталого розвитку туризму в Карпатському регіоні зробити це управління більш ефективним і максимізувати потенційні можливості та мінімізувати затрати в ході досягнення стратегічних цілей проектів. Успішна реалізація проектів сталого розвитку туризму в Карпатському регіоні потребує наукових розробок щодо вдосконалення методів, прийомів, стандартів управління ризиками та їхнього аналізу, які б спиралися на міжнародний досвід, а також враховували особливості економічної та соціально-політичної ситуації в Україні. В роботі запропоновано підхід до кількісного оцінювання ризиків виконання проектів сталого розвитку туризму і на їхній основі визначення якісного стану реалізації проекту та можливих дій щодо усунення негативних наслідків від впливу цих ризиків. ; Комплексные меры государственной и региональной туристической политики, подкрепленные должным финансированием и согласованностью проектов устойчивого развития туризма в Карпатском регионе Украины с проектами других ведомств и министерств, а также с международными нормативно-правовыми актами по регулированию туристической деятельности создают предпосылки для успешного и перспективного развития туристической отрасли. При этом должно значительно увеличиться объем предоставления туристических услуг как на внутреннем, так и международном туристических рынках, а также будет сформирован на международной арене положительный туристический имидж Украины в целом и Карпатского региона в частности. В то же время, как и в любой сфере бизнес-деятельности, так и в туристической отрасли существуют риски реализации проектов устойчивого развития, как бы там они не были подкреплены финансово, нормативно-правовыми актами и поддержкой местных властей. Управление рисками - неотъемлемая часть эффективного управления любым проектом. При этом менеджер проекта, как лицо, планирует, управляет и осуществляет постоянный контроль за всеми этапами выполнения проекта, должен четко и эффективно управлять рисками его реализации. Он также оценивать возможность потерь от реализации того или иного мероприятия и стремиться к минимизации убытков при наступлении рискованных событий. Внедрение международных стандартов в процесс управления рисками может дать возможность руководителям проектов устойчивого развития туризма в Карпатском регионе сделать это управление более эффективным и максимизировать потенциальные возможности и минимизировать затраты в ходе достижения стратегических целей проектов. Успешная реализация проектов устойчивого развития туризма в Карпатском регионе требует научных разработок по совершенствованию методов, приемов, стандартов управления рисками и их анализа, которые опирались на международный опыт, а также учитывали особенности экономической и социально-политической ситуации в Украине. В работе предложен подход к количественной оценки рисков осуществления проектов устойчивого развития туризма и на их основе определения качественного состояния реализации проекта и возможных действий по устранению негативных последствий влияния этих рисков. ; Complex measures of state and regional tourism policy supported by proper financing and coherence of sustainable tourism development projects in the Carpathian region of Ukraine with projects of other departments and ministries, international normative and legal acts in regulating tourism activity create preconditions for successful and perspective development of tourism industry. At the same time, the volume of providing tourist services in the domestic and international tourist markets should increase considerably, as well as the positive tourist image of Ukraine in general and the Carpathian region in particular will be formed on the international scene.However, as in any sphere of business activities, as well as in the tourism industry there are risks of implementing sustainable development projects, whatever they may be supported financially, by normative and legal acts and local government support. Risk management is an integral part of effective management of any project. At the same time, the project manager, as a person who plans, manages and provides constant monitoring of all sections of the project, must clearly and effectively manage the risks of its implementation. He should also evaluate the possibility of losses from a particular event and seek to minimize losses upon the occurrence of risky events. The introduction of international standards in the risk management process can enable managers of sustainable tourism development projects in the Carpathian region to make this management more efficient, maximize potential opportunities, and minimize costs in achieving the strategic goals of projects. It was found that in spite of theoretical and practical experience in the field of risk management, a number of circumstances hinders its effective use in the tourism industry in the Ukrainian realities.First of all, the standards developed by foreign organizations are intended for use, mainly in large tourist companies, experienced specialists of which have been trained and have modern risk management techniques. In addition, standard developers, mostly, directly indicate, "the identification of the organization's risks, as a rule, should be conducted by independent consultants". Therefore, domestic project-oriented tourist companies need some adaptation of the content of these documents to their activities. Successful implementation of sustainable tourism development projects in the Carpathian region requires scientific research on improving methods, techniques, risk management standards and their analysis based on international experience, as well as taking into account the peculiarities of the economic and socio-political situation in Ukraine. The paper proposes an approach to quantitatively assessing the risks of implementing sustainable tourism development projects and, on the basis of them, determining the qualitative state of the project implementation and possible actions to eliminate the negative effects of these risks.
Combined ATLAS and CMS measurements of the Higgs boson production and decay rates, as well as constraints on its couplings to vector bosons and fermions, are presented. The combination is based on the analysis of five production processes, namely gluon fusion, vector boson fusion, and associated production with a W or a Z boson or a pair of top quarks, and of the six decay modes H → ZZ, W W , γγ, ττ, bb, and μμ. All results are reported assuming a value of 125.09 GeV for the Higgs boson mass, the result of the combined measurement by the ATLAS and CMS experiments. The analysis uses the CERN LHC proton-proton collision data recorded by the ATLAS and CMS experiments in 2011 and 2012, corresponding to integrated luminosities per experiment of approximately 5 fb−1 at s√=7 TeV and 20 fb−1 at s√=8 TeV. The Higgs boson production and decay rates measured by the two experiments are combined within the context of three generic parameterisations: two based on cross sections and branching fractions, and one on ratios of coupling modifiers. Several interpretations of the measurements with more model-dependent parameterisations are also given. The combined signal yield relative to the Standard Model prediction is measured to be 1.09 ± 0.11. The combined measurements lead to observed significances for the vector boson fusion production process and for the H → ττ decay of 5.4 and 5.5 standard deviations, respectively. The data are consistent with the Standard Model predictions for all parameterisations considered. ; ANPCyT ; YerPhI (Armenia) ; Australian Research Council ; BMWFW (Austria) ; Austrian Science Fund (FWF) ; Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS) ; SSTC (Belarus) ; Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS ; FWO ; National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) ; CAPES ; Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) ; Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) ; MES (Bulgaria) ; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada ; NRC (Canada) ; Canada Foundation for Innovation ; CERN ; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT) ; Chinese Academy of Sciences ; Ministry of Science and Technology, China ; National Natural Science Foundation of China ; Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion Colciencias ; MSES (Croatia) ; CSF (Croatia) ; RPF (Cyprus) ; Ministry of Education, Youth & Sports - Czech Republic ; Czech Republic Government ; DNRF (Denmark) ; Danish Natural Science Research Council ; MoER (Estonia) ; Estonian Research Council ; European Union (EU) ; Academy of Finland ; Spanish Government ; HIP (Finland) ; French Atomic Energy Commission ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; GNSF (Georgia) ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; German Research Foundation (DFG) ; HGF (Germany) ; Max Planck Society ; Greek Ministry of Development-GSRT ; Hong Kong Research Grants Council ; Orszagos Tudomanyos Kutatasi Alapprogramok (OTKA) ; United States Department of Health & Human Services ; National Institutes of Health (NIH) - USA ; Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) ; Department of Science & Technology (India) ; IPM (Iran) ; Science Foundation Ireland ; Israel Science Foundation ; I-CORE (Israel) ; Benoziyo Center (Israel) ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ; JINR ; MSIP (Republic of Korea) ; NRF (Republic of Korea) ; LAS (Lithuania) ; MOE (Malaysia) ; UM (Malaysia) ; BUAP (Mexico) ; CINVESTAV (Mexico) ; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT) ; LNS (Mexico) ; SEP (Mexico) ; UASLP-FAI (Mexico) ; CNRST (Morocco) ; FOM (The Netherlands) Netherlands Government ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) Netherlands Government ; MBIE (New Zealand) ; RCN (Norway) ; PAEC (Pakistan) ; Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Poland ; MSHE (Poland) ; NCN (Poland) ; NSC (Poland) ; Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology ; MNE/IFA (Romania) ; NRC KI (Russian Federation) ; RAS (Russian Federation) ; Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) ; MESTD (Serbia) ; MSSR (Slovakia) ; Slovenian Research Agency - Slovenia ; MIZS (Slovenia) ; DST/NRF (South Africa) ; MINECO (Spain) ; SEIDI (Spain) ; CPAN (Spain) ; SRC (Sweden) ; Wallenberg Foundation (Sweden) ; ETH Board (Switzerland) ; ETH Zurich ; PSI (Switzerland) ; SERI (Switzerland) ; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) ; UniZH (Switzerland) ; Canton of Bern (Switzerland) ; Canton of Geneva (Switzerland) ; Canton of Zurich (Switzerland) ; MOST (Taipei) ; ThEPCenter (Thailand) ; IPST (Thailand) ; STAR (Thailand) ; NSTDA (Thailand) ; Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK) ; Ministry of Energy & Natural Resources - Turkey ; NASU (Ukraine) ; State Fund for Fundamental Research (SFFR) ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; National Science Foundation (NSF) ; Belgian Federal Science Policy Office ; Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS ; Institute for the Promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT) ; BCKDF (Canada) ; Canada Council (Canada) ; CANARIE (Canada) ; CRC (Canada) ; Compute Canada (Canada) ; FQRNT ; Ontario Innovation Trust (Canada) ; Leventis Foundation (Cyprus) ; European Union (EU) ; European Union (EU) European Research Council (ERC) ; Horizon (European Union) ; French National Research Agency (ANR) ; Region Auvergne-Rhone-Alpes ; Fondation Partager le Savoir (France) ; Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; Herakleitos programme - EU-ESF (Greece) ; Thales programme - EU-ESF (Greece) ; Aristeia programme - EU-ESF (Greece) ; Greek NSRF (Greece) ; Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) - India ; US-Israel Binational Science Foundation ; German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development ; Minerva (Israel) ; BRF (Norway) ; HOMING PLUS programme of the FPS (Poland) ; EU Regional Development Fund (Poland) ; Mobility Plus programme of the MSHE (Poland) ; OPUS programme of the NSC (Poland) ; NPRP by Qatar NRF (Qatar) ; Generalitat de Catalunya ; Generalitat Valenciana ; Programa Clarin-COFUND del Principado de Asturias (Spain) ; Rachadapisek Sompot Fund for Postdoctoral Fellowship, Chulalongkorn University (Thailand) ; Chulalongkorn Academic into Its 2nd Century Project Advancement Project (Thailand) ; Royal Society of London ; Leverhulme Trust ; A. P. Sloan Foundation (United States of America) ; The Welch Foundation ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ST/K001256/1 ST/N000250/1 GRIDPP ST/M000753/1 ST/J005533/1 ST/K001329/1 ST/N000307/1 ATLAS ST/N000463/1 ST/L006162/1 CMS 1366825 ST/K001329/1 ATLAS ST/L000997/1 ST/J004804/1 PP/E000444/1 ST/L003449/1
Las investigaciones sobre la agricultura venezolana entre 1899-1908 durante el Gobierno del general Cipriano Castro, conocido como el período de la Restauración Liberal, son fragmentarias. Las limitaciones de estadísticas seriadas han constituido una severa restricción para ello. Esta época reviste singular importancia para la vida política y económica, dado su significado particular en el curso del país: fue en este período de transición cuando se sentaron las bases para la conformación del Estado Nacional. El cese de la fragmentación política, la orientación del gasto público hacia fines sociales y productivos y la instauración del monopolio de la fuerza en manos del Estado, son fenómenos iniciados en aquel régimen. A pesar de la estabilidad política, la agricultura poco avanzó en su modernización; aspectos como la transformación de su asimétrica estructura de tenencia y propiedad, la modificación de sus relaciones de trabajo, el cambio en el nivel técnico basado en el fomento y la investigación, la disponibilidad de capital y su acceso a precios no especulativos, la comunicación regional y las mejoras en la distribución de productos, cuando no ausentes, tuvieron escaso avance. Inmersa en esta situación, con una recesión internacional en su producto principal (el café) y a una de políticas que la estimularan, la agricultura no pudo erigirse en competitiva. En este trabajo se devela este curso de la agricultura y tiene como objetivos principales: i) reconstruir el marco económico y político en que se inscribió, a fin de facilitar la comprensión de su evolución; ii) caracterizar la agricultura venezolana del período Castrista, a partir de un análisis de sus principales producciones; y, iii) identificar las medidas de política pública aplicadas y su impacto sobre la agricultura. ; The period between 1899-1908 in the government of general Cipriano Castro, called The «Restauración Liberal», agriculture had been precarious studied. Due to there is not statistic information, is very difficult to do research, but the political and economic life it was significative for the national transformation. This time was a transitional period, because began the national organization state. Under Cipriano Castro government Venezuela had politic stability. Besides it was political centralization; moreover, the public spend was directed to social and economic investment and the control of military forces was in the State. Besides the agriculture modern did not advance: there were not changes in the land tenure structure, neither the work relations. The technological change has not support in the agricultural research and the public policy. The capital was scarce and its speculative price; was very difficult to translate by the roads and the commercialization of the merchandise was bad. Bellow these circumstances and with the international coffee recession the agriculture was not competitive. We analyze in this work the agricultural sector, by: the study of the economic and politic context; to make analysis of the basic production; identify the public politics and we establish its effect on the agriculture. ; Recherche sur l'agriculture vénézuélienne entre 1899-1908 dans le gouvernement du général Cipriano Castro, connu comme la période de la Restauration libéral sont fragmentaires. Les limites des statistiques de série ont été une restriction. Cette fois, pour la vie politique et économique est important pour son sens dans le cadre du pays. En cette période de transition à la base de la formation de l'État national ont été portées. La cessation de la fragmentation politique, l'orientation des dépenses publiques vers des fins sociales et productives et la création du monopole du pouvoir détenu par l'État, sont des phénomènes commencé dans son régime Malgré le peu de progrès politiques de l'agriculture de la stabilité dans sa modernisation: la transformation de sa structure de propriété foncière et asymétrique, en changeant leurs relations de travail, le changement dans le niveau technique basée sur la promotion et la recherche, la disponibilité de capitaux et l'accès à des prix non spéculatifs, la communication régionale et amélioration de la distribution de produits, lorsque peu de progrès avaient pas absente. Immergé dans cette situation, avec une récession mondiale dans son produit principal: café, rapide et politiques qui stimulent, l'agriculture ne pouvait pas être érigé compétitifs. Dans ce travail, nous avons dévoilé son cours, nous allons: reconstruire le cadre économique et politique dans lequel il est inscrit, dans le but de faciliter la compréhension de son évolution; caractériser ce à travers une analyse de ses productions clés; et identifier les mesures appliquées politique publique et son impact sur l'agriculture. ; Os estudos sobre a agricultura venezuelana entre 1899-1908, no governo do general Cipriano Castro, conhecido como o período da Restauração Liberal, são fragmentados. As limitações nas séries estatísticas tem sido uma séria restrição para isso. Essa época tem uma grande importância para a vida política e econômica do país, dado para o seu significado no curso do país: neste período de transição foram estabelecidas as bases para a formação do Estado nacional. O fim da fragmentação política, a orientação das despesas públicas para fins sociais e produtivas e o estabelecimento do monopólio do poder em poder do Estado, são fenômenos começaram nesse regime Apesar da estabilidade política, a agricultura pouco avançou na sua modernização: aspectos como a transformação de sua estrutura de posse e propriedade assimétrica, mudando suas relações de trabalho, a mudança no nível técnico com base na promoção e pesquisa, a disponibilidade de capital e acesso a preços não especulativos, de comunicação regionais e melhorias na distribuição do produto, progrediram pouco ou nada no período. Imerso nesta situação, com uma recessão global em seu principal produto, o café, a agricultura perdeu competitividade. Neste trabalho buscou-se: reconstruir o quadro econômico e político, a fim de facilitar a compreensão da sua evolução; caracterizar isso através de uma análise de suas produções fundamentais; e identificar políticas públicas utilizadas e seu impacto na agricultura. ; 81 - 102 ; pachecogerman@hotmail.com ; Semestral
Esta sección contiene los siguientes documentos: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Beijing Statement on Forests and Forestry- The First APEC Meeting of Ministers Responsible for Forestry - Beijing, China, Sep 2011. High Level Policy Dialogue on Open Governance and Economic Growth - Honolulu, Hawaii , United States, Nov 2011. High Level Policy Dialogue on Disaster Resiliency - Honolulu, Hawaii , United States, Nov 2011. High Level Policy Dialogue on Women and the Economy Declaration - San Francisco, California, United States, Sep 2011. The Honolulu Declaration - Toward a Seamless Regional Economy - Honolulu, Hawaii, United States, Nov 2011 Leaders'. Joint Ministerial Statement - Finance Ministerial Meeting -Honolulu, Hawaii, United States, Nov 2011. Ministerial Joint Statement - Transportation Ministerial Meeting - San Francisco, California, United States, Sep 2011. Banco Mundial Doing Bussines 2012: Haciendo negocios en un mundo más transparente. Informe Anual 2011. Comunidad Andina de Naciones (CAN) Declaración de Bogotá – Noviembre de 2011. Fondo Monetario Internacional (FMI) Informe Anual 2011 – Buscando un crecimiento equitativo y equilibrado. Informe sobre la estabilidad financiera mundial - Resumen ejecutivo - Septiembre de 2011. Monitor Fiscal - Septiembre de 2011. Perspectivas de la Economía Mundial - Septiembre de 2011. Perspectivas económicas Las Américas: Vientos cambiantes, nuevos desafíos de política – Octubre de 2011. Grupo de los 8 (G8) Agreed terms of reference by G7 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors - Marseille, 9 September 2011. Deauville Partnership Finance Ministers' Meeting Communiqué – Marseille, September 10, 2011. Statement of G7 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors - August 8, 2011. Grupo de los 20 (G20) Cannes summit final declaration "Building our common future: renewed collective action for the benefit of all" 4 november 2011. Communiqué G20 Leaders Summit – Cannes – 3-4 November 2011. Communiqué of Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of the G‐20 Paris, France, 14‐15 October 2011. Communiqué of Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of the G-20 Washington DC, USA, 22 September 2011 Ministerial Meeting on Development – Communiqué 23 September 2011, Washington DC, USA. Statement of G-20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors August 8, 2011. The Cannes Action Plan for Growth and Jobs - Cannes – 3-4 November 2011. Mercado Común del Sur (MERCOSUR) Declaración de los Estados Partes del MERCOSUR y Estados Asociados sobre Buques que enarbolan la bandera ilegal de las Islas Malvinas, Montevideo, diciembre de 2011. Comunicado Conjunto de los Presidentes de los Estados Partes, Montevideo, diciembre de 2011. Comunicado Conjunto de los Presidentes de los Estados Partes y los Estados Asociados, Montevideo, diciembre de 2011. Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte (OTAN) Final statement - Meeting of the North Atlantic Council at the level of Foreign Ministers held at NATO Headquarters, Brussels, on 7 December 2011. Joint Statement - Meeting of the NATO-Georgia Commission at the level of Ambassadors, with the participation of the Prime Minister of Georgia. Unión Europea (UE) Consejo Europeo, 23 de octubre de 2011. Conclusiones. Consejo Europeo, 9 de diciembre de 2011. Conclusiones. Declaración de la Cumbre del Euro, 26 de octubre de 2011. Declaración de los Jefes de Estado y de Gobierno de la Zona del Euro, 9 de diciembre de 2011. XXI Cumbre Iberoamericana – Paraguay 2011 Anexo del Programa de Acción de Asunción - Resultados de los programas, iniciativas y proyectos adscritos de cooperación apoyados por la Cumbre Iberoamericana. Comunicado especial sobre la Declaración del 2013 como el Año Internacional de la Quinua. Declaración de Asunción. Estrategia de la Cooperación Iberoamericana 2011. Programa de Acción de Asunción. III Cumbre de América Latina y el Caribe sobre Integración y Desarrollo (CALC) y la XXII Cumbre del Grupo de Río - República Bolivariana de Venezuela, diciembre de 2011 Proyecto de Comunicado Especial sobre las Islas Malvinas. Declaración de Caracas "En el Bicentenario de la Lucha por la Independencia hacia el camino de nuestros libertadores". Declaración Especial sobre la Defensa de la Democracia y el Orden Constitucional en la Comunidad de Estados Latinoamericanos y Caribeños (CELAC). Procedimientos para el funcionamiento orgánico de la CELAC. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEP) World Oil Outlook 2011. III Cumbre de Jefes de Estado y de Gobierno del Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA) y de la Comunidad del Caribe (CARICOM), El Salvador, 19 de agosto de 2011 Declaración Conjunta. Unión de Naciones Suramericanas (UNASUR) Declaración del 28 de julio: Compromiso de la UNASUR contra la desigualdad. 17 Conferencia de las Partes (COP17) - Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (UNFCCC), 28 de noviembre al 9 de diciembre 2011, Durban, South Africa Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action - Proposal by the President. Green Climate Fund - report of the Transitional Committee. National adaptation plans . Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention. Technology Executive Committee - modalities and procedures. 7ª Conferencia de las Partes del Protocolo de Kioto (CMP7) - Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (UNFCCC), 28 de noviembre al 9 de diciembre 2011, Durban, South Africa Consideration of information on potential environmental, economic and social consequences, including spillover effects, of tools, policies, measures and methodologies available to Annex I Parties. Emissions trading and the project-based mechanisms. Greenhouse gases, sectors and source categories, common metrics to calculate the carbon dioxide equivalence of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks, and other methodological issues Land use, land-use change and forestry. Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol at its sixteenth session. Organización de las Naciones Unidas (ONU)- Consejo de Seguridad- Resoluciones 2011 Resolución 1995 Resolución 1996 Resolución 1997 Resolución 1998 Resolución 1999 Resolución 2000 Resolución 2001 Resolución 2002 Resolución 2003 Resolución 2004 Resolución 2005 Resolución 2006 Resolución 2007 Resolución 2008 Resolución 2009 Resolución 2010 Resolución 2011 Resolución 2012 Resolución 2013 Resolución 2014 Resolución 2015 Resolución 2016 Resolución 2017 Resolución 2018 Resolución 2019 Resolución 2020 Resolución 2021 ; Instituto de Relaciones Internacionales (IRI)
In line with the national government goal of alleviating the poverty in the country, regional sectors have made plans to meet the targets and objectives set. Cabuyao, being one of the municipalities in Laguna under Region IV-A CALABARZON, in the course of its vision of uplifting the quality of lives of its people, supported the said primary aim. The Cabuyao Investment and Development Authority (CIDA) was subsequently established to promote entrepreneurship among the citizens of the town. In order to do so, there is a need to assess the entrepreneurial potential and business assistance needs of different types of organizations. Operating cooperatives within the area were identified as one. CIDA was the direct response of the Municipal Government of Cabuyao to exercise its corporate power in accordance with Section 15 of RA 7160 or the Political and Corporate Nature of Local Government Units under the Local Government Code of 1991. Data obtained from the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA) revealed that since 1991 up to present there were already 75 registered cooperatives in Cabuyao. However, only 25 were considered operating. Given this condition suggests that these cooperatives to be placed under research study. The study was conducted to assess the entrepreneurial potential and business assistance needs of the cooperatives in Cabuyao, Laguna. Specifically, it aimed to present the profile of the cooperatives of the study, identify common problems encountered by the cooperatives, assess the Municipal Cooperative and Livelihood Development Office (MCLDO) in its program and services to the cooperatives, present the identified specific business assistance needs of the cooperatives that can be provided by the Cabuyao Investment and Development Authority (CIDA) in its business support service offerings, and assess the capacity of the cooperatives to engage in entrepreneurship. Twenty three out of the 25 operating cooperatives or 92% were included in the study. Respondents of the study were primarily officers of the cooperatives. The study employed descriptive design to answer the research problems and objectives posed at the beginning of the study. Primary data consisted of the answers of the respondents through the survey and self-rating questionnaires. Interviews were done to determine in-depth pieces of information pertaining to the activities and management of cooperatives. A survey questionnaire, test of organizational and managerial efficiency, and Personal Entrepreneurial Competency (PEC) self-rating questionnaire were used as research instruments. On the other hand, secondary data were sourced from the Municipal Planning and Development Office (MPDO) and the Municipal Cooperative and Livelihood Development Office (MCLDO). The Cooperative Development Authority (CDA) was the one that provided the list of operating cooperatives. Preliminary studies related to CIDA were also used. The study also made use of previous special problems and theses related to cooperatives conducted by undergraduate students in UPLB. Some articles published by the Agricultural Credit and Cooperatives Institute (ACCI) were utilized too. Also, electronic journals and articles were sourced from the Internet regarding entrepreneurship and business support services. It was noted that operating cooperatives were vulnerable to failures considering that most of them are still new together with MCLDO which was also regarded to be still young in handling cooperatives. Thus, given the conditions of the two wherein the former has to enhance its internal management while the latter has to complete its resources including competent staffs, business incubation program cannot be entirely embraced. However, even without the physical appearance of the business incubation program, its core features which are the business support services can still be pushed through. Based from the assessment of the entrepreneurial potential of the cooperatives, majority of them were remarked as weak considering the five criteria used. These were risk-taking, opportunity- seeking, and persuasion and networking, availability of capital, and members' participation. Out of the 23 cooperatives, only three surpassed all the criteria. This implied that majority of the operating cooperatives, at present, were not yet ready to promote entrepreneurship to their members. Recommended strategies to address the findings of the study with respect to the assessment of the business assistance needs include capability-building programs, diversification and market development, new product development, strategic alliance, and service development combined with basic entrepreneurship support, business development support, financing and networking services to be initiated by MCLDO. Some of the specific business support services include lectures with regards to cooperative management by either MCLDO or other institutions, seminars regarding risk management, persuasion and networking, debt management, human resource management, credit management, budget preparation and financial statement analysis, access to financial institution or modification of the loan program to solve the lack of operating capital, linkage to research institutions for possible technology transfer and identification of investment opportunities that engaged in agribusiness, conduct of supply chain analysis, establishing partnerships with manufacturing firms around the municipality, formation of federation among the operating cooperatives in Cabuyao and assistance to conduct community development programs. MCLDO is also suggested to have an annual recognition rite for outstanding operating cooperatives in Cabuyao to strengthen and promote the cooperative sector. Key success attributes were shown using the balanced scorecard which were classified in its four domains namely customer, financial, internal business process, and learning and growth perspectives. On the other hand, recommendations in terms of assessment of the entrepreneurial potential include reorienting the loan program of the MCLDO towards promoting entrepreneurship rather than economic activities of the cooperatives. Also, MCLDO should assist the Cabuyao-based cooperatives in forming strategic alliance either among them or to federations. Every cooperative to make their entrepreneurial endeavor a success should have a clear vision of improving the wealth of all the members in terms of earning more than what they received from interest on share capital and patronage refund for the patrons to support the entrepreneurial activity of the cooperative. Finally, it is suggested for the officers coming from cooperatives to undergo seminars, trainings and workshops related to enhancing their entrepreneurial capacity that can influence them in their decision-making and then eventually enabling them to encourage all the patrons to engage in an entrepreneurial activity.
The study was arranged to manifest its objectives through preceding it with an intro-duction. Particular attention was paid in the second part to detect the physical settings of the study area, together with an attempt to show the climatic characteristics in Libya. In the third part, observed temporal and spatial climate change in Libya was investigated through the trends of temperature, precipitation, relative humidity and cloud amount over the peri-ods (1946-2000), (1946-1975), and (1976-2000), comparing the results with the global scales. The forth part detected the natural and human causes of climate change concentrat-ing on the greenhouse effect. The potential impacts of climate change on Libya were ex-amined in the fifth chapter. As a case study, desertification of Jifara Plain was studied in the sixth part. In the seventh chapter, projections and mitigations of climate change and desertification were discussed. Ultimately, the main results and recommendations of the study were summarized. In order to carry through the objectives outlined above, the following methods and approaches were used: a simple linear regression analysis was computed to detect the trends of climatic parameters over time; a trend test based on a trend-to-noise-ratio was applied for detecting linear or non-linear trends; the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test for trend was used to reveal the behavior of the trends and their significance; PCA was applied to construct the all-Libya climatic parameters trends; aridity index after Walter-Lieth was shown for computing humid respectively arid months in Libya; correlation coefficient, (after Pearson) for detecting the teleconnection between sun spot numbers, NAOI, SOI, GHGs, and global warming, climate changes in Libya; aridity index, after De Martonne, to elaborate the trends of aridity in Jifara Plain; Geographical Information System and Re-mote Sensing techniques were applied to clarify the illustrations and to monitor desertifi-cation of Jifara Plain using the available satellite images MSS, TM, ETM+ and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). The results are explained by 88 tables, 96 figures and 10 photos. Temporal and spatial temperature changes in Libya indicated remarkably different an-nual and seasonal trends over the long observation period 1946-2000 and the short obser-vation periods 1946-1975 and 1976-2000. Trends of mean annual temperature were posi-tive at all study stations except at one from 1946-2000, negative trends prevailed at most stations from 1946-1975, while strongly positive trends were computed at all study stations from 1976-2000 corresponding with the global warming trend. Positive trends of mean minimum temperatures were observed at all reference stations from 1946-2000 and 1976-2000, while negative trends prevailed at most stations over the period 1946-1975. For mean maximum temperature, positive trends were shown from 1946-2000 and from 1976-2000 at most stations, while most trends were negative from 1946-1975. Minimum tem-peratures increased at nearly more than twice the rate of maximum temperatures at most stations. In respect of seasonal temperature, warming mostly occurred in summer and au-tumn in contrast to the global observations identifying warming mostly in winter and spring in both study periods. Precipitation across Libya is characterized by scanty and sporadically totals, as well as high intensities and very high spatial and temporal variabilities. From 1946-2000, large inter-annual and intra-annual variabilities were observed. Positive trends of annual precipi-tation totals have been observed from 1946-2000, negative trends from 1976-2000 at most stations. Variabilities of seasonal precipitation over Libya are more strikingly experienced from 1976-2000 than from 1951-1975 indicating a growing magnitude of climate change in more recent times. Negative trends of mean annual relative humidity were computed at eight stations, while positive trends prevailed at seven stations from 1946-2000. For the short observation period 1976-2000, positive trends were computed at most stations. Annual cloud amount totals decreased at most study stations in Libya over both long and short periods. Re-markably large spatial variations of climate changes were observed from north to south over Libya. Causes of climate change were discussed showing high correlation between tempera-ture increasing over Libya and CO2 emissions; weakly positive correlation between pre-cipitation and North Atlantic Oscillation index; negative correlation between temperature and sunspot numbers; negative correlation between precipitation over Libya and Southern Oscillation Index. The years 1992 and 1993 were shown as the coldest in the 1990s result-ing from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, 1991. r Libya is affected by climate change in many ways, in particular, crop production and food security, water resources, human health, population settlement and biodiversity. But the effects of climate change depend on its magnitude and the rate with which it occurs. Jifara Plain, located in northwestern Libya, has been seriously exposed to desertifica-tion as a result of climate change, landforms, overgrazing, over-cultivation and population growth. Soils have been degraded, vegetation cover disappeared and the groundwater wells were getting dry in many parts. The effect of desertification on Jifara Plain appears through reducing soil fertility and crop productivity, leading to long-term declines in agri-cultural yields, livestock yields, plant standing biomass, and plant biodiversity. Desertifi-cation has also significant implications on livestock industry and the national economy. Desertification accelerates migration from rural and nomadic areas to urban areas as the land cannot support the original inhabitants. In the absence of major shifts in policy, economic growth, energy prices, and con-sumer trends, climate change in Libya and desertification of Jifara Plain are expected to continue in the future. Libya cooperated with United Nations and other international organizations. It has signed and ratified a number of international and regional agreements which effectively established a policy framework for actions to mitigate climate change and combat deserti-fication. Libya has implemented several laws and legislative acts, with a number of ancil-lary and supplementary rules to regulate. Despite the current efforts and ongoing projects being undertaken in Libya in the field of climate change and desertification, urgent actions and projects are needed to mitigate climate change and combat desertification in the near future.
This paper considers the frequent discrepancies between theory and practice in Third World urban development programmes. Drawing upon three Southeast Asian case studies (the Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia), it highlights the importance of understanding the challenges posed for sustainable urban development by current processes of urbanization, democratization, decentralization and economic liberalization. Urbanization in Southeast Asian countries is extremely complex and fluid, raising difficult social, as well infrastructural and financial, questions. Very different groups of people must be drawn into a common planning process. Furthermore, complex relations between cities and their hinterlands must be taken into account. Decentralization and democratization serve to complicate the picture. In most cases, local and regional institutions are ill-prepared to meet the new responsibilities implicit in decentralization, and central governments are reluctant to give up their power over lower level authorities. Effective democratization of decision making is also hampered by local political structures hostile to participation. In some cases, however, democracy is growing, and potentially serves as a focus for sustainable development planning and management. The paper questions the poverty alleviation powers of economic liberalization. It points out that neo-liberal policies undermine development efforts by weakening government responsibility in key areas of public concern. In addition, free-market reforms lack environmental sensitivity and encourage deep splits within communities, as income gaps grow larger. The experience of the Philippines provides insight into these issues. Rapid urbanization and a high incidence of poverty, combined with sub-optimal urban management, have lead to problems with water provision and pollution. For the poor, deeply embedded legal problems of land tenure constitute a key concern. The administrative structure of the Philippines, where legislation has encouraged decentralization of powers and resources to the municipal and community levels, has the potential to facilitate the implementation of sustainable development initiatives. However, the continuing strength of powerful local bosses blocks many efforts to address the needs of the poor and to consider paths to sustainable urban development. The development of physical infrastructure tends to be granted priority over smaller participatory community projects. Thailand is the least urbanized of the three case countries, and urban poverty is less prominent than in the Philippines or Indonesia. Urban water supply is generally good, but industrial waste, pollution, land tenure and access to services are serious problems. Although the aim of sustainable development features in Thai economic and social policies, and some headway has been made in the environmental sector, there is virtually no progress towards this goal at the local level. The new Thai constitution provides for strengthening of local government; but, with the exception of strong private sector involvement, participatory forms of local planning required by the constitution are slow in materializing. In part, this is because of the overarching powers of the Ministry of Interior, which is determined to maintain its control over local affairs. It is also because structures of political patronage slow the devolution of power from central to lower levels. NGO and community representation in local development processes is relatively weak and a long-term vision for local level development is absent. Although some highly structured urban development programmes have been implemented over the past few years in Indonesia, urbanization is still uncontrolled, predominantly informal and characterized by high poverty incidence-especially following the collapse of the economy after July 1997. As in the Philippines, environmental pollution and land tenure problems are serious. But continued economic crisis dominates the policy agenda, and sustainable development planning remains weak at the local level. Post-Suharto-era legislation could allow Indonesia to do better than Thailand in terms of decentralization, but the current fluidity of the legal situation can work against, as well as for, sustainable development initiatives. Immediately following the collapse of authoritarian government, the co-operation of local level groups in consultative processes was limited by their fear of government co-optation. More recently, however, there are some signs that NGOs and community groups are engaging more effectively with recently elected councils and the municipal machinery. The concluding section of the paper draws attention to the role that may be played in sustainable development initiatives by the new urban middle class of Southeast Asia. The collapse of authoritarianism has brought to the fore aspirations for a greater say in political processes. However, the dominant economic model is also breeding more divided societies. Two distinct kinds of local development initiatives are emerging. On one hand, poor communities are being assisted by international development agencies, local governments and NGOs to improve their quality of life. On the other, middle class groups are organizing to improve the way that local governments are run. Yet these initiatives are not enough in themselves to overcome the deep divisions in these societies and to promote sustainable human development. Furthermore, this situation supports the survival of local patronage politics, which in turn militates against the success of any broader movement towards significant improvement in the processes of urban development. Democratization has opened up spaces for progressive forces for change. In such a context, international development agencies can increase their support for community organizations-not only to promote self-help initiatives, but also to strengthen their voice in local political processes. It is also necessary to provide simultaneous support at the level of the municipality. Too often, however, external support has been given on a short-term basis and targeted to local level interventions. So far there has been relatively little support for integrated urban programmes. Furthermore in the current climate of economic and social crisis, considerations of sustainable development can too easily be pushed into the background. External agencies need to focus attention on how to organize and operate such programmes and to commit themselves to longer term and more flexible interventions that are effective in rapidly changing conditions. More thought should also be given to the national level context that would ensure that local level activities make genuine progress. Such support includes reinforcement of the decentralization process-and also devising defences against the social and environmental effects of neo-liberal policies.
In: Kyklos: international review for social sciences, Band 46, Heft 4, S. 589-630
ISSN: 1467-6435
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Tau phosphorylated at threonine 181 (p-tau181) measured in blood plasma has recently been proposed as an accessible, scalable, and highly specific biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Longitudinal studies, however, investigating the temporal dynamics of this novel biomarker are lacking. It is therefore unclear when in the disease process plasma p-tau181 increases above physiological levels and how it relates to the spatiotemporal progression of Alzheimer's disease characteristic pathologies. We aimed to establish the natural time course of plasma p-tau181 across the sporadic Alzheimer's disease spectrum in comparison to those of established imaging and fluid-derived biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease. We examined longitudinal data from a large prospective cohort of elderly individuals enrolled in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) (n = 1067) covering a wide clinical spectrum from normal cognition to dementia, and with measures of plasma p-tau181 and an 18F-florbetapir amyloid-β PET scan at baseline. A subset of participants (n = 864) also had measures of amyloid-β1-42 and p-tau181 levels in CSF, and another subset (n = 298) had undergone an 18F-flortaucipir tau PET scan 6 years later. We performed brain-wide analyses to investigate the associations of plasma p-tau181 baseline levels and longitudinal change with progression of regional amyloid-β pathology and tau burden 6 years later, and estimated the time course of changes in plasma p-tau181 and other Alzheimer's disease biomarkers using a previously developed method for the construction of long-term biomarker temporal trajectories using shorter-term longitudinal data. Smoothing splines demonstrated that earliest plasma p-tau181 changes occurred even before amyloid-β markers reached abnormal levels, with greater rates of change correlating with increased amyloid-β pathology. Voxel-wise PET analyses yielded relatively weak, yet significant, associations of plasma p-tau181 with amyloid-β pathology in early accumulating brain regions in cognitively healthy individuals, while the strongest associations with amyloid-β were observed in late accumulating regions in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Cross-sectional and particularly longitudinal measures of plasma p-tau181 were associated with widespread cortical tau aggregation 6 years later, covering temporoparietal regions typical for neurofibrillary tangle distribution in Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we estimated that plasma p-tau181 reaches abnormal levels ∼6.5 and 5.7 years after CSF and PET measures of amyloid-β, respectively, following similar dynamics as CSF p-tau181. Our findings suggest that plasma p-tau181 increases are associated with the presence of widespread cortical amyloid-β pathology and with prospective Alzheimer's disease typical tau aggregation, providing clear implications for the use of this novel blood biomarker as a diagnostic and screening tool for Alzheimer's disease. ; M.J.G. is supported by the "Miguel Servet" program [CP19/00031] of the Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII-FEDER). T.K.K. holds a research fellowship from the Brightfocus Foundation (#A2020812F), and is further supported by the Swedish Alzheimer Foundation (Alzheimerfonden; #AF-930627), the Swedish Brain Foundation (Hjärnfonden; #FO2020-0240), the Swedish Dementia Foundation (Demensförbundet), the Agneta Prytz-Folkes & Gösta Folkes Foundation (#2020-00124), the Aina (Ann) Wallströms and Mary-Ann Sjöbloms Foundation, the Anna Lisa and Brother Björnsson's Foundation, Gamla Tjänarinnor, and the Gun and Bertil Stohnes Foundation. A.S. is supported by the Paulo Foundation and the Orion Research Foundation. M.S.C. received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie action grant agreement No 752310, and currently receives funding from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI19/00155) and from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Juan de la Cierva Programme grant IJC2018-037478-I). H.Z. is a Wallenberg Scholar supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council (#2018-02532), the European Research Council (#681712), Swedish State Support for Clinical Research (#ALFGBG-720931), the Alzheimer Drug Discovery Foundation (ADDF), USA (#201809-2016862), and the UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL. K.B. is supported by the Swedish Research Council (#2017-00915), the Alzheimer Drug Discovery Foundation (ADDF), USA (#RDAPB-201809-2016615), the Swedish Alzheimer Foundation (#AF-742881), Hjärnfonden, Sweden (#FO2017-0243), the Swedish state under the agreement between the Swedish government and the County Councils, the ALF-agreement (#ALFGBG-715986), and European Union Joint Program for Neurodegenerative Disorders (JPND2019-466-236). M.S. is supported by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine; KAW 2014.0363), the Swedish Research Council (#2017-02869), the Swedish state under the agreement between the Swedish government and the County Councils, the ALF-agreement (#ALFGBG-813971), and the Swedish Alzheimer Foundation (#AF-740191). Data collection and sharing for this project was funded by the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) (National Institutes of Health Grant U01 AG024904) and DOD ADNI (Department of Defense award number W81XWH-12-2-0012). ADNI is funded by the National Institute on Aging, the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, and through generous contributions from the following: AbbVie, Alzheimer's Association; Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation; Araclon Biotech; BioClinica, Inc.; Biogen; Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; CereSpir, Inc.; Cogstate; Eisai Inc.; Elan Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; Eli Lilly and Company; EuroImmun; F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd and its affiliated company Genentech, Inc.; Fujirebio; GE Healthcare; IXICO Ltd.; Janssen Alzheimer Immunotherapy Research & Development, LLC.; Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research & Development LLC.; Lumosity; Lundbeck; Merck & Co., Inc.; Meso Scale Diagnostics, LLC.; NeuroRx Research; Neurotrack Technologies; Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation; Pfizer Inc.; Piramal Imaging; Servier; Takeda Pharmaceutical Company; and Transition Therapeutics. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research is providing funds to support ADNI clinical sites in Canada. Private sector contributions are facilitated by the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (www.fnih.org). The grantee organization is the Northern California Institute for Research and Education, and the study is coordinated by the Alzheimer's Therapeutic Research Institute at the University of Southern California. ADNI data are disseminated by the Laboratory for Neuro Imaging at the University of Southern California.
Book Reviews in This Article:F. M. L. Thompson. Chartered Surveyors: the Growth of a Profession.B. W. E. Alford and T. C. Barker. A History of the Carpenters Company.C. R. Elrington (Ed.). A History of the County of Gloucester. Vol. viii. Victoria History of the Counties of England.Kathleen Major (Ed.). The Registrum Antiquissimum of the Cathedral Church of Lincoln. Vol. ix.Robert W. Dunning (Ed.). The Hylle Cartulary. Somerset Record Society, vol. 68.Ida Darlington (Ed.). London Consistory Court Wills, 1492‐1547.Howell A. Lloyd. The Gentry of South‐West Wales, 1540‐1640.Theodore K. Rabb. Enterprise & Empire: Merchant and Gentry Investment in the Expansion of England, 1575‐1630.Don M. Wolfe (Ed.). Leveller Manifestoes of the Puritan Revolution. Foreword by Charles A. Beard.Ragnhild Hatton and J. S. Bromley (Eds.). William HI and Louis XIV. Essays 1680‐1J20 by and for Mark A. Thomson.G. A. Chinnery (Ed.). Records of the Borough of Leicester. Vol. vi. 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Capital and the Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution.David Dougan. The History of North East Shipbuilding.Archibald Prentice. History of the Anti‐Corn‐Law League. With a new introduction by W. H. Ghaloner.F. F, Rosenblatt. The Chartist Movement in its Social and Economic Aspects.P. W. Slosson. The Decline of the Chartist Movement.Donald Read. Cobden and Bright: A Victorian Political Partnership.University of GlasgowPhilip Gaskell. Morvern Transformed: A Highland Parish in the Nineteenth Century.Roy A. Church. Economic and Social Change in a Midland Town: Victorian Nottingham, 1815‐igoo.Helen Merrell Lynd. England in the Eighteen‐Eighties. Toward a Social Basis for Freedom.Peter d'A. Jones. The Christian Socialist Revival, 1877‐1914. Religion, Class, and Social Conscience in Late‐Victorian England.Basil Greenhill. The Merchant Schooners.Harry W. Richardson and Derek H. Aldcroft. Building in the British Economy between the Wars.R. W. Southern (Ed.). Essays in Medieval History selected from the Transactions of the Royal Historical Society on the Occasion of its Centenary.Sidney J. Madge. The Domesday of Crown Lands.Frances Gardiner Davenport. The Economic Development of a Norfolk Manor, 1086‐1565.R. A. Buchanan. Technology mid Social Progress.Alice Clark. The Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century.Bernard Jennings (Ed.). A History of Nidderdak written by the Pateley Bridge Local History Tutorial Class.W. R. Bisschop. The Rise of the London Money Market, 1640‐1826. With a Preface by H. S. Foxwell.William A. Shaw (Ed.). Select Tracts and Documents Illustrative of English Monetary History, 1626‐1730.Eric Roll. An Early Experiment in Industrial Organization: Being a History of the Firm of Boulton and Watt, 1775‐1805.H. W. Dickinson. James Watt, Craftsman and Engineer.Alexander J. Warden. The Linen Trade, Ancient and Modern.Stanley D. Chapman (Ed.). Felkin's History of the Machine‐Wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures.G. I. H. Lloyd. The Cutlery Trades: An Historical Study in the Economics of Small‐Scale Production.Harry Scrivenor. History of the Iron Trade.W. K. V. Gale (Ed.). Griffiths' Guide to the Iron Trade of Great Britain.Samuel Timmins (Ed.). Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District, 1866.C. A. W. Ward. A Bibliography of the History of Industry in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 175°∼1914‐ Proceedings of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, Literary and Historical Section, vol. xIII, pt I.Robert Owen. The Life of Robert Owen Written by Himself with Selections from his Writings and Correspondence.Ronald Miller and David Sawers. The Technical Development of Modern Aviation.Samuel Mencher. Poor Law to Poverty Program, Economic Security Policy in Britain and the UnitedStates.David T. Gilchrist (Ed.). The Growth of the Seaport Cities, 1790‐1825.Alan R. Pred. The Spatial Dynamics of U.S. Urban‐Industrial Growth.Marvin Fisher. Workshops in the Wilderness. The European Response to American Industrialization, 1830‐1860.Jean Alexander Wilburn. Biddle's Bank: The Crucial Years.Stephen Salsbury. The State, the Investor, and the Railroad: The Boston & Albany, 1825‐i86y.Alice E. Smith. Millstone and Saw: The Origins of Neenah‐Menasha.John G. Clark. The Grain Trade in the Old Northwest.John A. Hawgood. The American West.Charles B. Dew. Ironmakers to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works.Gene M. Gressley. Bankers and Cattlemen.Gerd Korman. Industrialization, Immigrants and Americanizers: The View from Milwaukee, i866‐ig2i.Gerald G. Eggert. Railroad Labor Disputes: The Beginnings of Federal Strike Policy.Thomas G. Manning. Government in Science. The United States Geological Survey, i86j‐i8q4.W. Turrentine Jackson. The Enterprising Scot. Investors in the American West after 1873.Henry F. Bedford. Socialism and the Workers in Massachusetts, 1886‐1912.Glenn Weaver. The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, 1866‐1966.Earl W. Hayter. The Troubled Farmer, 1850‐1goo: Rural Adjustment to Industrialism.Thomas D. Clark and Albert D. Kirwan. The South since Appomattox: A Century of Regional Change.Paul W. MacAvoy. The Economic Effect of Regulation.Ralph M. Hower. History of Macy's of New York, 1858‐1919.Allen F. Davis. Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890‐1914.Benjamin G. Rader. The Academic Mind and Reform: The Influence of Richard T. Ely in American Life.Louis Galambos. Competition and Cooperation: the Emergence of a National Trade Association.
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Bertrand Badie on the Trump Moment, the Science of Suffering, and IR between Power and Weakness
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IR retains a traditional focus on the game of power between states as its defining characteristic. But what, so asks Bertrand Badie, if this means that our discipline is based on a negation of our humanity? A giant in Francophone IR, Badie has labored to instead place human suffering at the center of analysis of the international, by letting loose sociological insights on a truly global empirical reality. In this Talk, Badie—amongst others—challenges the centrality of the idea of state power, which makes little sense in a world where most of the IR agenda is defined by issues emanating from state weakness; argues for the centrality of suffering to a more apt IR; and uses this to contextualize the Trump Moment.
Print version (pdf) of this Talk
What is (or should be), according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current International Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?
Unquestionably, it would be the matter of change. It is time to conceptualize, and further than that, to theorize the change that is happening in the field of International Relations (IR). Humans have always had the feeling that they are living in a period of upheaval, but contemporary IR is really characterized by several landmarks that illustrate the drastic extent of change. I see at least three of them.
The first one concerns the inclusive nature of the international system. For the first time in the history of mankind, the international system covers nearly the whole humanity, while the Westphalian system was an exclusively European dynamic in which the United States of America entered to turn it into a system, that I would call, Euro-North-American.
The second element, around which publications abound (see notably Mary Kaldor's work, Theory Talk #30), is the deep mutation of the nature of conflict. War used to be, in the Westphalian model, a matter of competition between powers. Today we have the feeling that weakness is replacing power, in that power cannot any longer function as central explanatory term of conflictual situations, which are rather manifestations of state weakness. Think of 'failing' or 'collapsing' states, which refers to the coming apart of nations that have been built badly as well as the deliquescence of social ties. This new form of conflictuality completely turns the international environment upside down and constitutes a second indicator of transformation.
The third aspect concerns mobility. Our international system used to be fully based on the idea of territory and boundaries, on the idea that fixity establishes the competences of States in a very precise way. In this perspective, the state refers to territory—as the definition given by Max Weber states very clearly—but today this territorial notion of politics is challenged by a full range of mobilities, composed of international flows that can be either material, informational, or human.
These are three indicators illustrating a deep transformation of the inner nature of IR that encourage me to speak about 'intersocial relations' rather than 'interstate relations'. The notion of interstate relations no longer captures the entirety of the global game. Our whole theory of IR was based on the Westphalian model as it came out of the peace of Westphalia, as it was confirmed by the accomplishment of the nation-state construction process and as it dominated the historical flow of international events until the fall of the Berlin wall.
Until the fall of the wall, all that was not related to Europe or to the United States of America, or more precisely North-America, was simply called 'periphery', which says enough. Today, by contrast, the periphery is central at least regarding conflictuality. We should therefore drop our Westphalian prism and build up new analytical tools for IR that would take these mutations as their point of departure. Doing away with our Westphalian approach to IR would mean questioning both our classical IR theories and questioning the practical models of action in international politics, which means the uses of diplomacy and warfare.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about International Relations?
You know when we write, when we work, we are first of all influenced by our dissatisfaction. The classical Westphalian approach to IR, as I said earlier, did not satisfy me as I had the feeling that it was focusing on events that no longer had the importance that we kept giving them—for instance the arms race, great power politics, or the traditional diplomatic negotiations—while I was seeing, maybe this was the trigger, that the greatest part of suffering in the world was coming from places that IR theory was not really covering.
I have always told my students that IR is the science of human suffering. This suffering exists of course where we are—in Europe, in North America, they exist everywhere in the world—but the greatest part is outside of the Westphalian area, so the classical approach to IR gives a marginal and distorted image. Africa and the Middle East seen through the Westphalian prism are a dull image, strongly different from the extraordinary wealth, both for good and bad, that these areas of the world have. I've also always held that in a world where 6 to 9 million people starve to death each year, the main foci of traditional IR were derisory. Even terrorism, to which we collectively attribute so much importance, hardly comes near how important a challenge food security is.
My three latest books take a stand against traditional IR theories. In Diplomacy of Connivance (2012) I tried to show that the great power game is really a game way that is much more integrated than we usually say and that this game plays out in all multilateral fora. There is indeed a club, and that is precisely what I wanted to describe, a club of powers—one which results to the detriment of less powerful members in the international system.
In Le Temps des humiliés ('the era of the humiliated', 2014), I tried to crystallize what the classical theory could not express, which is domination seen through the lens of the dominated, humiliation as felt by the humiliated, violence as experienced by the desperate. For instance, even if we look at powers as accomplished as China today—sharing the first place with the USA in terms of GDP—we have to admit that their historical experience of humiliation constitutes a huge source of inspiration when it comes to the elaboration of its foreign policy.
And then, in my last book Nous ne sommes plus seuls au monde ('we are no longer alone in the world', 2016), this critique was even more explicit. We are writing an IR that encompasses only about one billion of human beings, while forgetting all the others. Today it is simply no longer true that these old powers are setting the international agenda. Global politics today is written by the little, the weak, the dominated; often with recourse to extreme forms of violence, but this needs to be analyzed and understood, which would mean to totally change the IR theory.
We should not forget that in large part, IR theory was a given as the USA triumphed in 1945. The well-known 'great power politics' that dominates traditional IR theory, inaugurated by Morgenthau and supported by so many others, described what was true at that time: the ability of American power to set us free from the Nazi monster. Today the challenge is strongly different, and it is by the way meaningful that two of the greatest American internationalist political scientists, Robert Keohane (TheoryTalk #9) and Ned Lebow (Theory Talk #53), have both written books that elude to the end of this global order (respectively After Hegemony and Goodbye Hegemony). Well what interests me is exactly to dig into what comes after hegemony.
What would a student need to become a specialist in International Relations or understand the world in a global way?
First of all, I would advise them to rename their science, as I said earlier, and to call it intersocial relations. The future of what we call IR comes down to the ability to understand the extremely rich, multiple and diversified interactions that are happening among and across the world's societies. It does not mean that we have to completely abandon the state-centric perspective, but rather dethrone states from the middle of this multiplicity of actors in order to realize how very often these states are powerless when faced with these different actors. That would be my first advice.
My second advice would be to look ahead and not back. Do not let yourself be dominated by the Westphalian model, and to try to build up what we need—since almost nothing has been done yet today to construct this post-Westphalian, meta-Westphalian model. Beyond power, there are things that we still misidentify or overlook while they are the driving forces of today's and tomorrow's IR. From this point of view, sociology could prove particularly useful. I consider, for instance, that Émile Durkheim is a very important inspiration to understand the world today. Here is an author to study and to apply to IR.
The third advice that I would give them would be to not forget that IR or intersocial relations are indeed the sciences of human suffering. We should be able to place suffering at the core of the thinking. We've lost far too much time staring at power, now it is time to move on to place human suffering at the center. Why? First of all because it is ethically better; maybe will we be able to learn from it? But also because in today's actual international politics suffering is more proactive than power, which is not necessarily optimistic but if recognized, would allow us a better questioning of new forms of conflictuality. Perhaps unfortunately, the international agenda is no longer fixed with canons, but with tears. Maybe this is the key point on which we should concentrate our reflection.
Your insistence on placing suffering at the center of IR scholarship seems to place you firmly alongside those who recognize "grievance" ratherthan "greed" as a central logic of international politics. What do you make of this parallel?
You are right: the idea of grievance, of recrimination, is a structuring logic of the international game today. We did not see it coming for two reasons. First of all because our traditional analysis of international politics presupposed a unity of time, as if the African time, the Chinese time, the Indian time and the European time where all identical. Yet this is completely wrong because we, in our European culture, have not understood that before Westphalia there were political models, political histories, that profoundly marked the people that would then shape contemporary politics. Remember that China is 4000 years of empire, remember that precolonial Africa was composed of kingdoms, empires, civilizations, philosophies, arts... Remember that India also is multi-millenary. The Westphalian time came to totally deny and crush this temporality, this historicity, almost in a negationist way, which means that, in the spirit of those who were defending the Westphalian model, only this model was associated to the Renaissance; and that the age of enlightenment and reason with a big R had a calling to reformat the world as if it were a hard drive. This was a senseless bet, a bet for which our European ancestors who led it had excuses because at that time we did not know all these histories, at that time we did not have all the knowledge we today have of the other and thus we simply resolved it, through the negation of alterity. Yet, IR ought on the contrary aspire to the accomplishment of alterity. Inevitably, all those who saw themselves denied their historicity, over several centuries and even several millenaries, accumulated a feeling of recrimination, of particularly deep grievances.
The second element is that all of this happened in a context of disequilibrium of power resources, linked to different factors that reflected indeed the fact that at a given moment of time western powers were both literally and figuratively better armed than other societies. Abovementioned negation of alterity was mapped onto, and amplified, by the forceful imposition of a multilateral system that turned into the worst situation, into a proclaimed hierarchy of cultures; as a result and there were, as Jules Ferry put it in the France of the 19th century, 'races'; as in, 'We have the obligation to educate inferior races'. It is not the beginning of history, but it is the beginning of a history of humiliation. And through subsequent waves of globalization, this humiliation has turned into a central nerve running through international life. A nerve that has been used by both the powerful, who made a tool out of humiliating the others to better dominate them (think here of the opium wars, colonization) and simultaneously a nerve that fed the reaction of mobilization in the extra-Westphalian world by those that had to stand up against those who were humiliating them. So you see how it truly lies at the basis of IR. In my mind, it became a forceful paradigm, it explains everything, even though others factors continue to weigh in on actual dynamics.
In order to appreciate all this, we need a sociological approach, which has for me two aspects. Both these aspects must be considered together for the approach to be well understood. The first one is a timeless aspect, which is to consider that everywhere and in all eras politics is a social product. Politics cannot be understood as somehow outside society. This I would say contradicts the majority of IR scholars, who believe excessively in the autonomy of politics and of the state—even if only for analytical purposes. The second element of this sociological approach is the historical or temporal component. That is what I was talking about earlier: with globalization the social fabric strongly progressed compared to the political fabric, and considering that intersocial relations grew, we need a sociological approach to understand them.
Do you think that the Trump period constitutes a fundamental break with the conduct of IR?
Trump himself maybe not, but what he represents certainly. If we look at the USA today we see, since the new millennium, three models succeeding each other. After 11-09 there was a time of neo-conservatism where globalization was considered by American leaders as a means or maybe a chance to universalize the American model, willingly or not. By force, as was the case in Iraq in 2003. This model failed.
This lead to a second model which I would describe as a liberal model, neo-liberal, incarnated by Obama who learnt from the lessons of the failure of neo-conservatism, and had the courage to question the hypothesis hitherto considered as indisputable of American leadership in the world, and who considered that the USA could win only through soft power or smart power or free-trade. That is the reason why Obama was just a little bit interventionist and was counting a lot on the TTIP and on all these transregional agreements.
With Trump we arrive at a third model, one that I would call neo-nationalist, that looks at globalization in a different way. In his perspective, globalization constitutes a chance to satisfy the national American interests. The idea of the national comes back after a long interlude of a globalizing vision. It does not mean that we are not interventionist anymore. What happened in Syria proves it. It means that we will intervene not according to the needs of globalization but rather to American interests. It is about sharing a strong and powerful image of the USA on the one hand and on the other serving the concrete interests of the American people and nation.
This neo-nationalist model is not defended only by Trump, that is the reason why I was saying that we should not consider Trump individually. We find it exactly the same way with Putin. We find it by many other world leaders, such as Erdogan or Duterte or Victor Orbán—really different figures—or Marshal Sissi in Egypt.
We find it as well in attitudes, for instance Brexit in Great Britain, in right-wing neo-populism in Europe: Ms. Le Pen, Mr. Wilders... or in a certain left-wing neo-populism as Mélenchon in France. It is in the air, seeming almost a passing fad. But it constitutes perhaps a double rupture within IR. First of all because since the emergence of globalization, let's say around the 70's, the national interest as a thought category was bit by bit replaced with approaches in terms of collective goods. Today by contrast we witness the abandonment of this image of collective goods for a return to the national interest. This is very clear in Trump's renouncing of the COP21 of Paris. At the same time, second, this constitutes some form of the rehabilitation of the idea of power, which again seeps into the language of IR.
You know the IR scholar is not a neutral person, we have to use our science towards positive action and for the definition of sound public policies. Going against the idea of collective goods, casting doubt on the ideas of human security, environmental security, food security, and sanitary security is extremely dangerous because the composition of national interests and egoism will never converge to a globally coherent policy. It is the weak that will suffer first.
And the same time that power is reinstated as a driving principle of IR praxis, the paradox is that great powers are becoming more and more powerless. If we look only since 1989, and ask, when did state power ever triumph in IR? Where did the strongest ever find a battleship enabling him to resolve a problem to his benefit and according to his goals? Never. Not in Somalia, not in Afghanistan, not in Iraq, not in Syria, not in Palestine. Nowhere. Not in Sahel, not in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nowhere. So I am a little worried, indeed, about this naive and old-fashioned rehabilitation of state power.
Can we say that globalization, or rather the ambition of integration at either the European or global scale, has failed? Can today be considered a good moment to bury of the idea of integration?
I do not like burials, it is not an expression that I would use, but your question is very pertinent. For around twenty years I have been saying and teaching that regional integration constituted an intermediary and realistic level of adaptation between the era of the nation state and that of globalization, which means that I believed for a long time that regional integration was the final step towards a global governance of the world.
I thought for a long time that what was not possible at the global scale, a global government, was possible at the regional level and this would already strongly simplify the world map and thus go in the way of this adhesion to the collective dimension required by globalization. Nevertheless, not only Europe suffers a setback, but all the regional constructions in the world are in a similar situation. Mr. Trump openly shoves the NAFTA agreement, MERCOSUR is down as every State that is composing it has recriminations against it, and we could extend the list… All the forms of integration that have been set by Chavez around his Bolivian ideal have ceased to exist; Africa progresses very slowly in terms of regional integration; the Arab Maghreb Union, which is an essential device, totally failed. Thus indeed the situation does not look good.
In the case of Europe there is a double phenomenon: on the one hand, there is this really grave failure due to the secession of Great Britain from Europe, and then there is a general malaise of the European model. Brexit is really rare, if you look at the contemporary history of IR it is simply unprecedented that a state shuts the door on a regional or global organization. As far as I remember, it only happened a few times before, with Indonesia in the UN in 1964, which lasted only 19 months. It happened with Morocco with the African Union and Morocco is currently reintegrating in it. This British situation came as a thunderbolt, worsened by the fact that paradoxically it is not so much because of regional integration that the British voted against the European Union. It was more from an anti-migration, xenophobic and nationalist (in reference to that nationalism trend that I was earlier talking about) perspective and what is dramatic is that we can clearly see that the nationalist sentiment is really attacking the inner principles of regional integration.
I was saying that in the European case there are internal problems which run even deeper than the British defection, and I will underline at least two of them. First of all there is a democratic deficit of Europe, meaning that Europe was not able to match electoral spaces with the ones where decisions get made; people still vote at the national level while the decisions are taken in Brussels. In consequence, democratic control over these decisions is extremely weak. How to resolve this equation? And here the breakdown is total since very few people are coming up with suggestions. The other factor of this crisis is, according to me, the fact that Europe has been built with success after World War II in a progressive way around association and indeed, Durkheim proved it, the integrative logic makes sense. Unity makes strength and it did make strength once in Europe to prevent war, a third World War, and secondly to encourage the reconstruction of European countries where economy was totally collapsed. This time is now over and it is the fault of Europe to not have known how to recontextualize itself, to react to the new contexts.
Paying one more time tribute to Durkheim who guessed it right, Durkheim said that there are two ways of constructing social ties: around association and around solidarity. I think that the time of association is now over, we should enter in the time of solidarity, which does not consist in saying 'We Germans are associated with Greece', but rather 'We Germans are joined together with Greece because we know that if Greece collapses, in a long term perspective, we will suffer the consequences'. Thus this idea of fundamental unity is an idea that has been a little bit overlooked, abandoned by the Europeans and now they find themselves in a complete paralysis.
Is the decolonization period still having an impact on contemporary IR?
Oh totally, totally. I would first say because it is a major event in the field of IR, which made the World switch from 51 sovereign States of the UN in 1945 to 193 today but above all, a very aggravating circumstance, is that this decolonization has been a complete failure and this failure weighs enormously on international politics.
It has been a failure because decolonization assumed the format of copying the western state model in countries that were accessing independence, while this model was not necessarily adapted, which provoked a proliferation of failed states, and these collapsed states had a terrible effect on IR.
Secondly because decolonization should have led to the enrichment and to the substantial modification of multilateralism, by creating new institutions able to take charge of new challenges resulting from decolonization. Yet, except the creation of UNCTAD in 1964 and of UNDP in 1965, there have been very little innovations in terms of global governance. Thus global governance remains dominated by what I earlier called 'the club', which means the great powers from the north, and this is very dysfunctional for the management of contemporary crises. Then also because the ancient colonial powers happen to find new forms of domination that did somehow complicate the international game. Thus in fact decolonization is a daily aspect of the crisis that the international system faces today.
In conclusion, which question should we have asked? In other terms, which question have we forgot?
I found your questions very pertinent as it allowed the discussion of themes that I consider essentials. Now, the big problem that makes me worry is the great gap between the analysts and the actors in IR. I am not saying that the analysts understood everything, far from it, but I think that IR theorists are very conscious of some of these transformations I have mentioned. If you look at some great authors such as James Rosenau, Ned Lebow or Robert Keohane, to name just a few—there are way more—they all contributed to the reconstruction of IR.
What truly strikes me is the autism of political actors, they think that they are still at the time of the Congress of Vienna and that is an extraordinary source of tension. Thus as long as this spirit of change does not reach political actors, maybe Barack Obama was the first one to enter this game and then the parenthesis was closed, as long as there will not be this move towards the discovery of a new world, maybe as well through the inclusion in our reflection about the international fabric such partners as China, it is not normal that this very powerful China does not have any choice but to share the paradigm and the model of action proper to occidental diplomacy, as long as we would not have done this precise effort, well, we will remain in the negation of the human, and that is the essential problem today, we are unable to understand that at the end there is just one unity, which is the human being.
I had the chance to visit 105 countries and everywhere I met the same men and the same women, with their pain, with their happiness, their hardship, their joy, their sorrow, their needs that were everywhere identical. As long as we will not understand that, well, we will be living in a world that is in total contradiction with what it is truly and essentially. We will live in a world of artifice and thus a world of violence.
Related links
Read Badie's The Arab Spring: A starting point (SER Études 2011) here (pdf)
This report presents the final evaluation of a project called: "Sammen for barn og unge – bedre samordning av tjenester til utsatte barn og unge.» Norwegian Social research (NOVA) was commissioned by The Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities (KS) and The Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion (BLD) who stood behind the project. The basic idea has been that the various local authorities involved in assisting children and youth at risk, have to have well coordinated and functional ways of collaborating, if they are to offer the aid the youngsters need. The main goal of the project has been to develop functional models for interdisciplinary collaboration at the local level. These models can serve as inspiration and guides for other municipalities and be developed further. The three year project, started in the end of 2008, has supported fifteen selected municipalities in their efforts to develop good interdisciplinary models for such collaboration. In addition to financial support the participating municipalities received assistance in their efforts to raise the level of competence, internal control, secure support from administration and amongst the employees, clarify placement of responsibility and improve the quality of meetings etc. Each municipality tried out their own version of an interdisciplinary collaborative model. Some models had a narrow scope, while others included virtually all the local authorities that are involved with children and youth. The present evaluation includes six of the fifteen municipalities. These are: Haram, Harstad, Moss, Risør, Bærum and Fet. They were chosen to illustrate the variation in size and geographical location amongst the participating municipalities. Elaborate descriptions of the models are available online at: http://www.ks.no/Sammen-for-barn-og-unge The municipality of Harstad had a model that included a wide scope of participants; the public health centers, school health services, child welfare services, mental health care services, psychiatric services for children and youth, police, nursery schools, schools and The Norwegian Labor and Welfare Administration. They established an interdisciplinary "preventive" forum that played a central role in their local project. The forum worked with improving cooperation between the involved stakeholders and the implementation of a handbook in collaboration, was important. Haram had a program that included several developmental projects. They targeted the organization, management and structural aspects in the municipality. A key partner in their developmental efforts was the office "Tiltakstjenester for barn og unge", which included local health centers, child welfare services and the educational – psychological services. They also worked with other agencies, local and governmental. The municipality of Risør based their project on a previous one that had targeted youth at risk of becoming addicted to drugs. In their project they intended to coordinate the services for children and young adults, and developed a model for coordinating local measures to prevent crime, called the SLT- model - to strengthen primary preventive action. The development of a guidebook was central in their work. All services connected with children and young people are potential partners in their model. Moss had a model that aimed at implementing an overall childhood plan. The project was organized through the establishment of interdisciplinary teams in three city districts. The teams work with cases at the system level. Fet participated with a model where the interdisciplinary groups were organized around each school and childcare center. There are three main elements in their model. One is a resource team, in which an educational- psychological professional is added to the unit's own group. The second are interdisciplinary groups, consisting of the unit leader, an educational- psychological resource, Child Welfare Services, school nurse and the resource team. The interdisciplinary group visits the schools and child care centers every 4-6 weeks. The third is a coordinating working committee. The members of the committee are the leaders of each of the units that work with children and youth. Participating in the project are the health services, the educational- psychological services, Child Welfare Services and the coordinator for interdisciplinary collaboration for children and youth. During the project period this municipality also collaborated with Oslo University College on teaching 80 employees about interdisciplinary interaction. Bærum participated with a model that consisted of collaboration between the Child Welfare Services and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. They have focused on developing their joint expertise and intensifying the collaboration between ten employees in each of the two services. They intend to transfer their good experiences to other collaborative constellations. While they were developing their competences, they also worked together on cases that involved other agencies. Network meetings and kickoffs were essential to getting the interaction started. The aim of the evaluation has been to evaluate and describe changes in the interdisciplinary and interdepartmental collaboration during the project period. Only 14-18 months passed between the first and second collection of data, which limits the likelihood of there having been any major changes in the municipalities. Organizations take time to change, and a year and a half is a short time in this respect. Municipalities usually also have several projects going on at the same time, which makes it difficult to know what is caused by which process. In our evaluation we have looked at criteria that characterize good types of cooperation. Amongst these are; regular meetings, clear allocation of responsibility, formalized routines, management follow-up and the correct skills and knowledge. Other characteristics of collaborative competence are knowledge about each others routines, work practices, duty of confidentiality and informing. The intent has been to understand which processes the employees have participated in and their experiences. We collected data for the evaluation twice. The first round was in the fall of 2009 in four of the municipalities and in January 2010 in the last two municipalities. The first round consisted of individual interviews and focus groups with the employees, and also gathering information from statistics and documents. The second round was the winter / spring of 2011. In February/ March we sent an electronic questionnaire with questions about how the employees in the involved services, in all six municipalities, experienced the interdisciplinary and interdepartmental collaboration. In the spring of 2011 we did a new round of individual and group interviews. After the first round of data collection NOVA wrote a status report about how the collaboration was perceived in the municipalities. Some of the municipalities used that Paper as a basis for the continuation of their efforts and development of their models. The first stage of the study showed that there was a lot of variation between the municipalities regarding how far they had developed their models for cooperation. There were some common experiences that can be summed up as follows: The participating services overall had high level of expertise. It was challenging to get the professionals working in "the field" committed to collaboration. All the municipalities experienced that there wasn't enough time for extensive collaboration. Collaboration wasn't always useful. Many had established routines for regular meetings, but the challenge was to make them meaningful, constructive to improving the services to the clients. Several were discontent with the results of the meetings. In general improvement of cooperational skills was required. There was discontentment with how the duty of confidentiality was handled. There was a lack of knowledge about and understanding of the partner's services, responsibilities and roles. There was a need for more knowledge about one's own organization and possible offers in the municipality. There were few who knew about the project "Sammen for barn og unge" at the time of the first round of data collection. The municipalities had made some changes between the first and second round of data collection. Some of the common experiences at the end of the project can be summarized as follows: Many employees were involved in interdisciplinary cooperation. Most were aware of the importance of collaboration in creating better services for the users. Several formal routines for collaboration have been established. Within the municipalities there were differing experiences of the changes in routines. Some experienced many changes in routines, while others didn't notice that any changes. Collaborative skills had improved through courses and the practice of collaboration itself. The respondents were generally more favorable to collaboration. Several focused on collaboration, and had a better understanding of its importance. The answers show that management can improve their facilitation of collaboration. Not everybody interpreted the changes that happened as results of the project, often they focused on the changes themselves. In the second data set there were fewer differences between the municipalities with regard to how collaboration was experienced. There were large variations in the degree interdisciplinary collaboration had contributed to an increase in perceived efficiency. A main challenge has been to incorporate collaborative routines amongst all employees. Staying focused increases the chances of success, without focus a model can deteriorate easily. With time and patience many eventually succeed at having constructive meetings, even if they felt meaningless in the beginning. There was less dissatisfaction with the routines for giving feedback. (During the project a new law about the Child Services duty to give feedback to someone who made a report was passed.) Most reply that collaboration has been on the agenda for years. Those who say they do experience a difference say it's mainly due to the common platform that has been established. Obstacles to interdisciplinary collaboration can amongst other things be due to differences in professional cultures, unrealistic expectations, lack of knowledge about the others, complex routines, lack of skills needed for collaboration, limited feedback, management's insufficient prioritization etc. To overcome such obstacles it is important to grasp the attitudes, knowledge and various types of cooperation that exist. The following factors were considered important in our study: Openness: Cooperation regarding clients and the development of good relations are dependent upon inclusion of the involved parties and that sufficient and meaningful feedback is given. Meeting places: The employees appreciate joint courses and places to meet. Herein joint conferences and other get-togethers are also included. Personal relations: To make interdisciplinary cooperation work, people need to spend time getting to know each other. There is an evident need to get to know the people in the other fields and authorities, and do things together. Formal structures: are necessary to anchor the collaborative efforts. Formal structures such as meetings, contribute to enhance competence in teamwork. Thereby it becomes easier to clarify roles and premises, in addition to giving an opportunity to discuss disagreements. Management's responsibility: It is very important that the attention to cooperation and enabling of it is a management priority. Management must lay the foundation for, motivate and follow up collaborative possibilities. Collocation: Those who are located together say it contributes to strengthening cooperation and establishing collaboration. Client participation: Involving parents contributes to good results. It is especially beneficial when children, youth and parents / guardians participate throughout the whole process. Tools: Manuals and guides can be very useful tools when used. A common intranet could be used more actively for communication. ; Denne rapporten er en sluttevaluering av kommuneprosjektet Sammen for barn og unge – bedre samordning av tjenester til utsatte barn og unge. Prosjektet ble satt i gang for å prøve ut tverrfaglige samarbeidsmodeller i 15 kommuner, rettet mot barn og unge som er avhengig av flere tjenester på kommunalt nivå.NOVA har evaluert arbeidet i seks av kommunene. Evalueringen viser at det er avgjørende å ha en fast struktur på samarbeidet, med klar ansvarsfordeling og klare oppgaver. Videre må man kjenne til hverandres ansvarsområde, klargjøre forventninger, vise respekt for de ulike fagområdene, bygge opp personlige relasjoner, samt utarbeide skriftlige rutiner som sikrer gode tilbakemeldinger.
Background Previous studies have shown that reproductive factors are differentially associated with breast cancer (BC) risk by subtypes. The aim of this study was to investigate associations between reproductive factors and BC subtypes, and whether these vary by age at diagnosis. Methods We used pooled data on tumor markers (estrogen and progesterone receptor, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2)) and reproductive risk factors (parity, age at first full-time pregnancy (FFTP) and age at menarche) from 28,095 patients with invasive BC from 34 studies participating in the Breast Cancer Association Consortium (BCAC). In a case-only analysis, we used logistic regression to assess associations between reproductive factors and BC subtype compared to luminal A tumors as a reference. The interaction between age and parity in BC subtype risk was also tested, across all ages and, because age was modeled non-linearly, specifically at ages 35, 55 and 75 years. Results Parous women were more likely to be diagnosed with triple negative BC (TNBC) than with luminal A BC, irrespective of age (OR for parity = 1.38, 95% CI 1.16–1.65, p = 0.0004; p for interaction with age = 0.076). Parous women were also more likely to be diagnosed with luminal and non-luminal HER2-like BCs and this effect was slightly more pronounced at an early age (p for interaction with age = 0.037 and 0.030, respectively). For instance, women diagnosed at age 35 were 1.48 (CI 1.01–2.16) more likely to have luminal HER2-like BC than luminal A BC, while this association was not significant at age 75 (OR = 0.72, CI 0.45–1.14). While age at menarche was not significantly associated with BC subtype, increasing age at FFTP was non-linearly associated with TNBC relative to luminal A BC. An age at FFTP of 25 versus 20 years lowered the risk for TNBC (OR = 0.78, CI 0.70–0.88, p < 0.0001), but this effect was not apparent at a later FFTP. Conclusions Our main findings suggest that parity is associated with TNBC across all ages at BC diagnosis, whereas the association with luminal HER2-like BC was present only for early onset BC. ; BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A12014) and by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is an NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363); BBMRI-NL, which is a Research Infrastructure financed by the Dutch government (NWO 184.021.007); and the Dutch National Genomics Initiative. The ACP study is funded by the Breast Cancer Research Trust, UK. The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The CECILE study was funded by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Ligue contre le Cancer Grand Ouest, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council and Herlev Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Cáncer and grants from the Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer and the Fondo de Investigación Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, The Nordic Cancer Union and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HERPACC was supported by MEXT Kakenhi (No. 170150181 and 26253041) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, Culture and Technology of Japan, by a Grant-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from Ministry Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan, by Health and Labour Sciences Research Grants for Research on Applying Health Technology from Ministry Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan, by National Cancer Center Research and Development Fund, and "Practical Research for Innovative Cancer Control (15ck0106177h0001)" Brouckaert et al. Breast Cancer Research (2017) 19:119 Page 9 of 12 from Japan Agency for Medical Research and development, AMED, and Cancer Bio Bank Aichi. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (DAMD17-01-1-0729), Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). G.C.T. and P.W. are supported by the NHMRC. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. LAABC is supported by grants (1RB-0287, 3 PB-0102, 5 PB-0018, 10 PB-0098) from the California Breast Cancer Research Program. Incident breast cancer cases were collected by the USC Cancer Surveillance Program (CSP) which is supported under subcontract by the California Department of Health. The CSP is also part of the National Cancer Institute's Division of Cancer Prevention and Control Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, under contract number N01CN25403. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker' (232-2008 and 196-2010). Diether Lambrechts is supported by the FWO and the KULPFV/10/016-SymBioSysII. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. (70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419), the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany (01KH0402). MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects "5x1000"). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057, 251553 and 504711 and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. MYBRCA is funded by research grants from the Malaysian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation (CARIF). Additional controls were recruited by the Singapore Eye Research Institute, which was supported by a grant from the Biomedical Research Council (BMRC08/1/35/19/550), Singapore and the National Medical Research Council, Singapore (NMRC/ CG/SERI/2010). The OBCS was supported by research grants from the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Academy of Finland (grant number 250083, 122715 and Center of Excellence grant number 251314), the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, the University of Oulu, the University of Oulu Support Foundation and the special Governmental EVO funds for Oulu University Hospital-based research activities. The Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). The SASBAC study was supported by funding from the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR), the US National Institute of Health (NIH) and the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. The SBCGS was supported primarily by NIH grants R01CA64277, R01CA148667, and R37CA70867. Biological sample preparation was conducted using the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The scientific development and funding of this project were, in part, supported by the Genetic Associations and Mechanisms in Oncology (GAME-ON) Network U19 CA148065. The SBCS was supported by Yorkshire Cancer Research S295, S299, S305PA and Sheffield Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre. SEARCH is funded by a programme grant from Cancer Research UK (C490/A10124) and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. SEBCS was supported by the BRL (Basic Research Laboratory) program through the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2012-0000347). The TBCS was funded by The National Cancer Institute Thailand. The TWBCS is supported by the Taiwan Biobank project of the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taiwan. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre.
2012/2013 ; There is an increasingly widespread acknowledgement among all active actors in the development co-operation sector that the Public Private Partnership (PPP) can be a new important tool, not only to build important infrastructure (public works) but also to provide services to the citizens at central and local level as well as to have a strategic value in the Cross-Border Co-operation (CBC) in the next future. The European Commission defines PPPs in a rather broad and general way without giving a proper legal definition of this partnership. For the EU PPP is a form of cooperation between public authorities and economic operators concerning design, funding, execution, renovation or exploitation (operation and maintenance) of public infrastructure, or the provision of public utility service. However, there is not a uniform, common definition of this form of partnership. Considering the present global economic and financial crisis affecting almost all the regions of the world and bearing in mind that the public resources destined on development cooperation are decreasing more and more, building partnerships and synergies between these two ranges of actors is not only a great possibility but a compelling necessity in order to continue to sustain the development cooperation sector. This is also a good chance for both public and private sector, not only to mutually reinforce each other but also to learn lessons and best practices from one another. The PPPs, in fact, if applied correctly, enable a reduction in total costs, better distribution of risks, a more rapid execution of public services and activities, as well as a better quality of offered services and implemented activities. Not to mention the fact that the overcoming of the rigid distinction between public and private opens the possibility to find solutions and to respond to questions that the public administration itself is not able to answer independently. In international cooperation and in particular in the cross-border cooperation, more and more public administrations in beneficiary and donor countries are acknowledging the subsidiary role of civil society and private sector in the activities of general interest, and therefore, also in the delivery of public functions and services. Considering the extensive work experience in the international development cooperation sector with the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other International Organizations in different areas in the world, i.e. OSCE, believing on the utility and potentiality of this instrument and directly verified that it could be more utilized in the international cooperation, it was decided to analyse the use of PPPs in this sector with a special focus on IPA CBC Programme. In fact, the scope of the dissertation and of the implementation of its conclusions is steaming from the author interest and working ties. Indeed, the author is living and working in Albania and has a huge experience on it due to the fact that she was the Albania Desk Officer for the Italian Development Cooperation for several years. She is also studying the Albanian language and she is very fascinated from the history of this small country so close, not only geographically speaking, to Italy. The focus on Macedonia as neighbour country is due simply to the fact that to collect information on this IPA CBC Programme was easier than others similar financial instruments. Building on extensive field experience, this dissertation will try to answer the following question: 'Which is the winner strategy to increase the effectiveness of the CBC projects through the use of PPP?'. The thesis overall objective is to identify a set of strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of cross-border cooperation through the use of the PPP instrument, beyond specific cross-border project interventions that until now have mainly been carried out though institutional channels and implemented through European projects and programs. The strategies that the conclusion of the dissertation draws are based on the SWOT analysis of five projects funded by the EU through the IPA CBC Albania – Macedonia during the 2007-2013 programming period and the consequent elaboration of the results. These strategies would hence open up new possibilities for the development of CBC's activities applicable in the ambit of the EU's regional policy 2014-2020, without necessarily relying upon more EU financial means. This is also in line, with the EU auspices for the CBC not to be just another way to access funding but rather to become a model of cross-border cooperation sustainable on its own devise. The dissertation is based on collection and analysis of data available within the existing legal-institutional framework and will make use of the investigative qualitative method with the aim of verifying the hypothesis mentioned above. The thesis envisages a number of working phases chronologically distinct and mutually supportive and it is based on the utilisation of a number of diverse theoretic constructs and methodologies. The dissertation makes use of different sources such as for instance existing literature, statistics, on line documentation available and its content is conducted on the various official documents and projects documentation obtainable. The results are cross referenced and presented based on a SWOT analysis and process of data/results interpretation. As far as the structure of the work is concerned, the first Chapter, after an analysis of the theoretical tools supporting PPP, presents a background and an overview of the PPP in Europe, and the way it is applied in the context of international cooperation and cross-border cooperation; this is to understand how it was established and what its original objectives were, and to explain its evolution up to now. In particular, the chapter after shows that PPP was born in '30s mostly linked to the energetic and mining sectors, it presents that PPPs are growing and are seen as an important instrument of economic and social development also in the international and cross-border cooperation. It is seen that an instrument which opens the way to potential PPPs is the Inter-Municipal Cooperation Instrument (IMC) which permits to bridge the gaps in the municipalities and make them stronger also in applying to donor funds. Through this instrument established by the Council of Europe (CoE) the municipalities can also sub-contract a private company or creating an IMC entity constitutes a viable market attracting private investors. PPP is also encouraged by United Nations (UN) since 1999 through the 'Global Compact' project and different are the example of PPP around the world established by various UN Agencies. It can be affirmed that PPP is considered useful in the public sector also because can contribute in solving difficulties caused from public balance cuts as well as to overcome the bureaucratic and the scarcity of technical and management competencies of the public administration. The PPP is therefore an actual, innovative and complementary instrument to promote development, reforms as well as investments, policies and good practises in different sectors including the development cooperation also at trans-border level. Therefore, thanks to PPP it can be affirmed that the private sector also has become at all its effects a privileged actor of the international development cooperation. The second Chapter of the dissertation analyses the European Policies interconnecting PPP and their related instruments, as well as more in detail how these policies have applied PPPs in the cross-border cooperation as well as how CBC became more explicit in the EU context and in particular in the context of the stabilisation and association processes. In fact, starting from the 1950 Schuman Declaration, the chapter introduces the founding EEC Treaty, examines the Single European Act and analyses the European Cohesion Policy (or Regional Policy). In addition the chapter views the European Enlargement Policy (Pre-accession Policy) analysing the three membership criteria established during the Copenhagen European Council in 1993, the various stages of the membership process and the reasons for further enlargement taking into consideration the historic enlargement of 2004, the different strategic objectives involved in it and its new approach in view of the so-called Arab Spring. In addition, the chapter analyses the European Neighbourhood Policy (Proximity Policy) as well as its related instruments, with regard to both its partner countries and candidate states. Moreover the chapter identifies the possibilities of PPP within the EU's financial instruments that are currently being concluded. Even where those policies do not provide explicitly the adoption of PPP instrument, it is however not excluded. This means that the policies at issue give valuable support to the adoption and use of PPP. The dissertation is interested in to give evidence of the strong points of PPP application, and shows that, when there is a lack of applied PPP framework, as it is the case of the country cases (Albania and Macedonia) under analysed, the CBC component of IPA programme may be due not to give envisaged results to achieve the objectives. After having looked into the European policies intersecting PPPs and CBC, the third Chapter introduces a brief analysis of the concept of border, not only in the physical administrative sense, due to the fact that this concept is a key element to understand the cross-border co-operation processes existing in the EU and in general all over the world. With this aim in mind, after studying the main theoretical approaches on this domain, the analysis focuses on the cross-border co-operation not only in its theoretical dimension but also in its deriving pragmatic aspects. The analysis of the border concept and of the border and peripheral area, as well as the general theory of the system applied to the general theory of boundaries, is essential to anticipate the concept of the cross-border cooperation and its practical application. After this analysis, the chapter describes the legal institutional framework in order to analyse the effectiveness of the various legal instruments that have been put in place to encourage and facilitate forms of cooperative engagement across borders. Starting with the European Outline Convention of Transfrontier Co-operation between territorial communities or authorities (Madrid Convention 1980), a central instrument for the CBC that was born in the frame of CoE, the chapter introduces the three protocols of the Madrid Convention. The additional Protocol essentially gives the possibility to create an organism for cross-border cooperation; the second Protocol (no 2) provides above all a legal framework for the inter-territorial cooperation between the parties; and the third Protocol (no 3) concerns the possibility of forming the ECG by creating the legal status, the institution and the functioning of such Groups. In addition, in view of how cross-border cooperation has acquired more importance through time, the chapter explains the functioning of European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) institution, its modality of action and its fields of applications. The EGTC has come to be a new legal/financial instrument that integrates the Madrid Convention and the relevant Protocols. The chapter also touches upon the various aspects of cross-border co-operation and in particular some milestones from the EU experiences, and presents the European Macro-Regional Strategy and its related legislative framework as an example. In addition the chapter shows the Baltic, the Danube and the Adriatic – Ionian Macro-Region and describes the main differences between EGTs and Macro- Regions. In addition, the chapter considers appropriate to present the steps that have been taken from the EU with regard to the cross-border cooperation which, more particularly, have consisted of making available important financial instruments such as INTERREG that supports from the top to the bottom the Strategy of Macro-Regions. Following the fourth Chapter describes the 2014-2020 EU's Regional Policy as the context of application of the PPP and its change with respect to the 2007-2013 EU's Regional Policy. In particular after introducing the EU programming period 2007-2013 and the changes intervened in the following programming period also having a political/historical nature like the Arab spring and the interests to further develop economic interactions between the EU and the Middle Eastern partners, the chapter analyses the useful instruments for the realization of the cross-border cooperation; especially the European Regional Development Found (ERDF). In addition, this chapter, will identify the possibilities of PPP within the financial instruments that are about to be activated in the new European Programming Cycle. To this regard it is important to mention that, in general, all the EU policies must contribute to the implementation of the Europe 2020 Strategy that in order to fulfil its ambitious objectives identified as key instrument the instrument of partnership, among which that with the private sector. Here it is worth to emphasize that, generally, the overall objectives of the regional policy, both at national and European level, are all of an economic nature, i.e. increasing the national economy by attenuating and eliminating economic disparities between different development levels of the regions. In particular, the European Policies aim to improve the investment climate through public investment in the regions presenting some gaps and to manage the local regional resources in a more efficient way. The dissertation shows how in both cases, PPPs can help in the achievement of these important aims. In addition, the chapter observes that there are changes in various aspects and procedures of the implementation of the new regional policy as well as in the legal frame, and examines the IPA instrument and the ENPI instrument in the two seven-years programming periods because they are closely related to the European Territorial Cooperation (ETC). Between this two latter instruments IPA is a more relevant for this dissertation. For this reason, after on overview of the Albanian context considering some economic, demographic, social and political aspects, including the criteria Albania has to fulfil to receive the candidate status from the EU as well as a brief introduction to the Albanian Law on PPP, the fifth Chapter presents its relations in the region, especially with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and stresses the IPA CBC Albania – FYROM related to 2007-2013 and 2014-2020 programming periods. In addition, the chapter presents the main differences between these two programming periods focussing mainly on the Albanian part. With the aim to focus on the Albanian opportunities in the new programming period, it will be stressed what will change in the next future and which are the positive effects on PPP considering also the concept of Social Corporate Responsibility and the UN Global Compact initiative already mentioned in the first Chapter. All this to introduce the last Chapter which, through the analysis of the methodologies used during the various phases of this work, and especially through the explanation of the SWOT analysis, aims to identify a set of winning strategies to increase the effectiveness of the Cross-border cooperation through the use of the PPP instrument. The first part of the dissertation made use of several documentary sources, most notably and especially in the early stage the work will carry out what it is commonly defined as a secondary analysis, in particular this was articulated through: collection and review of existing literature and of the official documentation and statistics available mainly on-line but also with the Albanian Ministries and national institutes, i.e. the Albanian National Institute of Statistics, as well as with the various donors and international organisation in the Country, and especially with the Delegation of the European Commission to Albania. Instead, the second part of the dissertation focuses on the analysis of the IPA CBC program in general, and IPA CBC Albania - Macedonia in particular. To this end it was decided to proceed with the analysis of specific projects activated in the context of this program to highlight the role of actual or potential PPP projects in developing virtuous CBC. Although the PPP is not explicitly defined among the tools used in the implementation of these projects, it was decided to identify the prodromal factors present in some PPP projects with the end purpose of assessing their potentials, especially in view of the next programming period of the EU (2014-2020). The detailed information on the projects carried out or that are in progress are not publicly available as they are under the 'ownership' of the Delegation of the European Commission in Albania and of the Managing Authority of the program. In order to collect the necessary materials to identify the most relevant projects and, subsequently, to proceed to their analysis, it has proved necessary to proceed through in-depth interviews with qualified actors. Given that, interviews have been conducted with interlocutors, mainly from the European Commission in Albania, the Albanian Ministry of Integration and of Austrian Cooperation. Through these interviews, specific information relating to five concluded projects, in which the instrument of the PPP was present at least in embryonic form, has been added to the data relating to the context and to the program. The information gathered has been structured so as to proceed to a qualitative analysis of the data through the development of a SWOT analysis of these five projects funded by the IPA CBC Albania - FYROM - First Call for Project Proposals. Finally, this work presents the results of this analysis through a process of data interpretation. After this presentation, and before starting the SWOT analysis, the chapter presents the Annual Work Programme for Grants 2009 of the DG Enlargement related to the first Call for Proposals and the Guidelines related to the CBC Programme Albania - FYROM which aims is to facilitate the cooperation between the two countries to improve living conditions in the target area. The Programme in fact, already mentioned in the fifth Chapter, it aims to fostering cross-border economic, environmental and social development and includes three different measures and for each measure a list of potential activities for projects. Furthermore, the chapter analyses - through the SWOT analysis above mentioned - five projects funded by the EU within the IPA I CBC Albania – FYROM first call. In particular, in this dissertation, the SWOT analysis is the tool to identify the strengths (S), weakness (W), opportunities (O) and threats (T) that characterize projects which are analysed in relation to PPPs. In other words, it seeks to identify the strengths and internal resources of projects capably to push the development of PPPs (strengths), as well as the internal project limitations and weaknesses that impede PPP development in the relevant area (weaknesses), the external project opportunities that can be developed to overcome identified weaknesses (opportunities) and external factors that may hamper the future development of PPPs (threats). Considering that there is no project where the applicant is a PPP, although an analysis of the guidelines of the Call for Proposals relative to IPA Albania - FYROM CBC Programme found an explicit reference to PPPs, it has been choose to make a screening of projects in which the instrument of the PPP was present at least in embryonic form, in other words having the private sector as a direct or indirect beneficiary. As already mentioned, Macedonia was chosen as an example because of the availability of information related to projects. So, on these terms, 5 projects were selected out of 15 under review. The projects are the following: • Cross-border shared integrated alternative tourism, • Business without borders, • Cross-border Civil Society Forum, • Promoting business women enterprises in the cross-border area, • Borders without boundaries. The dimensions chosen for the analysis are: • related to the internal context to identify strengths and weaknesses: objectives, actors and target, • related to the external context to identify opportunities and threats: actors, target and expected results. After the SWOT analysis, the chapter finally presents the key results of the dissertation proposing some possible actions that could improve the CBC through the use of the PPP emerged from the initiatives analysed. The conclusion reviews the major points of the dissertation showing the main results such as the strategies, which may result from the conclusions, thus potentially establishing an alternative approach aiming at opening up new possibilities for the development of better, more effective and sustainable CBC project/programs/activities, without necessarily relying upon more EU funds. For what above mentioned and to answer to the question 'Which are the winner strategies to increase the effectiveness of the CBC projects through the use of PPP?', it is possible to affirm that to present more successful projects in the future increasing the effectiveness of the CBC projects through the use of PPP, the development strategies are essentially the enhancement strategy and the overcoming strategy. In particular, to reinforce the internal and external positive aspects and factors in the cross border area and to mitigate and/or dissipate internal negatives as well as to attenuate the external ones, the recommended actions referred to the public and private sectors are: • to organize jointly regular meetings in which they can know each-other, exchange information and best practices in either of the neighbouring countries, so that there can be discussions on the potentials of development and the new economic undertakings and new instruments to be employed, such as the PPP. Tourism can serve as a pilot sector in which it can be started with the actualization of gender policies facilitating in some way the inclusion of women in business activities, • jointly organize awareness campaigns on PPPs and training courses, which could serve to overcome the lack of ability to establish efficient PPPs for both public and private sector, • to organize, for the numerous actors present in the territory, specific courses and/or informative events related to the revision processes of normative policies that could facilitate and reinforce both the cooperation between different stakeholders and the capacity of doing business and create PPPs, • to enhance the existing networks and creates new ones through continuous meetings between different stakeholders with the aim of overcoming the threats considering that the improved and expanded relations between the various actors could bring an improvement in raising needed funds. Finally, it is important to mention that there are also some actions recommended only to the public sector. These are: • (especially at local level) institutions such as the municipalities can organize meetings, inviting the traditional and non-traditional private actors, in order to facilitate communication. Through this communication there could be achieved the introduction between various stakeholders interested in the PPP instrument, by at the same time laying the basis for the foundation of a network. This would be useful for increasing the credibility of each other and also to contributing to the overcoming of the lack of cooperation problem. These meetings could be used for an exchange of best practices in the sectors that are present in the certain areas. By employing a participatory methodology, these meetings could also serve to the construction of a sort of roadmap (lines of action during a defined time) that could enable the definition of the obstacles to be overcome in order to effectively and efficiently realize this type of partnership, • the authorities should first change their national optics and then transform their national policies into regional ones, starting from the cross-border policies with neighbouring countries, in which PPP should be promoted as a development instrument. In addition, when necessary, they should review the legal framework in order to facilitate the establishment of PPP. After this, they should organize meetings between the different stakeholders, and more generally between citizens living in the border areas of the neighbouring countries, with the end objective of promoting the necessary knowledge for overcoming the prejudices and for opening way to partnerships and cooperation activities, • to implement policies for purposes of facilitating investments in diversified sectors, taking an advantage of the actors from different sectors and directing them to training courses to gain knowledge in areas of investment that are different from their traditional ones. ; Vi è un riconoscimento sempre più diffuso tra tutti gli attori attivi nel settore della cooperazione allo sviluppo che il partenariato pubblico privato (PPP) può essere un importante nuovo strumento, non solo per costruire grandi infrastrutture (quindi per il settore dei lavori pubblici), ma anche per offrire servizi ai cittadini sia a livello centrale, sia locale e avere, in un prossimo futuro, un valore strategico nella cooperazione transfrontaliera (CBC). E' stato visto come la Commissione Europea definisca il PPP in un modo piuttosto ampio e generico, senza dare una definizione giuridica adeguata di questo partenariato. Infatti, per l'Unione Europea il PPP è una forma di cooperazione tra le autorità pubbliche e gli operatori economici riguardante la progettazione, il finanziamento, la realizzazione, il rinnovamento o lo sfruttamento (funzionamento e manutenzione) delle infrastrutture pubbliche, così come la fornitura di un servizio di pubblica utilità (CIT). Tuttavia, non vi è un'uniforme, comune definizione di questa forma di partenariato. Considerando che l'attuale crisi economica e finanziaria globale ha colpito quasi tutte le regioni del mondo e tenendo presente che le risorse pubbliche stanno diminuendo sempre più, tra cui soprattutto quelle destinate alla cooperazione allo sviluppo, costruire partenariati e sinergie tra il settore pubblico e privato non è solo una grande possibilità ma una necessità che diventa impellente se si vuole continuare a sostenere gli interventi di cooperazione. Inoltre, questo tipo di partenariato è una buona occasione per entrambi i settori in quanto aiuta non solo a rafforzare i rapporti reciproci, ma anche a scambiare le reciproche esperienze e le migliori pratiche. Si è visto come se applicato correttamente, il PPP consenta una riduzione dei costi totali, una migliore distribuzione dei rischi, un'esecuzione più rapida dei servizi e delle attività pubbliche, nonché una migliore qualità dei servizi offerti e delle attività prodotte. Senza contare che il superamento della rigida distinzione tra pubblico e privato apre la possibilità di trovare soluzioni e di rispondere alle domande a cui la pubblica amministrazione non è in grado di rispondere autonomamente. Si sottolinea come nella cooperazione internazionale ed in particolare nella cooperazione transfrontaliera, sempre più spesso le amministrazioni locali dei paesi beneficiari e donatori stiano riconoscendo il ruolo sussidiario della società civile e del settore privato nelle attività d'interesse generale e quindi anche nell'erogazione di servizi e funzioni pubbliche. Considerando la vasta esperienza di lavoro nel settore della cooperazione allo sviluppo con il Ministero degli Affari Esteri italiano in diverse aree del mondo così come con altre organizzazioni internazionali, da ultimo con l'Organizzazione per la Sicurezza e Cooperazione in Europa (OSCE), credendo sull'utilità e le potenzialità dello strumento del PPP e verificato direttamente che potrebbe essere utilizzato maggiormente nella cooperazione internazionale, l'autore ha deciso di analizzare l'uso di tale partenariato in questo settore focalizzandosi in particolare sul programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia. Infatti, lo scopo di questa tesi e della potenziale applicazione delle sue conclusioni deriva dall'interesse personale e dall'attività lavorativa dell'autore. Infatti, vive e lavora in Albania e ha una grande esperienza del paese perché è stato per diversi anni responsabile per la Cooperazione Italiana dei progetti che questa ha realizzato nello stesso. Inoltre, sta anche studiando la lingua albanese ed è molto affascinato dalla storia di questo piccolo paese così vicino all'Italia, non solo geograficamente parlando. L'attenzione per la Macedonia come paese confinante, invece, è dovuta semplicemente al fatto che è stato più facile reperire informazioni sul programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia rispetto agli strumenti finanziari simili. Sulla base di una ricca esperienza sul campo, questa tesi cercherà di rispondere alla seguente domanda: "Quali sono le strategie vincenti per aumentare l'efficacia dei progetti di cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso del PPP?". L'obiettivo generale della tesi è di individuare, infatti, le strategie che possono migliorare l'efficacia della cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso di tale partenariato, al di là di specifici interventi che fino ad ora sono stati principalmente effettuati attraverso canali istituzionali e attuati attraverso progetti e programmi europei. Le strategie che la conclusione della tesi identifica si basano sull'analisi SWOT di cinque progetti e la conseguente elaborazione dei dati/risultati. Questi cinque progetti sono stati selezionati tra quelli finanziati dall'UE tramite l'IPA I CBC Albania/Macedonia durante il periodo di programmazione 2007 - 2013, in quanto presentanti il PPP almeno in fase embrionale. Tali strategie potrebbero aprire nuove possibilità per lo sviluppo di attività di CBC applicabili nell'ambito della politica regionale 2014 - 2020 dell'Unione Europea, senza necessariamente fare affidamento su ulteriori mezzi finanziari della stessa. Questo è anche in linea con gli auspici dell'UE che crede che la CBC non sia solo un altro modo per accedere ai finanziamenti, ma possa piuttosto diventare un modello di cooperazione sostenibile di per sé. La tesi si basa sulla raccolta e l'analisi dei dati disponibili nell'ambito del quadro giuridico-istituzionale esistente e fa uso del metodo qualitativo di ricerca con l'obiettivo di verificare l'ipotesi di cui sopra. La tesi prevede una serie di fasi di lavoro cronologicamente distinte e reciprocamente sostenibili e si basa sull'utilizzo di diversi costrutti teorici e varie metodologie avvalendosi di diverse fonti come ad esempio la letteratura esistente, le statistiche effettuate e più in generale la documentazione disponibile soprattutto in internet. Il suo contenuto deriva quindi dal reperimento e dall'analisi di varia documentazione ufficiale e di cinque documenti progettuali, così come verrà maggiormente esplicato qui di seguito. Seguendo la struttura della tesi, si può affermare che il primo capitolo presenta il quadro normativo e finanziario dei PPP in Europa, così come il modo in cui questo strumento viene utilizzato nel contesto della cooperazione internazionale e della cooperazione transfrontaliera, al fine di comprendere quando è nato questo tipo di partenariato e quali siano i suoi obiettivi e le evoluzioni che ha avuto fino ad oggi. Nello specifico, il capitolo mostra come il PPP sia nato negli anni '30 soprattutto collegato al settore energetico e minerario e come, pur non avendo ancora una comune definizione a livello europeo, oggi sia in crescita e venga visto come un importante strumento di sviluppo economico e sociale anche nel settore della cooperazione internazionale e transfrontaliera. Il capitolo, inoltre, presenta la cooperazione inter-municipale (IMC) come uno strumento che può aprire buone potenzialità all'applicazione del PPP in quanto permette di colmare le deficienze delle municipalità. Attraverso questo strumento, stabilito in seno al Consiglio d'Europa (CoE), le municipalità possono infatti anche sub-contrattare imprese private o creare un'entità nuova (IMC) per poter attrarre investitori e donatori. Il capitolo inoltre mostra come lo strumento del PPP venga incoraggiato anche dalle Nazioni Unite (UN) fin dal 1999 - anno in cui viene creato il progetto 'Global Compact' - e come vi siano diversi esempi di PPP nel mondo realizzati da Agenzie UN. E' importante sottolineare che il PPP è considerato utile dal settore pubblico anche perché può contribuire a risolvere difficoltà causate dai tagli di bilancio così come dalla burocrazia e dall'insufficiente capacità tecnica e manageriale che spesso caratterizza la pubblica amministrazione. Il PPP è quindi uno strumento attuale, innovativo e anche complementare capace di promuovere sviluppo, riforme ed investimenti oltre a promuovere politiche e buone pratiche in diversi settori tra cui quello della cooperazione allo sviluppo anche a livello transfrontaliero. Grazie al PPP si può quindi affermare che il settore privato è diventato a tutti gli effetti un attore privilegiato della cooperazione allo sviluppo internazionale. Il secondo capitolo della tesi analizza le politiche dell'Unione Europea e i relativi strumenti che presentano una connessione con i PPP. Più nel dettaglio, viene visto come attraverso queste politiche sia stato applicato il partenariato in parola nella cooperazione transfrontaliera e come la stessa sia divenuta più esplicita a livello europeo, soprattutto nel contesto del processo di stabilizzazione ed associazione. Infatti, partendo dalla Dichiarazione di Schumann del 1950, il capitolo introduce il Trattato istitutivo della CEE del 1957, esamina l'Atto Unico Europeo, per poi prendere in considerazione la politica di coesione o regionale. Proseguendo, il capitolo analizza la politica di allargamento o pre-accessione inclusi i tre criteri necessari per l'adesione stabiliti durante il Consiglio Europeo di Copenaghen nel 1993, i vari stadi del processo di adesione e le ragioni per cui l'Unione Europea promuove l'allargamento, considerando le diverse tappe di tale processo tra cui quella storica del 2004 e le sue prossime sfide. Dopo aver inoltre analizzato il quadro delle negoziazioni e gli strumenti previsti in ambito della strategia di pre-adesione, si è finito per affrontare la politica di vicinato o prossimità prendendo in analisi i suoi relativi strumenti, i suoi diversi obiettivi strategici e il suo nuovo approccio in seguito alla primavera araba. Dopo aver identificato come queste politiche presentino un'intersezione con la cooperazione transfrontaliera, è stata analizzata la loro intersezione con il PPP con il risultato di sottolineare che anche laddove tali politiche non prevedono esplicitamente il ricorso a questo tipo di partenariato, non lo escludono. Questo significa quindi che esse forniscono validi supporti all'uso di tale strumento, elemento importante per la tesi che è infatti volta a mettere in evidenza i punti di forza di tali politiche per l'applicazione dei PPP e a mostrare al contempo che vi è una mancanza applicazione degli stessi. Questo verrà evidenziato nel corso della tesi dal caso preso in esame di IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia. Il terzo capitolo presenta come prima cosa il concetto di confine. E' importante sottolineare come questo concetto viene esplicitato non solo da un punto di vista fisico-amministrativo ma in un senso più ampio, tenendo conto di come il concetto di confine sia un elemento chiave per capire la cooperazione transfrontaliera. Infatti, è solo partendo dall'analisi di questo concetto e da questo a quello di frontiera e area periferica, passando anche alla teoria generale dei sistemi applicata alla teoria generale dei confini, che si può pervenire alla nascita del concetto di cooperazione transfrontaliera e della sua applicazione pratica. Per tale motivo si è ritenuto necessario esplicare i concetti sopra menzionati secondo le definizioni di vari studiosi di varie discipline, per poi presentare i principali strumenti legali che regolano e facilitano la cooperazione transfrontaliera a livello europeo così come i meccanismi ad hoc che la implementano. Si è partiti da quelli nati in seno al CoE e precisamente dalla Convenzione di Madrid del 1980, strumento quadro per il tipo di cooperazione oggetto di questa tesi in quanto introduce per la prima volta la possibilità di cooperare e concludere accordi ad enti di Paesi contigui geograficamente. Vengono poi presentati i suoi 3 Protocolli: il Protocollo aggiuntivo, che dà essenzialmente la possibilità di creare un organismo di cooperazione transfrontaliera ad essa preposto, il secondo Protocollo che fissa soprattutto un quadro giuridico della cooperazione interterritoriale tra le parti e il terzo Protocollo che concerne la possibilità di istituire i Gruppi Europei di Cooperazione (GEC) dotati di personalità giuridica. Inoltre, a dimostrazione di come la cooperazione transfrontaliera nel tempo abbia acquistato sempre più importanza, si è ritenuto opportuno illustrare l'istituzione dei Gruppi Europei di Cooperazione Territoriale (GECT), le loro modalità di azione e i loro ambiti di applicazione. Tali Gruppi, che si rivelano quindi essere un nuovo strumento giuridico/finanziario che integra la Convenzione di Madrid ed i relativi Protocolli, sono stati creati al fine di facilitare la cooperazione transfrontaliera e superare gli ostacoli incontrati fino ad allora. Il capitolo continua focalizzandosi sui passi compiuti dall'UE in relazione a questo tipo di cooperazione che in particolare consistono nella messa a disposizione di importanti strumenti finanziari quali per esempio INTERREG. Il terzo capitolo si conclude quindi affrontando anche la Strategia delle Macroregioni che, pur non avendo una loro definizione ufficiale in ambito europeo, forse anche a causa della loro recente istituzione e pratica, si dimostra essere veramente utile nel contribuire a realizzare la politica di coesione e più nello specifico il suo obiettivo n. 3 (Cooperazione Territoriale Europea). Considerando che all'interno di questa politica vi è una programmazione settennale, nel quarto capitolo vengono presentate sia quella appena terminata 2007-2013, sia la nuova 2014 - 2020 per verificarne i cambiamenti nel contesto di applicazione dei PPP. Viene infatti introdotta la programmazione dell'UE 2007-2013 per comprendere maggiormente cosa sarebbe cambiato nel settennio successivo, anche a causa di avvenimenti storico/politici avvenuti durante gli ultimi anni come la cosiddetta primavera araba e l'interesse a sviluppare maggiormente l'integrazione economica tra l'Unione Europea e i partner orientali. Si prosegue con l'analisi più dettagliata degli strumenti utili per la realizzazione della cooperazione transfrontaliera (CBC) nel nuovo settennato e le possibilità di applicazione del PPP all'interno di questi. A tale riguardo è importante sottolineare come in generale tutte le politiche europee, tra cui quella regionale ha un ruolo centrale, dovrebbero contribuire al raggiungimento degli obiettivi della Strategia Europa 2020. Si sottolinea come questa strategia, che ha portato alla definizione della nuova programmazione 2014-2020, sia molto ambiziosa e abbia individuato come uno degli strumenti chiave per la sua realizzazione quello del partenariato, tra cui anche il partenariato con il settore privato. Qui è importante evidenziare che gli obiettivi generali della politica regionale, sia a livello europeo, sia a livello nazionale, sono principalmente di natura socio-economica per es. orientati ad attenuare le disparità esistenti tra regioni aventi diverso livello di sviluppo. In particolare, le politiche europee hanno l'obiettivo di migliorare l'ambiente/contesto per attrarre investimenti al fine di incrementare investimenti in lavori pubblici nelle regioni che presentano maggiori necessità e migliorare la gestione delle risorse regionali locali in maniera più efficiente ed efficace. La tesi mostra come in entrambi i casi, lo strumento del PPP può essere di aiuto nel raggiungere questi importanti obiettivi. Inoltre, il capitolo in parola, dopo aver osservato che nella nuova programmazione settennale vi sono diversi cambiamenti dovuti al nuovo quadro legislativo e alle nuove modalità di attuazione della nuova politica regionale, esamina i due strumenti collegati alla CTE, IPA ed ENPI, nei due settenni di programmazione sopra menzionati. Il quinto capitolo invece, dopo una presentazione generale del contesto Albanese che prende in considerazione alcuni aspetti economici, demografici, sociali e politici del paese, includendo anche i criteri che questo deve soddisfare per poter ricevere lo status di candidato dall'Unione Europea, presenta brevemente la legge albanese sui PPP. In seguito, descrive le relazioni tra l'Albania e la Macedonia e il relativo Programma IPA CBC in relazione ai due periodi di programmazione suddetti 2007 - 2013 e 2014 - 2020 per presentarne le principali differenze. Concentrandosi sulle opportunità che l'Albania potrà avere nel prossimo futuro, viene sottolineato cosa cambia nel nuovo periodo di programmazione e con quali effetti positivi sul PPP, tenendo in considerazione anche il concetto di Responsabilità Sociale e l'iniziativa 'Global Compact' delle Nazioni Unite già menzionata precedentemente. Tutto questo per introdurre l'ultimo capitolo che, attraverso un'analisi della metodologia usata nelle varie fasi di preparazione della presente tesi, tra cui la SWOT analisi, identifica le strategie considerate vincenti per accrescere e migliorare l'efficacia della cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso dello strumento di PPP. Nello specifico, la prima parte della tesi si è avvalsa di diverse fonti documentarie. Specialmente nella sua fase di inizio, il lavoro è stato definito attraverso ciò che è comunemente chiamata 'analisi secondaria'. E' stata effettuata infatti la ricerca e analisi della letteratura esistente e della documentazione ufficiale disponibile on-line e nei Ministeri albanesi così come nell'Istituto Nazionale di Statistica albanese. E' stata inoltre reperita e analizzata la documentazione in possesso di diversi donatori e organismi internazionali presenti nel paese e in particolare della Delegazione della Commissione Europea in Albania. La seconda parte della tesi si è concentrata sull'analisi del programma IPA CBC in generale ed IPA CBC Albania - Macedonia in particolare. A tal fine si è voluto procedere con l'analisi di progetti specifici attivati e conclusi nel contesto di tale programma per evidenziare il ruolo effettivo o potenziale del PPP nello sviluppo virtuoso di progetti di CBC. Sebbene il PPP non venga esplicitamente definito tra gli strumenti utilizzati nell'attuazione di queste iniziative, si è scelto di individuare i fattori prodromici del PPP presenti in alcuni progetti al fine di valutarne le potenzialità soprattutto nell'ottica del prossimo periodo di programmazione europea (2014-2020). Le informazioni dettagliate relative ai progetti realizzati o in fieri non sono pubblicamente disponibili essendo 'proprietà' della Delegazione della Commissione Europea in Albania e dell'Autorità di Gestione del programma. Per raccogliere dunque il materiale necessario ad identificare i progetti più rilevanti e, successivamente, a procedere alla loro analisi si è dimostrato necessario procedere attraverso interviste in profondità con attori qualificati. Sono state così condotte interviste con interlocutori principalmente della Delegazione della Commissione Europea in Albania, del Ministero dell'Integrazione albanese e della Cooperazione Austriaca. Attraverso queste interviste, ai dati relativi al contesto ed al programma si sono quindi aggiunte informazioni specifiche relative a cinque progetti in cui lo strumento del PPP fosse presente almeno in forma embrionale. Le informazioni raccolte sono state strutturate in modo da procedere ad un'analisi qualitativa e ad un incrocio dei dati attraverso lo sviluppo di una SWOT analisi dei suddetti cinque progetti finanziati da IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia al fine di presentare i risultati di tale analisi attraverso un processo di interpretazione dei dati. Prima di iniziare la SWOT analisi, il capitolo presenta anche il programma annuale per i fondi 2009 della Direzione Generale Allargamento dell'Unione Europea che specifica anche gli obiettivi della CBC tra i due paesi presi in esame che consistono essenzialmente nella promozione dell'economia transfrontaliera e dello sviluppo sociale e ambientale. Il quinto capitolo, così come sopra detto, analizza quindi attraverso una SWOT analisi, cinque progetti finanziati dall'UE all'interno del programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia primo bando. In particolare, in questa tesi, la SWOT analisi, è lo strumento che permette di identificare i punti di forza (S), di debolezza (W), di opportunità (O) e di minacce (T) che caratterizzano i progetti che verranno analizzati in relazione al PPP. In altre parole quali sono i punti forza/risorse interne ai progetti che possono favorire lo sviluppo di tale partenariato e quali le loro limitazioni/punti di debolezza che lo possono ostacolare, così come le opportunità/fattori positivi esterni al progetto che possono, del caso, essere sviluppati per superare i punti di debolezza individuati e quali le minacce/fattori negativi esterni che derivano dal contesto locale e che impediscono lo sviluppo del PPP nell'area di interesse. Basandosi sulle informazioni ottenute non essendoci progetti in cui i candidati sono formati da un PPP, anche se da un'analisi delle linee guida del bando ('Call for Proposal') relative al Programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia primo bando, è stato rilevato che non vi è un riferimento esplicito a questi, è stato scelto di fare uno screening dei progetti verificando quelli che nel loro interno presentavano almeno come beneficiari diretti e/o indiretti il settore privato. Così come sopra illustrato, tra i paesi confinanti l'Albania è stata scelta la Macedonia a titolo esemplificativo. Tra i 15 progetti presi in considerazione, i 5 progetti selezionati sono: 1. 'Cross-border shared integrated alternative tourism' (Turismo transfrontaliero alternativo integrato e condiviso), 2. 'Business without borders' (Impresa senza confini), 3. 'Cross-border Civil Society Forum' (Forum transfrontaliero della società civile), 4. 'Promoting business women enterprises in the cross border area' (Promozione dell'impresa femminile nell'area transfrontaliera), 5. 'Borders without boundaries' (Confini senza limiti). Queste le dimensioni scelte e di volta in volta da verificare per ogni progetto selezionato: • relativamente al contesto interno, al fine di identificare i punti di forza e di debolezza, sono obiettivi, attori e beneficiari, • relativamente al contesto esterno, al fine di identificare le opportunità e le minacce, sono attori, beneficiari e risultati attesi. Dopo la SWOT analisi, il capitolo da ultimo presenta i risultati chiave della tesi proponendo le strategie che potrebbero migliorare la cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso del PPP. Le considerazioni conclusive della tesi riprenderanno tali strategie ripercorrendo inoltre i punti principali del lavoro svolto. Per rispondere alla domanda che sottende questa tesi, le strategie identificate come approcci alternativi che si possono applicare al fine di consentire ai programmi/progetti di cooperazione transfrontaliera di essere sviluppati in misura maggiore e in maniera più sostenibile, efficace ed efficiente utilizzando lo strumento del PPP e senza usare necessariamente ulteriori strumenti finanziari europei sono quelle cosiddette del 'rafforzamento' e del 'superamento'. In particolare, per rafforzare gli aspetti e i fattori positivi nell'area transfrontaliera e per mitigare e/o dissipare quelli negativi emersi dall'analisi effettuata, le azioni raccomandate sia al settore pubblico, sia al settore privato, possono essere così riassunte: • organizzare congiuntamente degli incontri regolari nei quali i diversi attori possano conoscersi meglio reciprocamente così come scambiare informazioni e migliori pratiche relativamente ai paesi vicini in modo che la discussione possa vertere man mano sul potenziale sviluppo in particolare dell'economia attraverso l'impiego di nuovi strumenti come il PPP, iniziando magari da un settore pilota quale il turismo, • organizzare congiuntamente campagne di informazione sul PPP e corsi di formazione che potrebbero servire al superamento della comune mancanza di capacità di istituire efficienti PPP, • organizzare per i numerosi attori presenti sul territorio dei corsi o eventi finalizzati ad informare sui processi di revisione normativa utile a facilitare e rafforzare la cooperazione tra i diversi attori, la capacità di fare impresa e creare PPP, • rafforzare congiuntamente le reti esistenti e crearne delle nuove attraverso continui incontri capaci di mettere assieme i diversi attori aventi l'obiettivo di superare gli ostacoli/minacce e consideranti il rafforzamento delle relazioni un valore aggiunto atto a migliorare anche la capacità di reperire i fondi necessari. Le azioni invece che si raccomandano solo al settore pubblico sono: • (specialmente a livello locale) gli attori istituzionali quali le municipalità potrebbero organizzare delle riunioni invitando il settore privato, tradizionale e non, al fine di facilitare la comunicazione tra i partecipanti introducendo al contempo il PPP e facilitando l'istituzione di partenariati, • le autorità istituzionali dovrebbero cambiare la loro ottica trasformando le loro politiche nazionali, a partire da quelle transfrontaliere relative ai paesi confinanti, in modo da promuovere il PPP quale strumento di sviluppo agevolandone l'istituzione attraverso le modifiche del quadro normativo laddove necessarie, • realizzare delle politiche aventi l'obiettivo di facilitare gli investimenti diversificando i settori degli stessi e organizzando al contempo dei corsi di formazione professionale per dare l'opportunità alla popolazione in età attiva di diversificare le loro conoscenze e capacità. ; XXIV Ciclo ; 1970
