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Abstract
The paper develops a two-sector full employment general equilibrium model with endogenous schooling decisions. It aims to evaluate the effects of educational demand management policies on gender inequality in schooling and wage inequality. The results point towards the role of social norms in shaping parental discrimination against girls' education, which accentuates gender gap in schooling due to gender-neutral education subsidy and rise in household income induced by foreign capital inflow. The two policies are favourable for gender wage gap if the agricultural sector is more female labour intensive than the manufacturing sector and returns to schooling are considerably higher for women than men. However, gender targeted education subsidy policies are in general beneficial with respect to both gendered schooling and wages. The paper contributes to the literature by identifying the role of factor intensity conditions and gender differentiated returns to education on the gendered schooling and labour market outcomes of demand side interventions in education. It also provides theoretical explanations to diverse impacts of these policies and suggests appropriate policy recommendations.

AbstractA number of factors have contributed to the crisis in higher education, including the long‐term transformation in funding. In this article, I argue that neoliberalism can explain many of the processes leading to our changing commitment to colleges and universities and the cost increases that this change has produced. A number of neoliberal assumptions firmly rooted in conventional wisdom have contributed to a "student‐as‐customer" phenomenon, which is, itself, a cost driver. I look at the development of the student as customer as a vehicle for exploring tuition increases. I also examine the tension between education as a public and a private good and the marketization of higher education as crucial drivers of these transformations. In doing so, I emphasize that the student as customer has been created by the changes in the way we think about, organize, and fund education, rather than any fundamental change in young people.

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Some scholars of social policy claim that the traditional post war Keynesian Welfare State has been transformed towards a Schumpeterian Workfare State (Jessop 1994, Tor-fing 1999a). Others conceptualise welfare state reform as transformation towards an Enabling (Gilbert/Gilbert 1989), Activating (OECD 1990, Bandemer 2001, Mezger 2000) or Co-operative State (Schmid 1996). All these concepts have in common to be rather normative: While the `Workfare´ thesis underlines a negative scenario of enforced commodification of welfare state clients, authors proclaiming an activating, enabling or co-operative welfare state highlight the preventive and emancipatory aspects of new welfare state policies. With reference to this controversy the author of the present paper, however, argues that the workfare and the enabling state are not alternative paths of development, but mutually constitutive concepts of welfare state transformation. Evidence for this argument is given by a comparison of activating labour market policies in most divergent Western European welfare states like Denmark, the UK and Germany.Empirical findings indeed confirm that all countries implement a mix of workfare and enabling elements although displaying major variations due to different historical social policy paths. General characteristics of policy transformation are changing forms of governance. These include the reduction of welfare state protection by financial transfers and the increase of social and educational services. The introduction of contractual regulation puts forward individualisation and self responsibility, but also co-operation and co-production between the state and the individual. Seeking clients´ compliance, however, the state also increases sanctions and coercion. As a result of the reforms an increasing influence of the state on the individuals living conduct is noticed. ; Einige Sozialpolitikforscher proklamieren, dass sich der traditionelle keynesianische Wohlfahrtsstaat der Nachkriegsära zu einem Schumpeterianischen Workfare-Staat wandelt. Andere skizzieren eine Veränderung hin zum befähigenden, aktivierenden oder kooperativen Staat. Allen diese Konzeptionen sind vergleichsweise normativ: Während die Workfare-These ein negatives Szenario des zunehmenden Arbeitszwangs für Wohlfahrtsstaatsklienten betont, werden von den Protagonisten eines aktivierenden, befähigenden oder kooperativen Wohlfahrtsstaates die präventiven und emanzipatorischen Aspekte neuer wohlfahrtsstaatlicher Politik betont. Mit Bezug zu dieser Kontroverse betont die Autorin des vorliegenden Arbeitspapiers, dass es sich bei den Konzeptionen des Workfare-State und des befähigenden Wohlfahrtsstaates nicht um alternative Entwicklungsszenarien handelt, sondern um sich gegenseitig ergänzende Aspekte wohlfahrtsstaatlicher Transformation. Dies wird anhand eines Vergleichs aktivierender Arbeitsmarktpolitik in stark unterschiedlich geprägten westlichen Wohlfahrtsstaaten wie Dänemark, Großbritannien und Deutschland begründet.Die empirischen Ergebnisse bestätigen, dass in allen genannten Ländern ein Mix aus Arbeitszwang und befähigenden Politiken implementiert wird, der sich jedoch je nach historischem Entwicklungspfad der Sozialpolitik unterscheidet. Generelles Kennzeichen der Politiktransformation ist der Wandel von Governance. Dies schließt die Rücknahme wohlfahrtsstaatlicher Sicherung durch den Rückbau finanzieller Transfers und den Ausbau sozialer und bildungsbezogener Dienstleistungen ein. Die Einführung von Kontrakten geht mit der Individualisierung von Leistungen und der Zunahme von Selbstverantwortung der Individuen einher, aber auch mit der Zunahme von Kooperation und Koproduktion zwischen Staat und Individuum. Um die aktive Beteiligung der Sozialstaatsklienten sicherzustellen, nehmen jedoch ebenso sozialstaatlicher Zwang und Sanktionen zu. Als Ergebnis der Reformen ist daher ein zunehmender Einfluss des Sozialstaates auf die individuelle Lebensführung festzustellen.

The term "adult education" appears prominently in the discourse on education in the micro island state of Malta. Representatives of the political parties regularly highlight this aspect of the educational system in interviews and documents in the run up to the country's general elections. During this period, the country's largest teachers' union reserves an entire section in its 'manifesto to the political parties' to adult education? Furthermore, the last decade or so has witnessed a proliferation of agencies claiming to engage in activities which fall under the rubric of adult education. In this context, we shall only deal with organised adult education activities. We shall not touch the myriad informal processes that can lead to adult learning since we confine ourselves in this paper to providing a critical discussion orientated around some of the most visible Maltese adult education agencies. ; peer-reviewed

Electronic development is the process of systematic evolution for mankind and society at large that ensures the overall progress of the electronic mode of learning, education, healthcare, society, and corporate governance. The main objective of the chapter was to address the impacts of e-development and sustainable management education for effective leadership that leads to constructing a sustainable society. The required data were collected both from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected from 120 respondents. The secondary data sources included Official Websites. The study is empirical and various statistical tools like Mean, Standard Deviation, and t-test were executed for data analysis. The results of the research study were indicated the high degree and low degree of contribution from E-development and Sustainable Management Education are not significant between Effective Leadership and Sustainable Society. E-development can be effective for creating a Sustainable Society with the goal-setting of improving Effective Leadership Skills.