Suchergebnisse

As it deals with either global or local energy and climate issues, this thesis is a topical work. In the context of international climate talks, European and national and regional policies, it aims to analyse the local initiatives in the Pays de la Loire. This work focuses on three main assumptions. The first states that renewable energy has been developed in the Pays de la Loire in the wake of local nuclear projects. The second argues that human potentialities are more determining than the physical and geographical energy potentialities of a given territory, at least in this phase of regional awareness encouraged by public policies. The third shows that local pressures have led the Région Pays de la Loire to back the development of renewable energy. Our research focuses on a qualitative approach which is based on numerous interviews and linked to a quantitative approach relying on statistical and cartographic databases. The first part of our work is devoted to the context. It shows that despite the rallying of the scientific community since the 1970's, awareness of climate change due to human activity is rather recent. Europe has played an important role in international climate talks and has set itself ambitious targets (such as energy-climate Package in 2007). However, if certain member States of the E.U., such as Germany, have volunteered to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions and develop renewable energy, other countries like France have been much less incentive. The second and third parts of our work, focusing on the Région Pays de la Loire, highlight that despite real physical potentialities, renewable energy still represents a small part of the whole production. We have established that there is a link between physical potentialities and the number of green equipments. The regional energy policy is rather recent, and has been more favorable to renewable energy and energy saving since the regional political success of the French Green Party in 2004. The rise of associative movements has also played a role in the consideration of energy and climate issues by the Région Pays de la Loire. To organize our last part dealing with local policies, we have constructed a typology based on many interviews. It shows that human potentialities, more than physical ones, can determine the establishment of a local energy policy. The approach of the SyDEV (Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'Equipement de la Vendée) is something of an exception since it is initially linked to the willingness to exploit wind-power in order to keep a hand on local wind resources. We have shown that the grounds of local energy policies may diverge, but also result from negative external elements. We have also shown that links exist between anti-nuclear demonstrations and the strong energy policy led by the Pays de Haute Mayenne ; between the pressures exerted by Nantes as the main regional city and the original approach undertaken by the Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; also between the need for local development and the reflection led by the PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. These local energy initiatives sometimes take root in a long history (as in the Pays des Mauges, for example). In addition, our investigation shows movements of various kinds, be they individual or collective. We have also studied the origins of the sensitivity characterizing the pioneers of renewable energy. Finally, our interest in the biggest regional cities has helped us show the examplary nature of Nantes Métropole and the more opportunist approach proposed by the Pays du Mans. Therefore, we may assume that behind local innovations there are men and women as singular wills linked to a political party, to a legacy of environmental or social movements, and to other types of convictions. ; Puisqu'il traite des enjeux énergétiques et climatiques globaux comme locaux, ce travail de thèse est un sujet d'actualité. Il a pour objet d'analyser les initiatives énergétiques locales en Pays de la Loire, dans le contexte des négociations climatiques internationales, des orientations énergétiques communautaires et nationales, et de la politique régionale. Ce travail s'articule autour de trois hypothèses principales. La première stipule que les Energies Renouvelables (EnR) se sont développées en Pays de la Loire à la suite de projets nucléaires locaux. La deuxième avance que les potentiels humains sont plus déterminants que les potentiels énergétiques territoriaux, du moins dans cette phase de prise de conscience ligérienne par les politiques publiques. La troisième indique que des pressions locales ont conduit la Région à appuyer le développement des EnR. Notre recherche porte sur une approche qualitative fondée sur de nombreux entretiens, à laquelle nous avons associé une approche quantitative basée sur le traitement statistique et cartographique de banques de données. La première partie, consacrée aux éléments de contexte, montre que, malgré la mobilisation de la communauté scientifique dès les années 1970, la prise de conscience des changements climatiques d'origine anthropique est relativement récente. Elle date des années 1990. L'Europe a joué un rôle important dans les négociations climatiques internationales et elle a adopté des objectifs ambitieux (à l'image du Paquet énergie-climat en 2007). Néanmoins, si certains Etats membres comme l'Allemagne sont volontaires pour diminuer leurs émissions de GES et développer les EnR, d'autres Etats comme la France sont beaucoup moins incitatifs. Les deuxième et troisième parties, qui s'intéressent à la région Pays de la Loire, mettent en évidence que, malgré de réels potentiels physiques, les EnR ne représentent qu'une faible part du bouquet énergétique régional. Nous avons établi qu'il existe une concordance entre les potentialités physiques et le nombre d'équipements en EnR. La politique énergétique régionale est également récente, et plus favorable aux EnR et aux économies d'énergie depuis l'arrivée des Verts dans la majorité régionale, en 2004. La montée des mobilisations associatives a également joué un rôle dans la prise en compte des questions énergétiques et climatiques par la Région. Pour organiser notre dernière partie consacrée aux politiques locales, nous avons construit une typologie basée sur de nombreux entretiens. Il en ressort que les potentiels humains, plus que les potentiels physiques, déterminent la mise en place d'une politique énergétique locale. La démarche du Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'équipement de la Vendée (SyDEV) fait quelque peu exception puisqu'elle est initialement liée à une volonté de valoriser le potentiel éolien local et de garder la main sur ces ressources. Nous avons mis en évidence que les motifs des politiques énergétiques locales peuvent diverger mais qu'ils s'expliquent généralement par des externalités négatives. Nous avons ainsi montré la concordance entre les mobilisations antinucléaires et la dynamique de la politique énergétique du Pays de Haute Mayenne ; entre les pressions de Nantes, ville centre, et l'originalité de la démarche entreprise par le Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; entre la recherche d'un développement local et la réflexion du PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. Ces initiatives énergétiques locales s'enracinent aussi dans une histoire parfois longue, comme dans le Pays des Mauges. En outre, nos investigations montrent des mobilisations de différentes natures : elles sont individuelles et/ou collectives. Nous avons également étudié l'origine de la sensibilité des pionniers des EnR. Enfin, en nous intéressant aux métropoles ligériennes, nous avons montré la volonté d'exemplarité de Nantes Métropole et l'approche plus opportuniste du Pays du Mans. Par conséquent, derrière l'innovation territoriale, il y a des Hommes, des volontés singulières, liées à un parti politique, à l'héritage de mobilisations environnementales ou sociales, à d'autres types de convictions.

2007/2008 ; In the controversial debate in Italy regarding, on one hand, the possibility/impossibility of migrants' integration and, on the other, the complexity of the integration process, most scientific works focus either on the legal aspects in a merely juridical or economic perspective or on the integration of the more "disadvantaged" migrants in a sheer perspective of human rights defence. This dissertation focuses on an aspect which has been completely neglected until now, that is the study of the integration process of migrants from a privileged point of view, that of the skilled migrant women in Italy. The goal of the research consists in analysing the integration strategies and policies of the migrants in Italy with a special attention to the case of the intellectual or skilled migrant women in order to find out which are the immigration policies that facilitate migrant's full integration in the Italian society and the strategies the skilled migrant women develop to reach a high level of integration. The hypothesis is that intellectual or highly skilled migrant women do not follow "traditional" strategies to integrate into the Italian society, but they go beyond the learning of the hosting country's language and the learning of cultural habits through the achievement of a deeper awareness which allows them to overcome the daily problems in order to participate in cultural and social activities at a high level. This dissertation argues "strong" and "weak" immigration policies and strategies developed by intellectual or skilled migrant women living in Italy in order to be integrated in the hosting society. "Weak" or "traditional" strategies of integration of migrant women concern women's access to the labour market in the domestic related services, caring for the elderly and the ill or as housewives who have followed their husbands in Italy through family reunifications. These "traditional" or "weak" strategies are on one hand an outcome of the image of migrant women widespread in the mass media and public opinion and on the other the result of restrictive immigration policies. The image of migrant women is the one which associates them to the fact of being vulnerable, victims of sexual exploitation, unqualified and submissive. Consequently, "weak" immigration policies mostly reveal the image of unskilled migrant women or women who are victims of exploitation strengthening only the points regarding the protection of migrant women who have been victims of smuggling and sexual exploitation and also aiming at the regularization of the domestic workers. Italian immigration policy system does not propose any "strong" integration policy regarding skilled migrant women who reside in Italy. This research expects to find that there are immigrant women who do not correspond to the image of dependent women and develop their own strategies of integration within the Italian society. In fact, "strong" integration strategies developed by skilled or intellectual migrant women are able to overcome the "weak" strategies of integration which see migrant women as a mere labour force within the domestic service world. These "strong" strategies include not only the learning of the Italian language and cultural habits but also and above all the achievement of deep cultural, civic and political awareness which allows them to participate in the cultural and social activities at a high level in the Italian society. Therefore, this dissertation is divided into three main parts concerning gender migration in an international context, immigration policies and gender strategies of integration in Italy and the involvement of skilled migrant women in the cultural, literary, business and scientific life in the Italian society. The first chapter aims at the analysis of the main aspects concerning international migrations in general and gender migrations in particular. This chapter is divided into four main sections. The first two sections focus on migration as a global phenomenon and theories regarding this issue. The third section discusses the international legislation concerning migrants in order to highlight the complexity of the different types of migration and the defence of the rights of the weakest. The fourth section compares examples of existing immigration policies in different countries, stressing on the classical immigration countries like the United States of America, Canada and on some new immigration countries in Europe. The aim of the second chapter is to analyse the main aspects concerning immigration and in particular gender immigration policies and strategies in Italy. This chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section focuses on the Italian migrations from a theoretical and historical point of view, taking into consideration both aspects of emigration and immigration. The second section highlights the different policies adopted by Italian governments in order to control and face immigration flows from the nineteenth century onwards with a particular attention to the policies which are gender related. The third section argues the different strategies of integration, the "traditional" or "weak" strategies, concerning migrant women who reach Italy in order to highlight the complexity of the different levels of integration and settlement. The third chapter focuses on the integration strategies developed by skilled migrant women who live in Italy and is divided in three main sections. The first section argues that Italy is still in search of a model of possible integration for migrants because it has become a destination country for many migrants only in the last thirty years. The second section of the third chapter analyses the involvement level of the migrant women in the Italian society through the data available from secondary sources such as women's participation and leadership in politics and civil society, in the intercultural mediation and in the literary and artistic domain. The third section of the chapter is dedicated to the presentation of the results of a survey carried out during the months of November 2007 until January 2008. The aim of this survey was the collection of first hand data about the strategies developed by intellectual migrant women to integrate into the Italian society. In conclusion, "strong" integration strategies concerning highly qualified migrant women include not only the very good command of the Italian language which is one of the first steps towards a full participation in the society, but also and above all their active involvement in the cultural, social and political life of the country. These "strong" strategies do not find a suitable place within the Italian immigration policies which deal in accordance with the international agreements with helping victims of smuggling, on one hand, and regulating immigrants' entry into the Italian territory, on the other. In order to eradicate the image of the migrant woman as unskilled and submissive, the research outlines some proposals of policies in which immigration is not considered as an emergency problem to handle, but as an issue which needs a deep reflection on human, social and economic outcomes within an Italian, European and international context in the perspective of policy implementation and strategies empowerment towards the promotion of a wider gender equality for migrant women. ; XXI Ciclo

As it deals with either global or local energy and climate issues, this thesis is a topical work. In the context of international climate talks, European and national and regional policies, it aims to analyse the local initiatives in the Pays de la Loire. This work focuses on three main assumptions. The first states that renewable energy has been developed in the Pays de la Loire in the wake of local nuclear projects. The second argues that human potentialities are more determining than the physical and geographical energy potentialities of a given territory, at least in this phase of regional awareness encouraged by public policies. The third shows that local pressures have led the Région Pays de la Loire to back the development of renewable energy. Our research focuses on a qualitative approach which is based on numerous interviews and linked to a quantitative approach relying on statistical and cartographic databases. The first part of our work is devoted to the context. It shows that despite the rallying of the scientific community since the 1970's, awareness of climate change due to human activity is rather recent. Europe has played an important role in international climate talks and has set itself ambitious targets (such as energy-climate Package in 2007). However, if certain member States of the E.U., such as Germany, have volunteered to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions and develop renewable energy, other countries like France have been much less incentive. The second and third parts of our work, focusing on the Région Pays de la Loire, highlight that despite real physical potentialities, renewable energy still represents a small part of the whole production. We have established that there is a link between physical potentialities and the number of green equipments. The regional energy policy is rather recent, and has been more favorable to renewable energy and energy saving since the regional political success of the French Green Party in 2004. The rise of associative movements has also played a role in the consideration of energy and climate issues by the Région Pays de la Loire. To organize our last part dealing with local policies, we have constructed a typology based on many interviews. It shows that human potentialities, more than physical ones, can determine the establishment of a local energy policy. The approach of the SyDEV (Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'Equipement de la Vendée) is something of an exception since it is initially linked to the willingness to exploit wind-power in order to keep a hand on local wind resources. We have shown that the grounds of local energy policies may diverge, but also result from negative external elements. We have also shown that links exist between anti-nuclear demonstrations and the strong energy policy led by the Pays de Haute Mayenne ; between the pressures exerted by Nantes as the main regional city and the original approach undertaken by the Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; also between the need for local development and the reflection led by the PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. These local energy initiatives sometimes take root in a long history (as in the Pays des Mauges, for example). In addition, our investigation shows movements of various kinds, be they individual or collective. We have also studied the origins of the sensitivity characterizing the pioneers of renewable energy. Finally, our interest in the biggest regional cities has helped us show the examplary nature of Nantes Métropole and the more opportunist approach proposed by the Pays du Mans. Therefore, we may assume that behind local innovations there are men and women as singular wills linked to a political party, to a legacy of environmental or social movements, and to other types of convictions. ; Puisqu'il traite des enjeux énergétiques et climatiques globaux comme locaux, ce travail de thèse est un sujet d'actualité. Il a pour objet d'analyser les initiatives énergétiques locales en Pays de la Loire, dans le contexte des négociations climatiques internationales, des orientations énergétiques communautaires et nationales, et de la politique régionale. Ce travail s'articule autour de trois hypothèses principales. La première stipule que les Energies Renouvelables (EnR) se sont développées en Pays de la Loire à la suite de projets nucléaires locaux. La deuxième avance que les potentiels humains sont plus déterminants que les potentiels énergétiques territoriaux, du moins dans cette phase de prise de conscience ligérienne par les politiques publiques. La troisième indique que des pressions locales ont conduit la Région à appuyer le développement des EnR. Notre recherche porte sur une approche qualitative fondée sur de nombreux entretiens, à laquelle nous avons associé une approche quantitative basée sur le traitement statistique et cartographique de banques de données. La première partie, consacrée aux éléments de contexte, montre que, malgré la mobilisation de la communauté scientifique dès les années 1970, la prise de conscience des changements climatiques d'origine anthropique est relativement récente. Elle date des années 1990. L'Europe a joué un rôle important dans les négociations climatiques internationales et elle a adopté des objectifs ambitieux (à l'image du Paquet énergie-climat en 2007). Néanmoins, si certains Etats membres comme l'Allemagne sont volontaires pour diminuer leurs émissions de GES et développer les EnR, d'autres Etats comme la France sont beaucoup moins incitatifs. Les deuxième et troisième parties, qui s'intéressent à la région Pays de la Loire, mettent en évidence que, malgré de réels potentiels physiques, les EnR ne représentent qu'une faible part du bouquet énergétique régional. Nous avons établi qu'il existe une concordance entre les potentialités physiques et le nombre d'équipements en EnR. La politique énergétique régionale est également récente, et plus favorable aux EnR et aux économies d'énergie depuis l'arrivée des Verts dans la majorité régionale, en 2004. La montée des mobilisations associatives a également joué un rôle dans la prise en compte des questions énergétiques et climatiques par la Région. Pour organiser notre dernière partie consacrée aux politiques locales, nous avons construit une typologie basée sur de nombreux entretiens. Il en ressort que les potentiels humains, plus que les potentiels physiques, déterminent la mise en place d'une politique énergétique locale. La démarche du Syndicat Départemental d'Energie et d'équipement de la Vendée (SyDEV) fait quelque peu exception puisqu'elle est initialement liée à une volonté de valoriser le potentiel éolien local et de garder la main sur ces ressources. Nous avons mis en évidence que les motifs des politiques énergétiques locales peuvent diverger mais qu'ils s'expliquent généralement par des externalités négatives. Nous avons ainsi montré la concordance entre les mobilisations antinucléaires et la dynamique de la politique énergétique du Pays de Haute Mayenne ; entre les pressions de Nantes, ville centre, et l'originalité de la démarche entreprise par le Pays de Grandlieu Machecoul et Logne ; entre la recherche d'un développement local et la réflexion du PNR Loire Anjou Touraine. Ces initiatives énergétiques locales s'enracinent aussi dans une histoire parfois longue, comme dans le Pays des Mauges. En outre, nos investigations montrent des mobilisations de différentes natures : elles sont individuelles et/ou collectives. Nous avons également étudié l'origine de la sensibilité des pionniers des EnR. Enfin, en nous intéressant aux métropoles ligériennes, nous avons montré la volonté d'exemplarité de Nantes Métropole et l'approche plus opportuniste du Pays du Mans. Par conséquent, derrière l'innovation territoriale, il y a des Hommes, des volontés singulières, liées à un parti politique, à l'héritage de mobilisations environnementales ou sociales, à d'autres types de convictions.

This paper-based thesis attempts to answer the question how the adoption and diffusion of RFID can be balanced successfully between technological innovation and regulation by law. To answer this question, an abductive reasoning perspective has been applied. The first premise of abduction includes four sets of observations presented in four articles; the second premise of abduction includes two hypothetical claims, and the third premise of abduction builds the case, i.e., concludes the thesis. As first step, the definitional framework is established. Ten theories of adoption and diffusion of technological innovation (TRA, TPB, MPCU, SCT, TAM, TAM2, C-TAM-TPB, IDT, PCI, and UTAUT) and their characteristics are investigated. They frame the technological viewpoint. Then, the reasons for regulation (public interest theory, private interest theory, and institutionalist theory) as well as the means of regulation (regulation by law, norms, market, and architecture) and their application are investigated. They frame the regulatory viewpoint. As second step, four observations are made that constitute the first premise of abduction based on the findings of four individual research articles referred to as the Database Article, Marketing Article, Modality Mix Article, and Survey Article: Database Article: This research article evaluates the strategic advantage of placing RFID databases in certain territorial and jurisdictional regions based on database regulation. The analysis of the database regulation by law in Europe and North America revealed that, based on the creativity, skill and judgement, and investment doctrine, they do not protect RFID data in databases. It is claimed that protection of RFID data in databases should be regulated by other means of regulation, for instance, by regulation by norms or architecture. Observation 1 stipulates: Despite the amount of data anticipated to be stored and the regulation by law in the different countries where RFID is adopted and diffused, the location of the databases containing RFID data does not seem to play an important role for the technological innovator. Marketing Article: This research article applies a legal use case for the technological innovations marketed by the industry as active RFID tags. The analysis of the RFID industry's marketing efforts and the unfavourable regulation by law is possible, and likely. Adopting the broad legal interpretation of self-emitting devices (short-range devices) to RFID tags that need to transduce energy from an RFID reader (active RFID tags) might allow the search and seizure of transmitted RFID data without a warrant to be in line with the constitutional rights. It is claimed that within the RFID industry there should be more awareness of regulation by legislation and adjudication. Observation 2 stipulates: Extending the doctrinal definition of active RFID tags to include reader-independent and indiscriminate signalling might lead to unfavourable regulation by law. Modality Mix Article: This research article offers a reflection on how law must manage the evolution of technological innovation. The analysis of the Draft Recommendation (2008) by the European Commission shows that the focus on regulation by law is inappropriate for a manageable diffusion of RFID technology. An over-regulation of RFID technology by regulation by law is possible if the Draft Recommendation (2008) is implemented and comes into force. It is claimed that a more diverse set of modalities (regulation by norms, market, and architecture) is necessary to successfully regulate RFID technology. Observation 3 stipulates: The current adoption and diffusion of RFID technology do not seem to be following an appropriate mix of regulation. Survey Article: This research article provides a reverse perspective of current RFID issues by examining the RFID industry's view of regulation by law and consumers. The analysis of the survey data of the RFID industry shows three shortcomings by the RFID industry in its engagement of legal experts, its knowledge of regulation by law for RFID subject-matter, and its information policy to the general public. It is claimed that the exchange between the RFID industry and the legal regulator needs to improve. Observation 4 stipulates: The interaction between, and consequently also the exchange of expert know-how and standpoints of, (i) the RFID industry and the legal regulator and (ii) the RFID industry and the consumers seem insufficient. As third step, two hypothetical claims are made as second premise of abduction based on a literature review of characteristics of adoption and diffusion of technological innovation in IS research, namely IT, EDI, and RFID. First, the research shows that in IS research there are only a few regulation-by-law characteristics (5 of 150 different characteristics). Thus, a first hypothetical claim is made that in IS research there is a lack of legal perspectives. Second, the research shows that in IS research there are even fewer characteristics of other regulatory means, such as for example, social norms, market or architecture. Thus a second hypothetical claim is made that in IS research there is a lack of diversity in regulation of technological innovation. Finally, a case is built as third premise of abduction. It seems possible to conclude that (i) based on observation 1 and hypothetical claim 2, increasing the diversity of regulation modalities might have a positive effect on the strategic management decisions for the location of RFID systems; (ii) based on observation 2 and hypothetical claim 1, increasing the legal perspective in IS research might have a positive effect on the RFID industry's marketing strategy; (iii) based on observation 3 and hypothetical claim 2, a more thorough and precise review of essential regulation by law is necessary; and (iv) based on observation 4 and hypothetical claim 1, increasing the legal perspective in IS research might have a positive effect on the RFID industry's awareness of the legal challenges and their consequences. It is suggested that the four cases (conclusions) built in this thesis provide a solid foundation for the following four hypotheses that can be further tested with additional empirical data: 1. Increasing the diversity of regulation modalities has a positive effect on the strategic management decisions for the deployment location of technological innovation. 2. Increasing the legal perspective in IS research has a positive effect on the marketing strategy for technological innovation. 3. Increasing the thoroughness and precision in the review of essential regulation by law has a positive effect on other regulatory tools for technological innovation. 4. Increasing the legal perspective in IS research has a positive effect on the industry's awareness of the legal challenges and their consequences. Therefore, to prevent bits from falling once they have learned to walk, the legal perspective of regulation in IS research as well as the diverse implementation of regulation in IS research should probably be increased. Such an increase might augment the awareness for the potential of regulation in technological innovation, which, in turn, might foster the adoption and diffusion of RFID.

The Fourth Assessment Report issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on February 2, 2007 identified more clearly then any other Assessment Report that the observed increase in global average temperatures during the last half century is due to the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs). To avoid global warming that goes beyond 2 degrees above preindustrial levels, besides emission reduction other mitigation strategies have to be developed. The terrestrial biosphere already absorbs approximately one third of annual anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Among others, forest management is a major contributing process. This thesis explored the impact of past and present management on the forest C stocks and fluxes and quantified the potential for climate change mitigation. The basic technical structure of the thesis splits into four issues: a) Development of a forest management model (Chapter Two), comprising the review of existing approaches of forest management carbon modeling, description of important processes that have to be considered in the design of such a model and formulation of algorithms. b) Application of the model to plot level (Chapter Three), comparing management options on a hectare basis neglecting area information and an evaluation of model uncertainty and sensitivities related to uncertain parameters (Chapter Four). c) Theoretical analysis of landscape level processes leading to carbon sinks and sources contrasted with accounting rules to incorporate them in a climate policy framework. (Chapter Five) d) Comparison of model scenarios with different assumptions on future management change and initial conditions to quantify potentials for mitigation and factor out drivers on landscape level (Chapter Four, Five and Six). The model FORMICA (FORest Management Impact on Carbon dynamics) is a dynamic inventory-based carbon tracking model. It aims to calculate carbon pool trajectories under current and changing forest management in existing forests at a regional scale. A model application on plot level focused on Thuringian conditions and included also agricultural land-use options. Another application of FORMICA at larger scale aimed at processes on landscape level. Based on forest inventory data of European countries (among them Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovenia and Sweden), the purpose was here to factor out effects of past practices that formed today's age-class structure of forests which influences their potential for mitigation in the future. Allocation and other parameters were kept general and were taken from the literature. Different scenarios of future management and initial conditions were simulated and compared to quantify these effects. Including additional mitigation services matters with respect to climate benefits and land-owner revenue. An ecosystem- and sector-centered view favors the conservation of carbon stored in forests while a holistic systems perspective highlights additional opportunities in long-rotation timber production and in particular for bioenergy production. Economic conditions in Thuringia have already created an almost optimum climate benefit from forestry where energy recycling of wood products is intense. The magnitude of the carbon sink potential thus varies along with the types of constraints considered and is highly sensitive to the region, time frame, management history and assumptions on future management. On average 20 Mt C could be stored in ecosystem, harvested products and substituted in Thuringia between 2010 and 2050. The potential is similar for various management options (e.g. conservation, species change or rotation lengthening, considering an implementation level of 20%) if the total forestry sector mitigation service is considered. Differences between management options emerge on lower levels of aggregation, e.g. when looking at biomass. However, also implications on stand and landscape level have to be considered in an assessment of forest management mitigation potential. The thesis looked at effects of past practices on regional carbon stocks. It was also examined how they can be differentiated computationally from carbon due to recent forest management. Presented approaches of an accounting of these effects were evaluated in terms of applicability, verifiability, and ability of providing incentives for good practice. According to the model, European countries will store around 20 Mt C, fixed in forest biomass, soil, litter and harvested wood products annually over the next decade. This uptake is only due to ecosystem aging, because other effects were not considered. The age-class induced sink in Europe is very likely to get smaller throughout the next 30 years by a rate of 1 Mt C per year. How much of this sink can be accounted for under a future climate policy framework will be matter of negotiations. ; Der Vierte Sachstandsbericht des Zwischenstaatlichen Ausschusses für Klimawandel (IPCC) der am 2 Februar 2007 vorgestellt wurde, machte mehr als je ein anderer Bericht zuvor deutlich, dass der beobachtete Anstieg der globalen mittleren Temperatur während der letzten Hälfte des letzten Jahrhunderts auf einen Anstieg von Treibhausgasen (THG) in der Atmosphäre zurückzuführen ist. Die terrestrische Biosphäre absorbiert bereits etwa ein Drittel der emittierten CO2-Menge. Neben anderen Prozessen spielt Waldbewirtschaftung hierbei eine wichtige Rolle. Das Kioto-Protokoll hat eine Reduktion von THG-Emissionen zum Ziel. Speicherung von CO2 in Form von Kohlenstoff (C) in Waldökosystemen und hervorgerufen durch Bewirtschaftungsmaßnahmen ist als Minderungsstrategie unter dem Protokoll anrechenbar und kann von Staaten gewählt werden. Aber die CO2-Minderungsleistung durch Waldbewirtschaftung geht über die Speicherung auf Ökosystemebene hinaus, wenn Festlegung in geernteten Holzprodukten und die Substitution von CO2 aus der Verbrennung fossiler Brennstoffe durch energiesparende Holzprodukte und Bioenergie berücksichtigt werden. Diese Doktorarbeit untersuchte die Auswirkungen, die Waldbewirtschaftung unter der Berücksichtigung von Maßnamen in der Gegenwart aber auch Maßnahmen in der Vergangenheit, die maßgeblich Einfluss nehmen, hat. Technisch lässt sich die Arbeit in vier Abschnitte einteilen: a) Entwicklung eines Waldbewirtschaftungsmodels, um die wissenschaftlichen Fragestellungen zu beantworten (Kapitel Zwei). Dafür wurde Literatur zu bestehenden Modellierungsansätzen und wichtigen beteiligten Prozessen analysiert und Algorithmen formuliert, die diese beschreiben. b) Anwendung des Models auf Plotebene (Kapitel Drei), welche verschiedene Optionen der Bewirtschaftung auf Hektarebene vergleicht und Untersuchung und Bewertung von Unsicherheiten und Sensitivität von Modellparametern beinhaltet (Kapitel Vier). c) Theoretische Analyse der treibenden Prozesse auf Landschaftsebene, die Quellen und Senken verursachen und eine Gegenüberstellung mit Anrechnungsregeln, wie diese in einem politischen Klimaschutzrahmen berücksichtigt werden könnten (Kapitel Fünf). d) Vergleich von Modellszenarien mit verschiedenen Annahmen über die zukünftige Entwicklung der Waldbewirtschaftung, um Minderungspotenzial zu quantifizieren und Einflussgrößen auf Landschaftsebene konkret herauszufiltern (Kapitel Vier, Fünf und Sechs). Das FORMICA-Modell (FORest Management Impact on Carbon dynamics) ist ein dynamisches Forstbewirtschaftungsmodell, das auf Inventaren basiert und Kohlenstoffvorräte und -vorratsänderungen verfolgt. Es kann angewendet werden, um die Kohlenstoffdynamik heutiger und zukünftiger Waldbewirtschaftung auf regionaler Ebene zu berechnen. Eine Berücksichtigung von Minderungsleistungen der Waldbewirtschaftung über Ökosystemgrenzen hinaus ist wichtig in Hinsicht auf die Ausschöpfung des Minderungspotenzials, aber auch auf finanzielle und ökonomische Aspekte. Die wirtschaftliche Situation in Thüringen führte bereits zu einem hohen Grad an Klimaeffektivität der Waldbewirtschaftung. Neben den Auswirkungen verschiedener Formen der Waldbewirtschaftung auf Hektarebene gibt es Effekte auf Landschaftsebene, die das zukünftige Minderungspotenzial von Wäldern nachhaltig beeinflussen. Kohlenstoffsenken und –quellen in bewirtschafteten Wäldern hängen auf Landschaftsebene eng von Altersklasseneffekten ab, die durch Bewirtschaftung und Störungen in der Vergangenheit bedingt sind. Das Potenzial, durch Waldbewirtschaftung CO2-Konzentrationen zu verringern, unterscheidet sich je nach regionalen Bedingungen, dem Zeithorizont und der zukünftigen Entwicklung der Bewirtschaftungsweise. Für Thüringen ermittelte das Modell im Mittel ein biologisch-technisches Potenzial von 20 Mt C, welches durch Speicherung in Biomasse, Boden und Streu, Holzprodukten und durch Energie- und Produktsubstitution zwischen 2010 und 2050 realisiert werden könnte. Dabei unterscheiden sich verschiedene Managementmaßnamen (z.B. Einstellung der Bewirtschaftung, Baumartenwechsel zu mehr Laubholz oder Verlängerung der Umtriebszeit, bei einer Umsetzung auf 20% der Waldfläche) weniger stark, wenn alle Pools und Leistungen summiert werden. Angewandt auf europäische Länder ermittelte FORMICA eine Senke des Gesamtsektors (Wald und Holzprodukte) für das kommende Jahrzehnt von jährlich etwa 20 Mt C. Diese Aufnahme wird allein durch die Alterung europäischer Wälder hervorgerufen. Die alterungsbedingte Senke in Europa wird über die nächsten 30 Jahre um etwa 1 Mt C pro Jahr abnehmen, sollte die momentane Bewirtschaftung beibehalten werden. Wie viel von dieser Senke letztendlich von Ländern unter dem Kioto-Protokoll und eventuellen Nachfolgeverträgen angerechtet werden kann, wird Verhandlungssache sein.

Currently, the Directive 2000/53/EC regulates the ELV management in 27 countries in Europe, and for the forthcoming years, more accession countries are foreseen. Since, the international nature of automotive industry, the Directive has affected industries beyond the EU. Hence, countries with important national-based automotive industry are moving towards the accomplishment of this legislation, in order to keep their competitiveness in European markets. The ELV chain in the EU is a complex system, which involves several commercial relationships between different sectors. The generation of ELV in the EU-15 was around 11.4 million units in 2005. The total number of ELV generated, considering the accessing countries, is still unknown. The number of treated ELV in the EU-15 was 7.7 million units. There are some obstacles to be overcome by ELV management already in implementation in the EU. The main difficulties are related to the reluctance of car-manufacture industry to implement Directive's provisions related to: ban of use of specific substances in automotive applications, and about recycling quotas. Another obstacle is the export of ELV from the EU, which represents a loss in input material for the system. The case of the USA, regarding the ELV management, has very different connotations than the implemented system in the EU. The current ELV management in the USA does not have specific regulations regarding the collection and recycling of ELV. The structure of the ELV chain in the USA is similar to its counterpart in the EU. The main difference lies in dismantling and post-shredder sectors. The 80% of dismantling industry is composed of salvage/scrap yards performing no-standardized operations, and the remaining 20% is represented by high value parts dismantlers. One special feature of the system is the classification of ASR as no-hazardous waste which generates almost no incentives for further treatment. The current system of ELV management in the USA works with relative efficiency. However, there are still items to be improved, e.g. poor dismantling practices in a big number of dismantling facilities (scrap yards), use of hazardous materials in car-manufacture, disposal of ASR as non-hazardous waste, scrap tyres, etc. The ELV problem has different connotation in developing countries like Mexico, than in industrialized countries. Problems, like illegal introduction of used cars from the USA to Mexico and poor practices in the management of ELV, affect the Mexican economy, environment and society. In Mexico, there exists no specific legislation to regulate the Management of ELV. This kind of product, at its End-of-Life stage and wastes generated by its treatment, has been ruled by general laws before the year 2004. More recently a semi-specific law has been addressed to solid wastes, the LGPGIR. The structure of ELV chain in Mexico is similar to its counterpart in the USA and the EU, except for an additional stage. The present work depicts the available information about the number of Mexican operators, at every stage of ELV management. The described evidence presents a deficient management of ELV in Mexico. The current management allows a maximum recycling rate of 75%, which mainly corresponds to the ferrous fraction content in vehicles which enters to the management system. The present work develops a proposal for a suitable system to manage End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) in a developing country, case study Mexico. This, is divided in three main parts. As a first step, the proposal estimates the future numbers of ELV generated in Mexico, which are estimated in a current ELV generation of around 687,000 vehicles by 2007, and by 2020 in the range of 1.1 to 1.3 million units per year. The second step is to propose a structure for the ELV chain in Mexico. The proposed structure describes the recommended operations, equipment and facilities' configuration at every stage of the management. The third step of the proposal is the configuration of strategic facility network at every stage of ELV management in Mexico. The system is configured under assumption of three different scenarios, i.e. 100%, 90% and 75% of covered demand for ELV management. The algorithm is identified for this specific problem as a Fixed Charge Facility Location Problem. The algorithm is solved through Facility Location Software SITATION©. The results show the optimal number of facilities at every stage of the management, to cover the demand for ELV management considered in the different scenarios. The fourth part is to propose a model to finance the ELV management in Mexico. The main features of this scheme are explained, as well as its advantages, disadvantages and incentives thought to be triggered into the Mexican ELV chain. ; Die Richtlinie 2000/53/EG regelt das ELV-Management derzeit in 27 Ländern in Europa und für die kommenden Jahre sind noch mehrere Beitrittsländer vorgesehen. Auf Grund des internationalen Charakters der Automobilindustrie hat diese Richtlinie auch Branchen außerhalb der EU beeinflusst. Demzufolge sind Länder mit wichtiger nationaler Automobil-Industrie auf dem Weg, diese Rechtsvorschrift zu erfüllen, um ihre Wettbewerbsfähigkeit in den europäischen Märkten zu behalten. Die Generation von Altautos / Altfahrzeuge (ELV) in der EU-15 betrug rund 11,4 Mio. Einheiten im Jahr 2005. Die errechnete Gesamtzahl an ELV unter Berücksichtigung der neuen Mitgliedsländer ist noch unbekannt. Die Zahl der behandelten ELV in der EU-15 betrug 7,7 Mio. Einheiten. Hauptschwierigkeiten in der EU-System hängen zusammen mit der Zurückhaltung der automobilherstellenden Industrie bei der Umsetzung der in der Richtlinie enthaltenen Bestimmungen in Bezug auf Verbot der Verwendung bestimmter Stoffe bei Automobil-Anwendungen, in Bezug auf Recycling-Quoten und in Bezug der Export von ELVs aus der EU. Der Fall der USA in Bezug auf das ELV-Management, hat ganz andere Konnotationen als das implementierte System in der EU. Das aktuelle ELV-Management in den USA hat keine spezifische Gesetzgebung in Bezug auf die Sammlung und das Recycling von ELV. Die Struktur der ELV-Kette in den USA ist ähnlich wie sein Pendant in der EU. Der wichtigste Unterschied liegt in den Demontage- und Post-Zerkleinerungs-Branchen. 80% der Demontageindustrie besteht aus Schrottplätzen, die nicht-standardisierte Abläufe durchführen, und die restlichen 20% sind von hochwertigen Teil-Demontagebetrieben vertreten. Eine Besonderheit des Systems ist die Klassifikation von ASR als nicht-gefährlicher Abfall, was zu fast keiner Motivation zur weiteren Behandlung führt. Das derzeitige System des ELV-Managements in den USA arbeitet mit relativer Effizienz. Allerdings gibt es noch Punkte, die verbesserungswürdig sind, z. B. die mangelhaften Demontage-Praktiken einer großen Anzahl von Demontage-Einrichtungen (Schrottplätze), die Verwendung von gefährlichen Stoffen bei der Auto-Herstellung, die Entsorgung von ASR als nicht-gefährlichem Abfall, Altreifen usw. Die ELV-Problematik hat unterschiedliche Konnotationen in Entwicklungsländern wie Mexiko, im Vergleich zu Industrieländern. Problems, wie die illegale Einführung von Gebrauchtwagen aus den USA nach Mexiko und schlechte Praktiken bei der Behandlung von ELV, wirken sich auf die mexikanische Wirtschaft, Umwelt und Gesellschaft aus. In Mexiko existiert keine spezifische Gesetzgebung zur Regelung des Managements von ELV. Diese Art von Produkten in ihrer End-of-Life-Phase und die Abfälle, die durch ihre Behandlung entstehen, wurden bis zum Jahr 2004 durch die allgemeine Gesetzgebung geregelt. In letzter Zeit wurde ein semi-spezifisches Gesetz im Bezug auf feste Abfälle verordnet, das LGPGIR. Die Struktur der ELV-Kette in Mexiko ist ähnlich wie diejenige in den USA und der EU, mit Ausnahme einer zusätzlichen Phase. Dadurch beschreibt die vorliegende Arbeit die verfügbaren Informationen über die Zahl der mexikanischen Betreiber auf jeder Stufe des ELV-Managements. Die beschriebenen Erkenntnisse stellen ein mangelhaftes Management der ELV in Mexiko dar. Das derzeitige Management ermöglicht eine maximale Recyclingquote von 75%, welches hauptsächlich dem beinhalteten Eisenanteil in den Fahrzeugen entspricht, die in das Management-System einfließen. Die vorliegende Arbeit entwickelt einen Vorschlag für ein geeignetes System. Der erste Teil dieses Vorschlags ist die Einschätzung der zukünftigen Zahl von generierten ELV in Mexiko. Diese Arbeit schätzt eine aktuelle ELV-Generation von rund 687.000 Einheiten im Jahr 2007 und bis 2020 im Bereich von 1,1 bis 1,3 Mio. Einheiten pro Jahr. Der zweite Teil dieses Vorschlags ist die Struktur der ELV-Kette in Mexiko. Eine vorgeschlagene Struktur wird beschrieben sowie die empfohlenen Maßnahmen, Ausrüstungen und Konfigurationen der Einrichtungen in jeder Phase des Managements. Der dritte Teil des Vorschlags ist die Konfiguration der Anlagen des strategischen Netzwerks in jeder Phase des ELV-Managements in Mexiko. Das System ist konfiguriert unter der Annahme von drei verschiedenen Szenarien, d. h. 100%, 90% und 75% der anfallenden Nachfrage nach ELV-Management. Der Algorithmus wurde für dieses spezielle Problem als ein "Fixed Charge Facility Location Problem" identifiziert. Der Algorithmus wurde durch "Facility Location Software SITATION©" gelöst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen die optimale Anzahl von Anlagen in jeder Phase des Managements zur Deckung der Nachfrage nach ELV-Management für die verschiedenen Szenarien. Der vierte Teil dieses Vorschlags ist die Struktur eines Modells zur Finanzierung des ELV-Managements in Mexiko. Die wichtigsten Merkmale dieses Schemas werden erläutert sowie ihre Vor- und Nachteile und die Anreize, die erdacht wurden, damit sie in die mexikanische ELV-Kette passen.

In Sweden, the agricultural sector uses an estimated 3.7 TWh per year as electricity or fuel. About 34% of this total is estimated to be used in the production of beef, pork, eggs and milk, including the spreading of manure. Some energy is also used for harvesting ley and cereals as feed, which is not included. Most of the energy used is in the form of electricity (approx 63%). All these estimates are based on a 1981-1984 survey by Nilsson & Påhlstorp (1985). Most of the technical equipment is still the same today on farms of comparable size and production methods. However, herds of pigs and cattle are larger now, and therefore new equipment is being used. The average Swedish dairy farm is 39% larger (49 cows) than the EU-15 average (35.5 cows) and herd size is growing rapidly. The climate in winter at the study farms is not as cold as that in central Europe or northern Sweden, although air temperature was below 0ºC for about 3 months in 2006 (average -0.1ºC, Dec-Feb.) In the period June-August, the average temperature was 17.8ºC in 2005 and 19.1ºC in 2006. It only exceeded 30ºC for a period longer than three hours on seven occasions. Because of the climate, it is necessary to have artificial heating in buildings for sows (farrowing section). In all other buildings the animals produce enough heat themselves to keep the house warm. When breeding cattle or dry sows some farmers accept a low inside temperature. Swedish animal welfare legislation requires more space per animal than most other countries. Slatted floors in lying areas are only permissible for fattening steers. Cages for laying hens have to include a sand-bath, nest and perches. Another difference is that sows can only be kept in crates occasionally and can never be tied up. The purpose of this study was to collect data on energy use on modern farms of a size and with a level of technical equipment that could be expected to be in use for the next 10-15 years. The data obtained were then added to data from Nilsson & Påhlstorp (1985).The survey was conducted on 16 farms with buildings mainly constructed during the past 10 years and with modern equipment. All these farms except one were in the south of Sweden (Skåne, Halland, Lat. 55-56ºN) and the last one 180 km south-east of Stockholm (Lat. 58ºN). The study was structured as follows: - Four complete dairy farms were studied in detail and another three were studied because they had interesting technical equipment that was not installed on the first four farms. - Three farms with pigs were studied. One had an FTS-system (Farrowing To Slaughter in the same pen), one a farrowing-growing system (Farrowing to approx. 25 kg/11 weeks in the same pen), and one had fattening pigs (approx. 25-110 kg). - Two farms with laying hens were studied. One had furnished cages and the other had laying hens on floors. - Two broiler houses were studied. - Four different types of grain dryers were studied: batch drier, circulating batch drier, continuous drier and batch-in-bin drier with multiple stirring augers. To measure electricity use, electricity meters of the type used by power companies were installed. These meters distinguishing between feeding, ventilation, light, manure handling and, for some plants, cleaning/disinfection, heating, milking and packing of eggs. When all these were measured there was still some more electricity that was impossible to measure or to distribute to the right category. This was categorised as Miscellaneous. Meters were also installed for estimating the power (W) used at one piglet farm and at two dairy farms. The data were processed and are included in the appendices in order to allow estimations to be made for other farms and evaluations to reduce the use of energy (power). In milk production, energy use was between 930 and 1540 kWh/cow per year (0.125-0.203 kWh/L milk). The functions that used most energy were milking and feeding, which together used 65-75% of total energy. On farms that used a wheel loader and tractor for mixing Total Mixed Ration (TMR), energy consumption was higher than on those farms that used electrical engines for mixing. One litre of diesel was set to 9.8 kWh. Production of piglets (approx. 25 kg) used 689 kWh/sow per year, which means about 28.7 kWh/25 kg pig (assuming 24 piglets/sow & year). During the fattening period (25-110 kg), energy use was 20 kWh per pig. The total energy requirement to produce finishing pigs from birth to 110 kg was thus 48.7 kWh/110 kg pig or 1163 kWh/sow per year, assuming a sow produces 24 piglets per year. This can be compared with the FTS-system, which uses 2431 kWh/sow per year. This difference is not completely caused by different breeding systems but is more likely to be due to difference in buildings, and therefore to a greater need for energy for lighting and ventilation, and a higher temperature in the farrowing unit. The farm that used less energy heated the breeding areas with a heat-pump, while another used diesel as fuel. Most energy was used for heating (including the use of heat lamps). If the building for dry sows needs mechanical ventilation and artificial light, then this leads to a greater use of energy. Egg production with laying hens in furnished cages used 3.1 kWh/year per hen, while a system with free hens used 5.0 kWh/year per hen. Light and ventilation fans used most energy, but were also the functions that showed the greatest differences between the systems. The difference in energy used for light is most probably due to the higher light intensity and to the two extra hours of light each day in the system with free layers. In broiler production, the largest use of energy was heating (84%), followed by light (10.7%) and ventilation (3.6%). The energy needed to produce one broiler (1.5 kg) was an estimated 0.91 kWh. This value is an average of five batches due to large variations between batches. The use of electricity differed from 6% to 20% between similar houses. All the grain driers except the batch-in-bin drier used between 4.2 and 9.1 kWh per 1000 kg of grain during 2005 and 2006. Due to bad weather conditions the use of energy was 30% higher in 2006. The batch-in-bin dryer used 12.0 kWh per 1000 kg of grain 2006. Due to different technical standards the values are not directly comparable, but the data are valid for the separate functions.

The EDEN project is an interdisciplinary effort conceived to address key issues that have hampered sound hazard and risk assessment for endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the European Union. It has adopted an approach that fully integrates human, wildlife, exposures, mechanisms and low-dose/mixture evaluations. The project was structured into four interlocking themes focusing on EDC mixture exposures, mechanisms of action and novel endpoints, effects on male reproductive health and the evaluation of low-dose and mixture effects of EDCs. For the first time, the simultaneous occurrence of nearly 150 different EDCs in human and wildlife tissues was measured. These studies revealed that numerous EDCs occur together in humans, yet differences in the levels of individual EDCs in specimens from boys with cryptorchidism and from women suffering from breast cancer and their respective controls did not become apparent. It appears that the likelihood of developing any of the above conditions cannot be attributed to any individual chemical at relevant exposure levels. However, there are signs that simultaneous exposure to many different EDCs may play a cumulative role in these disease processes. This means that efforts to develop biomarkers of cumulative EDC exposure should be re-doubled. In contrast, symptoms of endocrine disruption in fish could be explained largely in terms of exposure to estrogenic chemicals, but the possible role of antiandrogenic chemicals in disrupting sexual development in fish requires urgent attention. Fish caught in certain Dutch rivers exceeded the EU permissible levels for polychlorinated dioxins and furans. Considerable progress has been made in establishing relevant modes of action of EDCs and in assessing new endpoints. The screening for EDCs, with its focus on steroid receptor interactions, has not kept up with the progress made in understanding rapid cellular signalling events that occur in the wake of receptor activation. In the interest of avoiding overlooking endocrine active agents it is necessary to expand screening tools to capture rapid signalling events. Substantial progress has been also achieved in characterising the role of the aromatase system in fish as a target of EDCs and the consequences of steroid synthesis disruption on sexual differentiation, reproduction as well as non-reproductive processes such as neurodifferentiation. Extensive investigations of the role of certain phthalates in disrupting male sexual development have revealed delays in germ cell differentiation and other molecular effects as key events underlying the induction of the testicular dysgenesis syndrome. The role of the InsL3 protein in promoting male sexual development proved to be more complex than thought previously. Although the development and validation of an assay for the measurement of InsL3 blood levels was successful, the differences in blood InsL3 levels in normal and cryptorchid boys were too small to exploit InsL3 as a biomarker indicative of disruption of testis descent. The hypothalamic pituitary unit proved to be exquisitely sensitive to the effects of several EDCs, and the effects may account for precocious sexual development observed after early EDC exposure. EDEN has advanced the study of endocrine disruption in fish with activities including the development of microarrays for assessing endocrine disruption in zebrafish and establishing sensitive screening tools for endocrine disruption in fish. The development of a transgenic fish model for the detection of EDC effects proved to be technically too demanding to be completed in time, but efforts continue to complete this project after conclusion of EDEN. An in vivo model in fish (the three-spined stickleback) for the detection of antiandrogenic EDC was developed as a complement to the Hershberger assay. Male reproductive health in Denmark and Finland showed a worrying declining trend. For the first time, it could be established that the same is true for young men in Germany. It is of concern that semen quality among young Germans is similar to the values found in young Danes, a group previously thought to show the lowest semen quality in Europe. Foetal exposure to smoking has been identified as one reason for these effects. Observations of a declining total natural conception rate among the young Danish cohorts imply that the current poor semen quality has an impact on the population fertility in the future – a situation which will be difficult to reverse in the short term. The current and projected widespread use of assisted reproductive technologies may be a sign of such an emerging public health problem which also adds to the load of medical costs in young population. It is of vital importance to continue surveillance of semen quality and all efforts should be made to identify the factors that may cause harm in order to prevent further deterioration. Extensive low-dose studies with EDCs have shown that the conventional estimation of no-observed-adverse-effect-levels (NOAEL), with their reliance on hypothesis testing methods is inadequate for capturing low-dose effects of EDCs. Whenever possible, regression-based approaches with benchmark dose limits should replace NOAEL as the basis for establishing acceptable human exposure levels. A framework was developed to combine the strengths of both methodologies by making considerations of statistical detection limits and statistical power the starting point of testing procedures. Implementation of this framework will require a significant change in toxicological testing practice. Determinants of additivity for EDC mixtures have been characterised and are now well understood for combinations of similarly acting EDCs. Experimental studies have produced evidence that EDCs of relatively low potency and at low exposure levels can still work together to produce significant combination effects when they are present in sufficient numbers. The perceived low potency of many EDCs alone is uninformative in anticipating possible risks stemming from these chemicals. Where EDCs act in concert with endogenous hormones, significant additional effects may result under certain circumstances. Uncertainty still exists in relation to the likelihood of synergistic mixture effects, and concerted efforts should be made to fill this gap. Another source of uncertainty that will hamper sound EDC mixture risk assessment is incomplete knowledge about the identity of EDCs, their exposure levels and number. This issue can only be resolved through the development of dedicated exposure assessment strategies that take account of cumulative exposures. Despite these uncertainties, knowledge about determinants and factors that govern the joint action of similarly acting EDCs is now sufficiently advanced to come to pragmatic risk assessment approaches that take mixture effects into consideration. A modus operandi for EDC mixtures was developed which includes the use of dose addition (including the toxic equivalency factor approach) to arrive at a "mixture no-observed-adverse-effect-level" (MNOAEL) for endpoints relevant to endocrine disruption. These are then combined with a safety factor to arrive at estimates of tolerable human exposure. "Data-poor" situations may require estimation of a crude MNOAEL by dividing individual NOAEL of certain prototype chemicals by the anticipated number of relevant similarly acting chemicals. ; European Commission, FP5 "Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources": Contract No. QLK4-CT2002-00603.

In den 1980er und 1990er Jahren galt London nicht gerade als ein positives Beispiel städtebaulicher Entwicklungen. Wenn überhaupt drangen höchstens negative Schlagzeilen aus der britischen Hauptstadt auf den Kontinent. Der glitzernde, aber bankrotte Bürostandort Canary Wharf, das endlos diskutierte Bürogebiet Paternoster Square am Fuße der St. Paul's Cathedral und eine für das Verkehrsmuseum reife U-Bahn dominierten die Architektur- und Städtebaudebatte. Zur Jahrtausendwende schien es mit den kontroversen Millenniumsprojekten zunächst ähnlich weiterzugehen. Doch dann ereignete sich ein Wandel im Herzen der Stadt - in der Art und Weise wie das Zentrum genutzt wird, in seiner architektonischen und städtebaulichen Gestalt, in der nationalen und internationalen Wahrnehmung und auch in Bezug auf Regierungsverantwortung und Planungsvorgaben. Die sehr dynamische Entwicklung des vergangenen Jahrzehnts ist jedoch noch keinesfalls abgeschlossen. Die britische Metropole hat 2005 den Zuschlag für die Ausrichtung der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2012 bekommen – mit einem deutlich auf Städtebau und Architektur ausgerichteten Wettbewerbsbeitrag. Ziel der Dissertation war es zu untersuchen, wie es zu diesem Paradigmenwechsel kam, der schließlich eine Wiedergeburt des Zentrums der britischen Metropole ermöglichte. Als Ausgangspunkt dieses Wandels kann heute die Schwächung demokratischer Institutionen im Vereinigten Königreich durch Margaret Thatcher festgemacht werden. Unter der Premierministerin war im Jahr 1986 die Londoner Stadtregierung abgeschafft worden. Zudem vollzog sich die Entwicklung der Stadt immer stärker zwischen zwei gegensätzlichen Polen: Die City of London und die City of Westminster boomten im Zuge der aufkommenden Dienstleistungsökonomie, wohingegen große Teile der Stadt fortschreitend unter Verarmung und Funktionsverlust litten. Für London ließ sich eine verschärfte Krisensituation diagnostizieren, die ihren Höhepunkt zu Beginn der 1990er Jahre fand. So verbreitete sich zunächst in der Fachöffentlichkeit die Überzeugung, dass eine Wiederbelebung der vom Niedergang betroffenen Stadt erfolgen müsse. Die Befürchtungen gipfelten in der Sorge, London könnte seine ökonomische Konkurrenzfähigkeit aufgrund eines Mangels an räumlichen Entwicklungsstrategien verlieren. Der Suche nach Lösungsmöglichkeiten für die städtebaulichen Probleme wurde seit der Wahl von New Labour 1997 eine hohe politische Priorität eingeräumt. Mit der Einsetzung der Greater London Authority und der Wahl eines Bürgermeisters im Jahr 2000 erhielt London wieder politische Organisationen, die sich um das Wohlergehen der Stadt kümmerten und die den Stadtumbau zu einer ihrer wichtigsten Aufgaben erklärt haben. Als Ergebnis des Paradigmenwechsels im Städtebau präsentiert sich London mit einem vielfältig umgebauten, neu regierten und neu definierten Zentrum. London vollzieht eine Entwicklung hin zur Dienstleistungsmetropole, zur world city und zur creative city, zur Tourismus- und Erlebnisstadt. Vergleichbare Prozesse haben in anderen nordamerikanischen und europäischen Metropolen bereits stattgefunden oder werden angestrebt, in London aber sind sie kristallklar und besonders zugespitzt zu beobachten. Ansätze und Strategien, die in anderen Städten bereits erprobt wurden, werden von London aus genau beobachtet, neu kombiniert und in besonderer Weise adaptiert. Auch völlig neue, sehr innovative Konzepte werden realisiert, die ein großes Potential für den Stadtumbau in anderen Metropolen darstellen. Das Beispiel London zeigt – trotz aller Probleme – sehr deutlich, wie ein neues Verständnis von Städtebau und Planung aussehen kann. Das neue Londoner Zentrum ist ein Ort, der sich nahezu perfekt an den Bedürfnissen der Hauptzielgruppen orientiert, den urbanen Mittelschichten und dem hochrangigen Servicesektor. Regie beim Stadtumbau führte eine Vielzahl von Akteuren, vor allem aber die im Jahr 2000 gegründete Greater London Authority, die einen Prototyp der schlanken, unbürokratisch agierenden und strategisch ausgerichteten nachmodernen Verwaltung verkörpert. Unterstützt wird sie von einem Zentralstaat, der dem Thema "Städtebau" eine hohe Bedeutung zuweist und mit der urban renaissance ein städtebauliches Leitbild entwickelt hat, das der nachhaltigen und an städtebaulicher Gestaltung orientierten Entwicklung der Städte verpflichtet ist. Neue, innovative Wege werden erprobt, wie diese gestiegenen Ansprüche umgesetzt werden können – in einem Klima, das nach wie vor von eingeschränkten Ressourcen der öffentlichen Hand und von immer mächtiger werdenden Privatinteressen geprägt ist. Aus London ist ein deutliches "Zurück zur Planung" zu vernehmen, eine Rückbesinnung auf hohe Ansprüche in architektonischer und städtebaulicher Gestaltung, die als richtungsweisend für andere Metropolen in Europa gelten und unter dem Begriff "Londoner Weg" zusammengefasst werden kann. ; In the 1980ies and 1990ies London did not apply straight as a positive example of urban design. If at all negative headlines made their way from the British capital to the continent. The glittering, but bankrupt office location Canary Wharf, the endlessly discussed office area Paternoster Square at the foot of the St Paul's Cathedral and the underground which seemed ripe for the traffic museum dominated the debate on architecture and town planning. At the turn of the century this trend seemed to continue with the controversial Millennium projects. But then a change in the heart of the city occurred - in the way the centre is used, in its style and quality of architecture and urban design, in the national and international perception and also regarding government responsibility and planning specifications. However, the very dynamic development of the past decade has not yet come to an end. In 2005, the British metropolis received the acceptance for the bid to host the 2012 Olympic summer games - with a contribution clearly aligned on urban design and architecture. The aim of the thesis at issue was to examine, how this paradigm shift happened, which finally made a renaissance of the centre of the British capital possible. Today, the attenuation of democratic institutions in the United Kingdom by Margaret Thatcher can be regarded as a starting point of this paradigm shift. Under the Prime Minister the London city government had been abolished in 1986. Another important fact was that the city continued to develop ever more strongly between two opposite poles. The City of London and the City of Westminster were undergoing a boom in the course of the arising service economics, whereas large parts of the city suffered progressively from depletion and a loss of uses. For London an intensified crisis situation could be diagnosed, which found its climax at the beginning of the 1990ies. The fears culminated in the concern, London could lose its economic competitive power due to a lack of spatial development strategies. First the conviction spread in the specialized public that a revival of the city should be fostered. Since the election of New Labour 1997 a high political priority was granted to the search for solutions for the problems of city centres and urban design. With the installation of the Greater London Authority and the election of a mayor in the year 2000 London received again political organizations, which cared for the well-being being of the city and which declared urban regeneration to be one their most important tasks. As result of the paradigm shift in urban design, London presents itself with a revitalised, newly governed and redefined centre. London has been turned into a service sector metropolis, a world city and a creative city, a capital of tourism and events. Comparable processes took place or are aimed at in other North American and European cities. In London, however, they are to be observed crystal clear and particularly sharpened. Ideas and strategies, which were already tested in other cities, are watched closely and are then combined and adapted specifically for London. Apart from that, completely new, very innovative concepts are put into practice. These new concepts present a large potential for urban design and regeneration in other cities. The example of London shows - despite all problems - very clearly, what a new understanding of town planning and urban design can look like in the future. The revitalised London centre is a place, which almost perfectly plays to the core of the target group, the urban middle classes and the high-ranking service sector. The urban regeneration was directed by a number of stakeholders, above all the newly created Greater London Authority, which embodies a prototype of the slim, unbureaucratically acting and strategically aligned post-modern administration. It is supported by a central government, which assigned a high meaning to the issues of town planning and urban design and which developed the leitbild "urban renaissance", which is committed to sustainable and design-led urban redevelopment. New, innovative ways are tested, how these increasing requirements can be put into practice - in a climate, which is still shaped by powerful private interests and by reduced resources of the public sector. From London a clear "return to planning" is to be heard, a return to high quality in architectural and urban design, which can be regarded as pointing the way for other cities in Europe and which can be summarized under the term "the London way".

This report summarizes the results of "Nanotechnology and Life Cycle Assessment," a twoday workshop jointly convened by the Woodrow Wilson Center Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies; the United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development; and the European Commission, RTD.G4 "Nano S&T: Converging Science and Technologies." Held in October 2006, the workshop involved international experts from the fields of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and nanotechnology. The main program of the workshop consisted of introductory lectures, group discussions and a final plenary session. A writing group prepared the initial draft of this report based on workshop discussions, and the final report was reviewed by all workshop participants and outside experts. The contents are based on the results of the group discussions. The structure of this report follows the main topics identified and discussed by the groups. The purpose of the workshop was to determine whether existing LCA tools and methods are adequate to use on a new technology. This document provides an overview of LCA and nanotechnology, discusses the current state of the art, identifies current knowledge gaps that may prevent the proper application of LCA in this field and makes recommendations on the application of LCA for assessing the potential environmental impacts of nanotechnology, nanomaterials, and nanoproducts. For the purposes of this report, "nanoproducts" are defined as products containing nanomaterials. A short version of this report will be published in an appropriate LCA and/or a technical nanotechnology journal. The following presents a summary of the main conclusions and recommendations identified by the workshop participants and presented in this report. Main Conclusions · There is no generic LCA of nanomaterials, just as there is no generic LCA of chemicals. · The ISO-framework for LCA (ISO 14040:2006) is fully suitable to nanomaterials and nanoproducts, even if data regarding the elementary flows and impacts might be uncertain and scarce. Since environmental impacts of nanoproducts can occur in any life cycle stage, all stages of the life cycle of nanoproducts should be assessed in an LCA study. · While the ISO 14040 framework is appropriate, a number of operational issues need to be addressed in more detail in the case of nanomaterials and nanoproducts. The main problem with LCA of nanomaterials and nanoproducts is the lack of data and understanding in certain areas. · While LCA brings major benefits and useful information, there are certain limits to its application and use, in particular with respect to the assessment of toxicity impacts and of large-scale impacts. · Within future research, major efforts are needed to fully assess potential risks and environmental impacts of nanoproducts and materials (not just those related to LCA). There is a need for protocols and practical methodologies for toxicology studies, fate and transport studies and scaling approaches. · International cooperation between Europe and the United States, together with other partners, is needed in order to address these concerns. · Further research is needed to gather missing relevant data and to develop user-friendly eco-design screening tools, especially ones suitable for use by small and medium sized enterprises. Key Recommendations 1. Case-studies/prioritizing efforts With limited resources, a case-study research approach could be adopted to significantly enhance knowledge on environmental impacts of nanomaterials and nanoproducts. 2. LCA studies and presentations of results Any LCA study on nanoproducts and nanomaterials most likely suffers from high uncertainty issues. Therefore, the report recommends: · Do not wait to have near-perfect data. · Be modest about uncertainties; clearly state relevant uncertainty aspects and assumptions. · Draw conclusions in the case of major or significant improvements; otherwise, state that the nanoproducts and the conventional product are equivalent. · At this early stage, studies should focus on protecting humans and the environment. · Separate the category indicators, grouping them by relevance/uncertainty. · Avoid overselling the benefits of the new nanoproduct, since assessment methodologies will improve and might show "problems" in the future. · Work with toxicologists and other scientists (geographical and socio-economic impacts) to review data and bound the issue. · Make disaggregated data available for future LCA comparisons. 3. Approaches · Critical review should always be done to ensure credibility of LCA studies. · An independent review should be made by an expert panel with balanced representation and wide range of expertise. · Data for the critical review or other supporting data should be published. · Panels of interested parties should be formed to establish rules for LCA of nanomaterials and nanoproducts. 4. Actions from stakeholders Different stakeholders/authorities can potentially support the application and use of LCA for nanoproducts and nanomaterials through a large set of actions. Government actions could include: · Setting up research frameworks and programs for the methodology development of LCA in the field of nanotechnology and with nanoproducts. · R&D activities, with special emphasis on multinational cooperation in fields related to health and environmental safety. · Use of LCA results to design adapted economic instruments. · Using LCA to help develop green purchasing and integrate nanotechnology criteria in green purchasing. · Allocating a portion of current nano research funding to nano/LCA research to make it more attractive to the private sector for further R&D. · Providing independent, standardized and reviewed LCA information that might be used by industry and other stakeholders. · Covering different nanotechnologies' flows of substances (air emissions, water releases etc.) into the European Commission's "European Reference Life Cycle Data System" (ELCD), and the US Life Cycle Impact database. · Working toward an international LCI database for nanomaterials. · Improving data coordination among different government agencies, e.g., agencies responsible for product consumer safety evaluations, workplace safety evaluations and environmental issues. Academia can potentially support the application and use of LCA to nanoproducts and nanomaterials through a large set of actions, including: · Setting up databases for LCA case studies on nanotechnology and nanoproducts. · Providing scholarships to the universities to hire Ph.D. students specifically for nano/LCA research. · Carrying out research in LCA methods applied to nanotechnology and nanoproducts. Industry can potentially support the application and use of LCA to nanoproducts and nanomaterials through a large set of actions, including: · Undertake R&D activities. · Use of LCA results to design improved products. · Co-funding research on developing LCA methods, impact characterization metrics specific to nanotechnologies. · Co-funding research on toxic effects of specific nanomaterials. · Co-funding social science research on public concerns about nanotechnology and on developing effective risk-communication strategies using LCA data. · Actively creating mechanisms for sharing confidential data without compromising competitiveness. The report also notes that the insurance industry should play a leading role in assessing life cycle risk assessments of nanoproducts. NGO and Consumer Associations can potentially support the application and use of LCA to nanoproducts and nanomaterials through a large set of actions, including: · Communicating LCA study results to the public to inform consumers. · Educating themselves and promoting LCA as a tool to assess nanotechnology.

The history of German migration policies was a growth industry during the 1990s. The political battles of the present, such as asylum legislation, integration, and citizenship reform, created growing interest in the German historical experience of migration, migration controls and citizenship law. At the time, the only major work to tackle the subject was Klaus Bade's pioneering study of Prussian migration policies before the First World War, recently republished in an updated edition.[1] Initially, interest in German migration policies was guided largely by two leading questions. Histories of citizenship in Germany tended to adopt a long or a comparative perspective, which sought to test the hypothesis that German citizenship law and its implementation in practice reflected a particularly ethnic German conception of nationhood.[2] Histories of migration policy, by contrast, tended to focus on particular episodes in which a German tendency to view migrants primarily with regard to their usefulness, and not as potential immigrants and future citizens, clearly emerged, especially with regards to histories of the German Empire, the First World War, National Socialism, the Second World War and the post-war treatment of Gastarbeiter. The Weimar Republic, in contrast, was usually passed over in a few pages that highlighted the continuity of labor market control.[3] This state of affairs was remarkable because research on other countries highlighted the interwar period as an epoch of massive change in international migration policies. Race and ethnicity loomed larger than they had before, as indicated by the implementation of a quota system and barred zones in the United States. Moreover, with the First World War came the introduction of documentation requirements and the creation of labor-management bureaucracies that facilitated the distinction between citizens and aliens, as well as attempts to match labor supply to labor demand. Gérard Noiriel had even gone so far as to argue, largely with a view to migration and documentation policies, that the practices of Vichy had their roots in republican reforms of the late 1920s and 1930s.[4] Jochen Oltmer's magisterialHabilitationsschrift closes this gap all but completely. Based on a thorough reading of the archival record and contemporary public debate, his book shows that the transition from the politics of the First World War to the politics of National Socialism in the years of a labor shortage was more complicated previously assumed. He also highlights that migration policy was a field in which the Weimar Republic's problems emerged with particular poignancy. Oltmer's account is organized thematically rather than chronologically, though his subjects are arranged in the order in which they emerged as the main foci of internal administrative and public political debate. In the Weimar Republic's early years, these topics concerned ethnic Germans left outside the Empire's post-Versailles borders, prisoners of war and political refugees. In the later years, the position of migrant workers gained more prominence. While publicly committed to aiding fellow Germans, the republic's practice was ambivalent. The arrival of former residents of Alsace--mostly skilled workers in industries where labor was in demand, from a territory unlikely to be re-conquered soon--was welcome, but emigration of ethnic Germans from areas under Polish control was actively discouraged. The official view of these potential emigrants was less positive, their numbers were larger by several orders of magnitude and maintaining a visible German minority outside Germany's eastern borders seemed a good way to bolster the German case for a revision of the Treaty of Versailles. Migrants from Poland who could not prove they had been persecuted could therefore only expect accommodation in forbidding refugee camps in remote locations. As Oltmer's third chapter shows, this attitude also shaped the Weimar Republic's response to ethnic German emigration from Russia, which peaked during the famine years of the 1920s. Individual ethnicity was, therefore, not a dominant factor in the treatment of refugees; aliens of all ethnic backgrounds remained in a precarious position in the Weimar Republic, regardless of whether they were former prisoners of war who had opted to stay, or Jewish refugees from eastern and southeastern Europe who loomed relatively large in public debates or refugees from Soviet Russia. Ethnicity and race also loomed large in debates on the desirability of labor immigration. In general, the attitudes of state governments had more or less come full circle since the days of the empire. Whereas Prussia had been most concerned about the impact of Polish immigrants on national homogeneity before 1914, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg proved most rigid after 1919. However, the majority of migrant workers were interested in jobs in Prussia, in the industrial areas of the Ruhr and, more prominently, in the agricultural east, which continued to rely on the access to Polish labor markets, particularly for potato planting and harvesting. In theory, the states and the empire had a powerful new tool to control labor migration: the obligatory work permit, issued only if no German applicants could be found for a job. Things were, however, not so simple in practice. Political interest in ethnic homogeneity was equal to interest in increasing the supply of food, a goal that could only be achieved, East Elbian landowners claimed, if Polish seasonal workers remained available to German employers. Immigration was, however, regarded with distaste by the völkisch right, Prussia's conservative bureaucracy and the Social Democrats, who viewed Polish laborers as an obstacle to the long-overdue modernization of rural Prussia through mechanization and unionization. The solution, fixed quotas for migrant laborers set to decline every year, proved unworkable, as rural employers turned to undocumented laborers. Moreover, the German government did its bit to undermine respect for legality in immigration matters. Seeking to reimpose a de facto policy forcing Polish migrants to return home for part of the year to prevent their settlement in Poland, German officials came into conflict with Polish determination to cut the state's ties to long-term emigrants, and were frequently forced to aid migrants in clandestinely crossing the border, before an unequal agreement could be concluded with Poland in 1927 that confirmed the status of Polish workers as second-class migrants excluded from social insurance and subject to a forced return for part of the year. Oltmer's comprehensively documented study does more than simply fill a gap in existing research. He unearths a striking pattern to Weimar policies, which could be found in many other fields of policy and may contribute to explaining why successive Weimar governments had such a difficult time in gaining the population's respect. Public pronouncements frequently contradicted secret or semi-secret policies. Official quotas for foreign workers, for example, were unofficially raised and little attempt was made to sanction employers of undocumented workers. Such actions exposed the Republic to criticism from the right and created a climate in which even more restrictive National Socialist policies could acquire broad popular support. Oltmer's book thus treats a question at the center, not the periphery, of the Weimar years.

Red. nauk. Wydz. : Lewandowski, Jerzy ; Redaktor serii : Wodziński, Piotr ; Unia Europejska jest najważniejszym ugrupowaniem polityczno-gospodarczym na kontynencie europejskim. Członkostwo Polski w jej strukturach stwarza dla naszego kraju ogromne szanse rozwoju. Wynikają one z liberalizacji wymiany międzynarodowej oraz korzystania przez Polskę w coraz szerszym zakresie z czterech swobód (przepływu towarów, osób, usług i kapitału) obejmujących swym zasięgiem Europejski Jednolity Rynek Wewnętrzny. Ich znaczenie dla dalszego rozwoju kontynentu europejskiego jest ogromne, szczególnie w aspekcie założeń Strategii Lizbońskiej, której głównym przesłaniem jest stworzenie w Europie najbardziej konkurencyjnej gospodarki na świecie. Stąd też zainteresowanie problematyką europejską w kontekście oddziaływania tego rynku na rozwój przedsiębiorczości i promowania jej wpływu na gospodarkę poszczególnych państw UE staje się przedmiotem rozważań i to zarówno w sferach akademickich, jak i biznesowych. Waga tego problemu pozwala sądzić, że stanowić on będzie inspirację do dyskursu naukowego w tej materii na wiele kolejnych lat. Zasadniczymi podmiotami Europejskiego Rynku, oprócz znaczącego potencjału konsumenckiego, są małe i średnie firmy, których rozwój w ostatnim okresie jest tak dynamiczny, że można mówić o ich dominującym wpływie na rozwój gospodarczy całej Unii Europejskiej. Stanowią one obecnie ponad 98% wszystkich przedsiębiorstw tego obszaru, w tym Polski, tworząc nowe miejsca pracy oraz generując znaczącą część Produktu Krajowego Brutto. Przewaga tego sektora nad firmami dużymi wynika z faktu ich niezwykłej elastyczności na rynku podmiotów gospodarczych. Stanowią one jednocześnie zalążek nowych projektów gospodarczych oraz źródło innowacyjności i przedsiębiorczości. Próbę dyskusji nad zarysowanymi powyżej zagadnieniami podjęto w niniejszej monografii, która jest owocem konferencji naukowej zorganizowanej przez Katedrę Integracji Europejskiej i Marketingu Międzynarodowego w maju 2006 roku na temat: ,,Polski sektor MŚP na Jednolitym Runku Europejskim". W niniejszym opracowaniu naukowym wykorzystano znaczącą część referatów, które były przedmiotem analizy dociekań naukowych w trakcie powyższej konferencji. Całość monografii stanowią dwa tomy, opublikowane pod wspólnym tytułem ,,Szanse rozwoju polskiego sektora MŚP na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim". W pierwszej części tego opracowania zatytułowanej "Funkcjonowanie MŚP w warunkach Jednolitego Rynku Europejskiego" znalazły się zagadnienia dotyczące rozwoju sektora MŚP w Polsce w kontekście dwuletniego okresu członkostwa w warunkach Jednolitego Rynku Europejskiego. W tomie drugim zatytułowanym "Wspieranie rozwoju MŚP na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim" przedstawiono wpływ integracji europejskiej na rozwój MŚP poprzez dostęp tego sektora do unijnych środków pomocowych, wpływu sektora publicznego i instytucji otoczenia biznesu oraz nowoczesnych systemów i strategii zarządzania na funkcjonowanie małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim. Układ dwutomowy tego opracowania stanowi zwartą merytorycznie całość. Pierwszy tom składa się z czterech rozdziałów. W rozdziale pierwszym analizowane są problemy rozwoju przedsiębiorczości w Polsce, jak również przeprowadzono porównanie warunków funkcjonowania MŚP w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej. Ponadto scharakteryzowane zostały czynniki warunkujące prowadzenie działalności na rynkach międzynarodowych. W rozdziale drugim określono wpływ zjawisk integracyjnych na podnoszenie konkurencyjności i innowacyjności sektora MŚP w warunkach Jednolitego Rynku Europejskiego. Rozdział trzeci obejmuje logistyczne aspekty zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem MŚP z uwzględnieniem kosztów logistycznych, usług transportowych oraz pozycji konkurencyjnej firmy w łańcuchu dostaw. Ostatni rozdział poświęcono zagadnieniom dotyczącym marketingu i jego roli w procesie kreowania relacji z klientem na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim. Wyrażam nadzieję, że monografia ta, będąca efektem pracy wielu Autorów, przyczyni się do pogłębienia wiedzy z zakresu zasad funkcjonowania MŚP na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim oraz stanie się przyczynkiem do dalszej analizy w tym zakresie i to zarówno wśród badaczy, jak i praktyków. Chciałbym również podkreślić, iż na wiele dylematów wyłaniających się w niniejszej pracy nie ma jednoznacznych odpowiedzi. Należy je traktować jako kwestie do dalszych rozważań i pogłębionych studiów wymagających bacznej obserwacji zjawisk i procesów rynkowych oraz sposobów ich rozwiązywania przez funkcjonujące na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim małe i średnie przedsiębiorstwa. Oddając w Państwa ręce niniejszą publikację, mam nadzieję, iż spotka się ona z przychylnym odbiorem oraz konstruktywną krytyką zawartej w niej treści. ; European Union (EU) is the most important political and economic formation in Europe. The membership of Poland in it' s structures creates for our country the significant chances of development. They result with liberalization of international exchange as well as using by Poland in more and more wider range of four liberties functioning in the European Single Internal Market. Their role for the development of European continent is fundamental, particularly in the aspect of foundations the Lizbon Strategy which the main aspect is creating European economy the most competitive in the world. That' s why the European problems in the context of its influence (of this market) on development and promoting of enterprises (in the individual states of EU) become the subject of considerations academical and business spheres. Role of this problem permits to judge that this questions will be inspiring to scientific discussion for many next years. Small and medium enterprises are principle elements of the European Market. In the last period their development is so dynamie, that they have the predominant influence on economic development of the whole European Union. At present they make up over 98% all enterprises of this area creating the new places of work as well as generating significant part of GDP. Superiority of this sector comparing to large firms is their (SME) the unusual elasticity in the market. They make up simultaneously the ovule of new economic projects as well as source of innovation and enterprise. W orked out the present publication is the first volume of monograph. It is based on the materials sent by the scientists from Poland on the national conference organized by the Department of European lntegration and International Marketing of Technical University of Lodz in May of 2006. The main purpose of this conference (and the monograph) was: "Polish SME in the Single European Market". The whole monograph was published under common title: " The chances of development of Polish SME in the Single European Market". The first part of this book entitled "Functioning of the SME in conditions of Single European Market" is concentrated on the questions of the development of SME in Poland in context of our two-year period of membership in new econornic realities. The second part ("Supporting the development of SME in the Single European Market") presents the role of business institution in the development SME sector in Poland and describes the influence of local factors as well as sector public on functioning the SME in the Single European Market. There are given the financial aspects of development of enterprises and possibilities resulting from extemal sources (the structural funds) and the modem systems and strategies of management used in SME are presented, as well as the different technological innovations (electronic environment). Present, first volume consists of four chapters. In first chapter the problems of development of enterprise in Poland are analysed and there is the comparison of conditions of functioning SME in the chosen countries of European Union. In second chapter the influence of integration phenomena is qualified on increasing the competitiveness and innovation of the sector SME in conditions of Single European Market. Third Chapter concems the logistic aspects of management of SME enterprise concentrating on the chain of deliveries, the logistic costs, transport services as well as the position of competitive firm. The last chapter is relating to the marketing process and its role of creating relation between customer and firm in the Single European Market.

Nachdem Pettenkofer die Hygiene als experimentelle wissenschaftliche Disziplin begründet und in München 1865 den ersten Lehrstuhl besetzt hatte, kam es in Deutschland Anfang des 20. Jh. nur noch zu einer Spezialisierung des Fachgebietes. Für Grotjahn wurde 1920 an der Berliner Universität eine Abteilung für Sozialhygiene eingerichtet. In dem nach dem zweiten Weltkriege verstärkt einsetzenden Differenzierungsprozess in der Hygiene entstanden an der Greifswalder Universität zwei Unikate: die, Hygiene auf dem Lande "und die - Militärische Sozialhygiene". Da sie wissenschaftlich bisher nicht näher beschrieben wurden, bestand das Anliegen dieser Arbeit darin, die Entwicklung der Hygiene in Greifswald in der Etappe von 1945 bis 1990 nachzuzeichnen und den Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung auf die Etablierung der beiden Besonderheiten zu legen. Die engere Zielstellung war darauf gerichtet, die europaweiten Unikate näher zu beschreiben, Kurzbiographien der beteiligten Hochschullehrer zu erarbeiten und ihr Wirken an der Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität im Zusammenhang mit den erbrachten wissenschaftlichen Leistungen zu bewerten. Das verfügbare Material stammt aus Primärquellen, in erster Linie aus Zeitschriftenartikeln und Büchern, aus Sekundärquellen, vorrangig aus Dissertationen, Unterlagen zur Forschung und wissenschaftlichen Arbeit und anderer nichtbuchhändlerischer Literatur sowie aus Unterlagen mit einem Geheimhaltungsgrad und biographischen Dokumenten. Seine Erschließung erfolgte durch öffentliche Zugänge in Bibliotheken und Archiven sowie durch die Bereitstellung privater Unterlagen noch lebender Hochschullehrer. Deskription und Analyse der Dokumente wurden, soweit es möglich war, im Interesse einer ausgewogenen Wertung der stattgehabten Prozesse durch gezielte Anfragen und Interviews ergänzt. Die erste Periode der Hygiene in Greifswald begann 1888 mit Friedrich Loeffler und endete mit Kurt Herzberg. Auch wenn es bei den in der Zwischenzeit agierenden Ordinarien durchaus einige kommunal- und sozialmedizinische Orientierungen in der Arbeit gab, dominierten mikrobiologische und virologische Themen. Das änderte sich, als unter Georg Tartler der Differenzierungsprozess der Hygiene eingeleitet wurde. Er lässt die Unterscheidung von drei Entwicklungslinien zu: - Erstens die Fortführung von Mikrobiologie und Virologie, - zweitens die Etablierung der Sozial-, Gewerbe-(später Arbeits-) und Kommunalhygiene und - drittens, im Zusammenhang mit der Angliederung der Militärmedizinischen Sektion an die Universität, die Schaffung militärhygienischer Fachgebiete. Nach der notwendigen Skizzierung der Hygiene als Lehrfach an der Medizinischen Fakultät und der Militärhygiene an der Militärmedizinischen Sektion erfolgte die nähere Charakteristik der Entwicklung der Sozialhygiene in beiden strukturellen Gliederungen. Einbezogen wurden dabei Kurzbiographien der Hochschullehrer, ihre Publikationen sowie die unter ihrer Leitung abgeschlossenen Promotionen und Habilitationen. Die 7 Kurzbiographien der Lehrstuhlleiter und die erfassten 801 Publikationen, 168 Dissertations- und 20 Habilitationsschriften dürften in ihrer Gesamtheit ein Bild über die Sozialhygiene in Greifswaldvermitteln helfen. Das aus der Verschmelzung der Lehrstühle, Sozialhygiene " und, Hygiene auf dem Lande entstandene Unikat, Sozialhygiene und Hygiene auf dem Lande " bestand nach Weggang von Ludwig Mecklinger aus Greifswald unter Leitung von Herbert Knabe von 1964 bis 1983 und wurde dann von Horst Huyoff noch zwei Jahre weitergeführt, bevor daraus 1985 ein selbständiges "Institut für Sozialhygiene" entstand. Die Analyse zeigte, dass es keine feststellbaren Bemühungen gab, ein solches, doch deutlich von dem Differenzierungsgefüge der Hygiene an anderen Universitäten abweichende Institution wissenschaftssystematisch näher zu begründen. Nach den Interessen von Herbert Knabe aufgebaut und profiliert, konnte dieses Unikat am ehesten als ein, Institut für Allgemein- und Sozialmedizin " unter anderem Namen in den zeitgeschichtlichen Prozess eingeordnet werden. Mit Friedrich Ring wurde an der Militärmedizinischen Sektion ein erfahrener Militärarzt mit dem Aufbau eines Instituts beauftragt, das für Lehr- und (und später ins Auge gefasste) Forschungsbemühungen auf den Gebieten der Organisation und Taktik des Medizinischen Dienstes sowie des Gesundheitsschutzes der Truppe im Frieden verantwortlich sein sollte. Nach seinem frühen Tod führten Günter Ewert und Rolf Hornei für das Fach Organisation des Gesundheitsschutzes, das ab 1965 in einem eigenständigen Institut verselbständigt wurde, den Aufbauprozess weiter. Er erfolgte, abweichend von der sowjetischen militärmedizinischen Doktrin, in Anlehnung an das Fachverständnis der DDR als, "Militärische Sozialhygiene". Damit verbunden war eine 1änger schwelende Auseinandersetzung um die Bezeichnung, die sich an der MMS bis 1976 im Rahmen des, Instituts für die gesamte Militärhygiene" behaupten konnte. Dann folgte eine Periode der Stagnation, bis es mit dem neuen Stellenplan 1988 gelang, nun unter den zwischenzeitlich akkumulierten Erfahrungen der Informatik, Epidemiologie, Ökonomie und Soziologie, ein breiter gewordenes Selbstverständnis unter der jetzt ausgewiesenen "Militärsozialhygiene " neu zu formieren. ; After Pettenkofer the hygiene as experimental scientific discipline had justified and in Munich 1865 the first chair had occupied, came it into Germany at the beginning 20. Century only to a specialization of the field of activity. For Grotjahn 1920 at the citizens of the University of Berlin a department for social hygiene were furnished. After the Second World War the differentiation process in the hygiene developed at university of Greifswald two uniques professorships: the "rural hygiene" and the "military social hygiene". Because of they weren't scientifically described, the request of this work consisted of describing the development of the hygiene in Greifswald from 1945 to 1990 and putting the emphasis of the investigation on the establishment of the two characteristics. The closer goal was addressed to describe the uniques in Europe better to compile short biographies of the university teachers involved and to evaluate their working to the seriousness Moritz Arndt University in connection with the furnished scientific achievements. The available material originates from primary sources, in the first place from magazine articles and books, from secondary sources, with priority from theses, documents to the research and scientific work and other literature outside commerce as well as from documents with a security classification and biographic documents. Its development took place via public entrances in libraries and archives as well as via the supply of private documents still living university teacher. Description and analysis of the documents were supplemented, as far as it was possible, in the interest of a balanced valuation by purposeful inquiries and interviews. The first period of the hygiene in Greifswald began 1888 with Friedrich Loeffier and ended with Kurt Herzberg. Even if there were social medical orientations in the work with all the professors acting in the meantime quite some local and, dominated micro-biological and virological themes. That changed, when under Georg Tartler the differentiation process of the hygiene one introduced. It permits the distinction of three lines of development: First the continuation of microbiology and virological, secondly the establishment of the social -, trade more (later employment -) and rural hygienic and thirdly, in connection with the affiliation of the military-medical section to the University, the creation of military - hygienic fields of activity. After necessary outlining of the hygiene as training subject at the medical faculty and the military hygiene at the military-medical section the closer characteristic of the development of the social hygiene took place in both structural arrangements. Were included thereby short biographies of the university teachers, their publications as well as the graduations and habilitations locked under their direction. The seven short biographies of the chair leaders and the seized 801 publications, 168 theses and 20 habilitations might help to mediate in its whole a picture over the social hygiene in Greifswald. From the fusion of the professorships "social hygiene" and "rural hygiene" developed the unique "social hygiene and rural hygiene" consisted after departure of Ludwig Mecklinger of Greifswald under the direction of Herbert Knabe from 1964 to 1983 and then by Horst Huyoff two years resumed. In 1985 an independent "institute for social hygiene" developed. The analysis showed that there were no ascertainable efforts, a professorship of "social hygiene and rural hygiene" to establish sciencesystematically. After the interests of Herbert Knabe developed and formed, would know this unique earliest as 9nstitute for general and social medicine" among other name in the time-historical process to be arranged. With Friedrich Ring was assigned at the military-medical section an experienced military physician to build an institute, which should be responsible to teach and research efforts on the area of the organization and tactics of the medical service as well as the health protection of the troop in peacetime. After his early death GUnter Ewert and Rolf Hornei for the subject" organization of health protection", this was starting independent from 1965 in its own institute, continued to lead the building-up. It took place, deviating from the Soviet military-medical doctrine, following the specialized understanding of the DDR as "military social hygiene." With this was connected a longer argumentation about the designation. This designation to state could on the MMS until 1976 in the context of the %nstitute for the whole military hygiene". Then one period of the stagnation followed, until it succeeded with the new staff appointments plan 19881, now under the in the meantime accumulated experiences of computer science, epidemiology, economics and sociology, a self understanding under the proven become now "military social hygiene" to form flew.

Die zentralen Fragestellungen der Studie betreffen das Entstehen, die Durchsetzung und Rezeption der Minimal art, die sich in den 1960er Jahren als eine der wichtigsten "neuen Kunstströmungen" etablierte. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der Vermittlungsarbeit von Personen und Institutionen im US-amerikanischen Kunstbetrieb, die die neue Kunst in einer Art "konzertierten Aktion" zum Erfolg führten. Damit wurde der Weg in eine internationale Karriere geebnet wie das Beispiel Westdeutschland zeigt, wo die Minimal art frühzeitig positiv aufgenommen wurde. Methodisch ist die Studie als Diskursanalyse, Ausstellungs- und Rezeptionsgeschichte angelegt. Dabei wird gezeigt, wie sich die neue Strömung in der zeitgenössischen amerikanischen Kunst und innerhalb tradierter Diskursstrategien positionierte, und wie die Interessen von Ausstellungsinstitutionen, Kritikern und Künstlern ihre weitere Rezeption formten und förderten. Denn obwohl die Mechanismen des Kunstbetriebes die Wahrnehmung von Kunst entscheidend prägen, blieben sie bisher, wie auch in diesem Fall, weitgehend unbeachtet. Wie die Studie belegt, waren die späteren Minimalisten zu Beginn ihrer Laufbahn fast alle vom Abstrakten Expressionismus beeinflußt. Mit dem Niedergang der gestischen Abstraktion mußten sie sich neu orientieren - kamen allerdings zu spät, um noch mit Farbfeld- und Hard edge-Malerei oder Assemblage zu reüssieren, da diese Anfang der 60er Jahre bereits Massenstile waren. Die Minimalisten lösten das Problem, indem sie die plastischen Impulse, die von der Assemblage ausgingen, mit der Formensprache der geometrischen Abstraktion in der Malerei zur neuen geometrisch-reduzierten Skulptur verschmolzen, der einzigen noch offenen Option in diesem Szenario. Die Ausstellungsgeschichte zeigt, wie erfolgreich diese Strategie war: Anfang 1963 erstmals in Galerien gezeigt, zog die neue Skulptur bereits ein Jahr später in Museumsausstellungen ein, noch bevor sich der Name Minimal art allgemein durchsetzte. Denn mit dem Niedergang des gestischen Abstrakten Expressionismus Ende der 50er Jahre war die New Yorker Kunstwelt in eine Phase enormer Beschleunigung eingetreten, in der eine neue Kunstströmung die nächste ablöste. Galerien, Museen und die Kunstpresse suchten mit immer neuen "Trends" Medien, Käufer und Publikum zu fesseln und deren Lust an der Abwechslung und Freude am Neuen zu befriedigen. Nach Farbfeld- und Hard edge-Malerei, Assemblage und Pop-art bauten Galerien und Museen die Minimal art als neueste Entwicklung auf. Als plastisches Pendant zur Hard edge Malerei verfügte sie, anders als Pop oder die als unseriöse ausländische Konkurrenz geltende Op-art, zudem über Hochkunstweihen und qualifizierte sich somit als ernsthafter Kandidat für die Nachfolge der "New York School". Die Kunstzeitschriften beteiligten sich an dem aufregenden "Neuen Tendenzen" Spiel, indem sie ausführlich über die aktuelle Szene berichteten und junge Künstler und Kunsthistoriker als Kritiker anheuerten. Zwei von ihnen, Barbara Rose und Lucy Lippard, wurden die wichtigsten publizistischen Verbündeten der Minimalisten. Wie Galeristen und Kuratoren strebten sie danach, sich als "Entdecker" neuer Trends zu profilieren und damit Kunstgeschichte zu schreiben. Sie arbeiteten personelle, stilistische und inhaltliche Zusammenhänge der "neuen Strömung" heraus und distanzierten deren Konkurrenten. Dabei variierten sie ihre Argumentation je nach Ereignislage und stellten ihre Interpretationen immer wieder auf aktuelle Entwicklungen ab. Wie die Untersuchung zeigt, waren Timing und Taktik dabei wichtiger als ästhetische Überzeugungen oder inhaltliche Stringenz. Das gilt ebenfalls für die jungen Künstler, die als Agenten der eigenen Öffentlichkeitsarbeit wirkten. Mit Kunstkritiken, Manifesten und Essays suchten sie die Rezeption ihrer Werke zu lenken, deren Interpretation sie im Verein mit den beiden Kritikerinnen stets den aktuellen Gegebenheiten anpaßten. Deshalb wurde die Minimal art nicht wie andere Kunst vor ihr von nachfolgenden Strömungen überrollt, sondern galt bald als Ausgangspunkt der neuen, "postminimalistischen" Entwicklungen Process, Concept und Earth art. Als Beginn eines revolutionär neuen Kunstverständnisses wurde sie auch in Westdeutschland rezipiert, einer der wichtigsten Stationen ihres Transfers nach Europa. Dort bemühten sich junge Galeristen und Museumskuratoren um ihre Verbreitung, um selbst Zugang zur internationalen Szene zu bekommen. Als international geltende Kunst war die Minimal art somit unangreifbar geworden und ist heute Teil des kunstgeschichtlichen Kanons. ; Minimal art - Establishing and Promoting Modern Art in the 1960s The constitution, emergence, and reception of the minimal art movement as one of the most important "new tendencies" in 60s' art is the topic of the following study. It will focus on the combined efforts of persons and institutions in the US-art world, who communicated the goals and intentions of this new art and made it a nearly immediate success. This process paved the way for minimal art's international career as is demonstrated by its early positive reception in Western-Germany. Discourse analysis and investigation of Minimal art's exhibition and reception history will show how the new art established itself in the contemporary art scene and how the concerns of institutions, critics, and artists formed and fostered its further acceptance. The mechanisms of the institutional art system, though rarely considered, play an important part in the perception of art as becomes evident by the present investigation. In their beginnings most of the minimalists were influenced by gestural abstract-expressionist painting. After the decline of gestural abstraction the young artists were forced to alter their style and find a new perspective. But they came too late to participate in the success of colourfield and hard edge painting or the art of assemblage, which were already overcrowded mainstream-styles at the beginning of the sixties. They solved this problem by fusing the three-dimensional impulses of neo-dadaist assemblage with hard edge-painting's geometric forms into the geometric-reducionist sculpture, which achieved a hitherto unique position. The exhibition history gives proof of the sucess of this strategy: after the first gallery displays in the beginning of 1963, the new sculpture started to invade Museum exhibitions the following year, even before the label minimal art became a common term. This could happen because the New York art scene at the end of the 1950s entered a phase of permanent acceleration after the decline of gestural abstract expressionism, when each new art trend quickly replaced its predecessor. Galleries, museums and the art press vied with each other to present novel tendencies to customers, audiences, and the media, responding to the desire for change and innovation. After colourfield, hard edge, assemblage and pop it was minimal art's turn to be displayed and launched as the latest innovation by galleries and museums. As formal counterpart of the new geometric painting it possessed high art status, unlike pop and op, which was not taken as serious art but as a foreign intrusion by most American art critics. Therefore minimal art was considered as natural heir to the "New York School", a point artists and sympathetic critics never failed to mention. The art press participated in the quest for the new by extending the review-section on the contemporary art scene and engaging young artists and art-historians as critics. Two of those, Barbara Rose und Lucy Lippard, became the most important allies of the minimal artists. Both were ambitious to increase their profile by discovering emerging trends and make their way into art history. They defined the new movement by stressing personal, stylistic, and semantic similarities between its members and separating them from their competitors. Their arguments varied according to the given situation as did their interpretation of the new art, which changed considerably in the face of new developments. Timing and tactics seemed to be more important than aesthetic persuasions or semantic coherence. The same is true for the young artists, who were their own public relation workers and sought to control the reception of their work by writing art criticism, manifestoes, and essays. Like their critical allies they adjusted its interpretation time after time conforming to circumstances and changes. That is why minimal art unlike its immediate predecessors hasn't been overthrown by subsequent movements, but was instead hailed as starting-point for the new, so-called "postminimalist" developments process, concept, and earth art. Minimal art was received as the origin of a revolutionary new understanding of art even in Western-Germany, one of the most important stages of its transfer to Europe, where young German dealers and museum curators, wanting to get access to the international scene, quickly built a support structure for it. As an internationally esteemed art it had passed a decisive stage in the development of its reputation and today is canonized as an important movement in 20th century art.

Welcher religiöse Orden des 12. Jahrhunderts hat 150 Priorate in Frankreich gegründet? Der Orden von Grandmont. Die Grammontenser blieben in der deutschen Kunstgeschichtsforschung weitgehend unbekannt. Trotz französischer Studien blieb ein Vergleich mit den anderen Reformorden des 12. Jahrhunderts aus. Dabei zeigt gerade eine Gegenüberstellung die seltene Armut, Strenge und Regelbefolgung, die in allen Bereichen des monastischen Lebens, sogar in der Architektur durchgesetzt wurden. Der Orden von Grandmont wurde 1074 von Stephan von Muret bei Limoges gegründet. Nachdem Stephan seine Jugend in Italien verbracht hatte, ließ er sich im Limousin als Eremit nieder. Zahlreiche Schüler sammelten sich um ihn und bei seinem Tod 1125, hatte die kleine Gemeinschaft schon mehrere Priorate. Die Mönche waren wegen ihres strengen Lebens beliebt und sie erhielten bald den Beinamen «Bones homines». So erfolgte bis zu Beginn des 13. Jahrhunderts die Gründung von annähernd 150 Prioraten. In den 1170er-1180er Jahren erreichte der Orden eine Blüte und fand in der Heiligsprechung Stephans von Murets 1189 seinen Höhepunkt. Aber bald machten Konversenrevolten und verschiedene Krisen, Reformen notwendig. Nach der Reform von 1317 die Grandmont stark veränderte, indem es nun jedem anderen Orden glich, schwächten der Hundertjährige Krieg und die Religionskriege den Orden. Grandmont wurde schließlich durch die Regularkommission unter Ludwig XVI. aufgehoben. Es sind heute noch ca. 50 Zellen erhalten. Sie zeigen, daß die Grammontenser bei der Errichtung ihrer Klöster exakte Vorgaben befolgt haben müssen. Sie führten dazu, daß alle Klosteranlagen nach einem Plantyp entstanden. Wesentlich konsequenter als die Zisterzienser blieb der Orden über ein Jahrhundert bei einem Klostertyp. Dieser wurde bis ins kleinste Detail umgesetzt. Existierte jedoch der Typplan auf dem Papier oder wurde er mündlich weitergegeben? Die Ansiedlung der Gebäude eines Grammontenserklosters ist sehr regelmäßig: Die Saalkirche im Norden, ein Kreuzgang im Zentrum, der Kapitelsaal im Osten und im Obergeschoß darüber das Dormitorium, sowie das Refektorium im Süden. Handelt es sich um einen klassischen Plan eines Benediktinerklosters, nach dem Vorbild des St. Galler Klosterplans? Oder ist dieser Klostertyp eine Erfindung der Grammontenser? Es gab geringe Unterschiede von einer Zelle zur anderen. Wodurch waren diese Varianten bedingt? Durch regionale Eigenheiten oder durch die Eigeninitative von Bauarbeitertrupps? Gibt es auch überregionale Einflüsse? Ein Vergleich der architektonischen Motive der französischen Reformorden zeigt eine erstaunliche Verwandtschaft und ein ähnliches Bemühen um eine Reduzierung des Formenguts wie bei Grandmont. Kein anderer Orden des späten 11., 12. und frühen 13. Jahrhunderts vermochte jedoch so konsequent einen Plantyp durchzusetzen wie die Grammontenser. Vallombrosa in Italien, sowie Artige und Chalais in Frankreich sind am besten in ihrem Wunsch nach Vereinfachung der Formen mit Grandmont vergleichbar. Die Orden von Fontevraud und Tiron hingegen waren stärker als die anderen Reformorden von ihrer Kunstlandschaft beeinflußt und erneuerten oftmals ihre Klöster als monumentale Anlagen. Die Kamaldulenser in Italien und die Kartäuser entwickelten einen eigenen Bautyp, welcher den ursprünglichen Wunsch ihrer Gründer nach einem Eremitenleben am besten zum Ausdruck bringt. Trotz möglicher Varianten im Grundriß bleibt der Typ erkennbar, was durch die Regelmäßigkeit der Formen begünstigt wird. Handelte es sich um eine parallele Entwicklung des Formenguts? Oder um direkte Beeinflussungen von Grandmont? Welche Orden dienten den anderen als Vorbild? Während die Kamaldulenser und die Kartäuser Eremiten blieben, klingen bei den anderen Reformorden nur vereinzelt Reminiszenzen an das Eremitenleben an. Dazu gehören hauptsächlich die Saalkirche und die geringen Maße vieler Klöster. Alle religiösen Orden legten schriftlich, oft nur in einem kurzen Abschnitt, das Aussehen ihrer Klöster fest. Die meisten hielten sich streng an diese Angaben. Die Zisterzienser entfernten sich am stärksten von ihrem Ideal, obwohl sie die meisten Vorschriften hatten. Ist dies ein Hinweis mehr dafür, daß die zisterziensischen Consuetudines und Generalkapitelstatuten keine Baugesetze, sondern konkrete Kritiken an bestimmten Gebäuden enthalten? Die Untersuchung der grammontensischen Architektur wirft nicht nur neues Licht auf Grandmont selber, sondern auch auf die anderen Reformorden des Mittelalters. Die Zisterzienser gelten als Orden, der einen strengen und einheitlichen Architekturstil in Europa verbreitete. Dies erscheint jedoch hinsichtlich der architektonischen Regelmäßigkeit übertrieben. Das monastische Ideal architektonischer Gleichheit und Armut wurde insbesondere von Grandmont wesentlich strenger befolgt. Ohne den Grammontensern eine späte Gerechtigkeit zukommen lassen zu wollen, öffnet die Untersuchung neue Einblicke in das westeuropäische Mönchtum. ; Quel ordre religieux fondé au XIIe siècle a essaimé cent cinquante prieurés en France? Il s'agissait de l'ordre de Grandmont. Les Grandmontains sont connus par différentes études en France mais ils n'ont jamais suscité une étude comparative avec les autres ordres monastiques réformés du XIIe siècle. C'est pourtant en effectuant cette comparaison que la rigueur et l'exigence de la règle de Grandmont se distingue et ce jusque dans les tous les aspects de la vie monastique, y compris l'architecture. L'ordre de Grandmont a été fondé en 1074 par Etienne de Muret. Après avoir passé sa jeunesse en Italie, Etienne de Muret s'installa sur le lieu d'Ambazac en Limousin pour vivre en ermite. Il eut des disciples et, au moment de sa mort, en 1125, la petite communauté comptait déjà plusieurs prieurés. Par un mode de vie extrêmement sévère et une règle très austère, les moines eurent une grande renommée et furent bientôt appelés «bons hommes». C'est ainsi qu'ils purent fonder environ cent cinquante prieurés jusqu'au début du XIIIe siècle. L'ordre connut son plein essor dans les années 1170-80, et trouva son point culminant au moment de la canonisation d'Etienne de Muret, en 1189. Mais, assez vite, des révoltes de convers et différentes crises exigèrent des réformes. Après la réforme de 1317, qui modifia le visage de l'ordre en le ramenant à un ordre quelconque, la Guerre de Cent Ans et les Guerres de Religion l'affaiblirent. Il fut finalement dissout par la Commission des Réguliers au XVIIIe siècle sous Louis XVI. Il reste aujourd'hui en France environ cinquante prieurés qui conservent d'importants éléments d'architecture. Ceux-ci montrent de manière étonnante que les Grandmontains ont dû suivre des instructions exactes lors de la construction de leurs monastères. Pendant un siècle entier, l'ordre suivit avec beaucoup plus de ferveur que les Cisterciens un seul plan-type. Il fut réalisé dans le moindre détail par exemple en ordonnant le nombre des fenêtres de chaque salle du monastère. Toutefois, ce plan-type existait-il sur papier ou était-il transmis oralement? La disposition des bâtiments dans le monastère grandmontain varie peu. S'agit-il d'un plan-type classique de monastère bénédictin? Ou ce plan-type est-il propre aux Grandmontains ? D'un monastère grandmontain à un autre, quelques variations apparaissent. Comment ces variantes peuvent-elles s'expliquer? S'agit-il de particularités régionales ou d'initiatives personnelles des travailleurs recrutés? Existe-t-il des influences supra-régionales? La comparaison des motifs architecturaux des principaux ordres réformés montre une ressemblance étonnante et un même essai de simplification des formes que chez les Grandmontains. Mais aucun des autres ordres des XIe, XIIe ou XIIIe siècles n'a réussi à concrétiser un plan-type identique avec la même vigueur que les Grandmontains. Les ordres monastiques qui se rapprochèrent le plus de Grandmont dans ce souci de simplification furent les ordres de Vallombreuse en Italie, Artige et Chalais en France. Les ordres de Fontevrault et de Tiron furent fortement influencés par leurs régions et renouvelèrent souvent leurs monastères en les transformant en de grandes installations monumentales. Les Camaldules en Italie et les Chartreux développèrent un type propre. Malgré certaines variations dans le plan au sol, le plan-type est reconnaissable, notamment dans la régularité des formes. S'agissait-il d'un développement parallèle des formes? Ou d'une influence directe de Grandmont? Quels ordres furent les modèles des autres ordres? Tandis que les Camaldules et les Chartreux restèrent des ordres érémitiques, les autres ordres réformés conservèrent seulement par quelques aspects la vie érémitique dans leur architecture. Tous les ordres religieux ont notifié par écrit la forme de leurs monastères. La plupart suivirent scrupuleusement les directives qui s'apparentaient à des lois de construction. Les Cisterciens s'éloignèrent le plus de leur forme originale, et ce sont pourtant ceux qui eurent le plus de directives architecturales au fil du temps. S'agissait-il donc davantage de critiques concrètes de monastères cisterciens existants que de réelles lois de constructions? L'étude de l'architecture de Grandmont apporte un nouvel éclairage non seulement sur l'ordre de Grandmont lui-même, mais également sur les ordres monastiques du Moyen-Age. Les spécialistes contemporains citent généralement les Cisterciens comme instigateurs de l'architecture monastique en Europe. Cette renommée architecturale semble être exagérée. L'idéal monastique de pauvreté a plus été respecté dans d'autres ordres, notamment dans celui de Grandmont. Sans vouloir rendre justice aux Grandmontains, cette étude ouvre de nouvelles perspectives dans la connaissance du monachisme européen.