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La présente thèse réalise un diagnostic comparé de trois chaines de valeur du riz dans la plaine de la Ruzizi partagée entre trois pays de la Communauté Economique des Pays de la Grands Lacs (CEPGL) à savoir le Burundi, la République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) et le Rwanda. Les trois chaines de valeurs sont appréhendées à travers des études menées dans la Plaine de l'Imbo pour le Burundi, au sein de la Plaine de la Ruzizi pour la RDC ainsi que dans la Plaine de Bugarama pour la chaine de valeur rwandaise. L'analyse a consisté à auditer le contexte dans lequel la riziculture est conduite (c'est-à-dire les politiques ainsi que les services d'appui auxquels ont accès les acteurs le long de la chaine de valeur), à analyser la performance économique de ces trois chaines de valeur et à identifier les facteurs pouvant favoriser le développement d'une chaine de valeur à potentiel régional. L'étude a privilégié l'approche terrain qui a permis de réaliser des investigations sur une période de 3 ans (de 2013 à 2015). La collecte des données a porté sur un échantillon de 228 acteurs repartis de manière équitable entre les trois pays et a combiné plusieurs techniques à savoir, des enquêtes directes auprès des acteurs (les producteurs, les transformateurs, les collecteurs, les commerçants grossistes et les détaillants), les interviews avec les différentes structures d'appui et services étatiques, les discussions focalisées avec des groupes de producteurs et représentants de leurs Organisations Paysannes. L'analyse de l'environnement de ces trois chaines de valeur du riz a mis en relation les politiques mises en œuvres dans chaque pays et l'accès par les acteurs directs à certains facteurs de production et services tels que la terre, l'eau, le crédit, l'utilisation d'intrants. Elle a également mise en évidence la question de la main d'œuvre salariale et les différents rôles qu'elle joue dans le secteur. Il s'observe que la politique foncière dans la plaine de Bugarama au Rwanda a permis de réduire à plus de la moitié le coût d'accès à la terre comparativement à la situation au Burundi et en RDC. Les limites du système foncier à Bugarama au Rwanda dans une approche de promotion des innovations entrepreneuriales se traduisent par les difficultés d`accroissement de la taille des exploitations (la superficie cultivée est de 0,23ha). Malgré le coût relativement élevé lié à l'accès et à la gestion de l'eau, la totalité des parcelles rizicoles ont accès à l'eau d'irrigation au Rwanda alors que le manque d'organisation et de bonne gestion de l'eau est l'un des facteurs à la base d'un faible rendement au Burundi et en RDC où respectivement 25% et 40 % des parcelles rizicoles peinent à accéder à l'eau. L`accès au financement demeure une contrainte majeure commune aux trois pays même au Rwanda où les services financiers sont disponibles. Les riziculteurs ayant accès aux crédits formels représentent une maigre portion de 8% (au Burundi), 10% (en RDC) et 37,5% (au Rwanda). Des contraintes liées à la disponibilité en main d'œuvre sont réelles dans les systèmes de production sous étude. En effet, la RDC est la zone déficitaire en main d'œuvre salariale à cause de l'exode rural et de la diversité d'activités économiques. 60% de la main d'œuvre rizicole utilisée dans la partie congolaise de la plaine est étrangère. 46% de cette main d`œuvre provient du Burundi et 14% vient du Rwanda. Cette mobilité de la main d'œuvre entraine des transferts de technologies, l'approvisionnement en intrants à moindre coût. Il joue également un rôle important dans la consolidation de la cohésion sociale dans un contexte post conflit. L'analyse économique de trois chaines de valeur révèle des coûts de production très élevés variant entre 292 et 388 USD/tonne amenuisant ainsi des perspectives de compétitivité internationale. Les coûts les plus élevés sont observés en RDC où paradoxalement se note une meilleure performance financière des acteurs. Au Rwanda où le riz est plus compétitif en termes de coûts de production, les producteurs sont soumis à des normes et restrictions (variété à cultiver, types de clients à qui vendre la production, prix de vente, etc.) qui influencent sensiblement leur performance. Les tests statistiques réalisés sur certains paramètres identifiés par l'analyse financière confirment l'inefficacité des politiques de subvention d'intrant et de financement agricole. En effet, il n'y a pas de différences significatives des moyennes entre les riziculteurs bénéficiant de ces politiques et ceux qui n'en bénéficient pas. Paradoxalement, les analyses statistiques révèlent que les riziculteurs qui ne subissent pas de politique de fixation de prix (ils ne sont pas preneurs de prix) ont une bonne performance financière en termes de revenus. Les trois zones étudiées sont complémentaires en termes de potentiels de développement. Des structures régionales favorables à la chaine de valeur régionale devront être relancées ou renforcées dans une logique de développement de la riziculture dans la plaine de la Ruzizi. ; This thesis aims at carrying out a comparative study of three rice value chains in the Ruzizi plain shared between three countries of the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (CEPGL) namely Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda. These include the Burundi rice value chain (Imbo Plain), the Congolese rice value chain (Ruzizi Plain) and the Rwandan rice value chain (Bugarama Plain). The diagnostic analysis was about analyzing the rice-farming environment (ie policies and support services accessed by actors along the value chain), analyzing economic performance of these three value chains and to identify the factors that may foster the development of a value chain with a regional potential. For this purpose, the study adopted the field approach, which allowed carrying out investigations during three years (2013 to 2015). The data collection process involved a sample of 228 actors distributed equitably among the three countries. It combined several techniques, namely, direct stakeholder surveys (producers, processors, collectors, wholesalers and retailers), interviews with various support structures and state services, focus group discussions with producer groups and representatives of their organizations. The analysis of these three value chains driving conditions linked the policies implemented in each country and the access by the actors to certain production factors and services such as land, water, credit and the use of inputs. It also highlighted the issue of wage labor and its different roles in the sector. The analysis shows that land policy in Bugarama plain in Rwanda has reduced the cost of land to more than half compared to land costs in Burundi and the DRC. Moreover, this policy is accused by the producers of Bugarama of limiting their entrepreneurial innovations since they can not enlarge their farms (the cultivated area is 0.23 ha). Despite the high cost of water access and management, all rice plots access irrigation water in Rwanda, while the lack of organization and good water management is one of the factors behind low yields in Burundi and the DRC, where 25% and 40% of the rice plots have difficulties in accessing water. Regarding access to agricultural credit, the results reveal that the value chain of rice in the three countries experiences the lack of funding in spite of improvements observed in Rwanda. The rate of access to credit is 17.5% (in Burundi), 16% (in DRC) and 52.8% (in Rwanda), and among them rice farmers with access to formal credits account for only 8% (in Burundi), 10% (in the DRC) and 37.5% (in Rwanda). Analysis of the wage labour force shows that labor is not as widely available as was thought in the study area. Indeed, the DRC is the zone of deficit in wage labor due to the rural exodus and the diversity of economic activities. In the DRC, 60% of the rice workforce used is foreign, including 46% from Burundi and 14% from Rwanda. This mobility of the workforce leads to technology transfers, the supply of inputs at lower cost, but also to consolidate the social cohesion in a post-conflict context. The economic analysis of these three value chains reveals that production costs in the study area remain very high, varying between 292 and 388USD per ton. The highest costs are observed in the DRC where paradoxically there is a better financial performance in terms of profit and added value. The statistical tests carried out on certain parameters identified by the financial analysis undermines the policies regarding the inputs subsidies, agricultural financing and fixing sales prices. Indeed, there are no significant differences between the means of rice farmers who benefit from these policies and those who do not. Paradoxically, statistical analyzes reveal that rice farmers not affected by the pricing policy (they are not price takers) have a good financial performance in terms of income. The three studied areas are complementary in terms of the development potentials of a regional value chain. Indeed, Rwanda has modern underutilization peeling plants that are capable of responding almost entirely to the needs of the whole plain. In addition, Burundi and the DRC should develop land and water potentials to increase production. Several other regional structures in favor of the regional value chain have to be relaunched or strengthened in logic of rice development in the Ruzizi plain. These include the benefits of economic integration of the CEPGL countries.

Urbanization has led to increased wheat imports by non-traditional, wheat producing countries. Globally, Southeast Asia has had the most rapid increase in wheat consumption. Over the past decade, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Laos, and Vietnam have attempted to assess the feasibility of initiating domestic wheat production to substitute or supplement their imports of wheat. All of these countries have areas suitable for wheat production, but no production experience, indigenous consumption, or marketing structures for wheat to provide a base for expansion. Despite the appeal of developing domestic wheat production, it must be considered essentially an experimental venture. Thus while it has been possible to gain the enthusiasm of technical people, it may not necessarily rate high on the list of government priorities. The main difficulties of developing wheat in Thailand have surprisingly not been technical issues, such as poor plant development, pests, and diseases. Instead, the unfamiliarity of the crop amongst scientists, extension workers, and farmers has been the key constraint. Functionally this has resulted in a number of problems in unexpected areas; • Identifying the areas where wheat would have a comparative advantage over other crops was not clear for some time. As a result, early extension efforts were scattered and shifted from area to area. • The recommended technology for planting wheat was too intensive and liable to misinterpretation by farmers, which led to repeated crop failures in the early years of the program. Easily adopted technologies that allowed reliable crop establishment by farmers took some time to evolve. • Local grain merchants had no knowledge of wheat and were not prepared to purchase small volumes from isolated groups of farmers. This created a lack of confidence in the crop among farmers and extension workers. These issues were recognized as being significant once the production program was in the progress and they had to be dealt with as they were encountered. The program in Thailand is notable in that it has not been structured as a pilot project with a specific pilot area for production; special fund allocations; or any program to buy back the crop from farmers. Instead, the program has been implemented within existing planning, budgeting, and operating procedures of the various government institutions involved. This has had inherent difficulties, but has also led to some innovative initiatives. In the long run, these have given the program greater strength and sustainability: • The difficulty of marketing small quantities of the crop was initially addressed by attempting to promote local use of the crop. • The Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE) has begun to develop a market structure for wheat ased on local independent grain merchants. This should expand dynamically with a minimal input of government funds. • A wide range of institutions has been involved in the program, which gave the program access to inspiration and initiatives from different directions.This has helped maintain momentum to a greater degree than if only one institution were involved. • Finally, the problem of developing appropriate production technologies for a diverse production environment, was solved through a process of cross-fertilization between researchers on-farm trials, and farmers' informal trials. This interaction between research and extension evolved through a "participatory extension" approach that engaged farmers in the process of fine tuning the technologies to their particular situation. Most of the major crops that have been introduced to Thailand since World War II (i.e., maize, cassava, soybean, and tobacco) have been export-driven, with the private sector playing an active role in supplying farmers with inputs, production technologies, and a waiting market. Wheat, on the other hand, is competing with efficiently produced imports, with all stages of the program for developing production; technology development, seed supply, and marketing, being led by the govemment sector. This offers a unique opportunity to draw useful lessons. At this point, the technical viability of wheat production has been established. Dynamic expansion of the crop has yet to occur and will depend on the program's successful transition from being government-sponsored to the private sector. Final establishment of the crop will also depend on factors outside of the program's control, such as world prices for wheat. This Report focuses on the processes and dynamics of wheat's introduction and its expansion, the underlying constraints and imperatives, and the roles and interactions of the various cooperating institutions. The three chapters covering these topics are briefly summarized below. Chapter I. Promoting "Local Use" of Wheat as a Strategy for Developing Crop Production Extension efforts to introduce wheat to small farmers in northern Thailand began in the early 1980s. The program was immediately faced with the problem of disposing of the small output being generated by scattered groups of farmers. To escape this problem, local use of the wheat was promoted as a substitute for selling it. This was intended to allow farmers time to begin to obtain reasonable yields so that it would be economic for them to produce and permit production volume to increase sufficiently so that local grain merchants could purchase and ship the harvest to the flour mills in Bangkok. Local use was promoted on two levels: direct consumption within farm families to supplement their staple diet of rice, and sale of locally milled whole-wheat flour to food vendors. Whole-wheat flour was selected due to the simple grinding process involved and the feasibility of blending it with commercial white flour. The program developed several ways of preparing food that allowed wheat to be included in the food habits of local Thai farmers and the ethnic hilltribe people. These dishes were readily accepted on the basis of taste, but the long preparation and/or cooking time prohibited their ready adoption into the farm family diet. However, there are some indications that ethnic hilltribe people could fit the more basic preparations into their diets and daily routines. The was a consistent interest among farmers' housewives to use wheat for various types of snacks. A number of small bakeries started using methods of milling and baking, based on locally available technologies and materials. In the end, the main obstacle to widespread replication of such enterprises was not poor market acceptance or the lack of appropriate technologies, but the lack of middlemen who would maintain a stock of wheat in the village. Without material readily available, there was little opportunity for potential entrepreneurs to begin trial operations. Overall, the local use effort was not successful in its main objective of generating home consumption in the place of selling the crop. However, there were indications that local use of wheat could develop in certain situations once production became more commonplace. While unsuccessful in this primary goal, the effort di help to popularize the new crop among women farmers. The interest and cooperation that the program engendered was significant. Therefore, when trying to stimulate interest in a new crop, the local use concept should not be rejected out of hand. Chapter II. Developing Production: Initiatives and Constraints The current program to establish wheat production is the latest attempt to do so over the past 50 years. The Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE) initiated the program with a series of multilocation trials, beginning in the 1983/84 cool season. A wdespread wheat promotion campaign began four years later (1987/88 cool season). As a key element of the campaign, the DOAE has provided free seed and fertilizer. Where substantial production areas developed, mobile threshers were made available free of charge. Production has been promoted in ,both rainfed and irrigated environments. A rough estimate of the area in these two production domains is 110,000 and 55,000 ha, respectively. Extension efforts have alternately targeted rainfed and irrigated environments as the expectation of success in the two domains changed. By 1990/91 season, "production centers" of wheat had been established in six of Thailand's eight provinces. The production area in 1995/96 had reached a modest 742 ha and 720 ha for rainfed and irrigated areas, respectively, with a total of about 1500 ha. Early extension efforts were plagued by consistent crop failure due to farmers' unfamiliarity with the crop. In irrigated areas, farmers consistently over-irrigated, over-seeded, or left seed uncovered. Rainfed areas had similar problems of over-seeding and poor seed-cover. In rainfed production the seeding date has to coincide with the last storms of the wet season. As the pattern of these late storms changes from year to year, this has necessarily prolonged the learning curve for rainfed farmers. Thus the yields for rainfed production have been slower to rise. Such a set of management errors is typical for any extension program introducing a new crop. But in the case of wheat, the technology extended to farmers played a major role in their onsistent crop failures. It was not until more appropriate technologies were developed that extension began to achieved any success he severity of these management errors has been reduced (but not eliminated) so that the average yields for the 1996 harvest were approximately 1 t/ha and 0.64 t/ha for irrigated and rainfed areas, respectively. This is still below the calculated "break-even" point of 1.2 and 0.82 t/ha for irrigated and rainfed areas, respectively. However, farmers with a number of years experience growing the crop are achieving double these yields. Marketing has been a major issue for wheat. The DOAE made a concerted effort to develop a market structure based on independent local grain merchants. They acted at two levels. In Bangkok, guaranteed prices of 7.4 Bt/kg (0.30 US$/kg) at the mill door and procedures for handling the crop were established with mill representatives. At the local level, extension workers selected local grain merchants and introduced them to farmers. The two groups held yearly marketing meetings before crop harvest. The system has some rough spots, but the network of local grain merchants purchasing the crop is increasing each season. This structure should expand dynamically as production expands without continued coordination by government institutions. This attempt to engage the private sector, should it prove effective, will have been achieved with minimal government expenditure. The crop is at its "watershed" in Thailand. There are expanding centers of production in both rainfed and irrigated areas, appropriate technologies are available, and marketing links with flour mills in Bangkok have been established. However, dynamic expansion is yet to occur. Government support of free seed has reached the limit of its usefulness now and is beginning to inhibit dynamic expansion. Average yields are still depressed by the typical management errors noted in the early years of extension, and by market links, which are not yet responsive. All of these problems can be managed. However, the overall constraint is the lack of any real drive from the mills as the end users. The government sector has succeeded in establishing the basis for wheat production in northern Thailand. Its job is more or less done. At some point the private sector will need to become a driving force. When the program began in early 1980s, wheat prices were low, but they have risen substantially since, so that domestic wheat should now be cheaper than imported wheat. Chapter III. Developing Appropriate Technologies in a Diverse Production Environment The initial research effort was confined to experiment stations where scientists themselves had to become familiar with the crop's characteristics. The original recommended technology was time-and labor-intensive, and was open to misinterpretation by traditional rice farmers. It is unlikely that any extension program based on this technology would have been successful. Most of the more appropriate technologies that are now being adopted were identified through fairly informal on-farm trials. The research program has changed considerably over the last 12 years. Research is now strictly oriented towards production problems and has a strong on-farm component. In addition, scientists are beginning to examine the focus ofthe research program in the context of the diversity of the production environments. Since the beginning of widespread promotion of the crop to farmers in the 1987/88 season, there have been dramatic shifts in the preferred technology used. Perhaps as few as 10% of the farmers are still using the originally recommended technology. Broadcasting instead of row seeding, minimum tillage instead of soil preparation, and the use of mulch to alter the micro-climate of the crop are some of the changes that promise to increase yields and/or reduce inputs. There have been several stages in the evolution of appropriate production technologies, and the specific technology preferred at a particular site varies according to local conditions. Farmers themselves have played an active role in adapting and innovating appropriate technologies. This is perhaps to be expected with a new crop. An extension approach in which farmers are presented with a number of alternative technologies appears to be effective in engaging them to evaluate and adapt the technologies. Because there is a definite contributing role for the farmers with this extension approach, it is called "participatory." This participatory approach could offer a way around the impasse that farming systems research (FSR) faces; in diverse production environments where any technology developed will be necessarily site specific, the need for repeated trials for each environment places a load on institutionalized FSR that it will never be able to meet. Participatory extension prompts the farmers to fine-tune the technologies themselves and should allow FSR to focus on issues that are beyond farmers' resources to deal with. Tviability of institutional adoption of participatory extension was investigated through an action research program funded by Canada's International Development Research Center (IORC) within the existing Thai Wheat Program.

This book examines the planning and implementation of policies to create sustainable neighborhoods, using as a case study the City of Sydney. The authors ask whether many past planning and development practices were appropriate to the ways that communities then functioned, and what lessons we have learned. The aim is to illustrate the many variations within a city and from neighborhood to neighborhood regarding renewal (rehabilitation), redevelopment (replacement) and new development. Case study examples of nine City of Sydney neighborhoods note the different histories of planning and development in each. Features of the studies include literature searches, field work (with photography), and analysis. The authors propose a set of sustainability principles which incorporate elements of the twenty seven principles of the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development Part One explores sustainable urban planning, and the importance of planning tools that enable best planning outcomes for communities and investors. Common factors in the nine case study neighborhoods are renewal, redevelopment and development pressures affecting Sydney from the 1970s to 2014. Also discussed are the differing circumstances of planning faced by authorities, developers and communities in each of the study areas.Part Two of the book is focused on the case study areas in City of Sydney East area: Woolloomooloo and Kings Cross. Part Three covers case study areas in Sydney's Inner South area: Chippendale, Redfern and Waterloo District. Part Four surveys the Inner West suburb of Erskineville. Part Five looks at the City West area, including the Haymarket District and the Pyrmont and Ultimo District. Part Six concentrates on the North West area suburb of Glebe. Part Seven of the book looks at the growth area of South Sydney District, which includes the suburbs of Beaconsfield, Zetland and the new localities of Victoria Park and Green Square. The authors recount lessons learned and outline directions of planning for sustainable neighborhoods. Finally, the authors challenge readers to apply the lessons of these case studies to further advances in sustainable urban planning. Raymond Charles RauscherI have always been interested in town planning, being born in Brooklyn, New York City (1943) and graduating from the City College of New York (Bachelor of Engineering, Civil 1966). I later completed a first part of a masters degree at the Univ of Michigan (research submission on Detroit entitled A Solution to the Urban Crisis: Proposal for the Creation of Region Serving New Cities (unpublished 1969). The Masters of Town and Country Planning was completed at Sydney University (1971) with a thesis Community Response to a Redevelopment Proposal (University of Sydney Library Microfilm Dept). The thesis covered planning conflicts in Erskineville and measures to resolving these. Chapter 7 of this book refers back to the planning of Erskineville in 1971, and lessons learned. Delving into the subject of sustainable urban planning, I completed a PhD (2009) at the University of Newcastle, including the thesis Sustainable Area Planning Framework for Ecologically Sustainable Development: Case Study Wyong Shire, NSW, Australia.Wanting to research further the subject of sustainable urban planning, I published (with co-author Salim Momtaz) Sustainable Communities: A Framework for Planning - Case Study of an Australian Outer Sydney Growth Area (Springer 2014). Over the years I continued to study urban change in my birth place Brooklyn (New York). My interest was drawn to Bushwick (my old neighborhood), an area of Brooklyn that met its low point of urban slide in the 1977 arson fires. I did field work over several years, from 1979 onwards, to better understand reasons for USA style urban decline and renewal. This culminated in the book (with co-author Salim Momtaz) Brooklyn's Bushwick - Urban Renewal in New York, USA (Springer 2014). Still wanting to understand the urban changes in inner city neighbourhoods (beyond Erskineville of 1971), I continued (over a number of years) to monitor planning and development of the City of Sydney inner city areas. This monitoring focused on the question of how sustainable were the urban changes taking place in these Sydney neighbourhoods (given the rapid growth of Sydney into a global city). To prepare this book I spent five years (2009-2014) on the ground in the inner city of Sydney doing qualitative research field work, including photographing changes in City of Sydney neighbourhoods. During this research I recalled my involvement with community groups at the time of my earlier research in Erskineville noted above. At the time (1971-1973), neighbourhood associations were successful in calling on the New South Wales (NSW) Builders Labourers' Federation (BLF) to impose 'green bans' to stop NSW State or developer proposed developments which residents felt were inappropriate. This led to a number of 'green bans' imposed in inner city communities covered in this book, including Woolloomooloo (Chapter 3), Victoria St, Kings Cross (Chapter 4), Waterloo (Chapter 6), and Glebe (Chapter 10). Since 1973 I have been a member of the Australian based Social Developers Network (SDN) The Network commenced at the time of PM Gough Whitlam (1972-1975) (currently 98 years old, living in Sydney). As prime minister Whitlam (and Minister for Planning and Regional Development, Tom Uren) promoted and instituted programs in urban planning, regional development and community development. A number of those initiatives are included in the book (Woolloomooloo in Chapter 3, Kings Cross in Chapter 4, and Glebe in Chapter 9). I am currently a Conjoint Lecturer at the University of Newcastle, Australia. I am also a director of Habitat Association for Arts and Environment Inc. Under this body I continue to work on 'Visions Inner Sydney' (VIS). This is a program recording the changes in the inner city local government areas of the City of Sydney, and Municipalities of Leichhardt, Marrickville and Ashfield.Salim MomtazDr Salim Momtaz is a senior lecturer at the University of Newcastle, Australia. He teaches in the area of sustainable resource management. A geographer, environmental scientist and social planner by training, Salim's research interests include: environmental planning and governance, social adaptation to climate change, impact assessment and community participation. His recent publications include: Evaluating Environmental and Social Impact Assessment in Developing Countries, Elsevier: Oxford (2013) (co-author S.M.Z. Kabir); Sustainable Communities: A Framework for Planning, Springer: London (2014) (co-author R.C. Rauscher); and, Brooklyn's Bushwick - Urban Renewal in New York, USA, Springer (2014) (co-author R.C. Rauscher).

Tobacco-relateddiseasesmainly affect the respiratory system, the first system in contact with the air that is inhaled, making tobacco a leading cause of death and illness, closely linked to the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease of which it is responsible in 90% of cases. It isalsoresponsible for the impoverishment of the population, given the heavyeconomicburdenit imposes. The purpose of the studyisto estimate the economic cost of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease attributable to smoking in 2018, whether it is related to the medical management of the disease, or the loss of productivity following the disease itself or a premature death. An approach based on the specific cost to COPD caused by smoking for 62 patients hospitalized in the Department of Pneumology at Moulay Youssef Hospital in Rabat. The direct medical costs are obtained according to the stay, acts and examinations specific to the university hospital center. Drugs not available at this hospital and purchased externally are calculated at the market price of private pharmacies. For non-medical costs, in our case the transport of patients was estimated by using the prices of the means of transport existing in their most used places of residence. Regarding indirect costs related to loss of income following illness, it's calculated on the basis of the average annual income of the individual and the period of his disability.Another indirect cost, that of the loss of productivity following the premature death of the patient, this one is calculated at the base of the years of life lost compared to the life expectancy in Morocco and the lost income during these years, discounted at a rate of 3%. Since the specificity of the study is smoking, an attributable fraction was used in the direct and indirect costs calculations, which was derived from Tachfouti's 2014 study of the estimated mortality attributed to tobacco in Morocco, based on the 2006 Marta study on the prevalence of smoking and the relative risk associated with the quantities of tobacco smoked. After collecting essential data for our study and using the previous calculation methods, we were able to estimate the following costs. The overall economic cost of COPD attributable to smoking in 2018 is 1784503,74 MAD (168667,65 Euro).The direct cost of COPD attributable to smoking is: 389 973,33 MAD ( 36 859,48 Euro), and the indirect cost of COPD attributable to smoking is: 1394530,41 MAD ( 131808,17 Euro). Indirect cost accounts 78 % of the economic cost of COPD linked to tobacco. In the case of conflict between health and economy, this type of study helps guide public decision-makers in the formulation of health system strategies and policies, in a context of prevention and control of non-transmissible diseases. Our study addresses a preventable chronic disease by acting on the major risk factor that is tobacco, all with the aim of controlling expenditure in the face of limited financial resources, and avoiding economic losses for society, the system of health and the country's economy. JEL Classification : G21 Paper type : Empirical research ; Les pathologies liées au tabac touchent principalement le système respiratoire, le premier système en contact avec l'air respiré, ce qui rend le tabac l'une des principales causes de décès et de maladies, étroitement liées aux broncho-pneumopathies chroniques obstructives dont il est responsable dans 90% des cas. Il est aussi responsable de l'appauvrissement des populations vu la lourde charge économique qu'il impose.Le but de l'étude est d'estimer le coûttotalde la broncho-pneumopathie chronique obstructive imputable au tabagisme en 2018, qu'il soit lié à la prise en charge médicale de la maladie, ou à la perte de revenu suite à la maladie elle-même ou bien à un décès prématuré. Une approche basée sur le coût spécifique à la BPCO causée par le tabagisme pour 62 patients hospitalisés au service de Pneumologie au CHU Moulay Youssef de Rabat. Les coûts directs médicaux sont obtenus selon la tarification du séjour, des actes et examens propres au CHU MY. Les médicaments non disponibles au CHU et achetés à titre externe sont calculés au prix du marché des officines privées. Pour les coûts non médicaux, dans notre cas, le transport des patients a été estimé en employant les prix des moyens de transport existant dans leurs lieux de résidence les plus utilisés. En ce qui concerne les coûts indirects liés à la perte de revenu suite à la maladie, ils sont calculés sur la base du revenu annuel moyen de l'individu et de la période de son invalidité. Autre coût indirect, celui de la perte de revenu suite au décès prématuré du patient, celui-ci est estimé à la base des années de vie perdues par rapport à l'espérance de vie au Maroc, et le revenu perdu durant ces années actualisées selon un taux de 3%. Puisque la spécificité de l'étude est le tabagisme, une fraction attribuable est utilisée lors des calculs du coût direct et indirect, dérivé de l'étude de Tachfouti en 2014 sur l'estimation de la mortalité attribuée au tabac au Maroc, en se basant sur l'étude Marta de 2006 sur la prévalence du tabagisme, et sur le risque relatif associé aux quantités de tabac fumées. Après collecte de données essentielles à notre étude et usage des précédentes méthodes de calcul, nous avons pu estimer les coûts suivants: Le coût économique global de la BPCO attribuable au tabagisme de l'an 2018 est de: 1784503,74 MAD (168667,65 Euro).Le coût direct de la BPCO liée au tabac est de389 973,33 MAD (36 859,48 Euro) et le coût indirect de la BPCO liée au tabac est de: 1394530,41MAD (131808,17 Euro).Le coût indirect représente alors 78 % du coût économique de la BPCO liée au tabac. Dans le cas de conflit entre la santé et l'économie, ce genre d'étude permet d'orienter les décideurs publics dans la formulation de stratégies et de politiques du système de santé, dans un contexte de prévention et de maîtrise des maladies non transmissibles. Notre étude traite une maladie chronique évitable en agissant sur le facteur de risque majeur qui est le tabac, tout cela dans le but de maîtriser les dépenses face à des ressources financières limitées, et d'éviter les pertes économiques pour la société, le système de santé et l'économie du pays. Classification JEL : O33, L2, H83. Type de l'article: Recherche empirique

Esta Tesis se realiza con la colaboración con la organización indígena Identidad Territorial Lafkenche, durante el proceso legislativo de discusión del proyecto de ley que Crea el Espacio Costero Marino de Pueblos Originarios, que derivó en la promulgación de la Ley N° 20.249 en Chile. ; La presente investigación se ha dedicado a revisar e identificar los elementos culturales, históricos y ecosistémicos de las comunidades indígenas Lafkenche y Williche que pueden ser incorporados a la toma de decisiones por parte del Estado, de tal forma de generar condiciones de gobernanza en los sectores litorales con población indígena, de las regiones del sur de Chile (Bíobio, La Araucanía, Los Ríos y Los Lagos). Esto ha implicado una exhaustiva revisión bibliográfica, como, también, una búsqueda de información, a nivel local, mediante actividades realizadas en terreno con comunidades Lafkenche y Williche, del sur de Chile. Los resultados más significativos de la investigación y que reflejan el proceso de validación a que han sido sometidas las hipótesis, se enuncian, de manera general: 1) Dada las ocupaciones que los diversos grupos culturales realizan de los territorios, las sociedades ahí establecidas definen estrategias de organización para plantear sus demandas y avanzar en el reconocimiento que el Estado debe otorgarles como ocupantes legítimos; 2) La historia, concepto proveniente del griego "istorein", que quiere decir "hacer una investigación", entendida como un acto humano, es tradicionalmente, en su sentido más amplio, el estudio de la totalidad de los sucesos humanos acaecidos en el pasado, aunque una definición más realista la limitaría al pasado conocido mediante cualesquiera que sean las fuentes documentales. La historiografía en cambio es el registro escrito de lo que se conoce sobre las vidas y sociedades humanas del pasado y la forma en que los historiadores han intentado estudiarlas, en este contexto, es necesario considerar que la significancia de los hechos está dada desde la perspectiva de quien los presenta; 3) Los territorios se definen en función del uso que las diferentes sociedades hacen de éstos. El Estado de Chile ha utilizado el territorio en la construcción del Estado-Nación chileno, mientras que las comunidades lo utilizan con una perspectiva de sustentabilidad cultural; 4) Existe una apropiación distinta del área litoral, de parte del Estado de Chile y de las comunidades indígenas, lo que genera externalidades negativas similares, asumidas de manera diferente por ambos actores. Estas estrategias diversas han dado lugar a permanentes conflictos en el territorio; y 5) Debido a que la Gestión Integral de Áreas Litorales (GIAL) en Chile se realiza desde una perspectiva sectorial, no se ha logrado incorporar, en su proceso metodológico, las diversas perspectivas culturales de quienes cohabitan el área litoral. Lo anterior se aprecia en dos ámbitos: los procesos históricos de ocupación del territorio y la significancia cultural de éste. Los hallazgos destacables que nos aporta la investigación se presentan en cinco niveles: Respecto de cómo los Lafkenche y Williche se articulan para enfrentar los procesos de reivindicación territorial; 2) A la vista de la revisión histórica; 3) En función de cómo cada sociedad define el área litoral; 4) A partir de las estrategias de apropiación o anexión del territorio que ha tenido el Estado de Chile; y 5) En relación al GIAL como disciplina. ; This research has been focused on reviewing and identifying the cultural, historical and ecosystem related elements of the Lafkenche and Williche indigenous communities that can be considered by the government at the moment of making decisions, in hopes to generate governance conditions in the coastal sectors. with indigenous population, from the southern regions of Chile (Bíobio, La Araucanía, Los Ríos and Los Lagos). This has resulted in an exhaustive bibliographic review, as well as a search for information, at the local level, through activities carried out in the field with Lafkenche and Williche communities in southern Chile. The most significant results of the research, which reflect the validation process to which the hypotheses have been subjected, are stated, in a general way: 1) Given the occupations that the various cultural groups carry out in the territories, the societies established there determine organization strategies to raise their demands and advance in the recognition that the State must grant them as legitimate occupants; 2) History, derived from the Greek istorein, which means "to do an investigation", understood as a human act, is traditionally, in its broadest sense, the study of all human events that occurred in the past, although a more realistic definition would limit it to the known past taken from whatever the documentary source may be. Historiography, on the other hand, is the written record of what is known about human lives and societies of the past and the way in which historians have tried to study them, in this context, it is necessary to consider that the significance of the facts is given from the perspective of who presents them; 3) Territories are defined based on the use that different societies make of them. The State of Chile has used the territory in the construction of the Chilean Nation-State, while the communities use it with a perspective of cultural sustainability; 4) There is a different appropriation of the coastal area, on the part of the State of Chile and the indigenous communities, which generates similar negative externalities, assumed differently by both actors. These diverse strategies have given rise to permanent conflicts in the territory; and 5) Due to the Integrated Management of Coastal Areas (GIAL) in Chile being carried out from a sectoral perspective, it has not been possible to incorporate, in its methodological process, the diverse cultural perspectives of those who cohabit the coastal area. This can be seen in two areas: the historical processes of occupation of the territory and its cultural significance. The remarkable findings that the research throws are presented at five levels: 1) Regarding how the Lafkenche and Williche organize to face the processes of territorial reclaim; 2) In view of the historical recollection; 3) In function of how each society defines the littoral area; 4) Based on the strategies of appropriation or annexation of the territory that the State of Chile has taken; and 5) In relation to the GIAL as a discipline. ; 418 páginas

학위논문(석사)--서울대학교 대학원 :행정대학원 글로벌행정전공,2019. 8. Ko, KilKon. ; The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar is currently facing with so many internal conflicts and external challenges in that the civilian-led government is trying to make big changes in all sectors especially in political, economic, and social reforms in both central and local governments to shape the federal democratic political system throughout the country. In doing so, the role of civil service personnel which is more importantly, to emerge a democratic governance and implement the policies, objectives and strategies laid down by the government is of importance as equally the same as the other sectors reforms. It is therefore that the Civil Service Reform (CSR) Strategic Action Plan for the period 2017-2020 was initiated in 2017 and gradually developed by the Union Civil Service Board in collaboration with the development partners especially for UNDP financial and technical supports in Myanmar. In order for nurturing and enhancing the capacity of the civil servants, training is the most powerful tool as it gives the raw materials and helps to add the existing value of the government staff. Thus, this study would attempt to examine the capacity development of the civil servants through the training course. For this purpose, the surveys would be done on trainees who attended the Basic Course for Civil Service Officers (Batch No. 55) in the Central Institute of Civil Service - CICS (Upper Myanmar) which is an affiliated organization or institute of the Union Civil Service Board. The study is comprised of six chapters: Introduction (Chapter I), Background of the Study (Chapter II), Literature Review (Chapter III), Methodology (Chapter IV), Data Analysis and Discussion (Chapter V) and Conclusion (Chapter VI) respectively. In this study, the post-test survey is conducted and used to find the feedbacks of the 110 participants in CICS (Upper Myanmar) in terms of applying the Kirkpatrick's evaluation model so as to be able to measure the effectiveness of the training. Evaluation model is essential to realize the strength and weakness of the training programs. Findings in this paper indicate that the overall feedbacks of the survey. Through this survey, findings vividly show that training course still needs to monitor, review and assess some weaknesses in teaching and learning materials, time allocation, the arrangement of outside lectures, focusing on the core value of a civil servant especially for the objectivity, practically effective way of applying computer and IT skill and so forth. Regarding with the subjects conducted in CICS of UCSB, the management and ICT subjects are mostly given the negative score by the respondents comparing with the other subjects. It means that these subjects are a little bit hard to realize and adapt for the trainees. Even though these weaknesses are resulted, the training course as a whole, can raise the capacity development of the trainees beyond them. As a result, the trainees respond their skill, knowledge and attitudes improve and their confidence to work as a leader in their jobs and the application of what they learnt into their workplaces is for sure and increasingly improving for their personal betterments and their working communities. ; 미얀마 내 민간 주도의 정부는 현재 중앙과 지방 모두에서 연방 민주적 정치 시스템을 도입하기 위해 정치, 경제 및 사회 개혁을 포함한 모든 분야에서 큰 변화를 꾀하고 있으며, 이러한 현 상황에서 미얀마 정부는 매우 많은 내부 갈등과 외부적 어려움에 직면해 있다. 이 때문에 민주적 통치체제를 구축하고 정부가 내놓은 정책, 목표, 전략을 이행하는 것은 다른 분야에서의 혁신과 마찬가지로 공무원의 중요한 역할이다. 2017-2020 년 공무원제도개혁(CSR) 전략 실행 계획은 2017 년에 시작되었으며, 특히 미얀마의 UNDP 금융 및 기술 지원을 위한 개발 파트너들과 미얀마 연방인사위원회(UCSB)의 협력 하에 점차적으로 발전하여 왔다. 교육훈련은 공무원들 스스로의 내적 가치 증대를 도울 수 있어 역량강화를 위한 가장 강력한 도구로 사용될 수 있다. 따라서, 본 연구는 훈련 과정을 통한 공무원들의 역량 강화를 분석한다. 이러한 목적을 위해, 본 연구는 연방인사위원회(UCSB) 산하 기관인 CICS(미얀마 북부)의 공무원 기본 과정(55 기)에 참석한 연수생을 대상으로 설문조사를 실시한다. 본 연구는 다음과 같은 여섯 개의 장으로 구성되어 있다: 서론(제 1 장), 연구 배경(제 2 장), 문헌 검토(제 3 장), 연구 방법론(제 4 장), 데이터 분석 및 검토(제 5 장), 결론(제 6 장). 본 연구에서는 CICS(미얀마 북부)에서 근무하는 110 명의 참가자에 대한 사후실험조사 실시를 통해 Kirkpatrick 의 평가 모델을 적용하여 교육훈련의 효과를 측정하는 것에 대한 피드백을 파악하였다. 평가 모델은 훈련 프로그램의 강점과 약점을 깨닫는데 필수적이다. 본 논문은 설문조사의 전반적인 피드백을 반영한다. 설문조사는 교육훈련과정이 여전히 교육 및 학습 자료, 시간 할당, 외부 강의의 배치 등에서 약점을 가지기 때문에 이를 주시, 검토 및 평가해야 한다는 것을 분명하게 나타낸다. 또한 이 때 객관성, 컴퓨터 및 IT 기술을 실무상 효과적으로 적용하는 방법 등 공무원이 지녀야할 핵심 가치에 주력하여야 한다. UCSB 의 CICS 에서 가르치는 과목들 중 관리와 정보통신기술(ICT)은 다른 과목과 비교했을 때 응답자들이 가장 낮은 점수를 받는 과목이다. 이는 훈련생들이 이러한 과목들에 잘 적응하지 못한다는 것을 의미한다. 비록 이러한 약점들이 존재하더라도, 전반적으로 훈련 코스는 훈련생들의 역량을 강화시킬 수 있다. 그 결과, 훈련생들은 향상된 기술, 지식, 태도와 리더로서의 업무 자신감을 가지고 그들이 배운 것을 업무에 적용하며, 이는 그들 자신은 물론 직무 공동체에 긍정적인 영향을 미치게 된다. ; Chapter I_ Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction. 1 1.2 Purpose of the Study. 4 1.3 Research Questions 5 1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study. 5 Chapter II_ Background of the Study. 7 2.1 Civil Service Structure in Myanmar. 7 2.2 Civil Service Training System in Myanmar. 8 2.3 Overview of the Union Civil Service Board 10 2.4 The Training Programmes of the Union Civil Service Board 12 Chapter III_ Literature Review 16 3.1 Nature of Training and its Purposes. 16 3.2 The Effectiveness of the Training Programmes. 17 3.3 Nature and Levels of Capacity Development 20 3.4 Relationship between Training and Capacity Development. 22 Chapter IV_ Methodology 26 4.1 Comparison of Training Evaluation Models. 26 4.2 Kirkpatricks Four-Level Evaluation Model. 31 4.3 Conceptual Framework of the Study 35 4.4 Data Collection and Methodological Issue 35 Chapter V_ Data Analysis and Discussion 37 5.1 Data and Variables. 37 5.2 Demographic Analysis. 39 5.3 Evaluating Effectiveness at the Reaction Level 43 5.4 Evaluating Effectiveness at the Learning Level 53 5.5 Evaluating Effectiveness at the Behavioural Change Level 61 5.6 Presentation and Interpretation of the Variables 69 Chapter VI_ Conclusion 74 6.1 Summary of Findings 74 6.2 Conclusion 78 Bibliography 84 Appendix. 90 Abstract in Korean 94 Acknowledgement 97 ; Master

The given article presents the results of scientific research of a number of civil wars in Liberia from 1989 to 2003. The historiographical background is reviewed and the main scientific approaches to the analysis of civil war events are presented by the author. The author analyzes the historical background and prerequisites for the emergence of armed confrontation. In particular, the complex of reasons of historical and political nature, among which stands out: the artificial political traditions, introduced in the nineteenth century by the immigrants from the United States, the weakness of democratic institutions and the Liberian community as a whole. Appealing to the peculiarities of political development in the second half of the twentieth century, the author presents the confrontation between the various ethnic groups of Liberia. It is noted that the key factors of the unstability of the political system were: authoritarian management methods, high level of corruption, extremely low level of education, inefficient economy.It is also emphasized that the policy of President William Tubman (1944-1971) was aimed at destroying the traditional socio-economic structure of the indigenous population. During William Tubman's presidency, discriminatory approaches and policies for replacing key posts were widely used exclusively by the American-Liberian elite. The "open door" policy for US capital, begun in the 1920s, has become even more significant by President William Tolbert, who has continued the policy of the predecessor. In the late 1970s, the economic situation in the country began to deteriorate, and rising food prices have led to a series of mutiny throughout the country. The peak of civil disobedience has become mass strikes, which led to the coup d'état of 1980. During the events of 1980, the regime of President William Tolbert was abolished. The authorities in the country went to one of the leaders of the ethnic group of Kran - Samuel Dow, who executed the president and the entire administrative elite. The second half of the 1980s was the time of transit of power and the replacement of key positions by representatives of the Kranes.It was in events that tied to the formation of a new alliance of political forces represented by numerous representatives of the indigenous population, creating the greatest contradictions of the regime, which later added external actors - Sierra Leone and the United States. The complex of contradictions formed in the country and the interests of the participants of the conflict are visualized in two matrices, which reflect the author's concept of understanding the driving forces and the origins of a series of civil wars in Liberia. ; У статті відображено результати дослідження, присвяченого вивченню низки громадянських війн у Ліберії 1989-2003 рр. Розглянуто історіографічний доробок та представлено основні наукові підходи до аналізу подій. Автором проаналізовано історичне підґрунтя та передумови виникнення збройного протистояння. Зокрема, наголошується на комплексі причин історико-політичного характеру, з-поміж яких виділяється: штучність політичних традицій, які були привнесені у ХІХ ст. переселенцями з США, слабкий розвиток демократичних інституцій та ліберійського суспільства в цілому. Апелюючи до особливостей політичного розвитку у другій половині ХХ ст., автором представлено нарис протистояння між різними етнічними групами Ліберії. Зазначено, що ключовими факторами нестабільності в державі стали: авторитарні методи управління, високий рівень корупції, надзвичайно низький рівень освіти, неефективна економіка. Окремо наголошено на тому, що політичний режим президента Вільяма Табмена (1944-1971 рр.) був спрямований на руйнування традиційної соціально-економічної структури корінного населення. За часів президентства Вільяма Табмена широко використовувалися дискримінаційні підходи та політика заміщення ключових постів виключно представниками американо-ліберійської еліти. Політика «відкритих дверей» для американського капіталу, започаткована з 1920-х років, набула ще більших масштабів при президенті Вільямі Толберті, який продовжив політику попередника. Наприкінці 1970-х років економічне становище в країні почало погіршуватись, а зростання цін на харчові продукти призвело до низки заколотів по всій країні. Апогеєм громадянської непокори стали масові страйки, які призвели до державного перевороту 1980 року. Під час подій 1980 року режим президента Вільяма Толберті був повалений. Влада в країні перейшла до одного з лідерів етнічної групи Кран - Самуеля Доу, який стратив президента та всю управлінську верхівку. Друга половина 1980-х років стала часом транзиту влади й заміщення ключових посад представниками етнічної групи Кранів. Саме у подіях, дотичних до формування нового альянсу політичних сил, представлених численними представниками корінного населення, створювалися найбільші протиріччя режиму, до яких згодом додалися й зовнішні актори - Сьєра Леоне та США.Комплекс протиріч, сформований в країні та інтереси учасників протистояння візуалізовано у двох матрицях, які відбивають авторську концепцію розуміння рушійних сил та витоків низки громадянських війн у Ліберії. ; В статье отражены результаты исследования, посвященного изучению ряда гражданских войн в Либерии 1989-2003 гг. Рассмотрены историографические наработки и представлены основные научные подходы к анализу событий. Автором проанализирована историческая основа и предпосылки возникновения вооруженного противостояния. В частности, отмечается комплекс причин историко-политического характера, среди которых выделяется: искусственность политических традиций, которые были привнесены в XIX в. переселенцами из США, слабое развитие демократических институтов и либерийского общества в целом. Апеллируя к особенностям политического развития во второй половине ХХ в., автор очерчивает противостояние между различными этническими группами Либерии. Отмечено, что ключевыми факторами нестабильности в государстве стали: авторитарные методы управления, высокий уровень коррупции, чрезвычайно низкий уровень образования, неэффективная экономика.Отдельно отмечено, что политический режим президента Уильяма Табмен (1944-1971 гг.) был направлен на разрушение традиционной социально-экономической структуры коренного населения. Во времена президентства Уильяма Табмен широко использовались дискриминационные подходы и политика замещения ключевых постов исключительно представителями американо-либерийской элиты. Политика «открытых дверей» для американского капитала, начатая в 1920-х годах, приобрела еще большие масштабы при президенте Уильяме Толберта, который продолжил политику предшественника. В конце 1970-х годов экономическое положение в стране начало ухудшаться, а рост цен на продукты питания привел к ряду мятежей по всей стране. Апогеем гражданского неповиновения стали массовые забастовки, которые привели к государственному перевороту 1980 года. Во время событий 1980 режим президента Уильяма Толберта был свергнут. Власть в стране перешла к одному из лидеров этнической группы Кран - Самуэлю Доу, который казнил президента и всю управленческую верхушку. Вторая половина 1980-х годов стала временем транзита власти и замещения ключевых должностей представителями этнической группы кран.Именно в событиях, касающихся формирования нового альянса политических сил, представленных многочисленными представителями коренного населения, создавались наибольшие противоречия режима, к которым впоследствии добавились и внешние акторы - Сьерра Леоне и США.Комплекс противоречий, сложившийся в стране и интересы участников противостояния визуализированы в двух матрицах, которые отражают авторскую концепцию понимания движущих сил и истоков ряда гражданских войн в Либерии.

JEL : M10 General Administration; M21 Business Economics ; With the rapid development of China's economy, people's living standards continue to improve, spiritual needs are constantly increasing, and more and more people participate in the appreciation, investment and collection of art. Private art galleries are constantly emerging but, in the absence of government subsidies, private capital or donations, have to consider their dual nature of commerciality and commonweal to ensure a sustainable management. Based on the network theory, this thesis puts forward a new type of business model for private art galleries in the Chinese context, as opposed to the traditional linear model, in order to integrate this dual nature. The aim is to resolve the conflict between commerciality and commonweal and to integrate the different kinds of value specific to art works revealing that the dynamism and richness of networks allow for such integration and enable the full release of artistic value. The research uses multiple case studies of private galleries in Sichuan province, China, as well as an extensive collection of interviews, fieldwork and secondary data. Along two years, five galleries have been visited, 42 artists, 10 executives and 9 art professors have been interviewed and substantial secondary data were analyzed. In the whole, 300,000 words in Chinese have been collected and processed through content analysis and data triangulation. The analysis allowed to (1) verify the conflictual nature of commerciality and commonweal that private galleries need to address; (2) identify that the release of artistic value is a process developed through the interaction among creators, appreciators and brokers; (3) identify that only explicit value may be fully released while potential value is constantly promoted through networks that emerge among appreciators. On a first stage the thesis proposes a double helix model based on artistic value where potential value provides space for integrating commerciality and commonweal. There is also a dual purpose in this thesis: (1) to reveal the limitations of the traditional business model canvas and (2) to present a new business model aiming at optimizing the ability of art organizations to fulfill the dual aim of commerciality and commonweal for the full release of artistic value. The data collected enabled to conclude that networks contain the dynamism and richness required for the transport of artistic value and, based on them, a new business model was developed, integrating the main elements of the traditional business model canvas with the network theory and proposing an evolutionary, volcano like model, so as to express the intense, continuous and often ignored activity developed by networks and that resembles the lava in a volcano.The thesis draws from three theoretical approaches – value, network and business model theories – and integrates the three of them. Then, based on qualitative data collection and analysis, proposes a new business model that may add to existing theory and aims at being useful for those art organizations that face the need to satisfy commerciality and commonweal and to release both explicit and potential value for the full realization of artistic value ; Com o rápido desenvolvimento da economia chinesa e a melhoria dos padrões de vida, as necessidades espirituais têm também vindo a aumentar e cada vez são mais as pessoas que, na China, apreciam, investem e colecionam arte. Este aumento nota-se também no número crescente de galerias de arte privadas que, na ausência de subsídios governamentais, investimento privado ou mecenato, têm de encontrar formas de satisfazer objetivos sociais e comerciais para garantir uma gestão sustentável. Esta tese propõe um novo tipo de modelo de negócios que, em contraste com a linearidade do modelo de negócios tradicional, integra a dupla natureza das galerias de arte no contexto chinês através de uma proposta de valor assente na teoria das redes de relações. O modelo pretende resolver o conflito existente entre a necessidade de satisfazer objectivos sociais e comerciais e agregar os diversos tipos de valor característicos das obras de arte, demonstrando que o dinamismo e a riqueza das redes de relações favorecem a integração destes objectivos com vista à promoção integral do valor artístico. A tese utiliza diversos casos de estudo de galerias privadas na província de Sichuan, China, e uma extensa coleção de entrevistas, trabalho de campo e dados secundários. Ao longo de dois anos foram visitadas cinco galerias, entrevistados 42 artistas, 10 gestores, 9 professores de arte e recolhida documentação secundária obtendo-se, no total, mais de 300 mil palavras em chinês. O material foi depois processado através de análise de conteúdo e triangulação de dados. A análise permitiu (1) confirmar a natureza conflitual entre objectivos sociais e comerciais com que se debatem as galerias de arte privadas; (2) identificar que a libertação do valor da arte se processa em constante interação entre criador, apreciador e canal de distribuição; (3) identificar ainda que apenas o valor explícito da obra de arte pode ser integralmente libertado ao contrário do que acontece com o valor potencial, baseado nas redes de relações promovidas entre apreciadores. Numa primeira fase a tese propõe um modelo tridimensional em hélice para representar o processo de formação do valor artístico, segundo o qual o valor potencial permite a integração de objectivos comerciais e sociais. É também duplo o objectivo fundamental desta tese: (1) expor as limitações do modelo de negócios tradicional e (2) apresentar um novo modelo que permita optimizar a capacidade das organizações artísticas corresponderem a objectivos sociais e comerciais e libertarem ao máximo as diversas formas do valor artístico. Verificou-se, através da recolha e análise de dados, que as redes de relações proporcionam o dinamismo e a riqueza necessários para transportaresse valor e foi com base nelas que se chegou a um novo modelo de negócios que integra os elementos principais do modelo tradicional com a teoria das redes de relações propondo um novo modelo não linear, mas evolucionário, que se designou por "vulcão" para retratar a intensa, contínua e não totalmente conhecida atividade desenvolvida pelas redes, semelhante à lava no interior de um vulcão. Partindo de três abordagens teóricas – as teorias do valor, das redes de relações e do modelos de negócio – esta tese integra as três perspectivas e, com base numa extensa recolha de dados tratados qualitativamente, propõe um novo modelo de negócio que pode acrescentar algo à teoria existente e ser útil para as organizações que negoceiam em arte e se debatem com a dupla necessidade de satisfazer objectivos sociais e comerciais e de libertar o valor explícito e potencial das obras para a completa realização do valor artístico.

The article deals with the problem of overcoming a social and political division of the Ukrainian society by region, ethnicity and language. Having intensified during the years of its independence, the existing social and political division of the Ukrainian society suggests that the government's ethnic and national policy is ineffective, points to a segmental awareness of individuality and a conflict of interests of social and political groups, a stronger institutional representation etc. Today, the political elite fails to utilize the nation-consolidating potential and often ignores the objective of social, political and national consolidation of the society, enhances the imbalances in the system of values and standards, exacerbates interethnic relationships. In contemporary conditions, Ukrainian citizens from different regions have a different understanding of the past and the future development of their country, give preference to different political and geopolitical vectors. That Ukraine did not have statehood has made more complicated the evolution of sustainable national identification factors of the Ukrainian society, ultimately limited the natural development of interethnic and intergovernmental relationships and their impact on the formation of a nation, conditioned peculiar types of regional identity to a great degree. Remaining immature in most regions, the ethnic foundation of the national identity prevents the Ukrainian political nation from consolidation.It has been substantiated that the social and political division may, if escalated, provoke a nation's breakup which has two aspects – external (lack of the nation's unity is caused by certain geopolitical factors, interference of other countries or organizations in the constitution of the nation) and internal (by historical, cultural, religious, language-related, mental and other factors). Today, the breakup between the west and and east can be witnessed in Ukraine as it correlates with language-related and geopolitical reference points of Ukrainian citizens.The current social and political division of the Ukrainian society has been strengthened by internal political factors such as inferior public governance, ethnic and political management has failed to eliminate discontent of both the title ethnos and national minorities by developing their national cultures, and they have an increasing sense of neglect and humiliation. Unfortunately, most political solutions, official documents and declarations intended to promote national consolidation fail to achieve their functions and are of formal nature in that they fail to assist in overcoming regional disproportions and disintegration of the regions.Today, the ethnic and regional division is also based on the language because lingual conduct is the most prominent factor of regional differentiation. A further development of these tendencies poses a threat of having the existing ethnic and cultural differences between the regions transform themselves into an institutionalized territorial and political demarcation. When forming a language policy, the state should proceed from that the problem of protection of national minorities' languages should not threaten the national identity and national consolidation of Ukraine. This condition should be of top priority in the society that has set out for national consolidation instead of a breakup of the nation. It is improper and useless to treat national minorities' languages as an aspect of their 'survival'.It has been demonstrated that the social and political division of the Ukrainian society is also strengthened by external political factors such as the policy of Russia, which creates social and political organizations that raise territory claims against Ukraine; uses the dominant position of the Russian satellite and broadcast television in southern and eastern oblasts of Ukraine to reinforce pro-Russian sentiment among the population of these regions; promotes a negative attitude to the EU and NATO; creates centers of tensions over language-related and national issues, makes military intervention etc. Introduction of dual citizenship also has negative effects such as the exacerbation of interethnic relationships, a shift in the national identity or promotion of dual national identity.For national consolidation, it is crucial today to create a new system of values of the Ukrainian society, a nationwide idea which can consolidate the Ukrainian society. Of course, it is both unreasonable and ineffective to treat an individual factor as primary to national consolidation because national consolidation is a comprehensive and systemic process. National consolidation should be primarily founded on spiritual, social and moral values.The Ukrainian society can consolidate provided there is ethnic, social and national consensus – an agreement between policy actors on national matters based on fundamental values and standards that are common to all mainstream social and political groups of the society. National consolidation may evolve top down and vice versa, bottom up, as initiated by the people in the context of a developed civil society. During national consolidation of the contemporary Ukrainian society, it is important to create conditions for the establishment of institutions of political power and civil society which can maintain territorial integrity and unity of the country and guarantee its sustainable development.The consolidation of the Ukrainian society requires a number of transformations in the humanitarian area. These include developing integrative humanitarian policy intended to create a single political nation, the national identity; creating a single information space; resolving the language issue; reinforcing community ties between Russian- and Ukrainian-speaking regions. It is only when and if all internal and external political factors of the national consolidation of the Ukrainian society are taken into account comprehensively that an effective national strategy of consolidation can be developed and a sustainable development of nation building can be secured. ; В статье рассмотрена проблема преодоления социально-политического разделения украинского общества на региональной и этноязыковой основах. Обоснованно, что социополитическое разделение (при условии егоэскалации) может спровоцировать раскол нации, который имеет два аспекта – внешний (предопределенный геополитическими факторами) и внутренний (предопределенный историческими, культурными, религиозными, языковыми и др. факторами). Ведущую роль в объединении украинского общества может сыграть консолидация политической элиты, действенные политические институты и институты гражданского общества, укрепление общенациональной идентичности. ; У статті розглянуто проблему подолання соціально-політичного поділу українського суспільства на регіональній та етномовній основах. Обґрунтовано, що соціополітичний поділ (за умови його ескалації) може спровокувати розкол нації, який має два аспекти – зовнішній (зумовлений геополітичними чинниками) та внутрішній (зумовлений історичними, культурними, релігійними, мовними та ін. чинниками). Визначено, що необхідними для об'єднання українського суспільства є консолідація політичної еліти, дійові політичні інститути та інститути громадянського суспільства, зміцнення загальнонаціональної ідентичності.

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze e tecnologie per la gestione forestale e ambientale ; Biodiversity is often reduced dramatically by Land Use/Land Cover Changes (LULCC). When land is transformed from a primary forest to a farmland, the loss of forest species within deforested areas is immediate and almost complete. Even when unaccompanied by apparent changes in land cover, similar effects are observed whenever relatively undisturbed lands are transformed to more intensive uses, including livestock grazing, selective tree harvest and even fire prevention. The habitat suitability of forests and other ecosystems surrounding those under intensive use are also impacted by the fragmenting of existing habitat into smaller pieces, which exposes forest edges to external influences and decreases core habitat area. Smaller habitat areas generally support fewer species, and for species requiring undisturbed core habitat, fragmentation can cause local and even general extinction. Understanding how landscape characteristics affect biodiversity patterns and ecological processes at local and landscape scales is critical for mitigating effects of global environmental change. Quantification of landscape pattern is useful, indeed necessary, for understanding the effects of pattern on ecological processes and for documenting either temporal changes in a landscape or differences between two or more landscapes. This study names, assesses and ranks the indirect and direct threats into a network of eight focal sites of high ecological value located in West Bank (Palestine). A panel of local experts followed IUCN standards, reviewed local literature and used a Delphi approach to assign scores to each threat in each site assessing: (1) its magnitude (significance analysis) and (2) its level of knowledge (knowledge analysis).Threats with the greatest averaged magnitudes were intensive grazing (code IUCN 2.3), (water and soil)pollution (code 9.1, 9.2, 9.3), collecting wild plants (code 5.2), recreation (code 6.1), fire (code 7.1) and urbanization (code 1.1). The sites with the greatest mean magnitude threat scores were Bani Naim, WadiAl Quf, Siris and Wadi Qana. The level of knowledge of threats was lowest for reforestation (code IUCN2.2), active quarries (code 3.2), collecting wild plants (code 5.2) and hunting (code 5.1); research into these threats is Necessary to evaluate their magnitude, scopes and intensity. Threat magnitude and knowledge of a threat were directly and significantly correlated (i.e., well-known threats were also observed to have a greater magnitude). We did not observe a significant correlation between mean threat magnitude and site population density. Among threats, intensive grazing is a historical long-term disturbance. Differently, pollution, collecting wild plants, fire and urbanization recently increase due to socio-economic driving forces (unsustainable activities, increasing population density, and poverty) consequent to a critical political status and related conflicts. When field information is lacking, uncertainty and urgency are high and threat-specific data are difficult to obtain in crisis context of conservation concern, expert knowledge from specialists with local backgrounds could be useful in defining priorities for conservation management strategies. ; Le analisi condotte utilizzando le analisi di uso del suolo (LULCC) nell'area di studio hanno mostrato una drammatica riduzione e alterazione della biodiversità. Quando la terra si trasforma da una foresta primaria ad un terreno agricolo, la perdita di specie forestali all'interno di aree deforestate è immediato e quasi completa. Anche quando non accompagnati da cambiamenti apparenti nella copertura del suolo, effetti simili sono stati osservati ogni volta che settori terrestri relativamente indisturbati vengono trasformati per usi più intensivi, tra cui il pascolo del bestiame, la raccolta selettiva di piante e la prevenzione degli incendi. L'idoneità di habitat delle foreste e di altri ecosistemi circostanti a quelli in condizioni di uso intensivo è anche influenzata dalla frammentazione di habitat esistenti in frammenti più piccoli, così da esporre i margini delle aree forestali alle influenze esterne con riduzione delle aree di habitat più interno. Settori di habitat di ridotte dimensioni generalmente supportano un minor numero di specie e, per le specie che necessitano di habitat nucleo indisturbati, la frammentazione può causare l'estinzione locale o a scala regionale. Indagare come le caratteristiche paesaggistiche influenzano i modelli della biodiversità e dei processi ecologici a scala locale e del paesaggio è fondamentale per mitigare gli effetti del cambiamento ambientale globale. La quantificazione del modello paesaggistico è utile per comprendere gli effetti della frammentazione sui processi ecologici e per documentare i cambiamenti temporali sia in un paesaggio. Quest studio si prefigge lo scopo di classificare e quantificare le minacceantropogene dirette e indirette in una rete di otto siti focali di alto valore ecologico situato nel West Bank (Palestina). Un gruppo di esperti locali ha seguito gli standard IUCN, avviando una recensione della letteratura locale e ha utilizzato un approccio Delfi per assegnare i punteggi a ciascuna minaccia in ogni sito.In particolare sono state quantificate: (1) la magnitudine (impatto complessivo) della minaccia (analisi di significatività) e (2) il suo livello di conoscenza (analisi della conoscenza). Le minacce con i valori di magnitudine più elevati sono risultate il pascolo intensivo (codice IUCN 2.3), l'inquinamento idrico e del suolo (codice 9.1, 9.2, 9.3), la raccolta di piante selvatiche (codice 5.2), le attività ricreative (codice 6.1), gli incendi (codice 7.1), l'urbanizzazione residenziale (codice 1.1). I siti con i più alti valori di magnitudine sono risultati Bani Naim, Wadi Al Quf, Siris e Wadi Qana. Il livello di conoscenza delle minacce è stato più basso per la riforestazione (codice IUCN2.2), le cave attive (codice 3.2), la raccolta di piante selvatiche (codice 5.2) e la caccia (codice 5.1). E'necessario proseguire le indagini finalizzate alla conoscenze del regime di minaccia per questi eventi. La magnitudine e il livello di conoscenza di una minaccia sono risultati direttamente e significativamente correlati. Non abbiamo osservato una correlazione significativa tra magnitudine e densità di popolazione del sito. Tra le minacce, il pascolo intensivo è un disturbo storico di lungo periodo. Diversamente, l'inquinamento, la raccolta di piante selvatiche, gli incendi e l'urbanizzazione sono minacce recenti a causa di fattori socio-economici locali conseguenti ad uno status politico critico e ai relativi conflitti. Quando le informazioni sono carenti, l'incertezza e l'urgenza sono alte e i dati specifici sulle minacce sono difficili da ottenere in un contesto di crisi, la conoscenza basata sui giudizi di esperti specialisti potrebbe essere utile nella definizione delle priorità per le strategie locali di conservazione della natura.

For about fifteen years in France, we have assisted, with a return in strength of "the colonial history", stimulated by burning hot memory questions, like those of the war of Algeria, the Atlantic draft, slavery in the Antilles, as many topics become classical of a trend with the colonial repentance.Obviously eager to think the integration of the memory of colonization of the national identity, the general public is thus left touched by the rediscovery of the colonial past of France, in particular by the means of film productions like Empire of the medium of the South of the scenario writer Éric Deroo, who recalls the history of the Viêt - Nam and French Indo-China.These initiatives incarnate forms of persistence of the history of the relations between France and its ex-empire, but also a will to transmit the memory without limiting it to the only colonial conflicts. They contribute to maintain a kind of emotional tie of the French towards their old colonies.By reactivating their memory, Western companies, and the French company in particular, thus ask the question of the returns effects of the colonial time on the current definition of the national identities. If colonialism is often regarded as a form of circulation to one way, metropolises towards their colonies, the evolution from the points of view and the historical research allow the examination of the influence of colonization in Europe, nowadays, but also during the colonial period. This circulation empire-metropolis is indicated by the expressions "returns effects" or "effects of reverberation", which relate to in particular circulations of representations.In the line of recent university work, which proposes various regional approaches of the phenomena of reception and appropriation of the colonial fact, this work proposes the study in the way in which phenomena of cultural opening related to the colonial expansion take place with a regional scale, whereas, for a long time, following work of the historian Raoul Girardet, the national scale was privileged.This work tends to check the assumption of the construction of the identity of people of North, inside the nation, by integrating the influence of the colonial expansion. The American historian Herman Lebovics helps us to refine this assumption when it affirms in true France, that there exist parallels between the average employees by the French powers to gain the honesty of a subjugated foreign population, and the cultural device set up to cause the honesty of the French people.He evokes in particular the preserving ethnology, which draws the attention of the authorities to the need to preserve the colonial cultures and to revive the regional cultures, in the condition of not generating political claims going against the existence of a centralized State, resulting from the revolutionary tradition jacobine.This research plans to appreciate the returns effects of the construction of colonial empire towards a region of the metropolis and its inhabitants, by studying the changes of management of the "glance" and the widening of the scales, of the room to the national then room with the empire. The change of focal distance thus allows a study, which examines local realities and problems and defines a specific reception and an appropriation of the imperial fact, the exaltation of the empire becoming at the same time an element of the local identity and an element of integration of the area to one national identity. ; Depuis une quinzaine d'années en France, nous assistons, à un retour en force de « l'histoire coloniale », stimulée par des questions mémorielles brûlantes, comme celles de la guerre d'Algérie, de la traite Atlantique, de l'esclavage aux Antilles, autant de thèmes devenus classique d'une tendance à la repentance coloniale. Manifestement désireux de penser l'intégration de la mémoire de la colonisation à l'identité nationale, le grand public se laisse donc touché par la redécouverte du passé colonial de la France, notamment par le biais de productions cinématographiques comme L'Empire du milieu du Sud du cinéaste Éric Deroo, qui retrace l'histoire du Vietnam et de l'Indochine française. Ces initiatives incarnent des formes de persistance de l'histoire des relations entre la France et son ex-empire, mais aussi une volonté de transmettre la mémoire sans la borner aux seuls conflits coloniaux. Elles contribuent à maintenir une sorte de lien affectif des Français envers leurs anciennes colonies. En réactivant leur mémoire, les sociétés occidentales, et la société française en particulier, posent donc la question des effets retours de l'époque coloniale sur la définition actuelle des identités nationales. Si le colonialisme est souvent considéré comme une forme de circulation à sens unique, des métropoles vers leurs colonies, l'évolution des points de vue et de la recherche historique permettent l'examen de l'influence de la colonisation en Europe, de nos jours, mais aussi durant la période coloniale. Cette circulation empire-métropole est désignée par les expressions « effets retours » ou « effets de réverbération », qui concernent en particulier des circulations de représentations. Dans la lignée de travaux universitaires récents, qui proposent diverses approches régionales des phénomènes de réception et d'appropriation du fait colonial, ce travail propose l'étude de la manière dont s'opèrent des phénomènes d'ouverture culturelle liés à l'expansion coloniale à une échelle régionale, alors que, pendant longtemps, suite aux travaux de l'historien Raoul Girardet, l'échelle nationale a été privilégiée1. Le présent travail tend à vérifier l'hypothèse de la construction de l'identité des gens du Nord, à l'intérieur de la nation, en intégrant l'influence de l'expansion coloniale. L'historien américain Herman Lebovics nous aide à affiner cette hypothèse lorsqu'il affirme dans La vraie France, qu'il existe des parallèles entre les moyens employés par les pouvoirs français pour gagner la loyauté d'une population étrangère assujettie, et l'appareil culturel mis en place pour provoquer la loyauté des métropolitains 2. Il évoque notamment l'ethnologie conservatrice, qui attire l'attention des autorités sur le besoin de préserver les cultures coloniales et de raviver les cultures régionales, à la condition de ne pas engendrer de revendications politiques allant à l'encontre de l'existence d'un État centralisé, issu de la tradition révolutionnaire jacobine. Cette recherche envisage d'apprécier les effets retours de la construction d'un l'empire colonial vers une région de la métropole et ses habitants, en étudiant les changements de direction du « regard » et l'élargissement des échelles, du local au national puis du local à l'empire. Le changement de focale permet donc une étude, qui examine des réalités et des problématiques locales et définit une réception et une appropriation spécifiques du fait impérial, l'exaltation de l'empire devenant à la fois un élément de l'identité locale et un élément d'intégration de la région à une identité nationale.

Die Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Frage nach der Rolle des Bürgers im Prozess der Risikobewertung. In der sozialwissenschaftlichen Risikokommunikationsforschung wird diese Rolle unter dem Begriff der Risikomündigkeit diskutiert. Das Leitbild der Risikomündigkeit zielt auf ein reflektiertes Urteil unter Einbezug von Fakten, Unsicherheiten und Werten der Bürgerinnen und Bürger ab. Im Fokus steht die Frage, welche empirische Relevanz Risikomündigkeit (spezieller: kognitive Kompetenz als Vorbedingung von Risikomündigkeit, kurz: KKR) im Hinblick auf die Risikokommunikation zwischen den Gruppen von Laien und Experten bei unterschiedlichen, technischen Risiken (Atomkraft und Mobilfunk) hat: Wie weit trägt das Konzept der Risikomündigkeit bei verschiedenen Risiken? Diese Forschungsfrage wird sowohl mit quantitativen als auch mit qualitativen Methoden untersucht. Es werden folgende Hypothesen getestet. Die Kognitionshypothese besagt, dass mit steigendem Grad der kognitiven Faktoren der Risikobewertung als Vorbedingung von Risikomündigkeit bei Laien sich die Risikobewertungen von Laien und Experten tendenziell annähern. Aus der Kognitionshypothese lassen sich zwei weitere Hypothesen ableiten: Laien mit hoher kognitiver Kompetenz (hoher Wissensstand, großes Interesse am Thema etc.) kommen zu ähnlichen Risikobewertungen wie Experten (Konsenshypothese) bzw. Laien mit niedriger kognitiver Kompetenz (niedriger Wissensstand, geringes Interesse am Thema etc.) kommen zu unterschiedlichen Risikobewertungen wie Experten (Dissenshypothese). Dies impliziert wiederum eine weitere Hypothese: Laien mit hoher kognitiver Kompetenz kommen zu unterschiedlichen Risikobewertungen wie Laien mit niedriger kognitiver Kompetenz (Laienkompetenzhypothese). Die Hypothesen werden anhand eines repräsentativen Datensatzes getestet. Der Risikomündigkeitssurvey 2006 ist eine quantitative, deutschlandweite Repräsentativbefragung mit einer Fallzahl von n = 868 (gewichteter Datensatz). Die Befragten werden anhand ihrer Antworten zu mehreren Items auf einem Index der KKR verortet. Theoretische Grundlage für die Messung von KKR ist das Elaboration Likelihood Modell (ELM) von John Petty und Richard Cacioppo. Der Hypothesentest bestätigt für die Atomkraft die Kognitionshypothese, Konsenshypothese und Dissenshypothese. Im Falle des Mobilfunks (Sender und Handys) müssen die Hypothesen jedoch zurück gewiesen werden. Die Laienkompetenzhypothese kann für beide Technologien als bestätigt angesehen werden. Des Weiteren wurde die Güte der Operationalisierung der KKR anhand von knapp 60 qualitativen Leitfadeninterviews zu Mobilfunk und Atomkraft überprüft. Eine Einordnung der Befragten nach zentralen Kategorien des ELM müsste ungefähr dasselbe Muster produzieren wie es sich in der quantitativen Studie gezeigt hat. Das qualitativ gewonnene Muster gleicht in der Tat der quantitativen Verteilung im Risikomündigkeitssurvey 2006. Der KKR-Index scheint damit tauglich zu sein, um eine Teilkomponente der Risikomündigkeit zu erfassen. Wie sind diese Ergebnisse zu interpretieren? Zunächst einmal scheint KKR nur bei Atomkraft die vermutete Wirkung zu haben, da beim Mobilfunk die Kognitionshypothese, Konsenshypothese und Dissenshypothese nicht bestätigt werden konnten. Eine mögliche Erklärung hierfür könnte die Tatsache sein, dass im Fall der Kernenergie bedingt durch einen längeren Erfahrungszeitraum mehr belastbares Wissen vorhanden ist, welches Eingang in die Köpfte der Menschen finden konnte. Erst wenn sich der Grad an KKR beim Mobilfunk erhöht, können Wissen und Motivation ihre vermutete Wirkung (Konsens zwischen Experten und Laien oder zumindest Konsens über Dissens) entfalten. Jedoch besteht zur Absicherung dieser Interpretation noch weiterer Forschungsbedarf. Die geschilderten Ergebnisse haben eventuell weit reichende politische Implikationen: Wenn bei Atomkraft Risikomündigkeit "funktioniert", können Bürger in die Entscheidungsfindung mit einbezogen werden, ohne das es gleich zu Missverständnissen mit Akteuren aus Politik, Wirtschaft und Wissenschaft kommen muss. Konflikte auf Grund von Wertedifferenzen kann es natürlich nach wie vor geben. Laien und Experten aus Politik, Wirtschaft und Wissenschaft können entweder zu einem klaren Konsens oder zumindest einem rational begründeten Konsens über bestehende Differenzen (Konsens über Dissens) gelangen. Beim Mobilfunk ist dies (noch) nicht der Fall. Für die Risikowahrnehmungsforschung bedeutet die Risikomündigkeit eine Erweiterung der bekannten Perspektiven (Psychometrie, normative Kulturtheorie, Vertrauensforschung). In Bezug auf die Rolle der KKR für die Risikokommunikation hat sich gezeigt, dass eine Differenzierung nach Technologien auch eine entsprechende Differenzierung in den Kommunikationsstrategien sinnvoll erscheinen lässt. ; The dissertation focuses on the citizen's role in the risk evaluation process. This role is being discussed in the current social science risk research under the concept of "risk maturity". Risk maturity means that citizens evaluate risks under consideration of the facts, uncertainties and their own values. The main research question refers to the empirical relevance of risk maturity for risk communication between laypeople and experts in the case of two different, technological risks (nuclear energy, mobile telephony): What constitutes risk maturity, in particular its cognitive component (Cognitive Competence as a precondition for risk maturity, in short: CCR) in case of two different yet physically related risks? Quantitative as well as qualitative methods are used in the research design. Several empirical hypotheses were tested using quantitative methods. The cognition hypothesis states that risk evaluations of laypersons and experts will become more congruent with the increasing level of layperson's cognitive competence. Two other hypotheses can be derived from the first one: Laypersons with high cognitive competence (high knowledge level, great interest in the topic etc.) will arrive at similar risk evaluations to the expert judgments in this case (consensus hypothesis) and laypersons with low cognitive competence (low knowledge level, little interest in the topic etc.) will arrive at different risk evaluations compared with the expert judgments (dissent hypothesis), respectively. This in turn implies another hypothesis: Laypersons with high cognitive competence and laypersons with low cognitive competence will significantly differ in their risk evaluations (layperson competence hypothesis). The hypotheses were tested using a quantitative, empirical survey. The Risk Maturity Survey 2006 was conducted as a representative telephone survey in Germany (n = 868, weighted data). Respondents were classified by using an index for characterising different degrees of CCR. The theoretical basis for measuring CCR is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (in short: ELM) from John Petty and Richard Cacioppo. The test confirms the cognitive hypothesis, the consensus hypothesis and the dissent hypothesis for nuclear energy. However, all three hypotheses could not be confirmed for mobile telephony (both base stations and mobiles). The layperson competence hypothesis was confirmed for both technologies. Further more, the validity of the measurement of CCR was checked by 60 qualitative, open-ended interviews focussing on nuclear energy and mobile telephony. It was assumed that a classification of the respondents using the main categories of the ELM would produce a similar pattern of peripheral and central groups compared to the quantitative distribution in the survey. Indeed, the qualitative pattern is similar to the quantitative distribution found in the Risk Maturity Survey 2006. This can be interpreted as an indication that the operationalisation of the ELM is indeed valid. How can these findings be interpreted? CCR seems to work only for nuclear energy, not for mobile telephony. One aspect could be time. On the one hand, nuclear energy has been investigated and deployed for a very long time span, at least compared to mobile telephony. There has been more scientific evidence communicated via the mass media which may found its way into the memory of the public. Only with an increasing degree of CCR will knowledge and motivation produce the expected effect which is more consensus between experts and laypersons or at least consensus about dissent. This interpretation however needs more research to confirm it. The research findings may have some important political implications. Risk maturity seems to work for nuclear energy, so participation of laypersons in processes of risk management are less likely to experience conflicts that are based on misunderstanding rather than differences in values. Laypersons and experts from science, politics and industry can reach either a substantive consensus or a consensus on why they dissent on conclusions based on a rational discourse. However, this is (still) not the case for mobile telephony. Risk maturity expands the perspectives of risk perception research (psychometric approach, cultural theory of risk, organisational studies on confidence and trust in risk perception). The study about CCR also showed that the distinction between technologies is relevant for risk communication: Differentiation between technologies or risks may assist risk communicators to design the most appropriate risk communication strategies.

Soziokulturelle Länderkurzanalysen wurden Anfang der 1990er Jahre zum festen Bestandteil der "Länderkonzepte", dem neuen zentralen Managementinstrument der deutschen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. Die Quintessenz dieses Ansatzes wurde in der Frage zusammengefaßt: Wollen und können die Zielgruppen das, was der Experte als Lösung für Probleme anbietet? Damit wollte man den bis dahin verbreiteten Tendenzen zu isolierten, sektor-spezifischen Lösungsansätzen gegensteuern: der Mensch und sein soziokulturelles Umfeld sollten in den Mittelpunkt rücken, und nicht wie bis dahin, technische und ökonomische Innovationen. Diese hehren Ziel stehen allerdings in Widerspruch zu überholten modernisierungstheoretischen Grundannahmen, die das Denken der Experten nach wie vor prägen. Gemäß den Vorstellungen des BMZ schlägt letztendlich doch wieder der Entwicklungsexperte "moderne Dinge" unseres westlichen "technischen Fortschritts" zur Implementierung vor. Die Hybris der Allwissenheit des Experten, der für jedes Problem eine Lösung parat hat, wird um so mehr zum Problem, je gezielter er sich denjenigen Bedürftigen widmet, denen gemäß den entwicklungspolitischen Leitlinien des BMZ am meisten geholfen werden soll, nämlich den Armen. Die Schwachstelle der gegenwärtigen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit liegt nicht - wie es das Rahmenkonzept suggeriert - darin, daß die Zielgruppen (oder Nehmerländer) die "Errungenschaften" moderner Zivilisation auf Grund soziokultureller Hemmnisse (noch) nicht übernehmen wollen oder können. Die Schwachstelle liegt vielmehr in dem mangelnden Können und Wollen der überwiegenden Mehrheit der entsandten Experten, mit dem Umdenken ernst zu machen, und tatsächlich Projekte (Problemdiagnose, Projektplanung und -Evaluation) in Bezug auf die Hauptzielgruppe deutscher Entwicklungspolitik, die Armen - vorrangig aus der Perspektive dieser Zielgruppe anzugehen. Die Zielgruppe der "afrikanischen Kleinbauern" beispielsweise ist keine homogene Masse, wie auch heute noch viel zu oft "Experten" leichtfertig in Berufung auf angebliche soziokulturelle Traditionen (z. B. die der .konfliktfreien Dorfgemeinschaft") behaupten. Selbst wenn ihre lokalen Führer von den Zielgruppen als legitime Vertreter angesehen werden, heißt das noch lange nicht, daß beispielsweise der Dorfchef auch weiß (oder ausspricht), was arme, Mittel- oder Großbauern in seinem Dorf wollen, geschweige denn, was sie realisieren können. Ein mindestens ebenso wichtiges Qualifikationsmerkmal für den Experten, wie gute Fachkenntnis, sind seine sprachliche und kulturelle Kommunikationsfähigkeit. Dazu ist jedoch in der Regel der bisherige Expertentypus weder von seiner Ausbildung, noch von seinen persönlichen Interessen und Erfahrungen her in der Lage. ; Author's version ; "Are the experts capable of doing what they should do? - Weaknesses of the socio-cultural framework concept of the BMZ": In the early 1990s sociocultural country proximate analyses became an integral part of the "Country concepts", the new strategic management instrument of the German development cooperation. The quintessence of this approach was summarized in the question: Do the target groups want and know how to do what they should do. The aim of this approach was to counteract the previously widespread tendencies towards isolated, sector-specific solutions: the human and its socio-cultural environment should be the focus, and not as hitherto, technical and economic innovations, spread within the framework of a top-down extension approach. However, the objective of the approach is still based on obsolete modernization-theoretical assumptions, which characterize the reasoning of the experts up to date. The hubris of the omniscience of the expert, who has a solution to every problem, becomes the more problematic the more he devotes himself to those in need according to the development policy guidelines of the BMZ, namely the poor. The weak point of current development cooperation is not - as the BMZ-framework suggests - that target groups (or recipient countries) are not able (or do not want) to take over the "achievements" of modern civilization due to socio-cultural barriers. Rather, the weakness lies in the inability and reluctance of the overwhelming majority of seconded experts to be serious about rethinking projects (including problem diagnosis, project planning and evaluation) in relation to the main target group of development policy, the poor, i.e. rethinking the project primarily from the perspective of this target group. The target group of "African peasants", for example, is not a homogenous mass. This false conclusion of experts even today is based on their recklessly claim to be relying on alleged socio-cultural traditions (e.g. those of the "conflict-free village community"). The fact that the target groups consider their ruler as legitimate representatives, that does not mean for example, that the village chief also knows (or pronounces) what poor, middle or big farmers in his village want, let alone what they can realize. At least as important a qualifier for the expert as good skill are his linguistic and cultural communication skills. However, as a rule, the aforementioned type of expert is not in a position to do this either because of his education or because of his personal interests and experience. ; RÉSUMÉ "Les experts sont-ils capables de faire ce qu'ils devraient faire? - Faiblesses du concept de cadre socioculturel du BMZ": Au début des années 1990, les analyses socioculturelles des pays en voie de développement sont devenues partie intégrante des « concepts pays », le nouvel instrument de gestion stratégique de la coopération allemande au développement. La quintessence de cette approche a été résumée dans la question : les groupes cibles, veulent-ils et savent-ils comment faire ce qu'ils devraient faire. L'objectif de cette approche était de contrer les tendances jusqu'alors répandues à des solutions isolées et sectorielles : l'humain et son environnement socioculturel doivent être au centre et non des innovations techniques et économiques, vulgarisées jusqu'ici dans le cadre d'une approche de vulgarisation descendante. Cependant, l'objectif de cette démarche est toujours basé sur des hypothèses théoriques de modernisation obsolètes, qui caractérisent le raisonnement des experts à jour. L'orgueil de l'omniscience de l'expert, qui a une solution à tous les problèmes, devient d'autant plus problématique qu'il se consacre davantage à ceux qui en ont besoin le plus, selon les lignes directrices de la politique de développement du BMZ, à savoir les pauvres. Le point faible de la coopération au développement actuelle n'est pas - comme le suggère le cadre du BMZ - que les groupes cibles (ou les pays bénéficiaires) ne peuvent (ou ne veulent) pas prendre en charge les « réalisations » de la civilisation moderne en raison des barrières socioculturelles. La faiblesse réside plutôt dans l'incapacité et la réticence de l'écrasante majorité des experts détachés à sérieusement repenser les projets (y compris le diagnostic des problèmes, la planification et l'évaluation des projets) par rapport au principal groupe cible de la politique de développement, les pauvres. Le groupe cible des « paysans africains », par exemple, n'est pas une masse homogène. Cette fausse conclusion des experts, même aujourd'hui, est basée sur leur prétention insouciante de s'appuyer sur de prétendues traditions socioculturelles (par exemple celles de la « communauté villageoise sans conflit »). Le fait que les groupes cibles considèrent leur dirigeant comme des représentants légitimes, cela ne signifie pas par exemple, que le chef du village sait aussi (ou prononce) ce que veulent les agriculteurs pauvres, moyens ou grands de son village, sans parler de ce qu'ils peuvent réaliser. Un qualificatif au moins aussi important pour l'expert que ses compétences techniques sont ses compétences en communication linguistique et culturelle. Cependant, en règle générale, le type d'expert susmentionné n'est pas en mesure de le faire, soit en raison de son éducation, soit en raison de ses intérêts personnels et de son expérience.

Background Noma, also known as cancrum oris, is a gangrenous infection of the oral cavity, which causes widespread orofacial destruction. If untreated, noma has a reported 90% mortality rate within weeks after the onset of first symptoms. Noma progresses through distinct stages defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO); Stage 0: simple gingivitis; Stage 1: acute necrotizing gingivitis; Stage 2: oedema; Stage 3: gangrene; Stage 4: scarring. Stage 5: sequelae. It is unclear how many patients with the early stages of noma will progress to the later stages of disease. Treatment in the early reversible stages with antibiotics, wound debridement and nutritional support greatly reduces morbidity and mortality. Acute noma is most often reported in children aged between two and five years. Many patients who survive the acute stages of the disease suffer into adulthood with disfigurement and disability of varying degrees. Noma is thought to be most prevalent in developing countries in Africa and Asia. Estimates for noma prevalence and incidence vary. In 1998, the WHO estimated an annual incidence of 140,000 cases of acute noma and 770,000 noma survivors living with sequelae. Two Nigerian studies estimated the burden of disease ranged from seven cases per 1,000 children aged between one and 16 years (2003) to 6.4 per 1,000 children (2003). A study from 2019 estimated the period prevalence of noma from 2010 to 2018 was 1.6 per 100,000 population at risk in Nigeria. These estimates are based on expert opinion, number of hospital admissions and retrospectively collected hospital-based data and it is unclear which stages of noma were included. Risk factors for the disease include poor oral hygiene, malnutrition, comorbidities and low socioeconomic status. Despite its ancient history (reported by Hippocrates (460 - 370 BC)), noma-related literature remains mainly confined to case reports and case series. By employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, we sought to examine the biopsychosocial features of noma, its epidemiology and treatment in northwest Nigeria in order to inform advocacy and prevention efforts. The three overarching objectives to fulfil this aim were to assess the distribution of noma among children in northwest Nigeria; identify factors associated with noma (including factors influencing health-seeking behaviour and risk factors for the development of noma) and gain an understanding of the biomedical and non-biomedical care provided to noma patients in this setting. The knowledge gained through this thesis will support the assessment of the need for advocacy around noma, effective resource allocation and the planning of intervention strategies. Methods We conducted a scoping literature review, three quantitative studies (risk factors, outcomes, prevalence) and two qualitative studies (language and beliefs and traditional healing practices) in northwest Nigeria. Data were collected from patient caretakers at the Noma Children's Hospital, hospital staff, children and traditional healers in villages within Sokoto and Kebbi States. Data collection methods included quantitative surveys, oral screenings, anthropometric measurements, quality of life questionnaires, qualitative in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Consenting adult respondents answered questionnaires and participated in interviews, and where applicable, data was collected from assenting children. Quantitative analyses included descriptive statistics as well as univariable and multivariable risk factor analyses. Qualitative data was manually coded and analysed thematically. Findings We included 74 cases (noma patients presenting at the hospital in the year preceding data collection) and 222 controls (both median age of five years (inter-quartile range 3, 15 years)) in the risk factor study. Vaccination coverage for polio and measles was below 7% in both cases and controls. The multivariable analysis identified the child being fed pap every day (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 9.8; 95% confidence interval (CI 1.5, 62.7) as a risk factor. The mother being the primary caretaker (aOR 0.08; CI 0.01, 0.5) and the caretaker being married (aOR 0.006; CI 0.0006, 0.5) were protective factors. Of the 37 patients with noma sequelae included in the outcomes study, 21 (56.8%) were male and 22 (62.9%) were aged six years or older. Fifteen patients (40.5%) had two to three surgeries. The most frequently used surgical procedure was a deltopectoral flap (n=16 patients; 43.2%). Trismus was released in 12 patients (32.4%), of these; none had a normal mouth opening at the follow-up visit. Despite this finding, all respondents reported that the surgery had improved their quality of life. In the cross-sectional study assessing the prevalence of all stages of noma, we included 3,499 households and 7,122 children aged <15 years; 4,239 (59.8%) were aged 0 to 5 years. Simple gingivitis was identified in 3.1% (n=181; CI 2.6-3.8), acute necrotizing gingivitis in 0.1% (n=10; CI 0.1-0.3), and oedema in 0.05% (n=3; CI 0.02-0.2). No cases of late-stage noma were detected. Naming of the disease differed between caretakers and healthcare workers in the language and beliefs study. Beliefs about the causes of noma were varied (spirits, animals, insects, previous infections). Noma patient caretakers spoke of the mental health strain due to stigmatization as a key issue. Difficulty in accessing care was evident. A lack of trust in the health system was mentioned as a barrier to care. Traditional healers offered specialised forms of care for specific conditions and referral guidance. They viewed the stages of noma as different conditions with individualised remedies and were willing to refer noma patients. Caretakers trusted traditional healers. Conclusion Social conditions and childhood feeding practices are associated with the occurrence of noma in northwest Nigeria. This thesis has shown that following their last surgical intervention, noma patients do experience some improvements in their quality of life, but continue to face functional challenges that inhibit their daily life. We found many, widely distributed, early-stage noma cases in northwest Nigeria indicating a large population at risk of progressing to the later stages of disease. Caretaker and practitioner perspectives may enlighten efforts to improve case finding, and to understand barriers to accessing health care. Differences in disease naming illustrated the difference in beliefs about the disease. Traditional healers could play a crucial role in the early detection of noma and the health-seeking decision-making process of patients. Intervention programmes should include traditional healers through training and referral partnerships. In conclusion, this thesis provides a unique view of the biopsychosocial features, epidemiology and treatment options for noma in northwest Nigeria. Noma is a disease, which is indicative of a weak health system and socio-economic environments of extreme deprivation. Intervention programmes should include widespread health system improvements that could address a host of risk factors for noma, and simultaneously other childhood diseases. These include increasing access to quality health care (including vaccinations), ensuring effective referral mechanisms, predominantly in rural areas, and the creation of a robust surveillance network. Health financing initiatives would need to be paired with these improvements. Nutritional programs aimed at caretakers of young children and community-based oral health initiatives could be effective mechanisms to curb the number of noma cases. Awareness-building initiatives targeting healthcare workers and community members are necessary to improve the detection and timely management of noma in endemic settings. The combined findings of this thesis highlight the neglected nature of noma and make a strong case for placing noma on the WHO neglected tropical diseases list. This initiative could foster awareness among policy-makers and governments and direct much needed funding to facilitate further research, surveillance and targeted health interventions that would contribute to the eradication of noma.

The process of institutional transition from one coordination mechanism to another one is an important period in the evolution of any society. Transitions are associated with fundamental political, legal, economic and social changes (Danis et al. 2010) affecting all aspects of life (Peng 2003). The transition from planned to open-market economy that has taken place in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), East Asia, and the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union represents an institutional transition. An environment that goes through transition is characterized by high level of vulnerability and uncertainty which impacts all actors evolving in it, including the organizations (Peng 2003). The dynamic relationship environment-organization is reflected in the concept of legitimacy. Legitimacy is a pertinent concept to study the transition stage since it exists on the borderline between the organization and its environment. In transition environments, the processes of deinstitutionalization of the old structures and the reinstitutionalization of the new ones coexist. This leads to a lack of institutional framework to guide behavior of actors or a situation called institutional vacuum. Since institutions regulate economic exchanges (North 1990), the lack of them leads to elevated costs for all actors due to the proliferation of opportunistic behavior (Meyer 2001). In such environments, demonstrating legitimacy becomes crucial for the survival of structures and actors. Legitimation is sought by new elites (Raychev and Stoichev 2008), the government (Peng 2000a), the new laws, decrees and regulations (Stark 1992), and the private organizations (Peng 2000a). The success of the transition directly depends on the strategies of organizations evolving in such environments (Peng 2000). Small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) play an important role as catalysts of the process of change (McIntyre 2003: 1) since they are expected to spur economic growth and employment (Peng 2000a), and maintain social peace (McIntyre 2003: 1). Despite their central role in transition environments, little is known about the challenges SMEs face and the actions that can be undertaken in order to overcome them (Danis, Chaburu and Lyles 2010). One of the main challenges of SMEs in transition environments is to demonstrate that they are legitimate players implying that they comply with the expectations of relevant stakeholders' groups. The main objective of this study is to shed some light on how SMEs in transition environments gain organizational legitimacy necessary for obtaining stakeholders' support. The interest of the study lies in the fact that if organizational legitimacy is problematic for all organizations due to changing norms, beliefs, and stakeholders' expectations over time (Ashforth and Gibbs 1990), it is even more problematic for small organizations in transition environments since the norms, beliefs and expectations are not clearly defined. In order to address the legitimacy needs of small organizations in transition environments, I propose a signaling theory of legitimacy, which postulates that the legitimacy-claiming entities can rely on valid signals in order to demonstrate (communicate) their adherence to the requirements of the evaluating audiences. In general, the signaling theory of legitimacy should hold for any organization facing a liability - the discount the evaluating audiences place on it in comparison to its potential competitors. Organizations in transition environments face liability of origin (Bartlett and Ghoshal 2000) – a discount that the evaluating audiences (both domestic and foreign) may place on them based on their context of origin. For small organizations , the challenges resulting from liability of origin are even bigger because of their size, they are more prone to import instability from the environment. The higher level of vulnerability of small firms encourages them to engage in opportunistic behavior. Hence, demonstrating their legitimacy is a key issue for SMEs operating in transition environments. Organizational legitimacy becomes especially important when organizations engage in long-term arrangements since this requires an assessment of the organization not only in terms of its products/services but also in terms of its ongoing access to resources and capabilities as well as its reliability as a partner. In order to address the legitimacy needs of small firms evolving in transition environments and trying to obtain long-term partnerships, a new legitimacy typology is proposed. It is comprised of two types – functional and relational legitimacy. Functional legitimacy represents the adherence to the evaluating audiences' requirements regarding relevant resources and capabilities. Relational legitimacy is the conformity with the evaluating audiences' expectations regarding the reliability of an organization as a partner. Hence, this study addresses two research questions: 1. What are the dimensions (and valid signals) of functional and relational legitimacy (for small organizations in transition environment)? 2. Does using signals of specific types of legitimacy (depending on the liability faced) enhance organizational legitimacy? This doctoral research examines the legitimacy challenges of SMEs in transition environments trying to obtain long-term arrangements. In the first part of the study, the two types of legitimacy - functional and relational legitimacy - are constructed. Similar to organizational legitimacy (Deephouse and Carter 2005), functional and relational legitimacy are also multidimensional constructs comprised of different facets. In the second part, I examine whether the signals of functional and relational legitimacy help SMEs in transition environment gain organizational legitimacy. The research model is tested on data collected from the information technology (IT) sector in Bulgaria. Based on the data analysis and results, this research has several theoretical and methodological contributions. The results also have practical implications for the managers of small organizations in transition environments as well as the public policy agents. The theoretical contributions are associated mainly with the signaling theory of legitimacy. It looks at how organizations can overcome certain liabilities by communicating their adherence to the expectations of relevant stakeholders' groups. Organizations can demonstrate their conformity to the evaluating audiences' requirements by using valid signals – organizational characteristics that can be observed, are costly to imitate and are based on shared meaning between the sending and the receiving party. In addition, the study contributes to the literature on transition environments by looking at the particular case of SMEs and their attempt to demonstrate that they are legitimate players when trying to engage in long-term arrangements. The methodological contribution lies in the way the two types of legitimacy (functional and relational) are measured via formative measurement constructs (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001; Jarvis et al. 2003) under the partial least squares (PLS) technique. Formative constructs are associated with causality that goes from the manifest (directly observable) variable to the latent construct or in other words, the manifest variables cause/build the latent construct (Diamantopoulos 1999). This made possible to match the legitimacy claims of organizations from once side based on the functional and relational signals and the legitimacy granted by relevant stakeholders' groups, on the other side. In addition, the research contributes to the growing number of studies in strategic management that use PLS as a structural equation modeling technique (Birkinshaw et al. 1995; Cool et al. 1989; Fornell et al. 1990; Johansson and Yip 1994; Tsang 2002). The practical implications of this research shed some light on which signals (organizational characteristics) are important for managers of small organizations in transition environments. Signals are costly and since all organizations (and especially small firms) have limited resources, managers have to know which signals to invest in. It is important to note that many managers disregard the relational aspect of their legitimacy claims which (based on the results of the study) are more important in the communication process between the legitimacy-claiming and legitimacy-granting entities. Overall, this study represents a fertile area for future research. Researchers can test the signaling theory of legitimacy in other contexts – i.e., other transition environments (Eastern Europe vs. China), as well as compare the signals used by organizations in transition environments and developed economies. Researchers can also test the signaling theory of legitimacy on organizations facing different liabilities (i.e. liability of market newness) and try to extend the existing legitimacy typologies. In addition, future studies can focus on issues of meaning construction (based on signals) in the communication process between organizations.