Suchergebnisse

Представленная тема исследования особенно актуальна в условиях развития рыночных отношений в России, когда обозначились проблемы, решение которых обуславливает положительные результаты реформирования экономической системы, важное место в которой занимает оборонно-промышленный комплекс (ОПК). Среди них особую актуальность приобретают те, которые связаны с необходимостью формирования таких экономических отношений, которые бы обеспечивали и гарантировали эффективное, конкурентоспособное и устойчивое развитие оборонных предприятий. В новых экономических условиях возникла необходимость решения проблем финансового обеспечения организаций оборонно-промышленного комплекса, создание эффективной системы управления этим процессом в кризисный период и необходимости поиска путей стабилизации воспроизводственного процесса в России. Превращение потенциальных военно-экономических возможностей в реальную военную мощь происходит на основе функционирования военной экономики, обеспечивающей производство и распределение вооружений и военной техники. Военная экономика отвечает, с одной стороны, экономическим возможностям страны, с другой характеру и требованиям современной войны. Она призвана обеспечить поддержание постоянной высокой боеготовности вооруженных сил и должна быть способна быстро наращивать свою мощь до уровня, необходимого для срыва военной агрессии. Проблемы реализации военно-экономического потен циала определяются степенью использования военно-экономических возможностей, а также эффективностью использования финансовых ресурсов. Цель / задачи: Целью статьи является анализ проблем по формированию и исполнению расходов на оборону. Задачи статьи: выявить особенности исполнения оборонной составляющей федерального бюджета в кризисном периоде экономического развития РФ. Методология: Методической основой данной статьи являются экономико-статистические методы анализа. Результаты: Учитывая, что управления ОПК будут преобразованы, необходимо использовать положительный международный экономический опыт для обеспечения устойчивости их финансового обеспечения. Вместе с тем, в интересах государства и общества создание системы эффективного финансирования предприятий ОПК тре бует особого подхода в силу следующих причин: наличие эффективной системы финансирования предприятий ОПК необходимо для обеспечения экономической безопасности страны; создание механизма перераспределения финансовых ресурсов посредством экономического преобразования усиливает контроль государства за целевым использования финансовых средств; необходимы, новые подходы к оценке и принятию решений по усовершенствованию финансовой устойчивости предприятий ОПК. От стабильного финансового положения предприятия ОПК зависит и развитие экономики в целом. Проведенное исследование дает основание утверждать, что в настоящее время в России замедлились темпы развития предприятий ОПК, сложилась несбалансированная отраслевая структура. В связи с этим исследование проблем, связанных с разработкой инструментария теоретической и практической оценки финансового обеспечения предприятий ОПК требует повышенного внимания. Осуществление рациональной финансово-экономической политики, совершенствование финансовой поддержки предприятий оборонно-промышленного комплекса со стороны государства, определение путей повышения финансовой устойчивости в период трансформации рыночной экономики является объективной необходимостью. Выводы / значимость: Практическая значимость работы заключается в ориентации положений, выводов и рекомендаций работы на широкое использование при совершенствовании механизма обеспечения оборонной безопасности, а предложения, изложенные в статье (по совершенствованию системы планирования и использования средств, выделяемых из бюджета страны на оборону) могут использоваться законодательными и исполнительными органами Российской Федерации, в том числе и Министерством обороны, в текущей деятельности. ; The presented research topic is particularly relevant in terms of development of market relations in Russia, when indicated problems whose solution determines the positive results of reforming the economic system, an important place in which occupies the military-industrial complex (MIC). Among them special urgency are those that relate to the need to develop such economic relations that would ensure and guarantee the efficiency, competitiveness and sustainability of defense enterprises. In the new economic conditions, it became necessary to address the problems of financial security organizations, the military-industrial complex, the creation of an effective system to manage this process during the crisis and the need to find ways to stabilize the reproduction process in Russia. The conversion of potential military-economic opportunities in the real military power takes place on the basis of the functioning of the military economy that ensures the production and distribution of arms and military equipment. The war economy is responsible, on the one hand, the economic opportunities of the country, on the other the nature and requirements of modern warfare. It is designed to ensure the maintenance of a constant high combat readiness of the armed forces and must be able to rapidly increase its power to the level required for the breakdown of military aggression. Problems of realization of military and economic potential are determined by the degree of use of the military and economic opportunities, as well as the eff ective use of financial resources. Objectives: The aim of the article is to analyze the problems of the formation and execution of defense spending. Objectives of the article: identify design characteristics of the defense component of the federal budget during the crisis of Economic Development. Methods: Methodological basis of this article are of economic and statistical methods of analysis. Results: Given that the management of the defense industry will be converted, you must use the positive experience of the international economic order to ensure the sustainability of their financial security. However, in the interests of the state and society to establish an efficient funding of defense enterprises requires a special approach for the following reasons: an effective system of financing of defense enterprises need to ensure the economic security of the country; establish a mechanism of redistribution of financial resources through economic transformation strengthens state control over the targeted use of funds; necessary, new approaches to the assessment and decision-making to improve the financial sustainability of defense enterprises. From a stable financial situation of the company and the development of DIC depends on the economy as a whole. The study gives reason to believe that at the present time in Russia slowed down the pace of development of defense industry enterprises, has developed an unbalanced branch structure. In this regard, the study of problems related to the development of theoretical and practical tools for assessing the fi nancial security of defense enterprises require special attention. The implementation of sound fi nancial and economic policy, improving financial support to enterprises of the military-industrial complex of the state, identifying ways to improve the financial sustainability in transformation of the market economy is an objective necessity. Conclusions and Relevance: The practical significance of the work lies in the orientation of the provisions of the conclusions and recommendations of the work on the widespread use in improving the mechanism for defense and security, and the proposals contained in the article (to improve the planning and use of funds allocated from the state budget on defense) may be used by the legislative and executive bodies the Russian Federation, including the Ministry of Defence, in the current activity.

This investigation is based on a study of the recently emerging problems in certain Mediterranean cities due to the widening gap between their physical and historical context and their natural boundaries. The first approach has arisen with the transformation of the city's dimensional scale throughout the 20th century, giving rise to new urban models. The second approach is based on the city's morphological alterations which are reflected in the visible changes in the images and identities. The morphological study of the contemporary Mediterranean city has thus given rise to various questions, namely does a Mediterranean city systematically transform in less than one century? In the last decades, the ancient city of Jaffa possessed all the characteristics of a Middle Eastern Mediterranean city (port, direct contact with the sea, different types of markets, socio-cultural diversity, intermediate scale, etc.) but recently due to different religious, political and economic developments, the region underwent significant changes that entailed a turnaround in the way to perceive, plan and inhabit the city. Therefore, there is a substantial spatial difference between the East and the West. particularly in the urban planning of the new city (Tel Aviv). From then on, the most ancient part of Jaffa began coexisting with the more modern 20th century city, the Garden City of Tel Aviv. How did such a boundary between two visibly antagonistic cities form? Did the destruction of a large part of Jaffa entail this paradigm shift? Can a Mediterranean city become a global city? Is the image of a city a direct reflection of its socio-cultural identity? This study is divided according to three historical periods that directly reflect the city's typologies that emerged in the last century. The first part of this thesis analyzes the last period of the Mediterranean city at the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1917, describing the socio-cultural context in the region, in which we will examine the type of human scale in Mediterranean public spaces, the socio-cultural diversity between its different neighborhoods, as well as the direct relationship between the city and the sea following the destruction of the fortified wall of ancient Jaffa. The second part of the research describes the city's typology at the creation of the new urban plan of the Garden City (Geddes Plan) in the 1920s under the British Mandate of Palestine, which attempts to compare the disciplinary content of contemporary city plans in the 20th century -Brasilia, Chandigarh and Canberra- in relation to Tel Aviv. Finally, the third section examines the current typology of the city, with its Mediterranean-Garden past, through an urban project analysis describing the type of urban model that has seemingly consolidated in the 21 st century the "Linear City'', with transportation infrastructures as the predominating element, more solidly established by the 1960s due to the political alliance with the United States, and following which its reflection of widespread globalization consolidated in the 1980s. ; Esta investigación basa su estudio en los problemas que se estarían desarrollando actualmente en ciertas ciudades mediterráneas en relación al alejamiento de sus características físicas históricas con su contexto y con sus límites naturales. La primera aproximación está planteada mediante la transformación en la escala dimensional de la ciudad durante el siglo XX, y como los sucesivos cambios escalares generaron los nue-.us modelos urbanos. La segunda aproximación se basa en las alteraciones morfológicas que derivaron en los visibles cambios sobre las imágenes e identidades. A través del estudio morfológico de la ciudad mediterránea contemporánea fueron surgiendo diferentes interrogantes, como: ¿Puede una ciudad de origen mediterráneo transformarse casi sistemáticamente en un periodo menor a cien años? Hasta hace pocas décadas, la ciudad antigua de Yafo poseía las características de una ciudad netamente mediterránea de Oriente Medio (ciudad puerto. contacto directo con el mar. diferentes tipos de mercados. multi-diversidad sociocultural, escala intermedia, etc.) pero por diferentes cuestiones de índole religiosa, política y económica, la región padeció cambios sustanciales que produjeron un giro en el modo de entender. planificar y habitar la ciudad. Es por ello que se produjo una marcada diferencia espacial entre Oriente y Occidente justamente en el modo de planificar la nueva parte de la ciudad (Tel Aviv). De allí que la parte más antigua de la ciudad comenzaba a convivir con la parte más moderna de las ciudades del siglo XX, la ciudad jardín de Tel Aviv. ¿Cómo fue la configuración espacial en un área fronteriza conformada por dos ciudades tan antagónicas?, ¿la destrucción de una gran parte de la ciudad histórica de Yafo pudo haber producido un cambio de paradigma?, ¿una ciudad mediterránea se puede convertir en una ciudad global? ¿Es la imagen de la ciudad el reflejo directo de su identidad sociocultural? Este estudio se encuentra dividido en tres períodos históricos que reflejarían directamente las tipologías de ciudad que se identificaron en el último siglo: La primera parte analiza la última etapa de la ciudad mediterránea tras la calda del Imperio Otomano en 1917, describiendo el contexto socio-cultural en la región, y examinando el tipo de escala que se identificaba en el espacio público mediterráneo, la multi-diversidad sociocultural que se impartía entre los diferentes barrios, como a su vez, la relación directa que se producía entre la ciudad y el mar mediterráneo posterior al derribo de las murallas defensivas de la ciudad antigua de Yafo. La segunda parte de la investigación describe la tipología de ciudad conformada bajo la nueva planificación de la ciudad jardín (Plan Geddes) y desarrollada a mediados de la década de 1920 bajo el control y consolidación del Mandato Británico en Palestina, en donde se efectúa una comparación sobre el contenido disciplinar de los planes de las ciudades contemporáneas -Brasilia, Chandigarh y Canberra- en relación a Tel Aviv. Por último, la tercera parte examina la tipología actual de ciudad, con su pasado mediterráneo-jardín, a través de un análisis proyectual que describe un nuevo modelo que se estaría consolidando en el siglo XXI bajo el concepto de la "ciudad lineal", con las infraestructuras de movilidad como el elemento predominante. La misma se fue conformando a principios de la década de 1960 a través de la alineación política con los Estados Unidos. y su reflejo directo en la consolidación de la globalización a partir de la década de 1980. ; Postprint (published version)

Importance: The presented research topic is particularly relevant in terms of development of market relations inRussia, when indicated problems whose solution determines the positive results of reforming the economic system, an important place in which occupies the militaryindustrial complex (MIC). Among them special urgency are those that relate to the need to develop such economic relations that would ensure and guarantee the efficiency, competitiveness and sustainability of defense enterprises. In the new economic conditions, it became necessary to address the problems of financial security organizations, the military-industrial complex, the creation of an effective system to manage this process during the crisis and the need to find ways to stabilize the reproduction process inRussia. The conversion of potential military-economic opportunities in the real military power takes place on the basis of the functioning of the military economy that ensures the production and distribution of arms and military equipment. The war economy is responsible, on the one hand, the economic opportunities of the country, on the other – the nature and requirements of modern warfare. It is designed to ensure the maintenance of a constant high combat readiness of the armed forces and must be able to rapidly increase its power to the level required for the breakdown of military aggression. Problems of realization of military and economic potential are determined by the degree of use of the military and economic opportunities, as well as the effective use of financial resources.Objectives: The aim of the article is to analyze the problems of the formation and execution of defense spending. Objectives of the article: identify design characteristics of the defense component of the federal budget during the crisis of Economic Development. Methods: Methodological basis of this article are of economic and statistical methods of analysis.Results: Given that the management of the defense industry will be converted, you must use the positive experience of the international economic order to ensure the sustainability of their financial security. However, in the interests of the state and society to establish an efficient funding of defense enterprises requires a special approach for the following reasons: an effective system of financing of defense enterprises need to ensure the economic security of the country; establish a mechanism of redistribution of financial resources through economic transformation strengthens state control over the targeted use of funds; necessary, new approaches to the assessment and decision-making to improve the financial sustainability of defense enterprises. From a stable financial situation of the company and the development of DIC depends on the economy as a whole. The study gives reason to believe that at the present time inRussiaslowed down the pace of development of defense industry enterprises, has developed an unbalanced branch structure. In this regard, the study of problems related to the development of theoretical and practical tools for assessing the financial security of defense enterprises require special attention. The implementation of sound financial and economic policy, improving financial support to enterprises of the military-industrial complex of the state, identifying ways to improve the financial sustainability in transformation of the market economy is an objective necessity.Conclusions and Relevance: The practical significance of the work lies in the orientation of the provisions of the conclusions and recommendations of the work on the widespread use in improving the mechanism for defense and security, and the proposals contained in the article (to improve the planning and use of funds allocated from the state budget on defense) may be used by the legislative and executive bodies the Russian Federation, including the Ministry of Defence, in the current activity. ; Предмет / тема: Представленная тема исследования особенно актуальна в условиях развития рыночных отношений в России, когда обозначились проблемы, решение которых обуславливает положительные результаты реформирования экономической системы, важное место в которой занимает оборонно-промышленный комплекс (ОПК). Среди них особую актуальность приобретают те, которые связаны с необходимостью формирования таких экономических отношений, которые бы обеспечивали и гарантировали эффективное, конкурентоспособное и устойчивое развитие оборонных предприятий. В новых экономических условиях возникла необходимость решения проблем финансового обеспечения организаций оборонно-промышленного комплекса, создание эффективной системы управления этим процессом в кризисный период и необходимости поиска путей стабилизации воспроизводственного процесса в России. Превращение потенциальных военно-экономических возможностей в реальную военную мощь происходит на основе функционирования военной экономики, обеспечивающей производство и распределение вооружений и военной техники. Военная экономика отвечает, с одной стороны, экономическим возможностям страны, с другой – характеру и требованиям современной войны. Она призвана обеспечить поддержание постоянной высокой боеготовности вооруженных сил и должна быть способна быстро наращивать свою мощь до уровня, необходимого для срыва военной агрессии. Проблемы реализации военно-экономического потенциала определяются степенью использования военно-экономических возможностей, а также эффективностью использования финансовых ресурсов.Цель / задачи: Целью статьи является анализ проблем по формированию и исполнению расходов на оборону. Задачи статьи: выявить особенности исполнения оборонной составляющей федерального бюджета в кризисном периоде экономического развития РФ. Методология: Методической основой данной статьи являются экономико-статистические методы анализа. Результаты: Учитывая, что управления ОПК будут преобразованы, необходимо использовать положительный международный экономический опыт для обеспечения устойчивости их финансового обеспечения. Вместе с тем, в интересах государства и общества создание системы эффективного финансирования предприятий ОПК требует особого подхода в силу следующих причин: наличие эффективной системы финансирования предприятий ОПК необходимо для обеспечения экономической безопасности страны; создание механизма перераспределения финансовых ресурсов посредством экономического преобразования усиливает контроль государства за целевым использования финансовых средств; необходимы, новые подходы к оценке и принятию решений по усовершенствованию финансовой устойчивости предприятий ОПК. От стабильного финансового положения предприятия ОПК зависит и развитие экономики в целом. Проведенное исследование дает основание утверждать, что в настоящее время в России замедлились темпы развития предприятий ОПК, сложилась несбалансированная отраслевая структура. В связи с этим исследование проблем, связанных с разработкой инструментария теоретической и практической оценки финансового обеспечения предприятий ОПК требует повышенного внимания. Осуществление рациональной финансово-экономической политики, совершенствование финансовой поддержки предприятий оборонно-промышленного комплекса со стороны государства, определение путей повышения финансовой устойчивости в период трансформации рыночной экономики является объективной необходимостью.Выводы / значимость: Практическая значимость работы заключается в ориентации положений, выводов и рекомендаций работы на широкое использование при совершенствовании механизма обеспечения оборонной безопасности, а предложения, изложенные в статье (по совершенствованию системы планирования и использования средств, выделяемых из бюджета страны на оборону) могут использоваться законодательными и исполнительными органами Российской Федерации, в том числе и Министерством обороны, в текущей деятельности.

The promotion of self-employment as part of active labor market policies is considered to be one of the most important unemployment support schemes in Germany. Against this background the main part of this thesis contributes to the evaluation of start-up support schemes within ALMP. Chapter 2 and 4 focus on the evaluation of the New Start-up Subsidy (NSUS, Gründungszuschuss) in its first version (from 2006 to the end of 2011). The chapters offer an advancement of the evaluation of start-up subsidies in Germany, and are based on a novel data set of administrative data from the Federal Employment Agency that was enriched with information from a telephone survey. Chapter 2 provides a thorough descriptive analysis of the NSUS that consists of two parts. First, the participant structure of the program is compared with the one of two former programs. In a second step, the study conducts an in-depth characterization of the participants of the NSUS focusing on founding motives, the level of start-up capital and equity used as well as the sectoral distribution of the new business. Furthermore, the business survival, income situation of founders and job creation by the new businesses is analyzed during a period of 19 months after start-up. The contribution of Chapter 4 is to introduce a new explorative data set that allows comparing subsidized start-ups out of unemployment with non-subsidized business start-ups that were founded by individuals who were not unemployed at the time of start-up. Because previous evaluation studies commonly used eligible non-participants amongst the unemployed as control group to assess the labor market effects of the start-up subsidies, the corresponding results hence referred to the effectiveness of the ALMP measure, but could not address the question whether the subsidy leads to similarly successful and innovative businesses compared to non-subsidized businesses. An assessment of this economic/growth aspect is also important, since the subsidy might induce negative effects that may outweigh the positive effects from an ALMP perspective. The main results of Chapter 4 indicate that subsidized founders seem to have no shortages in terms of formal education, but exhibit less employment and industry-specific experience, and are less likely to benefit from intergenerational transmission of start-ups. Moreover, the study finds evidence that necessity start-ups are over-represented among subsidized business founders, which suggests disadvantages in terms of business preparation due to possible time restrictions right before start-up. Finally, the study also detects more capital constraints among the unemployed, both in terms of the availability of personal equity and access to loans. With respect to potential differences between both groups in terms of business development over time, the results indicate that subsidized start-ups out of unemployment face higher business survival rates 19 months after start-up. However, they lag behind regular business founders in terms of income, business growth, and innovation. The arduous data collection process for start-up activities of non-subsidized founders for Chapter 4 made apparent that Germany is missing a central reporting system for business formations. Additionally, the different start-up reporting systems that do exist exhibit substantial discrepancies in data processing procedures, and therefore also in absolute numbers concerning the overall start-up activity. Chapter 3 is therefore placed in front of Chapter 4 and has the aim to provide a comprehensive review of the most important German start-up reporting systems. The second part of the thesis consists of Chapter 5 which contributes to the literature on determinants of job search behavior of the unemployed individuals by analyzing the effectiveness of internet search with regard to search behavior of unemployed individuals and subsequent job quality. The third and final part of the thesis outlines why the German labor market reacted in a very mild fashion to the Great Recession 2008/09, especially compared to other countries. Chapter 6 describes current economic trends of the labor market in light of general trends in the European Union, and reveals some of the main associated challenges. Thereafter, recent reforms of the main institutional settings of the labor market which influence labor supply are analyzed. Finally, based on the status quo of these institutional settings, the chapter gives a brief overview of strategies to adequately combat the challenges in terms of labor supply and to ensure economic growth in the future. ; Die vorliegende kumulative Dissertation leistet einen Beitrag zur Forschungsliteratur im Bereich der Evaluation aktiver Arbeitsmarktpolitik in Deutschland. Der erste und größte Teil der Dissertation besteht aus zwei voneinander unabhängigen und in sich abgeschlossenen Forschungspapieren (Kapitel 2 und 4), die sich mit der Gründungsförderung für Arbeitslose im Rechtskreis des SGB III auseinandersetzen. Die Untersuchungen konzentrieren sich dabei auf das Instrument des Gründungszuschusses (GZ) in seiner institutionellen Ausgestaltung von 2006 bis 2011. Kapitel 2 führt zunächst eine ausführliche deskriptive Analyse der Teilnehmerstruktur des Förderprogramms durch, wobei explizit auf Unterschiede zwischen dem Gründungszuschuss und früheren Gründungsförderprogrammen eingegangen wird. Die komparative Analyse zeigt, dass die Teilnehmerstrukturen des GZ nicht die gleiche Breite an gründungswilligen Personen erreicht wie beide Vorgängerprogramme. Des Weiteren scheinen mit dem GZ geförderte GründerInnen eher durch sogenannte Pull-Faktoren motiviert, waren im Durchschnitt etwas risikobereiter, setzten aber relativ weniger Eigenkapital für ihre Gründung ein. Der zweite Teil der Analyse bezieht sich vorrangig auf die Nachhaltigkeit der Förderung durch den GZ. Hier kann gezeigt werden, dass 19 Monate nach Gründung noch 75% bis 84% der geförderten Personen im Haupterwerb selbständig tätig sind. Hinsichtlich der Beschäftigungswirkungen ist allerdings erkennbar, dass die Mehrheit der noch selbständig Tätigen 19 Monate nach Gründung keine Mitarbeiter eingestellt hat. Abschließend zeigt die Analyse hinsichtlich der Existenz potentieller Mitnahmeeffekte, dass diese im Rahmen des Gründungszuschusses eine geringere Bedeutung zu haben scheinen als bisher angenommen. Bisherige Evaluationsstudien zur Gründungsförderung für Arbeitslose verwenden in der Regel arbeitslose Individuen als Kontrollgruppe, um Arbeitsmarkteffekte der Gründung zu untersuchen. Dieser Ansatz hat den Nachteil, dass nicht untersucht werden kann, ob die Gründungsförderung erfolgreiche, innovative Unternehmen generiert, die mit denen von nicht-geförderten Gründungen vergleichbar sind. Kapitel 4 schließt diese Lücke mittels eines neuen explorativen Datensatzes der den Vergleich zwischen geförderten GründerInnen aus Arbeitslosigkeit und nicht-subventionierten GründerInnen, die bei ihrer Gründung nicht arbeitslos waren erstmalig möglich macht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass geförderte gegenüber nicht-geförderten GründerInnen keine Nachteile hinsichtlich ihrer formellen Bildung aufweisen, aber geringere arbeits- und industriespezifische Erfahrung besitzen. Zudem befinden sich unter den geförderten GründerInnen häufiger Personen, die sich aus Mangel an abhängigen Erwerbsalternativen selbständig gemacht, und sich in geringerem Umfang auf die Gründung vorbereitet haben. Geförderte GründerInnen haben zudem einen erschwerten Zugang zu Krediten und Gründungskapital. In Bezug auf die Entwicklung der Unternehmung über die Zeit lässt sich feststellen, dass geförderte GründerInnen zwar 19 Monate nach Gründung eine höhere Überlebensrate aufweisen, jedoch in Bezug auf Einkommen, Unternehmenswachstum und Innovation schlechter abschneiden. Kapitel 3 leistet einen Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen Betrachtung des Gründungsgeschehens im Allgemeinen. Vor dem Hintergrund, dass in Deutschland keine einheitliche und repräsentative Datenquelle existiert, die das gesamte Universum an Gründungen erfasst, gibt Kapitel 3 einen umfassenden Überblick über die wichtigsten deutschen Datenquellen zum Gründungsgeschehen. Zu einem besseren Verständnis des Forschungsgegenstandes bietet das Kapitel auch einen kurzen Überblick über institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen, Konzepte und Definitionen im Zusammenhang mit Gründungsaktivitäten in Deutschland. Der zweite Teil der Dissertation besteht zunächst aus einem Aufsatz, der zur Forschungsliteratur über die Determinanten des Suchverhaltens arbeitsloser Personen beiträgt. Ausgehend von der theoretischen Annahme, dass das Internet Suchhemmnisse auf dem Arbeitsmarkt abbaut, werden der Wirkungszusammenhang zwischen der Nutzung des Internets, Reservationslöhnen, Suchanstrengungen und der Qualität der neuen abhängigen Beschäftigung untersucht. Der dritte Teil der Dissertation (Kapitel 6) betrachtet abschließend einen anderen Forschungsbereich aus der Arbeitsmarktforschung, in dem es die Gründe für die milde Reaktion der deutschen Wirtschaft nach der Großen Rezession 2008/2009 beleuchtet und aufzeigt, welchen zukünftigen großen Herausforderungen sich der deutsche Arbeitsmarkt dennoch gegenübersieht.

Интенсификация сельского хозяйства имеет негативное влияние не только на окружающую среду, но и истощает природные ресурсы, без которых ведение сельскохозяйственного производства невозможно. Органическое производство имеет преимущество для окружающей среды и здоровья людей. В статье представлены результаты исследований по изучению зависимости урожайности корнеплодов свеклы столовой сортов Бордо харьковский и Цилиндра от сроков сева. ; Intensification of agriculture that has been going on in Ukraine, has a negative impact not only on the environment but also depletes natural resources, without which agricultural production impossible. Organic production provides a real benefit to the environment and human health. Domestic consumers seeking to improve the quality of consumption of vegetable products. The article presents the results of studies on the dependence of yield of roots beet varieties Bordeaux Kharkiv and cylinders from sowing. Intensification of agriculture, that lately takes place in Ukraine, has negative influence not only on an environment but also exhausts natural resources without that the conduct of agricultural production is impossible. Having regard to potential of agriculture of our state, there is an urgent necessity of the use of long-term experience of the European countries in relation to such ecologically, socially and economically expedient direction of agricultural activity, as an organic production. An organic production provides the real benefit for an environment and health of people.The domestic consumers aspire to the increase of quality consumption of vegetable products. Growing of vegetables at this method, is based on maximal application of scientifically-reasonable crop rotations, use of siderates and organic fertilizers, wide use of biological facilities, defence of plants from wreckers and illnesses, new going near technology of till of soil. Advantages of organic method of production, above traditional, consists in that at growing of с/g of products does not use synthetic mineral fertilizers, pesticides, regulators of height and genetically modified organisms, accordingly get the products of the best quality. For providing of population, including table beets a necessary amount and assortment of vegetables, it is necessary to promote their productivity and biochemical quality. An organic production in Ukraine develops from 1997, first of all due to demand from the side of traders of EU and recyclers of organic grain, oil-bearing, leguminous cultures and wild plants. In 2007 a situation began slightly to change at the internal market the assortment of organic foods broadened: organic bread, milk, sausages, fruit, vegetables, juices, drinks, syrups, jams, honey and grains have appeared.Ever since there is a positive progress of internal user market of organic foods trend in Ukraine, that in obedience to research of Federation of organic motion of Ukraine has next indexes: in 2008 is a 500 thousand euro, in 2009 is a 600 thousand euro, in 2010 is a 1,2 million euro, in 2011 2,4 million euro, in 2012 is a 5,1 million euro, in 2013 is a 7,9 million euro, and in 2014 is a 12,2 million euro. An annual increase of internal market of organic products is on 60 100 level. On the beginning of 2014 in Ukraine worked about 164 certificated organic economies that process over 280 thousand hectares and agricultural lands. and yet about 300 economies that is not certificated, but produce quality organic products and process over 400 thousand and agricultural lands. Most farming can not get a certificate, through its high cost (within the limits of a 5500 in a year). More favourable work of organic sector of Ukraine is restrained by the imperfect institutional providing. For today state support of development of organic sector is declared only in a few normative acts basic from that is : Law of Ukraine «On a production and turnover of organic agricultural produce and raw material» [6] but the Government having a special purpose program of development of the Ukrainian village on a period 2020 to the year. Ukraine is the agrarian state, sector of plant-grower, provides food safety and food independence of country. In an order to go out on a world level from growing of organic products, it is necessary to stimulate the agriculture of producers, and increase the network of quality organic production distribution. In the article is given the results of researches from the study of dependence of the productivity of root crops of beet the table of sorts of Claret Kharkiv and Cylinder from the terms of sowing. The ways of exit of producers of organic products are offered to the market through distribution of network of shops from organic production distribution. The basic channels of sale for organic foods in Ukraine are specialized departments of supermarkets and small shops. Having regard to the increase of demand, a seating capacity increases, where it is possible to purchase natural organic products. In the process of undertaken studies, it is set that in the conditions of the Western Forest-steppe zone of Ukraine sorts of table beet of Claret Kharkiv and Cylinder give the high productivity of root crops at the organic production of goods. At the sort of Claret Kharkiv is the greatest productivity of 44,4 t/h got at sowing in the first ten-day period of May. While in the 2nd and 3rd ten-day periods of May more subzero productivity of 40,3 39,2t/h. At sowing in the first ten-day period of May a raise to control presented 5,3 t/h. The sort of Cylinder appeared more intensively. At sowing of table in the 2 to the ten-day period of May the greatest productivity is got 50,5 t/h more subzero 41,5 t/h at sowing in the first ten-day period of May. Sowing at the beginning of the third ten-day period resulted in the decline of the productivity. Thus, an optimal term for sowing of beet a table is the first and 2nd ten-day period of May. At equal climatic terms, to composition of soil, temperature a beet is a table to the sort of Cylinder gives on 6,1t/h the greater productivity for the sort of Claret Kharkiv. Stability of sort of Claret Kharkiv is higher comparatively with the sort of Cylinder. The productivity of beets a table depends on terms of sowing. Taking into account that a sort of Cylinder is more intensive, stability was below, that characteristically for high-performance sorts.

Firearm trafficking as defined in the UN Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, refers to the unauthorized "…import, export, acquisition, sale, delivery, movement or transfer of firearms, their parts and components and ammunition…" across internal or state borders (UNGA 2001: 4). The term trafficking is also used to designate the intentional diversion of firearms from legal to illegal commerce, without involving the movement of items across physical borders. Illicit manufacture is closely tied to the act of firearm trafficking and it incorporates the "manufacture or assembly of firearms, firearm parts and components or ammunition" from illicitly produced parts (UNGA 2001: 3).

There are at least 875 million combined civilian, law enforcement and military firearms in the world (Small Arms Survey 2012). The value of the documented global authorized trade in firearms has been estimated at approximately US$1.58 billion in 2006, with unrecorded but licit transactions making up another US$100 million. The most commonly cited estimate for the size of the illicit market is 10–20 percent of the licit market, which would be about US$170 million to US$320 million per annum (Small Arms Survey 2012). While there are various types of arms that are trafficked, small arms and light weapons (SALW)1 trafficking has been instrumental in many of the world's conflicts since 1990, with 90 percent of all war casualties since World War II being attributed to small arms weaponry (Bassiouni 2010; Stohl 1999; Shah 2006).

The majority of SALW producers are located in the West. According to the Small Arms Survey, in 2010, the top exporters of SALW (those with annual exports of at least USD 100 million), according to available customs data, were (in descending order) the United States, Germany, Italy, Brazil, Switzerland, Israel, Austria, the Russian Federation, South Korea, and Sweden. In 2010 the top importers of SALW (those with annual imports of at least USD 100 million), according to available customs data, were (in descending order) the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, Australia, South Korea, France, and Thailand (Small Arms Survey 2013).2 When it comes to international trafficking of major weapons, the flow of arms to Africa, the Americas, and Asia and Oceania increased significantly between 2004–2013. European imports however decreased by 25 per cent between 2004–2013. The UK was the largest importer of major weapons in Europe, followed by Azerbaijan and Greece. Many European states are choosing second-hand weapons as cheaper alternatives. The level of arms transfers to the Middle East remained more or less unchanged (Wezemen & Wezemen 2014).3

SALW trafficking involves a host of actors ranging from the individual rogue seller and buyer to intermediaries, transnational networks, transport companies, states, and corporate organizations (Rothe and Collins 2011). Some trafficking operations appear to be more sophisticated and to involve organized crime groups, licensed dealers, and/or corrupt state officials, while others are a result of theft, for example. In the literature (see, Rothe and Collins 2011; Cragin and Hoffman 2003), four types of markets for small arms sales are mentioned; white, black, gray, and covert military transactions. The white market refers to the legal sale of weapons by governments or private manufacturers to other countries or governments. While the white market is considered a legal market, a large proportion of trafficked arms are said to originate from government weapons surplus that make their way into the illicit market (Greene 2000).

Black market deals are illegal by the covert nature of the transaction as well as through the illegal status of the buyer, seller, or transaction. Transactions can be hidden through the concealment of the weapons through mislabeling, forging of documents, and the laundering of the criminal proceeds. This also includes covert government (military) transfers of arms to another country, specifically to insurgent forces due to their lack of transparency (Mouzos 2002; Rothe and Collins 2011).

The gray market makes reference to those transactions that are not considered illegal, but do not fall within the category of white market dealings. For example, while there are direct violations of arms embargoes (black market deals), there are also sales of arms to a non-embargo country (B) with the knowledge that such arms will then be sold to the intended state (A) to bypass the embargo, through the use of proxy individual brokers or insurgency groups (see, Rothe and Collins 2011).

In the US most firearms appear to be trafficked via a corrupt licensed dealer (see Fig. 1). A similar situation is reported in Australia (Bricknell 2012). Licensed firearm dealers are well placed to divert firearms—they have access to large firearm collections, and their familiarity with legislation and processes around the importation, sale and distribution of firearms will have revealed where vulnerabilities exist and can be best exploited. Theft is also cited as an important source of illegal firearms in countries such as the US (Kleck and Wang 2009; Wright and Rossi 1994) and inferred in other jurisdictions such as England and Wales (Hales et al. 2006) and within the European Union (Spapens 2007).
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Fig. 1
Source of weapons and type of trafficking Source: UNODC Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment (2012) (Based on US Bureau of Justice Statistics 2002 & ATF 2000)



The trafficking of firearms is unlike many of the other forms of trafficking. Unlike drugs, cigarettes, or counterfeit pharmaceuticals, AK-47 will last indefinitely. As a result, a logical argument follows: arms trafficking is episodic, often from an established stockpile to a region descending into crisis (UNODC 2010). However, the "rationality" of the illicit firearms market is one of the topics further discussed in this special issue, since this market deals with a product that is significantly different from other illicit products or services offered by criminal networks. For example, it is essential to understand that the inherent nature of firearms and other weapons is their ability to take and/or protect human life. Their ability is to intimidate, threaten or defend the survival of "imagined communities" including, groups, gangs, and nation states. Arms do not only help rebel groups and governments to maintain control over territories, but they are also a very "useful tool" for expanding the influence of organized crime groups and for projecting "masculinity" (Davis et al. 2001; Arsovska and Kostakos 2008).

A Tese de Doutorado, defendida em fevereiro de 2005, esquadrinhou as contribuições de Lenin à educação política como subsídio à crítica da educação burguesa e elemento de constituição de uma pedagogia leninista imprescindível à formação da consciência socialista. Procurei demonstrar que Lenin se preocupava com a educação escolar como meio à realização do processo revolucionário. Para ele, enquanto a educação não fosse passada aos operários e levada a mais longínqua província da Rússia, o Estado russo continuaria sendo o que sempre fora, a negação à democracia. Lenin não chegou a ver a educação escolar se transformar em coadjuvante rigoroso da revolução bolchevique. Para ele, sem a teoria de Marx e Engels, não seria possível a Revolução de Outubro, daí a magna importância dada à educação política no projeto pedagógico socialista de ensino politécnico imprescindível à formação do homem multifacetado. A emancipação intelectual e a liberdade econômica, a organização partidária e a revolução socialista (pão, terra e liberdade) eram as principais consignas da ordem do dia. A liberdade nessa perspectiva era a liberdade do operário que produzia as riquezas e não a liberdade do burguês e dos bandidos das finanças que sugavam o sangue dos trabalhadores. Como dizia Marx, quanto mais sugavam mais fortes ficavam. A educação política era um instrumento de Partido e de Sindicato, uma espécie de marxismo praticado. Sobre a educação política, ela além de encerrar um programa político determinado, deveria revelar convicções claras e coerentes; possuir habilidade para (1) não se acomodar ao tom e ao estado de coisas do momento, (2) não se arrastar ante os poderosos, (3) não cumprir as ordens que emanavam deles e (4) não tratar de congraçar-se com algo que se assemelhasse à opinião pública. Portanto, não era correto dar o nome de política, no sentido estrito da palavra, à educação que na melhor das hipóteses se limitava "a recolher pequenos feitos interessantes, porém não elaborados, e a lançar suspiros no lugar de filosofar". Não é que essa educação não seja útil, porém não é política. A educação deveria estar calçada na realidade objetiva, vinculada aos interesses e demandas da classe operária e dos camponeses pobres, mantendo sua linha política não deveria temer marchar contra os poderosos e o governo; essa educação é útil como colaboradora insubstituível da agitação revolucionária contra a servidão imposta pelos kulaks e contra a nova servidão imposta pelos modernos senhores de escravos assalariados, os capitalistas. A patuleia intelectualizada considera Lenin como um dentre tantos chefes de clãs russos, revolucionário odiento ou ditador sanguinário. Mas, ao perquirir a obra de Lênin, uma questão passou a me incomodar: de onde provém a aversão política e ideológica que os intelectuais dedicam a esse líder proletário, comunista intransigente, intelectual rigoroso e, como dissera Stalin, uma verdadeira "águia das montanhas"? Lenin não perdia tempo com ruminações pseudofilosóficas, sua crítica ácida destinava-se aos intelectuais de sua época, não a todos sem exceção, mas àqueles que atuavam no interior do Partido e dos Sindicatos e no sistema oficial de ensino, inculcando os dogmas próprios à ideologia dominante indispensáveis à ratificação e continuidade da dominação da burguesia. Não é verdade que Lenin não tem nenhuma contribuição à política, à filosofia e à educação contemporâneas, é o atraso dos seus críticos, decorrente do não entendimento da obra de Marx e Engels, que os fazem tergiversar quando tratam de negar a educação engajada e a filosofia como filosofia de partido. Lenin revelou de forma cristalina e lançou fora todas as sutilezas técnicas com as quais a intelligentsia tentava (tenta) fazer acomodações políticas e compromissos espúrios, mascarar o real debate no qual as teorias da educação estão enredadas: a luta entre o idealismo e o materialismo como reflexo da luta de classe contra classe. Resgatar Lenin significa trazer à baila a tese segundo a qual os intelectuais burgueses inculcam na consciência em formação das novas gerações um rol de valores sem o qual o capitalismo será balançado em suas fundações. A função desses intelectuais nas escolas e nas universidades é fazer com que essas fundações sejam preservadas intactas e intocadas. A crítica azeda de Lenin era direcionada ao Estado burguês, à malsã burguesia e à intelligentsia e que predicavam a esperança, o medo e a ilusão como alucinógenos sociais, instrumentos de controle social e mecanismos de embrutecimento da juventude. E mais, predicavam a crença hipócrita na educação como alavanca da história; no sufrágio universal como termômetro da maturidade da classe operária; no cretinismo parlamentar como via para a transição do capitalismo ao socialismo; o consenso e não o confronto como motor da história; na inexorabilidade do capitalismo como fim último das sociedades humanas; no comunismo como devaneio, utopia irrealizável. A leitura de suas cartas aos seus familiares foi de fundamental importância para reconhecê-lo como pessoa, mostrando suas relações com as pessoas, projetando luz sobre aspectos de seu caráter que sua atividade científica ou pública mostrava insuficientemente ou não mostrava, em absoluto. Nessas cartas percebe-se sua indignação com os revisionistas, a quem atribuía presunção professoral, cujo movimento além de ser incrivelmente débil, era "oportunismo desenfreado e covarde". Ele agia de peito aberto como "adversário cada vez mais decidido da nova orientação crítica no marxismo, assim como do neokantismo (que engendrou, diga-se de passagem, a ideia de que as leis sociológicas estão separadas das leis econômicas)". Nessas cartas escritas entre 1908 e 1909, ele ataca de modo inflexível as teorias novidadeiras que se propunham a destruir o marxismo, por isto, não atenuava a crítica aos vis e covardes inimigos do marxismo, mormente aqueles com quem havia rompido definitivamente. Na Tese, há um esboço biográfico de Lenin, sua vida, sua obra, facetas do quotidiano desconhecidas da maioria dos leitores, em despretensiosas linhas com subsídios de alguns dos seus camaradas mais próximos: Nadéjda Krúpskaia, Maria Ulianóvna e Ióssif Stalin. Recupero e aponto as principais contribuições leninistas à construção de uma pedagogia comunista direcionada à formação da consciência revolucionária paroxismo da sociedade comunista. Para finalizar, procurei deixar apontado na Tese que o estudo desenvolvido não era uma prática hagiográfica, nem um acerto de contas com os social- democratas, traidores do passado e do presente, nem muito menos uma reencenação nostálgica dos bons e velhos tempos de Partidão, mas apenas resgatar para a sociedade despedaçada em que a esperança envergonhada se escondeu e a desesperança encontrou sua maior idade, o gesto leninista para reinventar a luta revolucionária contra o imperialismo e a colonização neoliberal.

Kansainvälisten tietokantojen maakohtaisten rikostilastojen tiedonlouhintaa Väitöstutkimuksessaan tekijä sovelsi tiedonlouhinnan laskennallisia välineitä kansainvälisistä lähteistä etsimiinsä rikollisuuden tilastotietoihin tehdäkseen vertailevaa tutkimusta eri maiden välillä ja eri vuosien välillä yhdessä maassa, Yhdysvalloissa. Tutkimuksen tekijä keräsi datansa pääosin YK:n tietokannoista sekä Yhdysvaltojen ja Suomen tilastokeskuksen tietokannoista. Modernin yhteiskunnan hyvinvoinnin, vakauden ja kehityksen turvaamiseksi rikollisuuden torjunta ja valvonta ovat polttopisteessä. Rikollisuuden esiintymistä voidaan kuvata useilla tekijöillä eli muuttujilla, jotka eivät useinkaan ole hallintokoneiston, yhteiskunnan tai kansalaisten kontrolloitavissa. Nämä ovat luokiteltavissa kolmeen ryhmään, demografiset, taloudelliset ja historialliset muuttujat. Nämä näyttelevät toisaalta näkyvää ja toisaalta näkymätöntä roolia kuvatessaan rikollisten ilmiöiden maantieteellistä jakaumaa kansainvälisellä tasolla, käsittäessään määrättyjen rikosten piirteitä sekä muodostaen laskennallisen perustan maiden klusterointiin eli ryhmittelyyn, jossa muuttujat määrittävät rikollisuuspiirteiltään keskenään läheiset maat. Mainitun ryhmittelyn suorittamisessa tiedonlouhinnan menetelmät osoittautuivat hyödyllisiksi. Näitä laskentamenetelmiä on aiemmin sovellettu mitä erilaisimmille datoille, mutta väitöstutkimuksen makrotason eli maakohtaisten rikostilastojen tiedonlouhinta lienee ensimmäisiä alallaan. Tutkimuksen tekijä käytti erityisesti laskentamenetelmää nimeltä itseorganisoituvat kartat ryhmittelyssä, vertailussa ja myös visualisoinnissa. Tekijä selvitti myös demografisten, taloudellisten ja sosiaalisten muuttujien suhteita korrelaatioina rikostilastomuuttujiin nähden eri maissa. Niin ikään hän selvitti itseorganisoituvien karttojen ja muiden tiedonlouhintamenetelmien käyttökelpoisuutta rikollisuuden analysointiin maittain. Tutkimus kattoi viisi osajulkaisua maakohtaisen datan käsittäessä 22:sta 68:aan erilaista muuttujaa. Kolmessa osajulkaisussa tutkija analysoi tiedonlouhinnalla noin puolen sadan maan joukkoja. Yhdessä osajulkaisussa hän tutki ajallisesti rikollisuuden muutosta Yhdysvalloissa 48 perättäisen vuoden aikana alkaen vuoden 1960 rikostilastoista. Yhdysvalloissa, joista dataa oli saatavissa pitkittäistutkimusta varten, rikollisuus oli lisääntynyt tasaisesti 1990-luvulle asti, jonka jälkeen vaihtelevien syiden takia, kuten rikollisuuden torjunta, rikollisuus on pääosin vähentynyt. Viimeinen osajulkaisu käsitti lähes koko maailman, 181 maata, tiedonlouhintaa erilaisten demografisten, taloudellisten ja sosiaalisten muuttujien suhteesta vain yhteen muuttujaan, henkirikoksiin. Tämä oli kohteena keskeisyytensä vuoksi ja käytännöllisen syyn vuoksi, kun kyseistä tietoa oli saatu YK:n tietokantoihin lähes kaikista maista. Jokin toinen rikollisuuden muoto, esimerkiksi tietoverkkorikokset, ei olisi ollut tällainen. Väitöstutkimuksen ensimmäinen laaja osuus oli datan eli rikostilastojen keräys ja valikointi em. julkisista tietokannoista. Kunkin osajulkaisun muuttuja- ja maavalikoimaan vaikuttivat rikollisuuteen mahdollisesti tavalla tai toisella liittyvien muuttujien tilastointi ja eri maista saatavilla ollut data sekä Yhdysvalloista erityisesti vuosilta 1960-2007 saatavilla ollut data. Tutkija analysoi tiedonlouhinnan esikäsittelymenetelmin, mitkä muuttujista erottelivat eri maita voidakseen tehokkaasti hyödyntää valitsemiaan muuttujia luokitukseen ja ryhmittelyyn. Tutkimuksessa oli käytössä useita eri luokitusmenetelmiä (algoritmisessa mielessä ohjattua oppimista) yksinkertaisesta lähimmän naapurin etsinnästä tukivektorikoneisiin. Näiden antamia tuloksia tutkija vertasi itseorganisoituvien karttojen (ohjaamatonta oppimista) antamiin voidakseen todeta riittävää yhdenmukaisuutta tulosten välillä, ts. todentaen tulosten mielekkyyden ja oikeellisuuden. Lisäksi hän käytti apuna tilastollisia menetelmiä johtopäätöstensä tueksi. Tutkimuksen tekijä saattoi todeta itseorganisoituvien karttojen ja muiden tiedonlouhinnassa käytettävien koneoppimismenetelmien soveltuvan hyvin maakohtaisten rikostilastojen tiedonlouhintaan ja analyysiin. Tutkimus kuvasi kiinnostavia tuloksia, maakohtaisia eroja ja samankaltaisuuksia ja hieman yllättäviäkin löydöksiä, kuten lievempien omaisuusrikostyyppien yleisyyden vauraissa maissa ja vähäisyyden monissa köyhissä maissa. Monet maat sijoittuivat ryhmittelyssä odotettavissa olevin maaryhmiin, mutta toisaalta näissä oli myös vaihtelevia eroja. Kiinnostavaa tässä oli luonnollisesti laajimmin tutkittu rikostyyppi, henkirikos ja tämän kanssa korreloivat muuttujat. ; The objective of this dissertation is to apply data mining methods in the study of crime based on international data sources. Crime control is fundamental to the welfare, stability and development of modern society. Crime occurs in a composite of surrounding variables, typically uncontrollable by government, society or citizens. These environmental variables can roughly be classified into demographic, economic as well as historical factors, playing visible or mostly invisible roles in shaping geographic distribution of criminal phenomena on the international level, affecting occurrence and features of particular offences within particular jurisdictions, and providing a foundation for clustering relevant countries where there are comparable interaction of these variables in certain internal mechanism. To reveal this internal mechanism, performing crime analysis using data mining and visualization techniques proves to be an intimidating assignment. They have been shown to be functional in a variety of domains but have not been extensively studied for applications in the macroscopic study of crime. The purpose of this dissertation is to apply the data mining methods, centred on the Self-Organizing Map (SOM), in mapping, clustering and comparing criminal phenomena among countries, and in identifying correlations between crime and demographic, economic and other social factors through processing of large amounts of crime data around the world and over history. During this process, the study is aimed at revealing to what extent the SOM, with assistance of other data mining techniques, can be a qualified tool in the study of crime. Studies included in this dissertation, covered different sets of data and adopted different methods. The data sets covered countries from 1 to 181, and variables from 22 to 68. In one study, data were about historical development of 48 successive years, while data in other studies can be thought as static. These data were all processed by the SOM, and these data in four of the studies underwent a process of selecting variables by using a method called ScatterCounter. In validating the final clusters, different methods were employed, selected among k-means clustering, discriminant analysis, k-nearest neighbour classifier, Naive Bayes classification, support vector machines, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test. In conclusion, the SOM can be a satisfactory candidate for the macroscopic study of crime, through processing multidimensional data. Incorporating other methods to improve variable selection and classification validation, the results generated by the SOM can provide broad potential for criminological and sociological exploration into social phenomena. In research on multiple countries and multiple crimes, findings have been found partially coincident with conventional study. Roughly defined patterns of crime situation have been found in some countries with some traditionally similar socio-economic conditions. In different groups of countries, different factors may work in different ways. Long-term development patterns of countries affected occurrence of crime. In research on historical development of crime in one single country, the USA, successive years are clustered together in one way or the other with few exceptions. In research on one single type of crime, homicide, it is clear that a string of thinking concerning potential research on what socio-economic factors cause homicide, affecting its occurrence, or its increase or decrease. Consequently, the applicative layer of data mining methods in information sciences has influential prospect in the methodological layer in other disciplines.

Цель: Целью статьи было обоснование необходимости пересмотра границ зон радиоактивного загрязнения для постепенного вывода населенных пунктов за их пределы. Введение: С целью возрождения территорий, подвергшихся радиоактивному загрязнению в результате Чернобыльской катастрофы, обеспечения в них нормальной хозяйственной деятельности, возвращение их к полноценной жизни, существует настоятельная потребность в изменении режима ведения хозяйственной деятельности, разработке эффективного механизма изменения статуса этих населенных пунктов и процедуры пересмотра границ зон радиоактивного загрязнения. Сегодня существует экспериментально доказанная основа для перевода населенных пунктов из зоны с большим числом ограничений деятельности в зону с менее жесткими требованиями, или их вывода за пределы зон вообще. В связи с этим возникает необходимость пересмотра действующих законодательных документов и приведение их к современным требованиям. Общая тенденция формирования дозы облучения населения в северо-западных районах Полесья свидетельствует о том, что сегодня доза формируется (80-95%), главным образом, за счет потребления продуктов питания с повышенным содержанием радионуклидов (в основном 137 Cs). Внешнее облучение при этом составляет лишь 5-20% от суммарной дозы. Основная доза облучения населения формируется за счет потребления загрязненных сельскохозяйственных продуктов местного производства. Причем, основным источником поступления радионуклидов в организм человека являются продукты животного происхождения молоко и мясо. В отдельных населенных пунктах основная доля 137 Cs поступает в рацион питания с продуктами лесных экосистем (грибами и лесными ягодами). В таких населенных пунктах до 20% населения постоянно употребляют лесные грибы и ягоды. Вместе с продуктами животного происхождения «дары леса» обеспечивают более 90 % годовой дозы облучения человека. Методы: Для изменения статуса населенных пунктов, отнесенных к зонам радиоактивного загрязнения ЧАЭС, проведен анализ и систематизация данных дозиметрической паспортизации, использованы аналитические методы исследований радиоэкологической ситуации в критических населенных пунктах, гамма спектрометрические методы анализа отобранных проб (растительности, молока, продуктов леса). Также проведен подбор и обзор нормативных документов, касающихся статуса использования радиоактивно загрязненных земель. Для этого проанализирован ряд законов, постановлений, методик. Выводы: За время, прошедшее после аварии на ЧАЭС, радиационная ситуация в Украине заметно улучшилась. Сегодня из 2 293 населенных пунктов, отнесенных к зонам радиоактивного загрязнения в 1991 году, 1 851 могут быть выведены за пределы зон радиоактивного загрязнения, и после восстановления их инфраструктуры могут возвратиться к нормальной жизни без каких либо ограничений. Однако осталось 25 населенных пунктов, которые нуждаются в постоянном проведении контрмер для безопасного проживания в них населения. Значение для практики: Для проведения экспертной оценки возможности изменения статуса населенных пунктов, при участии авторов статьи разработаны «Рекомендации по подготовке экспертного заключения по установлению и пересмотра границ зон радиоактивного загрязнения». Эти рекомендации являются единственным методическим документом, предназначенным для использования специально уполномоченными центральными органами исполнительной власти при подготовке экспертных заключений. На сегодняшний день с их использованием Национальной Академией наук Украины, центральными органами исполнительной власти, обеспечивающим формирование государственной политики в сфере здравоохранения, управления зоной отчуждения и зоной безусловного (обязательного) отселения, преодолению последствий Чернобыльской катастрофы, охраны окружающей природной среды, безопасности использования ядерной энергии, центрального органа исполнительной власти, реализующего государственную политику в сфере надзора (контроля) в агропромышленном комплексе, были подготовлены экспертные заключения по установлению и пересмотру границ зон радиоактивного загрязнения и переданы на утверждение в Верховную Раду Украины. ; The purpose of this article was to provide the rationale for revising currently binding borders of radioactively contaminated areas in order to narrow these borders gradually. Introduction: In order to revive the territories contaminated after the Chernobyl disaster, ensure their economic activity, it is urgently needed to change the mode of their economic activity, develop an effective mechanism for changing the status of these territories and review the procedures for revising the boundaries of contaminated zones. Today the need for the transfer of inhabited areas from the zones with a large number of restrictions to less restricted zones is experimentally proven. Therefore, the procesess revision of currently binding legislation and its modification to the current needs are indispensable. The general tendency of population exposure dose in northwestern Polessie regions indicates that currently the dose is mainly (80-95%) formed by the consumption of food with high radionuclide content (137 Cs). External irradiation constitutes only 5-20% of the total dose. General population exposure dose is formed by locally produced contaminated food. Moreover, the biggest amount of radionuclides is absorbed into human body with animal products milk and meat. In some areas the largest percentage of radioactive cesium enters into human body from a diet rich in products from forest ecosystems (mushrooms and wild berries). In such settlements up to 20% of inhabitants regularly consume wild mushrooms and berries. Therefore, animal products and forest products account for more than 90% of the annual human exposure dose. Methods: To change the status of inhabited areas that belong to the zones of radioactive contamination after Chernobyl accident, measurement data were analyzed and systematized, the analytical methods of radioecological situation investigation in critical localities were used, the gamma spectrometry analysis of selected samples (plants, milk, forest products) was done. Regulatory documents laws, standards, procedures on the status and exploitation of contaminated territories were reviewed. Conclusions: Since the accident the radiation situation in Ukraine has significantly improved. Out of 2293 settlements that were assigned to the areas of radioactive contamination in 1991, today 1851 settlements may be excluded from the zones of radioactive contamination and after the restoration of infrastructure can be returned to normal activities, without any limitations caused by radiation impact. However, there are 25 settlements that require regular countermeasures to ensure safety for their inhabitants. Practical significance: For the expert review of the possibility to change the status of settlements, the team of authors developed "Guidelines for the preparation of expert opinion on establishment and revision of the boundaries of the zones of radioactive contamination". This guidance is constitutes only a methodological document intended for the use by specially authorized central executive authorities in the preparation of expert reports. To date, the use of these guidelines by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, by central executive authorities that form state policy in the field of health care, exclusion zone management and zone of unconditional (mandatory) evacuation, liquidation of Chernobyl disaster consequences, environmental protection, nuclear safety, the central executive body that implements the state policy in the field of supervision (control) in agriculture, allowed to prepare expert conclusions on the establishment and revision of the borders of radioactive contamination zones, which were and submitted for approval to the Parliament of Ukraine.

In 2000, at the Millennium Summit at UN adopted the Millennium Development Goals , which cover global problems and are calculated for the period 2000­2015 years. Ukraine has signed the Millennium Development Goals and has taken over the political commitment to implement them. One of the goals of this international instrument provides for the promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women. Тhe global goals, objectives and indicators adapted to the peculiarities of Ukraine on the basis of national development. For the analysis of qualitative and quantitative measurements of changes in gender conditions in politics and public administration in Ukraine at present of the experts proposed one objectives and three indicators. Objective: To provide a gender ratio of at least 30 to 70% of either gender in representative bodies and high­level executive. Indicators: 1) Gender ratio among deputies of the Supreme soviet of Ukraine , women / men ( or vice versa) , and 2) the gender ratio among members of local authorities , women / men ( or vice versa) , and 3) the gender ratio among senior civil servants (1­2 categories) , women / men ( or vice versa). In 2015, Ukraine should report at the United Nations on the implementation of the MDGs. In this paper, the author analyzed the state of gender equality in politics and governance in Ukrainian society. One of the main problems of the present stage of gender equality in politics and public administration in Ukraine the author notes : no systematic gender mainstreaming to implement personnel policies in the civil service at the central and local level; the lack of effective state control over observance of gender equality, not provided the institutional legal mechanisms for gender equality; and without the current regulatory framework on gender turns into an empty declaration; the lack of political will to implement the goals of gender equality. The author of the article provides recommendations on optimal ways of gender parity democracy in Ukraine , in particular: the adoption of the law on gender quotas ; review of indicators of gender equality upwards for thorough measurement processes of gender equality in Ukrainian society; massive gender education in Ukrainian society to overcome gender stereotypes; monitoring not only the state but also the public and informing the public annually on the status , problems and measures for gender equality in Ukraine. ; У 2000 році на Саміті Тисячоліття під егідою ООН ухвалено Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття, які охоплюють глобальні проблеми людства і розраховані на період 2000­2015 рр. Україна підписала Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття і взяла на себе політичні зобов'язання щодо їх реалізації. Одна з цілей цього міжнародного документа передбачає заохочення гендерної рівності і розширення прав і можливостей жінок. Сформовані на світовому рівні глобальні цілі, завдання та індикатори адаптовано для України з урахуванням особливостей її національного розвитку. Для аналізу кількісних та якісних вимірів змін гендерної ситуації в сфері політики та державного управління в Україні на сучасному етапі експертами запропоноване одне завдання та три індикатори. Завдання: забезпечити гендерне співвідношення на рівні не менше 30 до 70 % тієї чи іншої статі у представницьких органах влади та на вищих щаблях виконавчої влади. Індикатори: 1) гендерне співвідношення серед депутатів Верховної Ради України, чис.жін./чис.чол. (або навпаки); 2) гендерне співвідношення серед депутатів місцевих органів влади, чис.жін./чис.чол. (або нав­паки); 3) гендерне співвідношення серед вищих державних службовців (1­2 посадових категорій), чис.жін./чис.чол. (або навпаки). В 2015 р. Україні необхідно звітувати на рівні ООН про виконання Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. В даній статті автор проаналізувала стан досягнення гендерної рівності в сфері політики та державного управління в українському суспільстві в статиці та в динаміці. Серед основних проблем сучасного етапу впровадження гендерної рівності в сфері політики та державного управління в Україні автор статті відмічає: відсутність системного комплексного ґендерного підходу до реалізації кадрової політики на державній службі на центральному та місцевому рівнях; брак ефективного державного контролю за дотриманням ґендерної рівності; недоопрацювання інституційно­правових механізмів забезпечення гендерної рівності, а без них чинна нормативно­правова база з гендерних питань перетворюється на порожні декларації; відсутність політичної волі для реалізації цілі із забезпечення гендерної рівності. Автором статті запропоновано рекомендації щодо оптимальних шляхів формування гендерно­паритетної демократії в Україні, зокрема: прийняття закону про гендерні квоти; перегляд індикаторів гендерної рівності в сторону збільшення для ґрунтовнішого вимірювання процесів гендерної рівності в українському суспільстві; масштабна гендерна просвіта в українському суспільстві для подолання гендерних стереотипів; моніторинг не тільки з боку держави, а й громадськості та щорічне інформування суспільства щодо стану, проблем та заходів щодо утвердження гендерної рівності в Україні. ; У 2000 році на Саміті Тисячоліття під егідою ООН ухвалено Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття, які охоплюють глобальні проблеми людства і розраховані на період 2000­2015 рр. Україна підписала Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття і взяла на себе політичні зобов'язання щодо їх реалізації. Одна з цілей цього міжнародного документа передбачає заохочення гендерної рівності і розширення прав і можливостей жінок. Сформовані на світовому рівні глобальні цілі, завдання та індикатори адаптовано для України з урахуванням особливостей її національного розвитку. Для аналізу кількісних та якісних вимірів змін гендерної ситуації в сфері політики та державного управління в Україні на сучасному етапі експертами запропоноване одне завдання та три індикатори. Завдання: забезпечити гендерне співвідношення на рівні не менше 30 до 70 % тієї чи іншої статі у представницьких органах влади та на вищих щаблях виконавчої влади. Індикатори: 1) гендерне співвідношення серед депутатів Верховної Ради України, чис.жін./чис.чол. (або навпаки); 2) гендерне співвідношення серед депутатів місцевих органів влади, чис.жін./чис.чол. (або нав­паки); 3) гендерне співвідношення серед вищих державних службовців (1­2 посадових категорій), чис.жін./чис.чол. (або навпаки). В 2015 р. Україні необхідно звітувати на рівні ООН про виконання Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. В даній статті автор проаналізувала стан досягнення гендерної рівності в сфері політики та державного управління в українському суспільстві в статиці та в динаміці. Серед основних проблем сучасного етапу впровадження гендерної рівності в сфері політики та державного управління в Україні автор статті відмічає: відсутність системного комплексного ґендерного підходу до реалізації кадрової політики на державній службі на центральному та місцевому рівнях; брак ефективного державного контролю за дотриманням ґендерної рівності; недоопрацювання інституційно­правових механізмів забезпечення гендерної рівності, а без них чинна нормативно­правова база з гендерних питань перетворюється на порожні декларації; відсутність політичної волі для реалізації цілі із забезпечення гендерної рівності. Автором статті запропоновано рекомендації щодо оптимальних шляхів формування гендерно­паритетної демократії в Україні, зокрема: прийняття закону про гендерні квоти; перегляд індикаторів гендерної рівності в сторону збільшення для ґрунтовнішого вимірювання процесів гендерної рівності в українському суспільстві; масштабна гендерна просвіта в українському суспільстві для подолання гендерних стереотипів; моніторинг не тільки з боку держави, а й громадськості та щорічне інформування суспільства щодо стану, проблем та заходів щодо утвердження гендерної рівності в Україні.

__Nederlandse Samenvatting__ De markt is bij uitstek de plek waar het individu vrij kan zijn. Dat is ook het standaardbeeld van het gedachtegoed van de Oostenrijkse School van de Economie. In zijn dissertatie 'The Viennese students of Civilization: Humility, Culture and Economics in Interwar Vienna and Beyond' betoogt Erwin Dekker dat die school, bekend van onder andere Friedrich Hayek, Joseph Schumpeter en Carl Menger, vrijheid niet ziet als het ontbreken van beperkingen, maar als een culturele verworvenheid. Individuen kunnen alleen vrij zijn, zo betogen de Oostenrijkers, doordat er gedeelde normen en instituties zijn die de vrijheid mogelijk maken. De verzameling van normen en instituties is voor hen de beschaving. Die beschaving en haar instituties zoals markten kunnen alleen floreren als ze worden ondersteund door een bredere cultuur. Die steun brokkelt echter snel af gedurende het interbellum. De Weense studenten van de beschaving analyseren die 'revolte' tegen de beschaving, gevoed door het socialisme en het fascisme. Socialisten zijn er ten onrechte van overtuigd dat de economie te plannen, en de maatschappij maakbaar is. Aan de rechterzijde wordt er juist betoogd dat het juk van de beschaving te groot is en het individu beperkt. Daartegen ontwikkelen de Oostenrijkers hun visie van vrijheid en markten als culturele verworvenheden. Die verworvenheden zijn niet natuurlijk, noch te plannen, ze zijn de min of meer onbewuste uitkomst van menselijke interactie. Die visie ontstaat binnen de rijke Weense cultuur van het interbellum, die vooral plaatsheeft in de intellectuele kringen. In die levendige gesprekscultuur worden de Weense economen uitgedaagd om een betrokken en brede analyse te ontwikkelen. Wat dat betreft staan ze ver af van de moderne economen gericht op theoretische marktmodellen die vooral in gesprek zijn met andere academici. Zo bezien kan de Weense traditie ons nog veel leren, zeker in een tijd waarin de acceptatie van veel van onze culturele instituties verre van vanzelfsprekend is. ; In this dissertation it is argued that the scholars who are usually known under the banner Austrian Economists are better understood as the Viennese students of Civilization. By understanding the group of scholars, consisting of Carl Menger, Friedrich von Wieser, Joseph Schumpeter, Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek among others, as Viennese students of Civilization we are better able to understand their unique contribution. Contrary to many economists - both then and now - the Viennese students of civilization consider the economy not as a self-regulating natural order, or a system which can be planned, but as cultural process. Just like language and law, markets emerge and develop from human interaction. When the Viennese conceive of the market as a cultural process it means for them that the market has important cultural effects and is sustained by what we could call a market culture. In this dissertation the cultural effects of the market are explored especially as they relate to restraint; the central element of civilization for the Viennese scholars. It is argued that restraint is considered the central feature of civilization by a wider group of Central European scholars including Freud, Malinowski and Elias. The Viennese students of civilization, especially Wieser, Mises and Hayek argue that they live in a particularly unrestrained age. This has fueled opposition to market and other cultural processes which are not rationally constructed. The acceptance and cultivation of the market comes at a cost they argue; this cost they call the 'strain of civilization'. That cost is primarily the restraint of our innate instincts. Civilization requires the acceptance of certain norms, of individual responsibility, the acceptance of differences and inequality. This price to be paid is termed 'the strain of civilization'. This price however is no longer accepted by social scientists who preach unrestrained rationalism. And it is no longer accepted by mass political movements such as socialism and fascism which promise they can relieve the people of this strain. Particularly during the interwar period the Viennese students of civilization feel that their civilization is in acute danger. They analyze this revolt, and their own role in this process. Initially their response is largely passive and accepting. This attitude is characteristic of a Viennese cultural trait known as 'therapeutic nihilism'. The social scientist, or rather student, can study the large cultural processes, but they are outside his or her control. Stronger yet, the Viennese students believe that many of their contemporaries are under the illusion that they could predict the course of society, and ultimately of history. This outsider-perspective, however, is seriously challenged during the Interwar period, especially during the rise of fascism. The Viennese intellectuals increasingly realize that they bear a responsibility toward their culture, and they might even possibly have some influence on its fate. This puts them in an awkward position. Their work is becoming more political and idealistic, features which they had criticized in the work of others. Especially Hayek's 'The Road to Serfdom' and Popper's 'The Open Society and its Enemies' are examples of this tension; the tension between the realization of the limited power of the scholar, and the desire to defend a civilization under pressure. In their work they apologize to their colleagues for the political nature of their work, but they feel obliged to write this work, which they consider 'their war effort'. Ultimately, although reluctantly, they engage in an attempt to draw up ideals and plans for the future. They regain some hope, in part because they no longer write for a Continental but for an Anglo-Saxon audience. It is also in this sense that Hayek and Popper are engaged in a new kind of liberalism, one that is resistant to mass political movements and the desire to throw off cultural restraints. This dissertation draws heavily on the cultural histories of fin-de-siècle and interwar Vienna. It shows similarities in the problems faced by artists, novelists, scientists and politicians in Vienna. Such similarities sometimes were sometimes incidental, but they also arose out of the interactions in the Viennese circles. In the partly overlapping circles broad intellectual conversations were stimulated and this greatly contributed to the creativity of the contributions emerging out of Vienna, especially during the interwar period. It is argued that the prominence of these circles partly accounts for the fact that the Viennese students of civilization crossed many interdisciplinary boundaries, and that their intellectual concerns were as much driven by social and political issues as it was by scientific concerns.

These last years, the West Bank cities knew a very dynamic urban development but this urbanization is framed(supervised) by legislative and technical devices(plans) inherited from the successive periods of colonization today which are not any more adapted to the contemporary city. This anarchy urban development joined little by little in the ways of thinking of the actors local as a necessity justified by the geopolitical situation and the economic development of the country. The market of the accommodation(housing) increased in the point of future today an essential component of the transformation(processing) of the West Bank cities. Our research work of six years, the conclusions of which are exposed(explained) in this thesis, consisted in describing then in analyzing the reality of this market which raises at present of numerous questions. Indeed, steady rhythm of the homebuilding left aside problems which we wished to put in perspective here. These processes question first of all the reality and the coherence of this market with an offer which has to correspond to the demand(request) both on the plan quantitative and qualitative. The situation of the accommodation(housing) in the West Bank also asks the question of the structuring of the urban fabric which transcends from now on the municipal limits, the land(basic) logics and the high-risk areas. Finally, asks itself the question of the living environment for the populations, the townscape to become and the disappearance of an identity to there there passed on(transmitted) partially by the traditional housing environment. This research work rested(supported) by conversations(maintenances) and by construction of a real system of geographical information allowed to verify the adequacy enter on one side, the process of production of the accommodation(housing) and the wills which are associated with it, and of the other one, the reality of the ground and the real stakes in the Palestinian accommodation(housing).The absence of geographical and statistical data on this territory urged to us to build a complete tool of cartographic and demographic analysis allowing to describe the past phenomena, to analyze the present situation and especially to create a forward-looking model for horizons 2025 and 2050. Through, the case of the city of Nablus, it seems that actors' games(sets) noticed today, are justified by no geographical or demographic coherence. On the contrary, we show here that interested logics of market are at work, presenting a fait accompli a failing legal and technical framework. The consequences, from today visible, noticed on the ground and mapped here, question seriously the long-lasting(sustainable) character of the West Bank cities. These results(profits) highlight a destructive process for the whole urban armature of Palestine and require an answer. The geopolitical situation and the gravity of the identified risks urge us to propose recommendations for the implementation of a real local politics(policy) of the housing environment which has to condition(package) the emergence of an urban control(master's degree). Carried(Worn) by an intermunicipal governance on the scale of the urban area, we describe a tool of planning and programming allowing urban project to depasser of the market of the accommodation(housing) in the construction of a real housing environment ; Ces dernières années, les villes Cisjordaniennes ont connu un développement urbain très dynamique mais cette urbanisation est aujourd'hui encadrée par des dispositifs législatifs et techniques hérités des périodes successives de colonisation qui ne sont plus adaptés à la ville contemporaine. Ce développement urbain anarchique s'est peu à peu inscrit dans les modes de pensée des acteurs locaux comme une nécessité justifiée par la situation géopolitique et ledéveloppement économique du pays. Le marché du logement s'est accru au point de devenir aujourd'hui une composante essentielle de la transformation des villes cisjordaniennes. Notre travail de recherche de six ans, dont les conclusions sont exposées dans cette thèse, a consisté à décrire puis analyser la réalité de ce marché qui soulève actuellement de nombreuses questions. En effet, le rythme soutenu de la construction de logements a laissé de côté des problématiques que nous avons souhaitées mettre en perspective ici. Ces processus interrogent tout d'abord la réalité et la cohérence de ce marché avec une offre qui doit correspondre à la demande tant sur le plan quantitatif que qualitatif. La situation du logement en Cisjordanie pose aussi la question de la structuration du tissu urbain qui transcende désormais les limites communales, les logiques foncières et les zones à risques. Enfin, se pose la question du cadre de vie pour les populations, le paysage urbain en devenir et la disparition d'une identité jusque là transmise en partie par l'habitat traditionnel. Ce travail de recherche appuyé par des entretiens et par la construction d'un véritable système d'informationsgéographiques a permis de vérifier l'adéquation entre d'un côté, le processus de production du logement et les volontés qui y sont associées, et de l'autre, la réalité du terrain et les enjeux réels du logement palestinien. L'absence de données géographiques et statistiques sur ce territoire nous a poussé à construire un outil complet d'analyse cartographique etdémographique permettant de décrire les phénomènes passés, d'analyser la situation présente et surtout de créer un modèle prospectif pour les horizons 2025 et 2050. A travers, le cas de la ville de Naplouse, il apparaît que les jeux d'acteurs constatés aujourd'hui, ne sont justifiés par aucune cohérence géographique ou démographique. A l'inverse, nous montrons ici que des logiques de marché intéressées sont à l'oeuvre, plaçant devant le fait accompli un cadrelégislatif et technique défaillant. Les conséquences, dès aujourd'hui visibles, constatées sur le terrain et cartographiées ici, interrogent sérieusement le caractère durable des villes cisjordaniennes. Ces résultats mettent en évidence un processus destructeur pour l'ensemble de l'armature urbaine de la Palestine et nécessite une réponse. La situation géopolitique et lagravité des risques identifiés nous poussent à proposer des préconisations pour la mise en place d'une véritable politique locale de l'habitat qui doit conditionner l'émergence d'une maîtrise urbaine. Portés par une gouvernance intercommunale à l'échelle de l'aire urbaine, nous décrivons un outil de planification et de programmation permettant à projet urbain depasser du marché du logement à la construction d'un véritable habitat

The change relates to territorial understanding in the 90s , has caused that suburban open spaces, where daily millions of people are living, begin to play an important role in urban policies of many cities and metropolitan areas. Although the development of experiences whit an important revaluation of these spaces , for example Oslo, Hamburg or Vitoria, the indifferent attitude of politicians and urban planers about the urban periphery, has meant thal those areas near downtowns, are not areas of opportunity, but areas of uncertainty. However, the English territorial scenario could be defined as an unusual case. The implementation and permanence of the Green Belt in urban planning, it is a unique case. Originally it was conceived as an agricultural belt that would control the growth of English cities after World War II. So the periphery has been protected against housing development, keeping a balanced percentage of rural and urban land around the cities. Such circumstance gives many and beneficial added values to surrounding areas. The integration of nature and city, improving the connection between different open spaces, promoting formal and informal recreational activities for people, making a better accessibility to Countryside, protecting the agrarian land, acting as a green lung for the city, have a common objective: to improve the quality of life to 20mill people. Therefore the suburban areas in English cities, are in a privileged position in order to add value to open spaces , mainly to Green Belt as a high and important prototype regarding other experiences. This singularity of the English Green Belt is the most interested and valuable, not only as an exclusive urban legacy, but an opportunity to approach the English territory in the future. The physical and temporary analysis from his origin, it will be helpful in order to formalize his permanence and certificate his evolution. But, is this evolution according to present day situation? Analyzing the London Green Belt position and behavior in new circumstances; it will be the way to understand the current situation. This case of study is origin and reality of an idea becoming a fact. It is the cornerstone in the consolidation process and the pioneer in every change of the Green Belt. The understanding of this case of study will open a discussion line which affects many current experiences and focusing in one question: Would be the English Green Belt able to tackle with current requests? The house demand, sustainability patterns, the suburban agriculture aclivity as urban-territorial strategy, the suburban multifunctionality, the sectorial management to improve the environment protection and regeneration, and the Green Infrastructure as new model to global interpretation of open spaces; these points become the lines of work to clarify the Green Belt roll in the city's future. ; El cambio de discurso iniciado durante los años 90 en lo que al entendimiento territorial se refiere ha supuesto, que los espacios abiertos periurbanos, escenario de la vida cotidiana de millones de personas, comiencen a ocupar un papel protagonista en las políticas urbanas de muchas ciudades y áreas metropolitanas. Aunque el desarrollo de experiencias donde la revalorización de estos espacios es reseñable -séase el caso de Oslo, Hamburgo o Vitoria entre otros-,la indiferencia general con la que los círculos políticos y urbanísticos tradicionales han tratado a la periferia urbana, ha significado, que aquellos lugares próximos a los núcleos urbanos, lejos de ser espacios de oportunidad se hayan convertido habitualmente en espacios de incertidumbre. Sin embargo. el escenario territorial inglés podría definirse como un caso insólito. La implantación y permanencia del Green Belt en la planificación urbana, nos permite hablar de una realidad única. Su figura, concebida originalmente como un cinturón agrícola que controlaría el crecimiento de las urbes inglesas tras la II Guerra Mundial, ha permitido blindar a la periferia del amenazante desarrollo edilicio, manteniendo un porcentaje de suelo rural alrededor de las ciudades muy parejo al destinado para uso urbano. Los valores añadidos que dicha circunstancia brinda a los núcleos que rodea son muchos y beneficiosos. La integración transversal de la naturaleza en la ciudad, favoreciendo la conexión entre los distintos espacios abiertos, fomentando el emplazamiento de actividades recreativas formales e informales para el disfrute de la población, favoreciendo la accesibilidad al countryside próximo, protegiendo una importante cantidad de suelo agrícola, actuando como pulmón verde para la ciudad, tienen un objetivo común, mejorar la calidad de vida de los más de 20 millones de personas que circunda. Todo ello sitúa a la periferia de las ciudades inglesas en una posición privilegiada a la hora de abordar la revalorización de los espacios abiertos, y al Green Belt en cuestión, como prototipo avanzado y destacado respecto a otras experiencias. Será justamente esta singularidad la que nos ha llevado a reivindicar la notoriedad del Green Belt inglés, poniendo así de relieve su interés y valor, no sólo como resultado de un legado urbanístico exclusivo, sino como una oportunidad en sí misma para encarar el territorio inglés en clave de futuro. Analizar su presencia física al tiempo que temporal, como resultado de la interacción secuencial de los diferentes contextos y realidades acontecidos desde el origen de su figura, nos ayudará a formalizar su permanencia y a verificar un proceso de evolución. Pero, ¿será esta evolución acorde con las exigencias del momento que vivimos? Examinar a través del London Green Belt su situación vigente y manera de afrontar las nuevas coyunturas a las que se debe enfrentar el escenario territorial inglés, será la forma de abordar la mirada actual del Green Belt. La lectura contemporánea de este caso de estudio, origen y realidad de una idea convertida en hecho, piedra angular indiscutible de su proceso de consolidación y pionero de todas y cada una de las reformas e iniciativas de las que ha sido objeto el Green Belt, nos permitirá abrir una línea de discusión que afecta de manera análoga a muchas otras experiencias coetáneas y cuya intencionalidad es muy clara: ¿Logrará el Green Belt inglés abordar las demandas actuales? La demanda de vivienda, los patrones de sostenibilidad, la actividad agrícola periurbana como estrategia urbano-territorial, la multifuncionalidad de la periferia, la gestión sectorizada en pro de la protección y regeneración medioambiental y la Infraestructura Verde como nuevo modelo de interpretación global de los espacios abiertos, marcarán las líneas de acción de un debate que a día de hoy está totalmente abierto, y que no será otro que intentar dilucidar el papel del Green Belt en el futuro de las ciudades. ; Postprint (published version)

*This series is the result of an adaptation of a paper presented as part of a seminar on "Theories and Research in International Relations" at Hebrew University, July 2012. Commentaries are welcome to daniel.wajner@mail.huji.ac.il Controversial discussions about the nature of Power have characterized the study of Social Sciences, in general, and International Relations (IR) in particular. This seems logic - if we consider politics as a "game", their "participants" tend to develop a range of "skills", which allow them to assume different "roles", influencing thus in the "results". Thus, understanding the mechanisms by which this whole process ("the game") operates is intrinsic to the analysis of the outcomes, what explains why the revision of the concept of power has always been especially popular, including in recent times.Throughout this series we will review some academic approaches to the concept of power and its implementation in international politics. We will present in this first article the debates on the ontology of power (generally referred as "the faces of power"), and the ways in which this influenced the theoretical divisions in IR.In a second article we will introduce epistemological approaches, leading to controversies on the mechanisms involved in the activation of power and its dimensions (such as today's mantra "hard vs. soft power"). Finally, we will deal in a third article with some methodological schemes for Power Analysis in IR, while indicating areas for possible innovation using cases of the "Arab Spring" as illustrations.Power, Powerful, Powerless: The Ontological DebateThe first ontological debate around the concept of power could be placed in the dispute between those who address it as an interaction and those who understand it as a resource.To this end, Weber constitutes our first station. He identifies power in a relationship as the ability to control the behavior of others, even against its will. Weber is focused on the context of that relationship (one's position vis-à-vis others), which determines the capacity of empowerment.1That led him to approach the topic of legitimacy by dividing between power (Macht) and authority (herrschaft, i.e. legitimate power), issue that will be reminded in next articles.Against Weber's integral approach came out Dahl with his renowned definition: "A has power over B, if A gets B do something that B would not otherwise do", which installed "officially" the controversy in political sciences on how power is operated. According to Dahl, that "something" must be based in a change of behavior produced by an observable act - possible to analyze and be measured. His attention was centered on the characteristics of the material resources (their Base, Means, Amount and Scope) and how they are utilized to get certain effects; however, power is still conceptualized as a relationship, since what needs to be clearly discernible is the conflict, the interaction. Non-observable acts, according to Dahl, should be included in a different concept, such as Influence.2The Realist tradition in IR, as well as many scholars in the Liberal tradition, adopted Dahl's definition as a starting point for their analysis on Power Relationships, and even went one step forward. They saw the context as secondary, since certain power bases are so critical that do not really depend on circumstances or specific nature of interaction. Consequently, for classical realists as Carr, Morgenthau and Aron, the military force is "that" observable act which represents the power of the actors (albeit in most of the cases the economic resources were a prerequisite, as explain Berenskoetter and Williams).3Against that mainstream idea, some scholars battled in the sixties and seventies by presenting two approaches which became popularly known as The Second Face of Power and The Third Face of Power. It is important to note that both approaches emerge from this ontological debate on "what is power?", but their main implications would be on the epistemological discussion on "how do we study power relations?", which helped to the development of Critical and Constructivist research programs, as we will see in the next article.In the first approach, Bachrach and Baratz argue that not always a concrete change in behavior needs to be detected to confirm the existence of a conflict in Power Relationships; it could be expressed through the "mobilization of bias", an "unmeasurable element".4 In the second approach, Lukes went beyond that idea and expressed that the mere existence of conflict is not a condition; in other words, the absence of conflict do not necessarily indicate the absence of Power Relationships.5 Lukes, as a neo-marxist building on Gramsci, introduced the structural sphere of the concept of Power. Powerful and powerless agents are characterized in function of their ability to shape the system through culture and education, which will determine the interests of the actors. Foucalt and Bourdieu, with their vision of Knowledge-as-Power6 and Symbolic Power7 , respectively, went in the same direction.More recently, a similar ontological debate could be found in terms of Power Over-Power To, presented by Barnett and Duvall. In the first one, they define power as "the capacity of the actor to determine his own actions", so the perspective is based on the actor itself; by contrast, in the second one a Power Relationship is needed.8 In that sense, the famous article of Nye about Soft Power, which would be broadly approached in the following articles, builds also on this issue - power could be understood as "the ability to get the outcomes one wants" (in the form of Power-To), but also as "the ability to influence the behaviors of others to get the outcomes one wants." (in the form of Power-Over)9.1 Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. (California: University of Berkeley, 1978. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich).2Robert A. Dahl, "The concept of Power", Behavioral Science 2(3), July 1957, 201-2153Felix Berenskoetter and Michael .J. Williams. Power in World Politics. (NYC: Routledge, 2007), p.64Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz. "Two Faces of Power". The American Political Science Review 56 No4 (December 1962), 947-9525Stephen Lukes, "Power and the Battle for Hearts and Minds", Millennium, 33, No3 (2005), 477-4936Michael Foucalt, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-77 (Brighton: Havester, 1980)7Pierre Bourdieu, Language & Symbolic Power (NYC : Polity Press, 2001)8Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, "Power in International Politics," International Organization 59, No1, (Winter 2005), p. 469Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics (NYC: PublicAffairs, 2004), p.2 Fabian Daniel Wajner is a Research and Teaching Assistant at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Department of International Relations) and a Fellow of the Liweranth Center for Latin America Studies.

According to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)1, Companies of the Union do not actually have to be in a certain Member State in order to be associated with it. However, the question of companies' nationality has remained for a long time a subject of controversy in European company law. Although the question of transfer of the seat has been mentioned in the Treaty, experts and national representatives have not been able to issue an adequate solution. Some members like France, Germany and Italy are not always ready to accept the movement of the company headquarters without re-incorporation into the new legislative system, while some states as the United Kingdom (UK) or Denmark opt for company cross-border relocations without losing the legal identity. The difference in the application of national principles gives constantly rise to conflicts between national laws and are only resolved by the interference of the European Union's (EU) legal bodies.2 For example, the Centros case describes very well the Danish reaction towards the creation of a branch of the English Centros Ltd in Denmark and considered that the founder of the company had the intention to circumvent the Danish minimum capital requirement, especially that the company was not engaged in any real activity in England.3 The common rule in the transfer of the seat of an Societas Europaena (SE) is that the transfer does not change the identity of the European Company; it only changes the applicable law.4 The SE Statute provides that the company can transfer the seat to another State without affecting the legal person.5 Until now, at least 60 SEs out of the overall number of registered SEs have transferred their seat from one State to another without any difficulty.6 However, if we take in consideration the Cartesio case's decision7, where a Hungarian limited partnership applied for transferring its seat to Italy but intended to continue its business activities under Hungarian law, the Hungarian Company Register refused to transfer the head office and the case was referred to the European Union Court of Justice (ECJ). However, the ECJ decision was surprising as it continued to support its previous Daily Mail case which gives a Member State the possibility to restrict the transfer of a company's central administration intoAccording to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)1, Companies of the Uanother Member State.8 This opinion has also been confirmed by the Vale case (C-378-10). Therefore, freedom of establishment afforded in art. 49 and 54 of the TFEU, (previously 43 and 48 EC), accords the right to cross-border conversion for companies, however this right is not absolute, as the sovereignty of the Member State and its national laws may have important weight on the rights of the company to freedom of establishment. The decision would suggest that whether or not a Member State accepts the conversion of a foreign company into a national company depends on that Member State only.9 The mobility of the SE is probably the most important advantage of the company form. Besides its national founding and its similarity to a PLC of the state where it is registered, the SE enjoys a European legal personality, which allows it to benefit from an unequalled freedom of movement. The jurisprudence of the ECJ afforded this freedom for legal entities, but it has been until now more theoretical than real. Since the famous case of Centros10 in 1999 until the Sevic11 case in 2005, the Court has recognized the right for a company to register in any state it wants and then not to exercise its activities in this state but to carry out the entirety of its activities through a subsidiary based in another state (Centros). In Überseering12 the Court stated that a Member State shall admit to a company of another state the possibility to be a party to legal proceedings in order to represent and defend their rights, although there is no European Convention on mutual recognition of legal entities . In Inspire Art13, the Court provided that a Member State shall not introduce specific rules or impose obligations on foreign companies even if those rules are simple formalities. Then in the Sevic case, the Court decided against a Member State that refused a company resulting from a cross-border merger to be registered. Since that, it is required that all Member States should recognize the validity of cross-border mergers. This jurisprudence represents an important progress in the freedom of movement of companies. However the court recognized the validity of cross-border mergers only on the basis that the TFEU allows companies to establish 'agencies, branches and subsidiaries' in the internal market, companies were, in reality, unable to move freely in the EU.14 So mobility is one of the substantive particularities that the SE company has compared to other companies. SE Regulation is beneficial for the banking and insurance sector, financial and insurance companies under the form of SEs are dominant, and this is due to the facility of managing their capital with total flexibility through their branches, as they can report only to the authoritywhich is at the level of the holding SE and reduce thereby the external capital control requirements.15 This article discusses these relevant tax issues of the SE . On the tax level, the SE is to be subject to the fiscal law of the country of residence, however, when the company will exercise its taxable activities by the intermediary of entities situated in another country, the losses suffered by these entities will be deducted from the profits of the SE.16 As the legal characteristics of an SE will vary depending on the state where the company is registered, this concludes to the fact that different interpretations concerning tax treatment of an SE apply, since it will be mainly governed by the domestic tax laws as the SE Regulation contains no rules concerning tax law.17 So, the question is, is there a role for the national regimes in preparing a harmonized treatment in order to prevent obstacles that can face the establishment of an SE in another Member State?18 What kind of tax treatment does the SE get when it is created? And what are the problems faced during the running of an SE?