Suchergebnisse

Las vías terciarias juegan un papel muy importante para Colombia, ya que mediante estas vías se puede llegar a las zonas más alejadas y marginales del país, estas conexiones permiten la integración nacional, regional y local, las cuales repercuten directamente en la economía de los municipios, y aun más de los hogares rurales, ya que mediante estas vías se permite el movimiento de personas, alimentos y mercancías que ayudan al desarrollo del país. Actualmente está malla vial se encuentra bajo la gestión de INVIAS, departamentos y los municipios, donde el Gobierno a lo largo de la historia ha intentado impulsar diferentes proyectos para realizar mejoras sobre esta infraestructura; actualmente estas vías son uno de los grandes focos nacionales, teniendo en cuenta que, de los 140.000 km de vías terciarias, solo el 6% se encuentra en buen estado. Teniendo en cuenta que estas vías se encuentran en lugares de difícil acceso, y Colombia cuenta con diversos tipos de climas, pasando por bajas temperaturas hasta llegar a climas húmedos con temperaturas altas, es necesario plantear alternativas de pavimentación, donde se pueda utilizar los materiales de cada región, que sean poco sensibles al clima y que se pueda implementar equipos simples, herramientas de fácil consecución y usos de mano de obra con baja capacitación; es por esto, que dentro de esta monografía se propone implementar pavimentos de concreto denominado como losas optimizadas, los cuales en primer lugar, son menos sensibles a la capacidad de soporte del suelo teniendo en cuenta que los esfuerzos se distribuyen en áreas más grandes por lo tanto las solicitaciones que llegan al suelo son bajas. Y en segundo lugar al tener pavimentos de concreto las deformaciones de las losas son bajas, lo que permite la circulación de cargas pesadas sin que el pavimento se deforme. Las losas optimizadas, es una tecnología desarrollada por El Ingeniero Chileno, Juan Pablo Covarrubias, donde propone reemplazar las metodologías de pavimento de concreto tradicional como AASHTO y PCA, por un sistema de losas con geometría optimizada que permiten una distribución más eficiente de la carga para evitar los problemas de agrietamiento, donde el principio fundamental del método consiste en diseñar el tamaño de la losa para que no más de un set de ruedas del vehículo se encuentre en una determinada losa, minimizando así la tensión de tracción crítica; las dimensiones propuestas son de 1,80 m x 1,80m. En el siguiente trabajo se realizaron 180 modelaciones, donde se tienen 3 cartas de diseño basadas cada una en un clima diferente (8°C a15°C, 15°C a 25°C y 25°C a 32°C), dentro de cada carta se utilizaron los mismos parámetros para la estructura de pavimento como se presenta a continuación: • Subrasante: Se escogieron 5 tipos de subrasante, pasando de suelos blandos con módulos bajos a suelos de buena calidad con módulos altos (30, 40, 50, 60 y 80 MPa). • Subbase granular: Se estableció un espesor único de 15 cm, donde con los módulos de subrasante se calculó mediante la fórmula de Shell; el módulo que generaba el material de subbase (60, 80, 100, 120 y 160 MPa respectivamente). • Transito: Se adoptaron 5 diferentes tránsitos en ejes equivalentes (50.000, 100.000, 300.000, 500.000 y 700.000 EE). • Losa de concreto: Se establecieron 3 módulos de rotura del concreto (3.8, 4.1 y 4.3 MPa), y se dejaba iterando el espesor de la losa. Mediante estas modelaciones se encontraron espesores entre 10 cm y 18 cm, siendo el factor del clima el que menos afecta al cálculo del espesor, teniendo en cuenta que al tener losas de menores dimensiones el alabeo es mucho menor, lo que genera una vida útil mayor a las losas convencionales (3.5 a 4 m), por otra parte, uno de los fatores que más importancia tiene dentro del diseño, es la rigidez de la subbase y subrasante, ya que al tener espesores más delgados el material granular ayuda con las tensiones de punzonamiento, de acuerdo a la afirmación anterior, al realizar la comparación de los resultados de las modelaciones entre un material granular blando (subrasante: 30 MPa y Subbase: 60 MPa) vs un material granular de buenas características (subrasante: 80 MPa y Subbase: 160 MPa) se obtienen diferencias de aproximadamente 3 cm, lo que equivale a un 20% de diferencia. Finalmente, al realizar la comparación en presupuesto entre una losa optimizada de dimensiones de 1.8 m x 1.8 para una vía de 3.6 m de ancho, de espesor variable entre 10, 15 y 18 cm vs una placa huella, con el espesor tipo de 15 cm, utilizando los mismos costos y características, se observa un ahorro de aproximadamente $197.553.390/km, $94.383.894/km y $32.482.196/km respectivamente, siendo siempre inferior al presupuesto de una placa huella, generando que esta alternativa de pavimento se viable para la construcción de las vías de BVT. Aun cuando en el presente estudio se realizaron modelaciones con diferentes parámetros de clima, material granular, concreto y tránsito, se recomienda realizar ensayos de laboratorio para caracterizar los materiales de subrasante, analizar los materiales de la cantera de donde se obtendrá el material granular de subbase y analizar el transito atraído que puede generar la construcción de la vía. ; The tertiary roads play a very important role for Colombia, since through these roads you can reach the most remote and marginal areas of the country, these connections allow national, regional and local integration, which directly affect the economy of the municipalities , and even more of rural households, since through these routes the movement of people, food and goods that help the development of the country is allowed. Currently this road network is under the management of INVIAS, departments and municipalities, where the Government throughout history has tried to promote different projects to make improvements on this infrastructure; these roads are currently one of the great national centers, taking into account that, of the 140,000 km of tertiary roads, only 6% are in good condition. Taking into account that these roads are in places of difficult access, and Colombia has several types of climates, going through low temperatures to reach humid climates with high temperatures, it is necessary to propose paving alternatives, where you can use the materials each region, that are not very sensitive to the climate and that simple equipment, tools of easy attainment and uses of workforce with low training can be implemented; This is why, within this monograph, it is proposed to implement concrete pavements called optimized slabs, which in the first place are less sensitive to the capacity of soil support, taking into account that the efforts are distributed in larger areas so both the requests that reach the ground are low. And secondly, having concrete pavements the deformations of the slabs are low, which allows the circulation of heavy loads without the pavement deforming. The optimized slabs, is a technology developed by the Chilean Engineer, Juan Pablo Covarrubias, where he proposes to replace the traditional concrete pavement methodologies such as AASHTO and PCA, with a slab system with optimized geometry that They allow a more efficient distribution of the load to avoid cracking problems, where the fundamental principle of the method is to design the size of the slab so that no more than one set of wheels of the vehicle is in a certain slab, thus minimizing the critical tensile tension; The proposed dimensions are 1.80 m x 1.80m. In the following work 180 modeling was carried out, where 3 design cards are based each in a different climate (8 ° C to 15 ° C, 15 ° C to 25 ° C and 25 ° C to 32 ° C), within Each letter used the same parameters for the pavement structure as presented below: • Subgrade: 5 types of subgrade were chosen, moving from soft floors with low modules to good quality floors with high modules (30, 40, 50, 60 and 80 MPa). • Granular subbase: A single thickness of 15 cm was established, where with the subgrade modules it was calculated using the Shell formula; the module that generated the subbase material (60, 80, 100, 120 and 160 MPa respectively). • Transit: 5 different transits were adopted on equivalent axes (50,000, 100,000, 300,000, 500,000 and 700,000 EE). • Concrete slab: 3 concrete break modules (3.8, 4.1 and 4.3 MPa) were established, and the thickness of the slab was left iterating. Through these modeling, thicknesses between 10 cm and 18 cm were found, with the climate factor being the one that least affects the thickness calculation, taking into account that having smaller slabs the warping is much smaller, which generates a longer useful life Conventional slabs (3.5 to 4 m), on the other hand, one of the most important fators in the design, is the stiffness of the subbase and subgrade, since having thinner thicknesses the granular material helps with stresses of punching, according to the previous statement, when comparing the results of the modeling between a soft granular material (subgrade: 30 MPa and Subbase: 60 MPa) vs a granular material of good characteristics (subgrade: 80 MPa and Subbase : 160 MPa) differences of approximately 3 cm are obtained, which is equivalent to a 20% difference. Finally, when making the comparison in budget between an optimized slab of dimensions of 1.8 mx 1.8 for a track of 3.6 m wide, of varying thickness between 10, 15 and 18 cm vs a footprint plate, with the type thickness of 15 cm, using the same costs and characteristics, a saving of approximately $ 197,553,390 / km, $ 94,383,894 / km and $ 32,482,196 / km respectively is observed, always being lower than the budget of a footprint plate, generating that this alternative of pavement is viable for the construction of the BVT tracks. Although in the present study modeling with different parameters of climate, granular material, concrete and transit were performed, it is recommended to perform ; Maestría ; Magíster en Ingeniería Civil con Énfasis en Geotecnia

Considering the context of the initiative to analyze the factors influencing effectiveness of civil justice the purpose of the research is to identify the influence or potential influence of the amendments to the Code of Civil Procedure of the Republic of Lithuania (hereinafter – the CCP) on the effectiveness of civil justice. For the purpose of the research the following tasks were determined: 1) to identify the criteria based on which the effectiveness of civil justice can be assessed taking into account the results of the research on effectiveness of civil justice performed by OECD, CEPEJ, ENCJ, CCJE and other international or national organizations; 2) to perform systematic analysis of the amendments to the CCP adopted after the CCP came into force, also identify and assess their inter-connection, consistency, purposefulness and exposé des motifs; 3) to identify which of the amendments and to what extent has or might have potential influence on the parameters (criteria) of the effectiveness of civil justice and to determine the most important ones; 4) to analyze and assess the influence of few carefully chosen amendments to the CCP on effectiveness of civil justice according to the parameters (criteria) of effectiveness of civil justice by taking into account the purpose and aim of the particular area of the law of civil procedure which was amended; 5) to identify future endeavors to help to improve evaluation of effectiveness of civil justice. The research paper consists of three parts. The first part is dedicated to the concept of effectiveness of civil justice itself. Based on research performed by another institutions and organizations (e. g. OECD, CEPEJ, etc.), the parameters and criteria defining effectiveness of civil justice are identified and analyzed. Further, these parameters and criteria are systemized, and the system of parameters and criteria is created (based on these criteria the effectiveness of civil justice in Lithuania should then be assessed). The second part of the research focuses on the analysis of the amendments to the CCP. As result of the thorough analysis of the amendments, 12 areas of civil procedure which are considered as the ones that might have the biggest impact on the effectiveness of civil justice, were selected and three areas (i.e. court fees, appeal and public procurement proceedings) were chosen for further analysis. The third part of the research lists conclusions and recommendations. It was determined that the assessment of effectiveness of civil justice had gradually evolved from relying exceptionally on quantitative parameters (i. e. the use of the term "efficiency") to relying on both quantitative and qualitative parameters (i.e. the use of the term "effectiveness") and looking for a right balance between the efficiency and quality of justice. In Europe, currently the three-fold criteria concept prevails according to which the effectiveness of civil justice is determined based on three criteria: independence, efficiency and quality. It was established that in order to assess civil justice reforms which had a purpose to improve effectiveness of civil justice it is necessary to collect objective, reliable and comparable data which must be systematically and periodically analyzed. In Lithuania, although some data is collected, i.e. data related to examination of cases, public procurement – there is no system for collection, monitoring and evaluation of necessary data created. Hence, evaluation of effectiveness of civil justice in Lithuania so far remains fragmentary, random and rather inconsistent. The authors of the research came to the conclusion that in Lithuania it is necessary to establish a system for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of civil justice (including aspects of public access and the publication of this data) and methodology (including not only lawyers but also sociologists, mathematicians and economists): i.e. to identify the data to be collected and methods for collecting it (questionnaires, case examination data, macroeconomic indicators), principles of elimination of external factors, etc. It is also recommended that responsible institutions need to be established in order to carry out the functions involved. Monitoring and evaluation of civil justice should include not only the monitoring and evaluation of court activities, but also the activities of other entities involved in civil justice. Creating a system and methodology would ensure that amendments to the CCP are not unnecessary or chaotic, as well as that the proper assessment not only of the amendments to the CCP, but also the effectiveness of the CCP is made. The aforementioned action would also ensure that problems related to effectiveness of civil justice are properly and more easily identified. This in turn would allow to find better solutions as well as to assess whether these solutions have proved to be successful. As regards assessment of the amendments to the CCP regarding the court fees, the authors of the research made the following conclusions and recommendations. Firstly, due to the lack of data it was not possible to determine whether the changes in court fees had positive or negative effect on the effectiveness of civil justice. It is more likely that increase in court fees had positive effect on the quality (in the sense that larger amounts of money were collected which contributed to the budged expenses dedicated to the court system), since average court fees per one case tripled as of 2003. However, it remains undetermined whether such positive effect was not achieved due to the access to justice institute, because the general caseload, which was growing until 2011, started to decrease. The latter, considering the fact that court fees per one case continued to increase, might be an indicator of the fact that there is more litigation in disputes which are subject to higher court fees. Secondly, after analysis of separate case categories (in which the data was available to a certain degree), it was concluded that increase of court fees did not cause negative consequences as no correlation between the number of cases and increase of court fees exists. Thirdly, the analysis of available data recommendations on how data should be collected was provided in the research paper (basically, it wassuggested to collect data in each case category regarding the number of cases commenced, number of the claims dismissed / satisfied, appeals submitted, appeals dismissed / satisfied, and amount of court fees collected). As regards assessment of the amendments to the CCP regarding examination of public procurement cases the following conclusions and recommendations were made. Firstly, after having conducted analysis of the legal regulation of public procurement cases, it was determined that the purpose of the amendments was to make the process of public procurement cases more efficient, i.e. to achieve that all cases are examined in a certain statutory time limits. The legislator did not try to decrease the number of public procurement cases. And the analysis revealed that the efficiency of examination of public procurement cases was indeed improved. In other words, it was concluded that the newly introduced regulation had significant impact on the effectiveness of civil justice in terms of efficiency. However, the courts did not manage to follow the time limits prescribed by the law in all cases. On the other hand, it was established that it is hardly possible to increase the ratio of cases which the courts managed to solve in statutory time limits. The attempts to shorten the procedural deadlines in public procurement cases may jeopardize the quality of examination of public procurement cases. Secondly, amendments to the CCP did not affect the effectiveness of civil justice in terms of quality. However, there are certain risks that could jeopardize the quality of examination of public procurement cases. Therefore, all further efforts should focus not on the expediency of the public procurement cases, but on the quality of the handling of these cases. As regards assessment of the amendments to the CCP regarding appeal the following conclusions and recommendations were made. Firstly, the amendment to the CCP introducing written proceedings in the appellate court (considering the extremely positive impact of this amendment on the efficiency and the existing safeguards established by law and court practice which are intended to minimize or completely limit the negative impact on the quality criterion), is considered as having a positive impact on the effectiveness of civil justice. However, in order to carry out a more detailed assessment, it would be necessary to collect data on how many requests for oral proceedings were filed by parties, how many of them were satisfied and how many were refused. Secondly, in order to assess from the point of efficiency and quality, the impact of the amendment to the CCP regarding examination of certain cases (with the amount of the dispute up to EUR 2,000) by a single judge, it is necessary to collect and systematize data indicating which part of such cases was transferred to the panel of three judges due to their complexity. In the absence of such data, it is currently not possible to assess whether the adoption of this amendment to the CCP ensured a balance between efficiency and quality. Thirdly, in order to assess in detail whether the amendments to the CCP regarding the mandatory participation of an attorney-at-law in the appeal court ensure a balance between efficiency and quality, we need to carry out a thorough investigation on the availability of urgent and proper secondary legal aid guaranteed by the state to those who are in need in Lithuania, i.e. whether secondary legal aid complies with the requirements of effectiveness in international and EU law jurisdictions and whether this assistance is in fact available to all of those who are now required to bring an appeal to an attorney-atlaw and who, due to their financial situation, are not capable of recruiting him / her. It should also be noted that such an investigation had to be carried out before the adoption of amendments to the CCP since, only in the case of effective secondary legal aid, this amendment could be considered compatible with the principle of access to justice. There is also a need for CPP amendments, which would clearly state that separate appeals need not to be signed by the attorney-at-law (i.e., the participation of an attorney-at-law should not be mandatory).

Considering the context of the initiative to analyze the factors influencing effectiveness of civil justice the purpose of the research is to identify the influence or potential influence of the amendments to the Code of Civil Procedure of the Republic of Lithuania (hereinafter – the CCP) on the effectiveness of civil justice. For the purpose of the research the following tasks were determined: 1) to identify the criteria based on which the effectiveness of civil justice can be assessed taking into account the results of the research on effectiveness of civil justice performed by OECD, CEPEJ, ENCJ, CCJE and other international or national organizations; 2) to perform systematic analysis of the amendments to the CCP adopted after the CCP came into force, also identify and assess their inter-connection, consistency, purposefulness and exposé des motifs; 3) to identify which of the amendments and to what extent has or might have potential influence on the parameters (criteria) of the effectiveness of civil justice and to determine the most important ones; 4) to analyze and assess the influence of few carefully chosen amendments to the CCP on effectiveness of civil justice according to the parameters (criteria) of effectiveness of civil justice by taking into account the purpose and aim of the particular area of the law of civil procedure which was amended; 5) to identify future endeavors to help to improve evaluation of effectiveness of civil justice. The research paper consists of three parts. The first part is dedicated to the concept of effectiveness of civil justice itself. Based on research performed by another institutions and organizations (e. g. OECD, CEPEJ, etc.), the parameters and criteria defining effectiveness of civil justice are identified and analyzed. Further, these parameters and criteria are systemized, and the system of parameters and criteria is created (based on these criteria the effectiveness of civil justice in Lithuania should then be assessed). The second part of the research focuses on the analysis of the amendments to the CCP. As result of the thorough analysis of the amendments, 12 areas of civil procedure which are considered as the ones that might have the biggest impact on the effectiveness of civil justice, were selected and three areas (i.e. court fees, appeal and public procurement proceedings) were chosen for further analysis. The third part of the research lists conclusions and recommendations. It was determined that the assessment of effectiveness of civil justice had gradually evolved from relying exceptionally on quantitative parameters (i. e. the use of the term "efficiency") to relying on both quantitative and qualitative parameters (i.e. the use of the term "effectiveness") and looking for a right balance between the efficiency and quality of justice. In Europe, currently the three-fold criteria concept prevails according to which the effectiveness of civil justice is determined based on three criteria: independence, efficiency and quality. It was established that in order to assess civil justice reforms which had a purpose to improve effectiveness of civil justice it is necessary to collect objective, reliable and comparable data which must be systematically and periodically analyzed. In Lithuania, although some data is collected, i.e. data related to examination of cases, public procurement – there is no system for collection, monitoring and evaluation of necessary data created. Hence, evaluation of effectiveness of civil justice in Lithuania so far remains fragmentary, random and rather inconsistent. The authors of the research came to the conclusion that in Lithuania it is necessary to establish a system for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of civil justice (including aspects of public access and the publication of this data) and methodology (including not only lawyers but also sociologists, mathematicians and economists): i.e. to identify the data to be collected and methods for collecting it (questionnaires, case examination data, macroeconomic indicators), principles of elimination of external factors, etc. It is also recommended that responsible institutions need to be established in order to carry out the functions involved. Monitoring and evaluation of civil justice should include not only the monitoring and evaluation of court activities, but also the activities of other entities involved in civil justice. Creating a system and methodology would ensure that amendments to the CCP are not unnecessary or chaotic, as well as that the proper assessment not only of the amendments to the CCP, but also the effectiveness of the CCP is made. The aforementioned action would also ensure that problems related to effectiveness of civil justice are properly and more easily identified. This in turn would allow to find better solutions as well as to assess whether these solutions have proved to be successful. As regards assessment of the amendments to the CCP regarding the court fees, the authors of the research made the following conclusions and recommendations. Firstly, due to the lack of data it was not possible to determine whether the changes in court fees had positive or negative effect on the effectiveness of civil justice. It is more likely that increase in court fees had positive effect on the quality (in the sense that larger amounts of money were collected which contributed to the budged expenses dedicated to the court system), since average court fees per one case tripled as of 2003. However, it remains undetermined whether such positive effect was not achieved due to the access to justice institute, because the general caseload, which was growing until 2011, started to decrease. The latter, considering the fact that court fees per one case continued to increase, might be an indicator of the fact that there is more litigation in disputes which are subject to higher court fees. Secondly, after analysis of separate case categories (in which the data was available to a certain degree), it was concluded that increase of court fees did not cause negative consequences as no correlation between the number of cases and increase of court fees exists. Thirdly, the analysis of available data recommendations on how data should be collected was provided in the research paper (basically, it wassuggested to collect data in each case category regarding the number of cases commenced, number of the claims dismissed / satisfied, appeals submitted, appeals dismissed / satisfied, and amount of court fees collected). As regards assessment of the amendments to the CCP regarding examination of public procurement cases the following conclusions and recommendations were made. Firstly, after having conducted analysis of the legal regulation of public procurement cases, it was determined that the purpose of the amendments was to make the process of public procurement cases more efficient, i.e. to achieve that all cases are examined in a certain statutory time limits. The legislator did not try to decrease the number of public procurement cases. And the analysis revealed that the efficiency of examination of public procurement cases was indeed improved. In other words, it was concluded that the newly introduced regulation had significant impact on the effectiveness of civil justice in terms of efficiency. However, the courts did not manage to follow the time limits prescribed by the law in all cases. On the other hand, it was established that it is hardly possible to increase the ratio of cases which the courts managed to solve in statutory time limits. The attempts to shorten the procedural deadlines in public procurement cases may jeopardize the quality of examination of public procurement cases. Secondly, amendments to the CCP did not affect the effectiveness of civil justice in terms of quality. However, there are certain risks that could jeopardize the quality of examination of public procurement cases. Therefore, all further efforts should focus not on the expediency of the public procurement cases, but on the quality of the handling of these cases. As regards assessment of the amendments to the CCP regarding appeal the following conclusions and recommendations were made. Firstly, the amendment to the CCP introducing written proceedings in the appellate court (considering the extremely positive impact of this amendment on the efficiency and the existing safeguards established by law and court practice which are intended to minimize or completely limit the negative impact on the quality criterion), is considered as having a positive impact on the effectiveness of civil justice. However, in order to carry out a more detailed assessment, it would be necessary to collect data on how many requests for oral proceedings were filed by parties, how many of them were satisfied and how many were refused. Secondly, in order to assess from the point of efficiency and quality, the impact of the amendment to the CCP regarding examination of certain cases (with the amount of the dispute up to EUR 2,000) by a single judge, it is necessary to collect and systematize data indicating which part of such cases was transferred to the panel of three judges due to their complexity. In the absence of such data, it is currently not possible to assess whether the adoption of this amendment to the CCP ensured a balance between efficiency and quality. Thirdly, in order to assess in detail whether the amendments to the CCP regarding the mandatory participation of an attorney-at-law in the appeal court ensure a balance between efficiency and quality, we need to carry out a thorough investigation on the availability of urgent and proper secondary legal aid guaranteed by the state to those who are in need in Lithuania, i.e. whether secondary legal aid complies with the requirements of effectiveness in international and EU law jurisdictions and whether this assistance is in fact available to all of those who are now required to bring an appeal to an attorney-atlaw and who, due to their financial situation, are not capable of recruiting him / her. It should also be noted that such an investigation had to be carried out before the adoption of amendments to the CCP since, only in the case of effective secondary legal aid, this amendment could be considered compatible with the principle of access to justice. There is also a need for CPP amendments, which would clearly state that separate appeals need not to be signed by the attorney-at-law (i.e., the participation of an attorney-at-law should not be mandatory).

Better market linkages and higher farm benefits for smallholder farmers in emerging and developing economies have received remarkable attention worldwide (Minot and Roy, 2007; Kumar et al., 2011). In this regard, contract farming (CF) is proposed as a better solution to the fact that smallholders are otherwise potentially dropped out of the modern marketing channels because of small-scale production and farmers from emerging and developing countries are to earn more farm benefit by getting closely linked to modern, in many cases global food value chains markets (Bacon, 2005; Mangala and Chengappa, 2008; Minten et al., 2009; Rao et al., 2012; Jia and Bijman, 2013). Furthermore it is expected that the challenges of a sharply increasing world population, the overuse of natural resources, and the reduction of overall agricultural land size can be met by contracting smallholder farmers (Sartorius, 2013). However, the circumstances of farmers' decision in contracting and its influences on farm performances have remained uncertain so far for many specific countries and products (Rao et al., 2012). Among the major rice farming countries in Southeast Asia, i.e. Cambodia, Laos, the Philippines, and Thailand, Vietnam is characterized by very favorable natural and social conditions for irrigated rice production in bulk. Irrigated rice production in the country is based on high soil quality, tropical monsoon weather, numerous water-flows and a large share of the population working in the agricultural sector (more than 66%) (Ya'kub et al., 2012). However, low quality and a lack of professionalism are dramatic problems of the Vietnamese rice export sector (Reardon et al., 2014). Vietnam is still known as a low-quality rice supplier; as a result the Vietnamese rice price is 20% to 30% lower than the Thai rice price (Kubo, 2013). The Vietnamese rice has also lately entered the world export market while the prices were already steadily declining (Nielsen, 2003; Dechachete, 2011; Ramberg, 2011). Currently, the Vietnamese rice sector is characterized by a lack of information with short technical assistances, and low input qualities. It is assumed that there is still a large potential to increase the ability of smallholders to improve production and increase rice yields, overcome existing market barriers, access export markets and increase farm benefits and improve the livelihood of farmers' families. By further promoting the CF scheme in 2002, the Vietnamese government proposed a better frame for the agricultural sector, especially, for the rice sector in the country (Kompas, 2002; Hoang and Yabe, 2012; Vu, 2012). By farmers' participation in the CF scheme, the production of high-quality products due to improved farmer training and better quality of input factors is a possible solution for Vietnamese rice to more successfully compete on the world market (Dawe, 2004). Furthermore, farmers can expect a price differential due to improved quality and competitiveness. Thus, this scheme is assumed to support smallholders to increase farm benefits. In addition, the CF scheme has been implemented to improve farmers' bargaining power and to create an official ground for smallholders to directly deal with private sectors in the Vietnamese economy. In terms of firm benefits, these decisions also clarify the government's efforts to support the private sector in supplying agricultural inputs to farmers such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, credit, and extension services (Ya'kub et al., 2012). Furthermore, this step is also an important procedure to secure national food demand, improve international competitiveness, and upgrade the position of export-oriented rice farmers (Goletti et al., 1997; ADB, 2005). However, in terms of empirical research, up to this date, there are only very few studies that explore the benefits of CF for exporters of rice farmers in Vietnam, especially with regard to the Mekong River Delta (MRD) where about 90% of the national export rice quantity is produced (Loc and Son, 2011). Therefore, there is a lack of in-depth quantitative studies analyzing the effects of CF participation with regard to farmers' marketing decisions, farm performance and technical efficiency, especially, in the export-oriented rice production segment. Against this background it is the objective of this dissertation to close this research gap by providing a better understanding of farmers' decision making with regard to the CF scheme and providing more in-depth insights into the effects of contract farming on efficiency and farm performance. The conceptual framework of this study is based on the New Institutional Economics perspective proposed by Coase (1937) and Williamson (1975). The underlying ideas about the contract concept explained in the following basically refer back to the three major sub-strands, i.e. agency theory (Ross, 1973), transaction cost theory (Benjamin et al., 1978; Williamson, 1979), and property rights theory (Alchian and Demsetz, 1973; Grossman and Hart, 1986). Thereof, the transaction cost theory is particularly suitable for this study since it describes "uncertainty" as a main dimension (together with "asset specificity" and "frequency") influencing the appropriateness of governance mechanisms in (food) supply chains (Williamson, 1979). The market imperfections due to a lack of information, a limited accessibility of inputs, and a shortage of technical assistance all contribute to "uncertainty" and are related to the research topic and objective of this study. In spite of increasing pressure to deliver high quality export products at competitive prices to enter the up-market domestic and global value chains, the CF scheme still faces some constraints in emerging and developing economies. This can be explained by reference to the poor coordination among parties, unfavorable contracts, and specified socio-demographic characteristics (Da Silva, 2005; Simmons et al., 2005; Hongdong, 2007; Wang et al., 2014). Nonetheless, these aspects have only been poorly analyzed so far and are not well understood, both from a theoretical and an empirical perspective. This dissertation seeks to overcome this weakness by building up the conceptual framework and empirical methodology to capture these aspects of the export-oriented rice sector in the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam. We address these research objectives by using primary data collected in early 2016 in the Mekong River Delta (MRD) of Vietnam, where nearly 90% of the country's export rice is produced. The target population of 250.000 households lives in the three main export-oriented rice production regions namely Kien Giang, Can Tho, and An Giang provinces, in the MRD (USDA, 2015). Using a structured questionnaire, 250 households were randomly chosen from the aforementioned provinces. To thereby ensure the comparability of contract and non-contract farmers, we randomly selected 134 contract farmers from contractor lists and 116 non-contract farmers from village official lists of 12 villages. The surveyed households had to meet two criteria: Firstly, they had to be located in the same area as the contract participants, and secondly, they also had to produce export-oriented rice. These selected farmers cumulate rice under written contracts. The contracting company is in charge of specifying the production practices, including input supply (seeds, fertilizer, pesticides), extension services, and the commitment of buying the products (Simmons et al., 2005; Bijman, 2008). In this study, the export-oriented rice farmers were interviewed regarding the information about three types of export-oriented rice producing seasons between November 2014 and October 2015. In the first paper, we explore the factors that determine smallholder farmers' probability in developing and emerging economies to participate in CF scheme. We particularly focus on the accessibility of market information. A binary probit model is applied to examine the probability to participate in the CF scheme. We follow Heckman's (1979) method to compare the probit results with the maximum-likelihood estimation (MLE) in order to control any sample selection bias (Wynand and Bernard, 1981). Results reveal that farmers' contracting decisions are strongly affected by farm characteristics, market information access, and household characteristics. Remarkably, the accessibility of world market price information significantly increases smallholders' likelihood to participate in CF. Moreover, the extension service offered by the contractors is considered to be an important motivator for rice smallholders to participate in CF. The availability of price information should be taken into account by the government to motivate the active participation of smallholders in contractual arrangements. The second paper provides the evidence about how the CF scheme influences household income and rice profit within the export-oriented rice sector in Vietnam. We employ the Ordinary Least Squared (OLS) estimation in combination with propensity score matching (PSM) procedure to control any sampling bias. The result confirms a positive effect of contract participation status on farming households' performance. Particularly, together with "farming size" and "the accessibility of extension services", "the accessibility of world price information" is found as a positive determinant. Moreover, CF participation is considered to be an important influencer for rice smallholders to increase their income and rice profit. In addition, it becomes evident that not only larger-scale farmers but also small-scale farmers can benefit from contract participation. In this connection, the OLS regression in combination with PSM gives noticeable evidence for the role of CF in improving household income of smallholders by 20.87% and rice profit by 30.54% in Vietnam. In the third paper, we investigate how CF improves the technical efficiency of farming and the technical inefficiency determinants of export-oriented rice production in the country. The Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) is applied to measure the production frontier and the farming technical inefficiency determinants, and PSM is again applied to control for self-selection bias. The results show that the average technical efficiency is of 87.33% with a range between 56.48% and 96.47%. The results suggest convincible opportunities for farmers to increase the productivity of export-oriented rice production in the country by nearly 13% without raising the current resource levels. Land, seed, fertilizer, machine, and labor are identified as the major inputs of the production frontier. Moreover, the socio-demographic characteristics of the sample also slightly influence the TE of rice farming, however their influence is non-significant. Based on the findings, "educational level", "rice farming experience" and "off-farm income" are found as determinants positively influencing rice farming TE. In contrast, there is a low negative effect of credit accessibility. In addition, CF participation is considered to have an influence (even though not a significant one) for rice smallholders to increase their farm TE. In this connection, contract participation could support not only larger-scale farmers but also small-scale farmers from developing and emerging economies in improving their production patterns.

Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.

Tese de Doutoramento em Biociências, no ramo de Biologia Celular e Molecular, apresentada ao Departamento de Ciências da Vida da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; The designation Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTDs) comprises several grapevine pathologies, associated with different phytopathogenic fungi, that by affecting the permanent structure of the plant lead to its weakening and death. GTDs share a cryptic nature with characteristic symptoms in wood and on foliage that may take several years to manifest. GTDs are common to all winegrowing countries and are responsible for significant losses by causing premature decline and dieback in vineyards worldwide. The present thesis seeks to contribute to the improvement of GTDs knowledge in the Dão wine region. In a literature review on the state-of-the-art of GTD research, esca, Eutypa and Botryosphaeria associated diebacks were considered as the main GTDs referenced in adult vines, whereas in young plants Petri disease and black-foot disease were the most common. This review evidenced the esca complex as a major GTD worldwide, with Phaeomoniella chlamydospora being recognised as the most important species involved in the aetiology of that complex. In this thesis first chapter "Contribution for a better understanding of grapevine fungal trunk diseases in the Portuguese Dão wine region", a leaflet and a simple questionnaire were produced and issued to winegrowers. The leaflet, with detailed colour photos of the main symptoms associated with each GTD, aimed to elucidate the winegrowers on the GTDs' theme. While browsing through the information stated on the leaflet, the inquired were invited to fulfil the questionnaire on the presence and relevance of those diseases in their vineyards. The results obtained in the survey represent a first concise indication of the extent of GTDs in the Dão wine region. Besides confirming GTDs' presence, the local winegrower's knowledge on GTDs was improved, concluding that the GTDs situation within that region was a matter of concern. Esca and "Phomopsis cane and leaf spot" were both well known. The esca complex, mainly esca and esca proper, were considered the foremost GTDs within the Dão, although mostly at low frequencies. Botryosphaeria dieback was not as well-known and young grapevine declines were considered lesser problems. In the second chapter of the thesis, "Molecular and phenotypic characterisation of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora isolates from the demarcated wine region of Dão (Portugal)", 68 isolates of P. chlamydospora were characterised for phenotypic and molecular diversity to determine its intraspecific variability and population structure. Morphological and molecular characterisation were performed, and molecular analyses were used to infer phylogenetic relationships. Isolates were in two groups, supported by phenotypic and molecular analyses, but no correspondence was found between the two approaches. Nevertheless, both analyses revealed strong homogeneity among all isolates, despite their diverse geographical origin, year of isolation and scion/rootstock combination, supporting the clonal reproduction strategy described for this species. In the third chapter, "Pathogenicity of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora isolates", a greenhouse pathogenicity assay was performed on two-year potted grapevines, kept under controlled conditions, using 22 of the 68 P. chlamydospora isolates. All P. chlamydospora isolates proved pathogenic, causing vascular discolouration, and being reisolated from those lesions. However, infected plants did not show GTD related foliar symptoms. Most of the isolates included in ITS sequencing "Group 1" revealed more aggressive, causing longer lesions than the ones included in "Group 2". The same tendency continued with P. chlamydospora reisolation frequencies, where most of the plants infected with "Group 1" isolates had the highest fungal recovery frequencies. These results allow, to a certain extent, some inferences relating the potential aggressiveness of the isolates to each of the formed clusters. Finally, in the fourth chapter, the response of Dão most common grapevine cultivars (Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Jaen and Touriga Nacional) to infection by P. chlamydospora, was investigated. During a three-year trial, those grapevine cultivars were separately infected with three Portuguese isolates of P. chlamydospora. Our results showed cv. Alfrocheiro as the most susceptible, while cv. Jaen was the less susceptible. Variation in parameters like lesion length and fungal recovery from infected spurs within different trial years suggest a relation with weather data. Differences in aggressiveness among isolates were noticed. The results produced in this thesis are now available to the local winegrowing sector, constituting an added value for their activity: a) improved knowledge of the various GTDs; b) a concrete assessment of the situation of those diseases, facilitating the demonstration of their importance to the public authorities and the need to promote their study and control; c) the confirmed pathogenicity of the various isolates studied reinforces the need to revise european legislation on the production of grapevine vegetative propagating material to include restrictive measures concerning fungi associated with GTDs; d) confirms the existence of different susceptibilities to P. chlamydospora infection among some grapevine cultivars; e) provides a decision tool to the establishment of new vineyards and indicates the need to study the genetic richness of the Portuguese grapevine cultivar pool in relation to its phytosanitary behaviour; f) supports and suggests adjustments to the recommended pruning strategies to control esca, specifically leaving longer spurs and avoiding late winter pruning, thus making difficult the trunk colonization by P. chlamydospora. ; A designação Doenças do Lenho da Videira (DLV) compreende várias patologias, associadas a diferentes fungos fitopatogénicos, que ao afetar a estrutura fixa da planta conduzem ao seu enfraquecimento e morte. As DLV têm em comum uma natureza críptica com manifestação de sintomas característicos ao nível da madeira e da folhagem que podem demorar vários anos até se manifestarem. Estas doenças são comuns a todos os países vitícolas, sendo responsáveis por elevados prejuízos que põem em causa a viabilidade dos vinhedos afetados. A presente tese procurou contribuir para a melhoria do conhecimento sobre DLV na região vitivinícola do Dão. Numa revisão bibliográfica sobre o estado-da-arte da investigação sobre DLV, identificaram-se a esca, a eutipiose e "dieback" associado a fungos da família Botryosphaeriaceae como as principais DLV referenciadas em videiras adultas enquanto que em plantas jovens a doença de Petri e a doença do pé-negro foram as principais DLV identificadas. O complexo da esca representa uma das DLV mais relevantes, sendo Phaeomoniella chlamydospora identificada como a principal espécie envolvida na sua etiologia. No primeiro capítulo da tese "Contribution for a better understanding of grapevine fungal trunk diseases in the Portuguese Dão wine region" elaborou-se e distribuiu-se, na região do Dão, um folheto acompanhado de um questionário. O folheto com imagens detalhadas dos principais sintomas que caracterizam as diferentes DLV pretendia elucidar os vitivinicultores sobre o tema e permitiu o preenchimento do questionário e a subsequente recolha de dados acerca da presença e relevância dessas doenças nas vinhas dos participantes. Os resultados obtidos representam uma primeira indicação concisa da situação das DLV no Dão. Confirmou-se a presença das DLV, melhorou-se o conhecimento dos viticultores e concluiu-se que a severidade e incidência das DLV nas vinhas do Dão era preocupante. A Esca e a escoriose foram as doenças mais reconhecidas. O complexo da esca foi considerada a DLV mais importante no Dão, embora com baixa severidade na maior parte das vinhas. Os sintomas de "dieback" associado a fungos da família Botryosphaeriaceae e os declínios de jovens videiras, foram considerados problemas menores. No segundo capítulo da tese, "Molecular and phenotypic characterisation of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora isolates from the demarcated wine region of Dão (Portugal)", caracterizaram-se 68 isolados de P. chlamydospora avaliando a sua diversidade fenotípica e molecular para determinar a sua variabilidade intraespecífica e estrutura populacional. Os isolados formaram dois grupos, tanto nas análises fenotípicas como moleculares, não havendo correspondência entre os grupos formados nas duas abordagens. Este estudo revelou homogeneidade entre todos os isolados, apesar da sua origem geográfica diversa, diferentes anos de isolamento e combinações casta/porta-enxerto, suportando a estratégia de reprodução clonal descrita para esta espécie. No terceiro capítulo, "Pathogenicity of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora isolates", descreve-se um ensaio de patogenicidade em videiras jovens, realizado em condições controladas, usando 22 isolados de P. chlamydospora. Todos os isolados demonstraram ser patogénicos ao causar lesões vasculares e ao serem reisolados a partir dessas lesões. As plantas infetadas não manifestaram sintomas foliares típicos de DLV. A maioria dos isolados incluídos por sequenciação de ITS no "Grupo 1" revelou-se mais agressiva, causando lesões mais longas do que os incluídos no "Grupo 2". A frequência de reisolamento de P. chlamydospora revelou a mesma tendência, tendo na maioria das amostras infetadas com os isolados do "Grupo 1" sido obtidos valores mais elevados de reisolamento. Estes resultados permitem, em certa medida, algumas inferências relacionando a agressividade dos isolados e os agrupamentos formados. Por fim, no quarto capítulo intitulado "Grapevine cultivar susceptibility to Phaeomoniella chlamydospora infection" foi investigada a suscetibilidade de quatro das castas do encepamento do Dão (Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Jaen e Touriga Nacional) à infeção por P. chlamydospora. Num ensaio, ao longo de três anos, realizado em vinhas estabelecidas, videiras daquelas castas foram infetadas separadamente com três isolados portugueses de P. chlamydospora. Os resultados obtidos revelaram a casta Alfrocheiro como a mais suscetível das quatro utilizadas e a casta Jaen a menos suscetível. A variação, ao longo do ensaio dos parâmetros analisados, sugere uma possível relação com os dados meteorológicos. Foram também observadas diferenças na agressividade manifestada pelos diferentes isolados. Os resultados obtidos nesta tese disponibilizam aos vitivinicultores do Dão informação que constitui uma clara mais-valia para a sua atividade: a) a melhoria do conhecimento das diversas DLV; b) a avaliação concreta da situação dessas doenças, facilitando a demonstração da sua importância e a necessidade de promover o seu estudo e combate; c) a patogenicidade confirmada dos vários isolados estudados reforça a necessidade de revisão da legislação europeia sobre produção e comercialização de material de propagação vegetativa de videira; d) a confirmação da existência de diferentes suscetibilidades entre algumas das castas locais à infeção por P. chlamydospora; providencia uma ferramenta de decisão na constituição de novos encepamentos; e) indicam a necessidade de estudar a diversidade das castas portuguesas quanto ao seu comportamento em termos sanitários; f) sustentam e sugerem ajustes nas estratégias de poda recomendadas para o controle da esca, especificamente deixando talões mais compridos e evitando podas tardias, dificultando a colonização do tronco por P. chlamydospora.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kotagi Shahpur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 178 ha (35%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 328 ha (66%) by rock outcrops and about 10 ha (2%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 2 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 35 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 35 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 22 percent soils are loamy and 13 per cent is clayey soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 22 percent is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 13 per cent soils are nearly level (0-1% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 22 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and about 13 per cent are slightly (e1) eroded lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 18 per cent is neutral (6.5-7.3) and 17 per cent is slightly moderately alkaline (7.3-8.4) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) and about 20 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of about 15 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 19 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 34 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 19 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 65(13) Guava - - Maize - 65(13) Sapota - - Bajra - 65(13) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 65(13) Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kotagi Shahpur is located at North latitude 160 52' 21.765" and 160 51' 11.042" and East longitude 770 11' 54.044'' and 770 9' 26.878" covering an area of about 522.83 ha coming under Katagi shahapura and Hattikunni Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kotagi Shahpur micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 37 total respondents, 17 (45.95 %) were marginal, 13 (35.14%)were small, 1 (2.70 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.70 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 92 (54.12%) men and 78 (45.88 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.53%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 68.24 per cent illiterates, 1.18 percent were functional literates, 27.64 per cent pre university education and 1.18 per cent attained graduation.  About, 72.97 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.41 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 51.18 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.30 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 94.59 per cent possess TV, 27.03 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 8.11 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 21.62 per cent of the households possess plough.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.70 per cent possess local cow and 2.70 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.21, women available in the micro watershed was 1.86, hired labour (men) available was 10.14 and hired labour (women) available was 7.61.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 76.78 per cent (31.82 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 10.25 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.41 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Horse gram and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Horse gram and Groundnut was Rs.26790.21, 34228.96, 67937.63, 35242.56 and 37520.02 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.80, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.20, 1: 1.10 and 1:1.20 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 74414.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 29766.22 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 37 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 648.65 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.11 per cent depends on own funds and 8.11 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 75.68 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 75.68 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.95%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 70.27 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.89 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.30 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 78.38 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.59 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (97.30%) and oilseeds (2.70%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (75.68%) wild animal menace on farm field (2.70%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.16%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.11%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.27%), high rate of interest on credit (13.51%), low price for the agricultural commodities (70.27%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (59.46%), inadequate extension services (5.41%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(59.46%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Haligeri-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 802 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soil, 150cm) soils.  About 16 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 84 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 58 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 94 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 32 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 67 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 5 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 61 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 31 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 2 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%).  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 2 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 15 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 84 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (<4.5ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 35(4) 515(64) Sapota 35(4) 234(29) Maize 35(4) 514(64) Pomegranate 35(4) 225(28) Bajra 35(4) 560(70) Guava 35(4) 234(29) Redgram 35(4) 504(63) Jackfruit 35(4) 234(16) Bengal gram - 290(36) Jamun - 161(20) Groundnut - 293(37) Musambi 35(4) 524(65) Sunflower 35(4) 524(65) Lime 35(4) 524(65) Cotton - 549(69) Cashew 35(4) 234(29) Chilli 35(4) 515(64) Custard apple 35(4) 535(72) Tomato 35(4) 225(28) Amla 35(4) 290(36) Brinjal 35(4) 225(28) Tamarind - 161(20) Onion 35(4) 221(28) Marigold 35(4) 511(64) Bhendi 35(4) 225(28) Chrysanthemum 35(4) 511 (64) Drumstick 35(4) 238(30) Jasmine 35(4) 221(28) Mulberry 35(4) 235(29) Crossandra 35(4) 221(28) Mango - 161(20) - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Haligeri-3 is located at North latitude 150 24' 35.308" and 150 22' 52.919" and East longitude 760 4' 6.789'' and 760 2' 12.128" covering an area of about 719.28 ha coming under Halageri, Bhanapur, Veerapura and Tadakal villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Haligeri-3 micro watersheds of Haligeri sub-watershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal, 8 (22.86%)were small, 7 (20.00 %) were Semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 66 (54.55%) men and 55 (45.45 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (36.36%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 36.36 per cent illiterates, 63.64 per cent pre university education and 6.61 per cent attained graduation.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 24.79 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 42.86 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.57 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.85, women available in the micro watershed was 1.03, hired labour (men) available was 6.17 and hired labour (women) available was 6.37.  Further, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.10 per cent (57.23 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Sorghum, Bengal gram and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.76 per cent.  Out of the sample households 80.00 percent possessed bank account and 80.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 68.57 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 37.93 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 27.59 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. 2  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 73.68 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Sorghum, Bengal gram and Sunflower was Rs.26600.58, 32265.36, 29342.57 and 25256.57 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.20, 1: 1.70, 1: 1.63 and 1: 1.10 respectively.  Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 81454.37 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 74740.06 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 3 horticulture trees and 16 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 34.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 485.71 for land development. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 28.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 57.14 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 80.00 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 77.14 per cent of the households and 11.43 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 34.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (88.57%), pulses (74.29%) and oilseeds (14.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (28.57%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (11.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (14.29%), inadequate extension services (31.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(40.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ballary-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 570 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 41 per cent is covered by soils, 58 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 28 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 10 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 1 per cent area is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 0.75%) in 27 per cent area.  An area of about 28 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 12 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 15 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in available iron content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 40 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 4(1) 100(18) Sapota - 65(11) Maize - 104(18) Pomegranate - 71(12) Bajra 33(6) 103(18) Guava - 65(11) Groundnut 33(6) 97(17) Jackfruit - 65(11) Sunflower 4(1) 35(6) Jamun - 71(12) Cotton 4(1) 100(18) Musambi 4(1) 67(12) Red gram - 39(7) Lime 4(1) 67(12) Bengalgram 6(1) 87(15) Cashew - 116(20) Chilli - 98(17) Custard apple 37(6) 150(26) Tomato - 98(17) Amla 33(6) 153(27) Brinjal 33(6) 92(16) Tamarind - 6(1) Onion 33(6) 88(16) Marigold - 104(18) Bhendi 33(6) 92(16) Chrysanthemum - 104(18) Drumstick - 39(7) Jasmine - 98(17) Mulberry - 122(21) Crossandra 33(6) 65(11) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ballary-2 is located at 760 18'44.386'' to 76016'47.538'' East and North longitude 15029'46.415'' to 150 28'19.282'' and covering an area of about 553.19 ha coming under Vanaballary, Asishinakeri and Jinnapura Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ballary-2 micro watersheds of Indargi sub-watershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 40 total respondents, 1 (2.50 %) were marginal, 17 (42.50%) were small, 19 (47.50 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.00 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 104 (57.78%) men and 76 (42.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (45.00%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 47.22 per cent illiterates, 46.11 percent pre university education and 5.00 per cent attained graduation.  About, 95.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 70.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 40.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 97.50 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.50 per cent possess mobile phones and 15.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 5.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.50 per cent possess bullock cart and 7.50 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 22.50 per cent possess local cow and 2.50 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 7.03, women available in the micro watershed was 3.42, hired labour (men) available was 5.47 and hired labour (women) available was 7.95.  Further, 2.50 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 75.27 per cent (69.48 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 24.73 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 15.00 live bore wells and 14.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 37.50 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Chilly, Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 96.99 per cent.  Out of the sample households 80.00 percent possessed bank account and 7.50 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 77.50 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 27.27 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 36.36 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 45.45 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Chilly and Groundnut was Rs.18334.91 , 33748.35, 37527.77 and 45424.49 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 2.10, 1: 3.40 and 1: 0.80, respectively.  Further, 92.50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.50 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 80425.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57100.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 42 horticulture trees and 211 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 2.50 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5750.03 for land development and Rs. 537.53 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 5.00 per cent depends on own funds and 77.50 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 102.50 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 7.50 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 95.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (7.50%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 87.50 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 5 per cent of farmers practicing Field Bunding as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire wood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 92.50 per cent of the households and 25.00 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 30.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.50 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 67.50 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.50 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (95.00%), pulses (87.50%) and oilseeds (57.50%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (92.50%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 77.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (92.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (75.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (90.00%), high rate of interest on credit (90.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (95.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (95.00%), inadequate extension services (70.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (85.00%), Less rainfall (7.50%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (2.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Balachakra-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 530 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 489 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 15 ha (3%) covered by rock outcrops and 28 ha (5%) by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 488 ha (92%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 7 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 - 150 cm) 25 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 41 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 20 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 25 percent soils are medium (51-100), 18 per cent soils are low (51- 100 mm/m) and 45 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 81 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 11 percent soils are low (337kg/ha), about 57 percent is medium (145- 337kg/ha) and 34 percent is low (4.5ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 75(14) 102(19) Guava - 75(14) Maize 75(14) 102(19) Sapota - 75(14) Bajra 75(14) 102(19) Pomegranate - 75(14) Groundnut - 157(30) Musambi - 75(14) Sunflower - 75(14) Lime - 75(14) Redgram - 95(18) Amla 75(14) 82(15) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - 75(14) Jackfruit - 75(14) Chilli 75(14) 82(15) Jamun - - Tomato 75(14) 82(15) Custard apple - 157(30) Brinjal 75(14) 82(15) Tamarind - - Onion 75(14) 82(15) Mulberry - 75(14) Bhendi 75(14) 82(15) Marigold 75(14) 82(15) Drumstick - 75(14) Chrysanthemum 75(14) 82(15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Balachakra-1 is located at North latitude 160 41' 8.752" and 160 39' 29.062" and East longitude 770 17' 8.217'' and 770 15' 52.036" covering an area of about 529.94 ha coming unde Balichakra village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Balachakra-1 micro watersheds of Kilankeri subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Balachakra-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 4 (11.43%) were marginal, 19 (54.29%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium and 4 (11.43 %) were medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 96 (61.15%) men and 61 (38.85 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4.7, marginal farmers were were 3, small farmers were 4.7, semi medium farmers were 4.6 and medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (49.04%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 63.69 per cent illiterates, 34.38 per cent pre university education and 1.27 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 22.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 58.60 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 17.14 per cent possess mixer grinder, 82.86 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 34.29 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.94, women available in the micro watershed was 1.94, hired labour (men) available was 11.38 and hired labour (women) available was 11.22. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 85.00 per cent (59.45 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 15.00 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.45 per cent.  Out of the sample households 20.00 percent possessed bank account and 20.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 20.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 57.14 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Green gram and Paddy was Rs.26436.56, 46397.95, 29260.31 and 109143.52 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.10, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.34 and 1: 0.90 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 94894.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57180.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 5 horticulture trees and 113 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 77.14 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 14.29 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 97.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (68.57%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 65.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 45.71 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 28.57 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (85.71%) and oilseeds (45.71%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (68.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (17.14%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (54.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (60.00%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (71.43%), Less rainfall (22.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (17.14%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Khanapur Hosalli-3Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 506 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 425 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha by rock outcrops and 76 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 425 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 2 per cent of area is very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m), 14 per cent of area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 52 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 67 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 4 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 1 per cent of area is low (20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of 74 per cent and sufficient in an area of 10 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 14 (3) 45 (9) Guava - 19 (4) Maize 19 (4) 40 (8) Sapota - 19 (4) Bajra 19 (4) 40 (8) Pomegranate - 19 (4) Groundnut 5 (1) 41 (8) Musambi - 19 (4) Sunflower - 19 (4) Lime - 19 (4) Redgram - 32(6) Amla 19 (4) 27 (5) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 14 (3) Cotton - 14 (3) Jackfruit - 19 (4) Chilli 19 (4) 27 (5) Jamun - - Tomato 19 (4) 27 (5) Custard apple 19 (4) 27 (5) Brinjal 19 (4) 27 (5) Tamarind - - Onion 19 (4) 27 (5) Mulberry - 19 (4) Bhendi 19 (4) 27 (5) Marigold 19 (4) 27 (5) Drumstick - 19 (4) Chrysanthemum 19 (4) 27 (5) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Khanapur Hosalli-3 is located at North latitude 160 56' 16.904" and 160 53' 57.614" and East longitude 770 14' 20.154'' and 770 12' 57.079" covering an area of about 505.34 ha coming under Khanapur Hosahalli, Kootagera and Motahalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 respondents, 19 (54.29%) were marginal, 8(22.86%) were small and 4 (11.43%) were semi medium.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 77 (51.68%) men and 72 (48.32%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (48.32%) were in the age group of 35-60 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 55.03 per cent illiterates, 2.01 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.40 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 80 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100 per cent possess TV, 88.57 per cent possess mixer grinder and 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks and goat, 5.71 per cent possess local cow, 2.86 per cent possess buffalo and 11.43 per cent possess goat respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.46, women available in the micro watershed was 1.17, hired labour (men) available and hired labour (women) available was 4.71.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (33.03 ha), 97.23 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 2.77 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2 bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Jowar, Green gram and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100 per cent.  The sample households possessed 97.14 per cent bank account and 25.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 82.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 60 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 80 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 75 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Jowar, Green gram and Groundnut was Rs.35503.13 , 43272.81, 40596.22, 34735.50, and 75423.30 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.40, 1: 3.60, 1: 2.60, 1: 2.20, and 1:1.50 , respectively.  Further, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 130044 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 84174.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture crops was coconut (18), Lemon (3) and Mango (12) trees in the fields and forest specie have grown 22 teak trees, 59 neem trees and 7 tamarind trees in the field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7628.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 80 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 74.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.43 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 71.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (11.43%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 25.71 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 37.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Cereals (94.29%), pulses (88.57%), oilseeds (85.71%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequate extension services (40%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (65.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Arakera Khurd-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 495 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, An area of about 21 ha by others (water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 495 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 30 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) whereas 13 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm). Shallow (25-50cm) and very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 53 per cent area very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 70 percent medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 25 percent soils are low (4.5 ppm) in an area of about 94 per cent and 2 percent soils are deficient (0.6ppm) is <1 percent in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 124(24) 77(15) Sapota - 11(2) Maize - 201(39) Pomegranate - 135(26) Bajra - 201(39) Musambi 124(24) 11 (2) Groundnut - 11(2) Lime 124(24) 11 (2) Sunflower 124(24) 11(2) Amla - 201(39) Redgram - 135(26) Cashew - - Bengal gram 124(24) 77(15) Jackfruit - 11(2) Cotton 124(24) 77(15) Jamun - 124(24) Chilli - 201(39) Custard apple 135(26) 66(13) Tomato - 201(39) Tamarind - 124(24) Drumstick - 135(26) Mulberry - 11(2) Mango - 124(24) Marigold - 201(39) Guava - 11(2) Chrysanthemum - 201(39) Brinjal 124(24) 77(15) Bhendi 124(24) 77(15) Onion 74(14) 77(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Arakera Khurd-1 is located at North latitude 160 47' 37.543" and 160 45' 50.539" and East longitude 770 17' 9.839" and 770 15' 38.213" covering an area of about 516.19 ha coming under Arekera. K, Pasapoola and Ramasamudra Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Arakera Khurd-1 micro watersheds of Gopalapur subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 17 (48.57 %) were marginal, 9 (25.71%) were small, 4 (11.43 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.86 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 102 (60.71%) men and 66 (39.29 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (51.19%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 61.31 per cent illiterates, 34.53 percent pre university education and 4.76 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.14 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 17.14 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess plough and 2.86 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 11.04 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.94.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 98.53 per cent (36.27 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 1.47 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.71 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.99 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 77.14 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 57.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 35.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 40 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 80.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Green gram was Rs.63824.64 , 36177.00, 49885.53, 32848.05 and 76463.18 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.8, 1:2 , 1:1.6 , 1:1.4, and 1:0.8 , respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 130728.57 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 66300.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 29 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6862.86 for land development and Rs. 11,114.29 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 17.14 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 65.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 31.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 60 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (62.86 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 88.57 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 2.6 per cent each of farmers practicing Field Bunding, Farm Pond and Bore Well Recharge Pit as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 74.29 per cent of the households and 25.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (97.14%) and oilseeds (31.43%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.43%) wild animal menace on farm field (91.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (42.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services (5.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kunikeri-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 441 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 76 per cent is covered by soils, 4 per cent by mining/industrial, 16 per cent by rock outcrops and 3 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  An area of about 47 per cent has loamy and 30 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 52 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 4 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 72 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 4 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 12 per cent are slightly acid (ph 6.0-6.5), 14 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 10 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 39 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH pH 7.8-8.4) and 0.75%) in 59 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in area of about 13 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 64 per cent in the microwatershed.  About 13 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 24 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 40 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 144 (33) 45 (10) Sapota 144 (33) 29 (7) Maize 91 (21) 99 (22) Pomegranate 144 (33) 31 (7) Bajra 144 (33) 112 (25) Musambi 144 (33) 31 (7) Groundnut 53 (12) 237 (54) Lime 144 (33) 31 (7) Sunflower 144 (33) 2 (<1) Amla 144 (33) 186 (42) Red gram 144 (33) 2 (<1) Cashew 53 (12) 120 (27) Bengalgram 2 (<1) 225 (51) Jackfruit 144 (33) 29 (7) Cotton 144 (33) 45 (10) Jamun 144 (33) 31 (7) Chilli 144 (33) 43 (10) Custard apple 144 (33) 186 (42) Tomato 144 (33) 43 (10) Tamarind 144 (33) 28 (6) Brinjal <1 (<1) 221 (50) Mulberry 144 (33) 106 (24) Onion <1 (<1) 221 (50) Marigold 144 (33) 45 (10) Bhendi <1 (<1) 221 (50) Chrysanthemum 144 (33) 45 (10) Drumstick 144 (33) 77 (17) Jasmine 144 (33) 43 (10) Mango 144 (33) <1 (<1) Crossandra 144 (33) 43 (10) Guava 53 (12) 120 (27)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kunikeri-2 is located at North latitude 150 18' 9.483" and 150 16' 46.442" and East longitude 760 14' 59.98'' and 760 13' 26.382" covering an area of about 440.89 ha coming under Kunakeri and Hirebaganala villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kunikeri-2 micro watersheds of Karkihalli subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 11 (32.35 %) were marginal, 10 (29.41%)were small, 6 (17.65 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.88 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 73 (56.15%) men and 57 (43.85 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (40.00%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 46.15 per cent illiterates, 52.31 per cent pre university education and 3.08 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.35 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 20.59 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 59.23 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 88.24 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 0.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.24 per cent possess TV, 2.94 per cent possess mixer grinder, 85.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 23.53 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 14.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor and 2.94 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.33, women available in the micro watershed was 2.90, hired labour (men) available was 11.37 and hired labour (women) available was 10.4.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.79 per cent (42.23 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 9.21 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Cowpea and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 93.02 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Cowpea, Sunflower and 0 was Rs.28244.35 , 30308.95, 8072.04 and 41631.88 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.40, 1: 1.20, 1: 4.20 and 1: 2.30 respectively.  Further, 2.94 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 57382.35 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 44852.94 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 5 horticulture trees and 22 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 88.24 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 88.24 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (73.53%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 8.82 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.12 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 97.06 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (97.06%) and oilseeds (20.59%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (11.76%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (70.59%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (38.24%), high rate of interest on credit (20.59%), low price for the agricultural commodities (52.94%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (29.41%), inadequate extension services (5.88%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(23.53%) and Less rainfall (2.94%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ashanal-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 500 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 492 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 8 ha by others (water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 34 per cent area is very shallow to moderately shallow (150 cm).  About 47 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 51 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 13 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 28 per cent area is very low (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 20 ppm) in 18 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 307(61) 44(9) Guava - 19(4) Maize 18(4) 333(67) Sapota - 19(4) Bajra 18(4) 348(70) Pomegranate - 1(62) Groundnut - 34(7) Musambi 163(33) 144(29) Sunflower 217(43) 90(18) Lime 163(33) 144(29) Redgram - 307(62) Amla 18(4) 348(70) Bengal gram 288(58) 61(12) Cashew - 18(4) Cotton 217(43) 133(27) Jackfruit - 19(4) Chilli - 350(70) Jamun - 289(58) Tomato 18(4) 207(42) Custard apple 308(62) 58(12) Brinjal 143(29) 223(45) Tamarind - 289(58) Onion 126(25) 76(15) Mulberry - 34(7) Bhendi 290(58) 76(15) Marigold - 350(70) Drumstick - 322(65) Chrysanthemum - 350(70) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ashanal-2 is located at North latitude 160 48' 43.759" and 160 46' 53.865" and East longitude 770 13' 35.415'' and 770 11' 23.666" covering an area of about 500.27 ha coming unde Kurakumbala, Mundaragi and Ashinala Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ashanal-2 micro watersheds of Ramasamudram subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Ashanal-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 8 (22.86%) were marginal, 19 (54.29%) were small and 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 101 (57.39%) men and 75 (42.61 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.6, marginal farmers were 5.1, small farmers were 4.9 and semi medium farmers were 4.7.  Majority of the respondents (38.64%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 17.05 per cent illiterates, 80.11 per cent pre university education and 10.80 per cent attained graduation.  About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 38.07 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 62.86 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 31.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 74.29 per cent possess TV, 65.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 82.86 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.14 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.14 per cent possess sprayer.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 11.29, women available in the micro watershed was 1.23, hired labour (men) available was 5.8 and hired labour (women) available was 10.49.  Further, 48.57 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (37.95 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Maize, Jowar and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.98 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.29 percent possessed bank account and 62.86 per cent of them have savings in the account. 2  About 114.29 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 8.70 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 86.96 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Maize, Jowar and Groundnut was Rs.30863.58, 31656.82, 27180.93, 32084.50 and 46929.63 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.10, 1: 0.70 and 1:0.82 respectively.  Further, 11.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 119374.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 41860.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 32 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 71.43 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 314.29 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 14.29 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Majority of the farmers (40.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 68.57 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 51.43 per cent of the households and 48.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (80.00%), pulses (71.43%) and oilseeds (54.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (68.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (48.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (68.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.14%), high rate of interest on credit (74.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (77.14%), inadequate extension services (14.29%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (74.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nagalapur-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 381 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 345 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 37 ha (10%) covered by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 345 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 23 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 - 150 cm), 6 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 36 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 26 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 46 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 51 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 40 percent soils are low (4.5ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 171(45) Guava - 24(6) Maize - 171(45) Sapota - 24(6) Bajra 24(6) 146(38) Pomegranate - 24(6) Groundnut 24(6) 57(15) Musambi - 24(6) Sunflower - 24(6) Lime - 24(6) Redgram - 112(29) Amla 24(6) 58(15) Bengal gram - 35(9) Cashew - 24(6) Cotton - 2(<1) Jackfruit - 24(6) Chilli - 82(22) Jamun - - Tomato - 82(22) Custard apple 24(6) 58(15) Brinjal - 82(22) Tamarind - - Onion - 82(22) Mulberry - 24(6) Bhendi - 82(22) Marigold - 82(22) Drumstick - 24(6) Chrysanthemum - 82(22) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Nagalapur-3 is located at North latitude 160 42' 1.077" and 160 41' 6.695" and East longitude 770 17' 58.57" and 770 16' 3.19" covering an area of about 381.22 ha coming under Nagalapur, Balichakra and Yaleri Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Nagalapur-3 micro watersheds of Nagalapur subwatershed, Yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Nagalapur-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 8 (22.86%) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small, 11 (31.43 %) were semi medium, 1 (2.86 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 94 (59.12%) men and 65 (40.88 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.4, marginal farmers were 4.12, small farmers were 5.1, semi medium farmers were 4.72 and medium farmers were 6.Majority of the respondents (38.36%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 59.12 per cent illiterates, 0.63 percent were functional literates, 35.84 per cent pre university education and 1.26 per cent attained graduation.  About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 65.41 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.57 per cent possess TV, 14.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 62.86 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 31.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.9, women available in the micro watershed was 1.53, hired labour (men) available was 6.63 and hired labour (women) available was 5.97.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 77.57 per cent (43.94 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 22.43 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 6.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 17.14 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Paddy, Cotton, Groundnut and Greengram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 5.71 percent possessed bank account.  About 5.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Paddy, Cotton, Groundnut and Greengram was Rs.25452.48, 54657.14, 36773.50, 73025.03 and 29118.75 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 0.80, 1: 1.50, 1: 1.10 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 37.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 96734.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 42734.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 142 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 71.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 17.14 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (22.86%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 22.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 45.71 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 37.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (71.43%) and oilseeds (8.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (45.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (51.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (5.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60.00%), high rate of interest on credit (25.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (40.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequate extension services (0.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%), Less rainfall (37.14%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (22.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project