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The Science, or as others prefer to call it, the study of international relations is one of the youngest members of the family of the social sciences. Its independent status has not yet been fully recognized by all academic circles and many historians and international lawyers would consider it to be trespassing on their respective fields of study. This is especially true for Europe.

Questions of justice are often at the heart of international negotiations. While previous research has established a link between justice and the effectiveness of negotiations, the mechanisms behind justice behaviour in international negotiations remain understudied. Against this background, this paper will investigate the question: What factors determine which justice principle negotiators invoke or agree to in international environmental negotiations? In order to answer this question this study will apply a controlled comparison applying the congruence method to five pairs of cases, covering a broad range of environmental negotiations. Within each pair, one factor theorized to play an important role in shaping justice behaviour in environmental negotiations will be analysed. The factors are 1) setting of the negotiations, 2) power balance between the parties, 3) scientific (un)certainty, 4) domestic constituencies, and 5) common crisis experience. The findings are expected to discern factors determining which justice principles negotiators invoke and under what conditions agreement on justice notions is promoted. Better understanding of what motivates negotiators' choices of justice principles and their mutual acceptance can help to strengthen the link between justice and effectiveness of negotiations. In this way, the paper's findings will be of relevance from both a research and policy perspective.

This article argues that Hobbes constructed the sovereignty acknowledged among European states on the supposition of the absence of sovereignty in the New World. The notion of international anarchy found in Hobbes before the twentieth century was not the anarchy of interstate relations later posited by realism, but the anarchy of prepolitical societies outside the ordered system of European states. The modern geography of sovereignty that Hobbes established is demonstrated with reference to the cartographic traditions that informed his representation of the state of nature and the civil state, and to the historical context of the law of nations as it was understood to manage colonial rivalry in the seventeenth century. By constructing savages as absolutely free individuals in the state of nature, he precluded their recognition as free sovereign states. He thus contributed a set of premises to natural jurisprudence that denied indigenous societies statehood and excluded them from the family nations. A sketch of the Hobbesian legacy among theorists of the law of nations and international law is made, showing how his motif of savage anarchy remained central to our conceptualization of the sovereign state within the international realm into the twentieth century.

Das WTO-Übereinkommen TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) stellt einen Konsens bezüglich des Schutzes geistiger Eigentumsrechte auf multilateraler Ebene dar. Der hierdurch erzielte Schutzstandard wurde jedoch vor allem durch die entwickelten Staaten als zu gering angesehen. Daher nutzten diese ihre politisch machtvolle Stellung, insbesondere gegenüber den Entwicklungsländern, und erzielten in bi- bzw. plurilateralen Verhandlungen einen weitergehenden Schutz geistiger Eigentumsrechte im Rahmen der sogenannten internationalen Investitionsschutzverträge. Diese erhöhten Schutzstandards werden als "TRIPS-plus" bezeichnet. Der vorliegende Beitrag wird sich in einem ersten Schritt mit der Einbeziehung der geistigen Eigentumsrechte in den Investitionsbegriff der Investitionsschutzverträge beschäftigen. Anschließend wird der Beitrag eine Vielzahl an materiell-rechtlichen und prozessualen "TRIPS-plus"-Standards bzw. -Mechanismen darstellen. Einen Schwerpunkt wird hierbei die Wechselwirkung bzw. gegenseitige Beeinflussung der beiden internationalen Vertragsregime einnehmen. Dies wird z.B. im Rahmen der Überprüfung einer WTO-rechtlich zulässigen Zwangslizenz anhand des investitionsschutzrechtlichen Enteignungsschutzes verdeutlicht. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss der verschiedenen "most-favoured-nation"-Regelungen auf die Erhöhung des Schutzniveaus erläutert. The WTO-Agreement TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) presents a multilateral consensus on the protection of intellectual property rights. Nevertheless the developed countries regarded the TRIPS protection standards as insufficient for their interests. As a consequence, they used their politically powerful position, especially vis-à-vis developing countries, and achieved a further going protection of intellectual property rights under international investment treaties. These more favorable standards of protection are called "TRIPS-plus" standards. In a first part, this paper will illustrate the ...

The praxeological approach to international relations obviates the difficulty of defining a basically -- & perhaps more & more -- heterogeneous "international system," at least for the actors concerned. Specific international problems can thus be identified -- regional crisis, nuclear proliferation, terrorism -- & for which the states, still dominant on the international scene, can develop their cooperation. Adapted from the source document.