Over the last decades, non-tari measures (NTMs) have seen an important upsurge. How-ever, little research has focused on the political economy of non-tariff protection, and the existing studies are mainly based on a single country or a specific type of measures. This paper seeks to fill the gap by empirically evaluating the determinants of NTMs in several countries, both developed and developing. Overall results show certain protectionist purposes behind the adoption of NTMs. This conclusion is reinforced for restrictive measures (i.e. subject to trade concerns), but does not hold for non-restrictive measures, suggesting the legitimate goal of several NTMs. Furthermore, transnational lobbying, defined as the influence exerted by national business groups during the Ministerial Conferences - the highestauthority of the World Trade Organization (WTO) - increases the probability of adopting NTMs in both developed and developing countries.
Article 2 of the Agreement between the European Union and the Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage by Rail on the Accession of the European Union to the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF) of 9 May 1980, as amended by the Vilnius Protocol of 3 June 1999, states that, without prejudice to the object and purpose of the Convention,./. in their mutual relations, the Parties to the Convention which are members of the European Union shall apply Union law and therefore apply the rules deriving from the Convention only in so far as there is no Union rule governing the particular subject concerned. As a result, the rules on international jurisdiction set out in Regulation No 44/2001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters take precedence over those contained in the COTIF. ; International audience ; Article 2 of the Agreement between the European Union and the Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage by Rail on the Accession of the European Union to the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF) of 9 May 1980, as amended by the Vilnius Protocol of 3 June 1999, states that, without prejudice to the object and purpose of the Convention,./. in their mutual relations, the Parties to the Convention which are members of the European Union shall apply Union law and therefore apply the rules deriving from the Convention only in so far as there is no Union rule governing the particular subject concerned. As a result, the rules on international jurisdiction set out in Regulation No 44/2001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters take precedence over those contained in the COTIF. ; L'article 2 de l'accord entre l'Union européenne et l'Organisation intergouvernementale pourles transports internationaux ferroviaires concernant l'adhésion de l'Union européenne à laConvention relative aux transports ...
Banks are subject to capital requirements because their privately optimal leverage is higher than the socially optimal one. This is in turn because banks fail to internalize all costs that their insolvency creates for agents who use their money-like liabilities to settle transactions. If banks can bypass capital regulation in an opaque shadow banking sector, it may be optimal to relax capital requirements so that liquidity dries up in the shadow banking sector. Tightening capital requirements may spur a surge in shadow banking activity that leads to an overall larger risk on the money-like liabilities of the formal and shadow banking institutions.
Summary Santiago de Chile, like all Latin American cities, has significant social and social differences in the area, resulting from the ownership, privatisation and commodification of climates due to the lack of proper urban planning and management, as well as the exercise of power by the property market; characterising a subject of study specific to critical physical geography. A comparison is made between the conditions of surface temperature, soil cover and land use, urban morphology and ventilation simulations of neighbourhoods that represent the city's significant levels of segregation and environmental injustice. The conditions of origin and spread of the COVID-19 pandemic are correlated spatially with such differences between climate and urban and socio-economic determinants that have been built together with the city and which require decisive and massive public action to reverse the current situation of injustice and social-insulability. ; Resumen Santiago de Chile, como la totalidad de las ciudades latinoamericanas, registra importantes diferencias socioclimáticas en su interior que resultan de la apropiación, privatización y mercantilización de los climas por la falta de una adecuada planificación y gestión urbana, así como del ejercicio de poder por parte del mercado inmobiliario; caracterizando un objeto de estudio propio de la geografía física crítica. Se comparan las condiciones de temperatura superficial, coberturas y usos del suelo, morfología urbana y simulaciones de ventilación, de barrios que representan los significativos niveles de segregación e injusticia ambiental de esta ciudad. Las condiciones de origen y difusión de la pandemia de Covid-19 se correlacionan espacialmente con tales diferencias climático-urbanas y con determinantes socioeconómicos que se han ido construyendo junto con la ciudad y que requieren de acciones públicas decididas y masivas para revertir el actual escenario de injusticia e insustentabilidad socioclimática.
Housing is an economic good in its own right. It is subject to transactionswhere supply and demand have a major impact and determine to a large extent the level of prices. This is one of the most regulated markets. The law, particularly in France, is complex. Its enforcement, which is strongly framed by the Code of Civil Procedure, is even more complex. In this text, we will analyse the rental market exclusively and try to rationalise the existence of deregulation by various market imperfections. In the first part, let us document the length of the tenancy proceedings. In an assistant, we assess the consequences of these deadlines in a context of selection: landlords try to select tenants in function of their (exogenous) propensity to pay rent. In a third part, we consider moral hazard issues, which lead tenants to undertake acts affecting the likelihood of unpaid payments. We conclude on the tool for economists to introduce asymmetrical information questions into urban models, and for lawyers wishing to defend the construction of civil law of French origin to seek economic inefficiencies in order to keep their original mind. ; http://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_REVUE=RECO&ID_NUMPUBLIE=RECO_586&ID_ARTICLE=RECO_586_1247 Housing is fully an economic good. Demand and supply factors play first order roles on prices and quantity exchanged. It is also a heavily regulated market. The law, in particular in France, is complex, its execution described by the « Code de procédure civile » is even more complex. In this text, we focus on the rental housing market and attempt to rationalize the existence of such regulations by various market imperfections. In a first part, we describe the lenght of litigation procedures between landlords and tenants. In a second part, we study the consequences of such delays under adverse selection: landlords attempt to screen tenants according to their (exogenous) propensity to sustain the rent. In a third part, we consider moral hazard issues, whereby tenants undertake actions ...
International audience Purpose: Sentiment analysis is built from the information provided through text (reviews) to help understand the social sentiment toward their brand, product, or service. The main purpose of this paper is to draw an overview of the topics and the use of the sentiment analysis approach in tourism research. Methods: The study is a bibliometric analysis (VOSviewer), with a systematic and integrative review. The search occurred in March 2021 (Scopus) applying the search terms "sentiment analysis" and "tourism" in the title, abstract, or keywords, resulting in a final sample of 111 papers. Results: This analysis pointed out that China (35) and the United States (24) are the leading countries studying sentiment analysis with tourism. The first paper using sentiment analysis was published in 2012; there is a growing interest in this topic, presenting qualitative and quantitative approaches. The main results present four clusters to understand this subject. Cluster 1 discusses sentiment analysis and its application in tourism research, searching how online reviews can impact decision-making. Cluster 2 examines the resources used to make sentiment analysis, such as social media. Cluster 3 argues about methodological approaches in sentiment analysis and tourism, such as deep learning and sentiment classification, to understand the usergenerated content. Cluster 4 highlights questions relating to the internet and tourism. Implications: The use of sentiment analysis in tourism research shows that government and entrepreneurship can draw and enhance communication strategies, reduce cost, and time, and mainly contribute to the decisionmaking process and understand consumer behavior.
Biodiversity conservation in low-income economies is a vital issue and hence needs to be addressed for development and poverty eradication. A variety of empirical works exist on the subject, but the focus is often limited on the search for possible causes of biodiversity erosion. Research on the "driving forces" that influence biodiversity conservation effort is still largely missing, especially for developing countries. In this study, we seek to address this gap. We test, using different models, the impact of some domestic and external factors on countries' conservation effort measured by the Ecoregion score. We examine specifically whether strategic interactions matter in conservation policymaking at the country level. The model is tested on a data set comprising 48 sub-Saharan African countries spanning over the period 1990-2009. Through the obtained results, we give empirical evidence that, in the context of underdevelopment especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, strengthening governance is an effective mean to support the promotion of biodiversity conservation. In addition, we find that countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are influenced by their contiguous neighbors in environmental policy for biodiversity management. Finally, the results suggest that tourism development is a valuable incentive to raise governments' dedication to conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa.
