The article deals with the potential of financial security, which forms the system of financial protection of vital interests of subjects of agricultural business. It is proved that under the pressure of the external environment, leverage and financial mechanism tools that trigger the potential of financial security of agriculture can change, risk manifestation and economic depression of enterprises continue or stop. The importance of forming the aggregate value of the potential of financial security in the region is due to its component, which is capable of performing actions to mobilize the real and hidden possibilities of financial resources in a limited time period, to overcome the threats to a safe environment for the functioning of subjects of agricultural business. The priority of financial support of agriculture of Ukraine according to indicators of intensity and efficiency of use of financial resources is singled out. A differentiated approach to the clustering of the k-medium method – indicators of the use of financial resources as interdependence of the factors of the formation of the aggregate magnitude of the potential of financial security of subjects of agricultural business of Ukraine was used. With the help of inductive system analysis, a model of a stable level of potential of financial security capacity based on net profit has been developed. The model is adequate, its statistical quality, significance and reliability are sufficient for forming the forecast level of potential of financial security of subjects of agricultural business of the region. The developed methodology is based on the components of the protection of financial system of economic entities in the conditions of the restrictions of the choice of alternative sources of formation and distribution of financial resources, as well as the likelihood of their use. 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Politics and process in the EU and US in 1990 s. Alders hot, 79-80.24. Petrick M. (2005) Empirical measurement of credit rationing in agriculture: a methodological survey, IAMO Retrived from http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/zbwiamodp/14926.htm. ; В статье рассматривается потенциал финансовой безопасности, который формирует систему финансовой защиты жизненно важных интересов субъектов аграрного бизнеса. Реализуется, что под давлением внешней среды могут измениться рычаги и инструменты финансового механизма, которые запускают потенциал финансовой безопасности сельского хозяйства, могут продолжаться или прекращаться проявления риска и экономическая депрессия предприятий. Важность формирования общей ценностипотенциала финансовой безопасности в регионе обусловлена его компонентом, который способен выполнять действия по мобилизации реального и скрытого потенциала финансовых ресурсов за ограниченный период времени, чтобы Преодолеть угрозы для безопасной среды функционирования субъектов агробизнеса. Выделен приоритет финансовой поддержки сельского хозяйства Украины по показателям интенсивности и эффективности использования финансовых ресурсов. Использован дифференцированный подход к кластеризации метода k-medium - показателей использования финансовых ресурсов как взаимозависимости факторов формирования совокупной величины потенциала финансовой безопасности субъектов аграрного бизнеса Украины. С помощью индуктивного системного анализа была разработана модель стабильного уровня потенциальных возможностей финансового обеспечения на основе чистой прибыли. Модель является адекватной, ее статистическое качество, значимость и надежность достаточны для формирования прогнозного уровня потенциальной финансовой безопасности сельскохозяйственных предприятий в регионе. Разработанная методология основана на компонентах защиты финансовой системы хозяйствующих субъектов в условиях ограничений выбора альтернативных источников формирования и распределения финансовых ресурсов, а также вероятности их использования. Ключевые слова: потенциал, финансовая безопасность, финансовые ресурсы, финансовая поддержка, сельскохозяйственное финансирование, аграрные предприятия. Список использованной литературы1. Барановський О.І. Фінансова безпека в Україні - методологія оцінки та механізми забезпечення: монографія. Київ: Київ. нац. торг.- екон. ун-т, 2004. 759 с.2. Герасименко Н.А., Жеймонда О.В. Ризики в сільському господарстві з урахуванням регіонального аспекту. Економіка АПК. 2009. №9. С. 62–65.3. Гривківська О.В. Теоретичні підходи до визначення фінансової безпеки сільського господарства. Формування ринкових відносин в Україні: зб. наук. праць / наук. ред. І. Г. Манцуров. Київ, 2010. Вип. № 4(107). С. 160–162.4. Гривківська О.В. Фінансова безпека сільського господарства регіонів України. Фінанси України. 2011. № 7. С. 93–103.5. Державна служба статистики України. URL: http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua. (дата звернення: 22.05.2019).6. Жидяк О.Р. Проблеми вдосконалення механізму фінансування підприємницьких структур аграрної сфери. Бізнес інформ. 2013. №2. С. 139–141.7. Єрмошенко М.М. Фінансова безпека держави: національні інтереси, реальні загрози, стратегія забезпечення. Київ: Київ. нац. орг.-екон.ун-т, 2001. 309 с.8. Корнєєв В. Антикризові інструменти фінансової стабілізації. Економіка України. 2009. №12. С. 22–34.9. Кузенко Т.Б., Сабліна Н.В., Литовченко О.Ю. Управління фінансовою безпекою підприємства: методичний аспект. Вісник економіки транспорту і промисловості. 2010. № 29. С. 119–124.10. Національний банк України. Офіційне Інтернет-представництво. URL: http://www.bank.gov.ua/ (дата звернення: 11.07.2019).11. Кизим М.О., Забродський В.А., Зінченко В.А., Копчак Ю.С. Оцінка і діагностика фінансової стійкості підприємства: монографія. Харків: ВД «Інжек». 2003. 144 с.12. Прокопенко Н.С., Лемішко О.О. Фінансова і податкова безпека підприємств аграрного сектора. АгроСвіт. 2009. № 18. С. 16–19.13. Статистичний збірник «Сільське господарство України» за 2017 рік. Київ: Державна служба статистики України, 2018.14. Статистичний збірник «Сільське господарство України» за 2018 рік. Київ: Державна служба статистики України, 2019.15. Базаров Г.З., Беляев С.Г., Белых Л.П. Теория и практика антикризисного управления. Москва: Закон и право, ЮНИТИ, 1996. 469 с.16. Трусова Н.В. Дестабілізаційні процеси в системі забезпечення фінансового потенціалу сільськогосподарських підприємств. Глобальні та національні проблеми економіки. 2015. Вип. 2. URL: http://www.global-national.in.ua.17. Фінансове забезпечення аграрного сектора: вітчизняний та зарубіжний досвід: монографія / за ред. Давиденко Н.М. Київ: НУБіП України, 2017. 454 с.18. Фрунза С. А. Забезпечення інвестиційного розвитку аграрної сфери національної економіки. Наукові праці КТЕУ. Економічні науки. 2010. № 17. С. 1–7.19. Цибок В. О. Бюджетна підтримка розвитку АПК з використанням механізму здешевлення кредитів. Наукові праці НДФІ. 2005. №3(32). С. 64–70.20. Coleman W., Skogstad G., Atkinson M. Paradigm Shifts and Policy Networks: Cumulative Change in Agriculture. Journal of Public Policy. 1996. Vol. 16. Р. 273–301.21.Forgue B. Novellas approaches de la question des crises. Rev fantasize de question. Paris. 1996. № 108. Р. 72–73.22. Ling C.-H., Yang H.-L., Liou D.-Y. The impact of corporate social responsibility on financial performance: Evidence from business in Taiwan. 2009. Vol. 31. №1. Р.56-63.23. Moyer W., Josling T. Agricultural Policy Reform. Politics and process in the EU and US in 1990 s. Alders hot. 2002. Р.79-80.24. Petrick M. Empirical measurement of credit rationing in agriculture: a methodological survey, IAMO URL: http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/zbwiamodp/14926.htm. ; В статті розглянуто потенціал фінансової безпеки, який формує систему фінансового захисту життєво необхідних інтересів суб'єктів аграрного бізнесу. Доведено важливість формування сукупної величини потенціалу фінансової безпеки, яка здатна мобілізувати реальні та приховані можливості фінансових ресурсів в обмеженому часовому періоді, для подолання невизначеності функціонування суб'єктів аграрного бізнесу. Виокремлено індикатори інтенсивності та ефективності використання фінансових ресурсів. За допомогою індикативного системного аналізу розроблено модель стабільного рівня потенціалу фінансової безпеки за чистим прибутком. Модель є адекватною та дозволяє в умовах обмеженості вибору джерел формування та розподілу фінансових ресурсів визначити ймовірність процесу використання потенціалу фінансової безпеки суб'єктів аграрного бізнесу на регіональному рівні. Ключові слова: потенціал, фінансова безпека, фінансові ресурси, фінансове забезпечення, сільське господарство, аграрні підприємства. Список використаної літератури1. Барановський О.І. Фінансова безпека в Україні - методологія оцінки та механізми забезпечення: монографія. Київ: Київ. нац. торг.- екон. ун-т, 2004. 759 с.2. Герасименко Н.А., Жеймонда О.В. Ризики в сільському господарстві з урахуванням регіонального аспекту. Економіка АПК. 2009. №9. С. 62–65.3. Гривківська О.В. Теоретичні підходи до визначення фінансової безпеки сільського господарства. Формування ринкових відносин в Україні: зб. наук. праць / наук. ред. І. Г. Манцуров. Київ, 2010. Вип. № 4(107). С. 160–162.4. Гривківська О.В. Фінансова безпека сільського господарства регіонів України. Фінанси України. 2011. № 7. С. 93–103.5. Державна служба статистики України. URL: http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua. (дата звернення: 22.05.2019).6. Жидяк О.Р. Проблеми вдосконалення механізму фінансування підприємницьких структур аграрної сфери. Бізнес інформ. 2013. №2. С. 139–141.7. Єрмошенко М.М. Фінансова безпека держави: національні інтереси, реальні загрози, стратегія забезпечення. Київ: Київ. нац. орг.-екон.ун-т, 2001. 309 с.8. Корнєєв В. Антикризові інструменти фінансової стабілізації. Економіка України. 2009. №12. С. 22–34.9. Кузенко Т.Б., Сабліна Н.В., Литовченко О.Ю. Управління фінансовою безпекою підприємства: методичний аспект. Вісник економіки транспорту і промисловості. 2010. № 29. С. 119–124.10. Національний банк України. Офіційне Інтернет-представництво. URL: http://www.bank.gov.ua/ (дата звернення: 11.07.2019).11. Кизим М.О., Забродський В.А., Зінченко В.А., Копчак Ю.С. Оцінка і діагностика фінансової стійкості підприємства: монографія. Харків: ВД «Інжек». 2003. 144 с.12. Прокопенко Н.С., Лемішко О.О. Фінансова і податкова безпека підприємств аграрного сектора. АгроСвіт. 2009. № 18. С. 16–19.13. Статистичний збірник «Сільське господарство України» за 2017 рік. Київ: Державна служба статистики України, 2018.14. Статистичний збірник «Сільське господарство України» за 2018 рік. Київ: Державна служба статистики України, 2019.15. Базаров Г.З., Беляев С.Г., Белых Л.П. Теория и практика антикризисного управления. Москва: Закон и право, ЮНИТИ, 1996. 469 с.16. Трусова Н.В. Дестабілізаційні процеси в системі забезпечення фінансового потенціалу сільськогосподарських підприємств. Глобальні та національні проблеми економіки. 2015. Вип. 2. URL: http://www.global-national.in.ua.17. Фінансове забезпечення аграрного сектора: вітчизняний та зарубіжний досвід: монографія / за ред. Давиденко Н.М. Київ: НУБіП України, 2017. 454 с.18. Фрунза С. А. Забезпечення інвестиційного розвитку аграрної сфери національної економіки. Наукові праці КТЕУ. Економічні науки. 2010. № 17. С. 1–7.19. Цибок В. О. Бюджетна підтримка розвитку АПК з використанням механізму здешевлення кредитів. Наукові праці НДФІ. 2005. №3(32). С. 64–70.20. Coleman W., Skogstad G., Atkinson M. Paradigm Shifts and Policy Networks: Cumulative Change in Agriculture. Journal of Public Policy. 1996. Vol. 16. Р. 273–301.21.Forgue B. Novellas approaches de la question des crises. Rev fantasize de question. Paris. 1996. № 108. Р. 72–73.22. Ling C.-H., Yang H.-L., Liou D.-Y. The impact of corporate social responsibility on financial performance: Evidence from business in Taiwan. 2009. Vol. 31. №1. Р.56-63.23. Moyer W., Josling T. Agricultural Policy Reform. Politics and process in the EU and US in 1990 s. Alders hot. 2002. Р.79-80.24. Petrick M. Empirical measurement of credit rationing in agriculture: a methodological survey, IAMO URL: http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/zbwiamodp/14926.htm.
L'analisi delle tappe attraverso cui, tra Rivoluzione e Unità, si sostanzia l'istruzione scolastica, consente di aprire ampie finestre sui progetti di trasformazione delle istituzioni educative e sulla valenza degli itinerari formativi attuati nella Sicilia del Sette-Ottocento. Contro la significativa preponderanza della scuola superiore e l'insegnamento gesuitico, portatore di una cultura umanistico - retorica, l'esigenza di razionalizzare l'insegnamento articolandolo in un sistema di ordini e gradi è proprio delle meditazioni della pedagogia illuministica. Il prototipo prussiano e austriaco, che tende alla creazione di un modello educativo organico, centralizzato e laico, determina in Italia la nascita di veri e propri epicentri di trasformazione politica e culturale. La cacciata dei Gesuiti segna il termine a quo del riformismo agrario meridionale nonché la fine del monopolio religioso sull'assistenza e sull'istruzione. In Sicilia De Cosmi si fa interprete di una riforma regalista, giurisdizionalista e popolare, invitando ad operare una riflessione propositiva sulla fine della cultura gesuitica e sui progetti di riutilizzo, in senso lato, del patrimonio dell'ordine. Tra riformismo e rivoluzione il dibattito relativo all'introduzione delle scuole decosmiane e al rapporto tra queste e le secondarie rivela significative consonanze con altri aspetti della politica borbonica nella sua fase tanucciana e caraccioliana. L'introduzione del metodo lancasteriano porrà l'accento sulla "necessità " di un'istruzione aperta ad una utenza più larga. Le istanze giurisdizionalistiche e i revisionismi successi incideranno in maniera trasversale sul sistema educativo e sull'opportunità o meno di affidarne il controllo al clero. I modi e i tempi di applicazione della normativa al caso Catania sottolineano lo stridente contrasto che caratterizzò l'ipotesi di una società, in bilico tra passato e presente, accarezzata da una monarchia borbonica che dopo le istanze riformistiche si scontrava con la realtà della Restaurazione. Se la ricostruzione della normativa può costituire una prima griglia inter-pretativa , l'esame - attraverso l'uso incrociato di fonti bibliografiche e documentazione d'archivio - delle strutture scolastiche diventa indispensabile chiave di lettura per penetrare nel meccanismo della risposta istituzionale alla volontà centrale. A fronte dell'intelaiatura di base relativa all'istruzione primaria e secondaria, pubblica e privata, così come si strutturava a Catania tra Sette e Ottocento, particolare significato riveste la peculiarità di alcune istituzioni finalizzate all'educazione di specifiche categorie sociali: il Collegio Cutelli dedicato all'istruzione dei nobili, e l'Ospizio di beneficenza, destinato ai diseredati, alla "bassa gente", alla prole dei mendichi, ai "figli di nessuno". Il duro sistema di vita dell'Ospizio, con il suo progetto pedagogico finalizzato all'istruzione "professionale - militare", ci dà la misura della abissale distanza dalla raffinata atmosfera, permeata di studi classici e di "arti liberali", del Collegio Cutelli. La scuola per la formazione dei futuri artigiani e la palestra atta a plasmare il giovane gentiluomo rappresentano le due facce di una medesima medaglia. Il modello proposto dal Collegio a confronto con quello suggerito dall'Ospizio costituiscono in sostanza un emblematico punto d'arrivo di quei mutamenti politico - istituzionali e socio - culturali che contemporaneamente caratterizzavano la formazione dello stato moderno nel Meridione. The analysis of the stages through which, between Revolution and Unity of Italy, the education system takes shape, open ample windows on the transformation plans for educational institutions and on the importance of the formative itineraries effected in eighteenth and nineteenth century Sicily. Against the sígnificant predominance of the high school and the teaching of the Jesuits, holders of a humanistic-rhetoric culture, the need to rationalise teaching, articulating it into a system of orders and degrees is the fruit of the meditatíons of Enlightenment pedagogy. The Prussian and Austrian prototype, that favours the creation of an organic, centralized and secular educational model, determines the birth of authentic centres of political and cultural transformation in Italy. The expulsion of the Jesuits marks the end a quo of agrarian reformism in the south and the end of the religious monopoly on the welfare institutes and education. In Sicily De Cosmi is the interpreter of a regalist, jurisdictional and popular reform, inviting constructive reflection on the end of the Jesuitical culture and on the plans to reutilize, in a broad sense, the patrimony of the Order. Between reformism and revolution the debate on the introduction of Decosmian schools, and the relationship between these and secondary schools reveal meaningful consonances with other aspects of Bourbon policy in its Tanuccian and Caracciolian phases. The introduction of the Lancasterian method will put the accent on the «necessity» of education available to larger numbers. The jurisdíctional demands and the revisionisms of the moment are to have a transversal effect on the educational system and on the opportunity or not of entrusting it to the control to the clergy. The method and the time necessary for the application of the regulations regarding the Catania case underline the sharp contrast that characterízed the hypothesis of a society, in unstable balance between past and present, caressed by a Bourbon monarchy that after the reformistic pressures, encountered the reality of the Restoration. If the reconstruction of the regulations could constitute a first interpretative scheme, the examination (through the cross use of bibliographical sources and filed records) of the scholastic structures becomes the essential reading key in order to penetrate the mechanism of the institutional answer to the central will. With reference to the basic framework regarding primary and secondary, public and private education, as it was structured in Catania between the eightéenth and nineteenth centuries, the distinctive characteristics of certain institutions whose purpose was the education of specific social categories: the Collegio Cutelli, dedicated to the education of the nobles, and the Ospizio di beneficenza, educating the disinherited, 'low people', 'beggars' children and waifs and strays, took on particular meaning. The hard way of life in the Ospizio, with its pedagogical plan aiming at 'professionalmilitary' instruction illustrates the extent of the abysmal distance from the refined atmosphere, impregnated with classica) studies and 'liberai arts', of the Collegio Cutelli. The school for the formation of future artisans and the school where young gentleman were shaped represent the two faces of the same medal. The model proposed by the Collegio and the one suggested by the Ospizio constitute, in essence, an emblematical point of arrivai of those political changes, institutional and social-cultural, that together characterized the formation of the modern state in the south.
El documento inicia con la revisión general del funcionamiento del Sistema de Cajas en países de Sudamérica, tales como Colombia y Chile. En el caso de Colombia se reseña acontecimientos ocurridos a finales de los 90s, cuando se cierran las Cajas Agrarias, en especial la Caja de Crédito Agrario, agobiadas por la pérdida de su rentabilidad atribuida a la carga tributaria e impuestos derivados de la excesiva contratación de personal. La Caja de Crédito Agrario fue fundada con un criterio de necesidad social y apoyo a los municipios pobres del país, fue reemplazada por el Banco Agrario, el cual tiene una nueva visión, en la que prevalece la rentabilidad por encima del servicio social. En Chile se hace referencia a la excesiva carga tributaria que tenían las empresas comparativamente con otros países (sobre el ingreso de personas y utilidades de las empresas). Se menciona que la carga tributaria sobre el ingreso se encontraba dentro de las más altas en comparación a los países con los cuales debe competir, por lo que la dirección de las reformas a este último impuesto no fue elevarlo, sino por el contrario simplificarlo y sesgarlo en favor de la inversión y el ahorro. Sin embargo, al hacerlo se está introduciendo una distorsión que afecta los precios relativos en la economía, y de esta forma altera las decisiones de los agentes privados, introduciendo un costo en términos de una más eficiente asignación de recursos. Adicionalmente se menciona que de acuerdo a otros trabajos técnicos quedaba establecida la poca incidencia de los impuestos como instrumento de redistribución de ingresos en el caso chileno, y agregan que lo mismo sucede en otros países de América Latina, con diferente estructura tributaria. Para minimizar este efecto, se estima que es conveniente optar por impuestos al consumo. La baja en la carga tributaria sobre la renta permite un aumento en la rentabilidad del capital, incentivando la inversión. El uso más intensivo del capital aumenta la productividad del trabajo, lo cual se traduce en un incremento en las remuneraciones. A continuación se plantea el paralelo con las Cajas Municipales del Perú, describiendo los resultados de la Caja Metropolitana de Lima, de la Caja de Trujillo y de la Caja del Santa. De la página web de SBS se han obtenido la evolución de los indicadores financieros y la estructura de los gastos administrativos para el periodo 2005 al 2008, que pueden contribuir a efectuar un análisis comparativo más completo del desempeño del Sistema de Cajas Municipales en el Perú, y con respecto a la hipótesis de trabajo: Las obligaciones tributarias y laborales tienen una fuerte incidencia en la liquidez y rentabilidad de la CMAC SANTA S.A. en los periodos 2005-2007. El análisis de los EE FF y de los indicadores contribuye a corroborar la hipótesis de trabajo, porque el incremento de los rubros correspondientes a las obligaciones tributarias y a las obligaciones laborales deteriora los indicadores de liquidez, de independencia financiera, de solvencia, así como los de rentabilidad patrimonial y los márgenes bruto y neto. Las principales conclusiones que se establecen en este trabajo motivan la necesaria reflexión sobre el papel del estado al regular el marco tributario y la normatividad laboral, debiendo servir la ilustración de lo acontecido en otros países para evitar que la excesiva imposición estatal termine en un ciclo de ineficiencia para las instituciones financieras del ámbito de su regulación. A la vez, la reflexión más elocuente sería que el mayor y más negativo impacto lo perciben los favorecidos con los servicios de intermediación que prestan las Cajas Municipales, es decir, los pequeños y microempresarios, y finalmente en el extremo del círculo vicioso, lo que también sufre desmedro es el desarrollo económico y social del país. ; The document begins with a review of the functioning of banks system in South American countries like Colombia and Chile. In the case of Colombia outlined developments in the late 90s, when closed Agricultural Banks, especially the Agricultural Credit Bank, saddled with the loss of profit attributable to the tax burden and excessive taxes from contracting staff. The Agricultural Credit Bank was founded on a basis of social need and support the country's poorest municipalities, was replaced by the Agrarian Bank, which has a new vision, which prevails over profit social service. In Chile, referring to the excessive tax burden that companies were compared to other countries (on income of individuals and corporate profits). It is mentioned that the tax burden on income was within the highest compared to countries with which to compete, so that the direction of the latter tax reform was not high, but rather simplify and skew for investment and savings. However, it is introducing a distortion that affects relative prices in the economy, and thus alters the decisions of private agents, introducing a cost in terms of a more efficient allocation of resources. Additionally it is mentioned that according to other technical work was established the low incidence of taxation as an instrument of redistribution of income in Chile, adding that the same happens in other Latin American countries with different tax structure. To minimize this effect, is estimated to be advisable to choose consumption taxes. The decline in income tax burden allows an increase in the profitability of capital, encouraging investment. The more intensive use of capital increases the productivity of labor, which translates into increased wages. Here arises the parallel with the Cajas Municipales in Peru, describing the results of the Fund of Lima, Trujillo in the box and the Santa Fund. From the SBS website have obtained the evolution of financial indicators and the structure of the administrative expenses for the period 2005 to 2008, which can help make a more complete comparative analysis of system performance Cajas Municipales in Peru and with respect to the working hypothesis: The employment tax obligations and have a strong impact on liquidity and profitability of the CMAC SANTA SA in the periods 2005-2007. The analysis of the EE FF and indicators helps to confirm the working hypothesis, because the increase of the items for tax obligations and work obligations deteriorating liquidity ratios, financial independence, solvency, as well as those of asset returns and gross and net margins. The main conclusions are set out in this work gave rise to the necessary reflection on the state's role in regulating the tax framework and labor standards, and should serve as an illustration of what happened in other countries to avoid excessive government taxation ends in a cycle inefficiency in financial institutions in the field of regulation. At the same time, the most eloquent reflection would be the largest and the perceived negative impact favored with brokerage services provided by the municipal savings, ie, small and micro entrepreneurs, and finally end the vicious circle, which expense is also suffering the economic and social development.
The Philippines has made significant progress in empowering women and in advancing gender equality. The government's policy on gender equality and women's empowerment has prioritized women's economic empowerment, advancing human rights and enhancing gender-responsive local governance. All these priority concerns are integral components of poverty reduction programs in the Philippines. The Philippines has made significant progress in empowering women and in advancing gender equality. Since the government introduced a constitution in 1987 affirming the equality of women, it has pursued a number of initiatives to mainstream gender concerns in national policies and programs. A development plan for women was launched in 1987, followed by a plan for gender-responsive development, 1995-2025, coordinated by the National Commission on the Role of Filipino women. In 2004, the commission drafted a framework plan for women that identify three priority concerns to meet the objectives of gender equality and women's empowerment: economic empowerment of women, protection and fulfillment of women's human rights, and gender-responsive governance. Projects that support these priorities will facilitate more equitable development across the Philippines, including supporting the full participation of women in political processes and governance in the international and national local level, strengthening gender-sensitive and inclusive programs and mechanisms with civil society, and increasing women's access to economic resources such as capital, technology, information, markets, and training.
La Seu d'Urgell és una població que s'inclou en una determinada formació social, Catalunya, els grups dirigents de la qual no tenen un Estat propi, ja que el Principat només era una regió perifèrica on el liberalisme havia impulsat un procés, no reeixit, de nacionalització espanyola. A més, la ciutat urgel·litana formava part d'allò que hom ha anomenat tradicionalment com la "Catalunya pobra", de base aclaparadorament agrària i ramadera, aliena als gran canvis derivats de la industrialització general del país durant bona part del segle XIX. Finalment, com a capital comarcal, la Seu d'Urgell és també representativa d'una determinada Catalunya, la pirinenca, que presencià un notable arrelament del liberalisme de matriu progressista. Aquest fet configurà una singular tradició política, amb un comportament electoral específic que es traduí en una oposició al cunerisme governamental. Això desmenteix, doncs, els tòpics, fins i tot prejudicis, que s'han bastit entorn de la ciutat, presentada sovint com una imatge de les forces conservadores, àdhuc de la reacció ultramontana. La trajectòria històrica de la Seu d'Urgell permet descobrir alhora un sentiment i una particular interpretació de l'ideari liberal, tot això construït sobre dos pilars bàsics: per un costat, la demanda d'una major autonomia municipal per tal d'encarar els problemes quotidians, un fet força visible, per exemple, durant les conjuntures revolucionàries; d'altre, l'elaboració d'un discurs reivindicatiu, àmpliament compartit per la població, que tenia com a fita la defensa d'una major vertebració i equitat territorial en consonància amb el progrés material que semblava anunciar el desenvolupament capitalista. Aquest discurs, en certa forma, prengué una renovada embranzida quan la Seu d'Urgell fou proposada com a capital d'una hipotètica cinquena província catalana poc després de finalitzada la Primera Guerra Carlista (1833-1840), un reconeixement que hauria de contribuir a superar la marginació de les terres urgel·litanes. En certa forma, l'aposta per l'opció liberal comença a perfilar-se durant la Guerra del Francès (1808-1814), un fet que, malgrat la seva cruesa, va permetre el desvetllament d'unes energies ciutadanes en el moment que la ciutat s'erigí en un focus important de la resistència antinapoleònica en acollir la Junta corregimental. Durant el regnat de Ferran VII (1814-1833), assistim a l'eclosió del nucli liberal local, liderat pel bloc dels lletrats, que, com a homes d'ordre i experts en lleis, tenien responsabilitats municipals i actuaven com a intermediaris d'un Estat que era vist com una realitat llunyana, recaptatòria i repressiva. Paral·lelament, cal destacar el paper de l'Església, sobretot amb el bisbe Josep Caixal i Estradé, impulsor d'una modernitat des de l'antiliberalisme que tingué com a fites la llei de la Nova Reforma de la veïna Andorra i la construcció del nou Seminari conciliar. ; Los principales retos para abordar un estudio como el presente se encuadran en dos niveles complementarios de análisis. Por un lado, la Seu d'Urgell es una población que se incluye en una determinada formación social, Cataluña, cuyos grupos dominantes carecen de un Estado propio, ya que el Principado era solamente una región periférica, un país sucursal de España, donde el liberalismo había iniciado un proceso de nacionalización española que se reveló débil. Además, la ciudad forma parte de las denominadas ""terres de Ponent"", el área leridana por excelencia, que define a grandes rasgos lo que tradicionalmente se ha llamado la ""Catalunya pobra"", de base eminentemente agraria y ganadera y, por lo tanto, ajena a las grandes transformaciones experimentadas por el proceso de la industrialización del país. Por otro lado, como capital comarcal del Alto Urgel, la ciudad también es representativa de una determinada Cataluña, la Cataluña pirenaica, que apenas ha merecido la atención adecuada por parte de la moderna historiografía catalana, la cual presenció un notable arraigo de las opciones políticas progresistas que desmienten el pretendido conservadurismo de la montaña catalana. Así pues, detrás de la complejidad de contenidos que encierra la implantación del liberalismo en Cataluña, el caso aquí estudiado pretende aportar algo más de luz y contribuir al conocimiento de un determinado modelo o significado en la organización política y social a la zona pirenaica. Al mismo tiempo, hemos sido conscientes de la pervivencia de algunos tópicos que han situado propiamente el conocimiento histórico de la Seu d'Urgell en una especie de nebulosidad. Tales tópicos son producto de determinados prejuicios aparecidos en el mismo momento que la Seu d'Urgell se ha visto asociada a una imagen levítica y ultramontana, sobre todo a partir del episodio de la Regencia de Urgel (1822) o de la personalidad del obispo José Caixal Estradé, paradigma de la nueva Cruzada antilberal que asumió sin complejos una parte destacada del clero español y catalán durante el largo pontificado de Pío IX. Los hechos estudiados ponen de manifiesto que el grupo dirigente de la ciudad, liderado por los letrados, apostó por la opción liberal durante la Guerra de la Independencia, cuando la Seu d'Urgell se convirtió en capital corregimental para el bando ""patriota"" en sustitución de la villa de Puigcerdá. Este hecho contribuyó a despertar unas energías ciudadanas que se tradujeron, más adelante, en unas reivindicaciones de mayor autonomia municipal, el anhelo para convertirse en capital de una hipotética quinta provincia catalana y en un comportamiento electoral que abrazó las opciones progresistas (Salvador Maluquer, Josep Ignasi de Llorens) frente a las intromisiones del cunerismo oficial. En el fondo esto encontramos un discurso de ""cambio"" sobre la base de una mayor equidad o vertebración territorial, compatible con el progreso material que parecía inaugurar el desarrollo capitalista. ; La Seu d'Urgell is a population that is included in a certain social formation, Catalonia, whose leading groups lack their own State, since the Principality is only a peripherial region where liberalism had promoted a very limited process of nationalization. In addition, the city was part of the ""poor Catalonia"", predominantly agrarian and livestock-based, where the radical changes of industrialization went rather unnoticed for much of the 19th century. Finally, as a regional capital, la Seu d'Urgell is also representative city of a certain Catalonia, the Pyrenees, which witnessed a notable roots of liberalism with a progressive matrix. This fact determined a singular political tradition, with a specific electoral behavoir, opposed to governmental cunerismo. All this denies, then, the clichés, and even the prejudices, that created a conservative image of the population, even favorable to Carlism. The historical trajectory of the Seu d'Urgell allows us to discover a feeling and a particular interpretation of the liberal ideology on two basic pillars: the demand for greater municipal autonomy and the elaboration of a protest speech in defense of a greater territorial structure and equity. In a way, the commitmend to the liberal option began to be seen during the War of Independence (1808-1814), which allowed the awakening of citizen energies when the city became an active focus anti-Napoleonic resistance, as opposed to Puigcerdà, the old corregimental capital. During the reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833) we witnessed a true emergence of the urban liberal nucleus, headed by a mesocracy led by lawyers. The role of the latter, as men of order, acquires a special role due to the absence of the State with in relation to issue concerning the public interest. On the other hand, we must mention the role of the Church led by Bishop Josep Caixal Estradé, promoting another way of understanding modernity, either by promoting the political reform of neighboring Andorra, or by building a large Council seminary.
As a cradle of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow River Basin has a very long human-environment interrelationship, where early anthropogenic activities re- sulted in large scale landscape modifications. Today, the impact of this relationship has intensified further as the basin plays a vital role for China's continued economic development. It is one of the most densely-populated, fastest growing, and most dynamic regions of China with abundant natural and environmental resources providing a livelihood for almost 190 million people. Triggered by fundamental economic reforms, the basin has witnessed a spectacular economic boom during the last decades and can be considered as an exemplary blueprint region for contemporary dynamic Global Change processes occurring throughout the country, which is currently transitioning from an agrarian-dominated economy into a modern urbanized society. However, this resourcesdemanding growth has led to profound land use changes with adverse effects on the Yellow River social-ecological systems, where complex challenges arise threatening a long-term sustainable development. Consistent and continuous remote sensing-based monitoring of recent and past land cover and land use change is a fundamental requirement to mitigate the adverse impacts of Global Change processes. Nowadays, technical advancement and the multitude of available satellite sensors, in combination with the opening of data archives, allow the creation of new research perspectives in regional land cover applications over heterogeneous landscapes at large spatial scales. Despite the urgent need to better understand the prevailing dynamics and underlying factors influencing the current processes, detailed regional specific land cover data and change information are surprisingly absent for this region. In view of the noted research gaps and contemporary developments, three major objectives are defined in this thesis. First (i), the current and most pressing social-ecological challenges are elaborated and policy and management instruments towards more sustainability are discussed. Second (ii), this thesis provides new and improved insights on the current land cover state and dynamics of the entire Yellow River Basin. Finally (iii), the most dominant processes related to mining, agriculture, forest, and urban dynamics are determined on finer spatial and temporal scales. The complex and manifold problems and challenges that result from long-term abuse of the water and land resources in the basin have been underpinned by policy choices, cultural attitude, and institutions that have evolved over centuries in China. The tremendous economic growth that has been mainly achieved by extracting water and exploiting land resources in a rigorous, but unsustainable manner, might not only offset the economic benefits, but could also foster social unrest. Since the early emergence of the first Chinese dynasties, flooding was considered historically as a primary issue in river management and major achievements have been made to tame the wild nature of the Yellow River. Whereas flooding is therefore largely now under control, new environmental and social problems have evolved, including soil and water pollution, ecological degradation, biodiversity decline, and food security, all being further aggravated by anthropogenic climate change. To resolve the contemporary and complex challenges, many individual environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by various Chinese ministries. However, these policies often pursue different, often contradictory goals, are too general to tackle specific problems and are usually implemented by a strong top-down approach. Recently, more flexible economic and market-based incentives (pricing, tradable permits, investments) have been successfully adopted, which are specifically tailored to the respective needs, shifting now away from the pure command and regulating instruments. One way towards a more holistic and integrated river basin management could be the establishment of a common platform (e.g. a Geographical Information System) for data handling and sharing, possibly operated by the Yellow River Basin Conservancy Commission (YRCC), where available spatial data, statistical information and in-situ measures are coalesced, on which sustainable decision-making could be based. So far, the collected data is hardly accessible, fragmented, inconsistent, or outdated. The first step to address the absence and lack of consistent and spatially up-to-date information for the entire basin capturing the heterogeneous landscape conditions was taken up in this thesis. Land cover characteristics and dynamics were derived from the last decade for the years 2003 and 2013, based on optical medium-resolution hightemporal MODIS Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series at 250 m. To minimize the inherent influence of atmospheric and geometric interferences found in raw high temporal data, the applied adaptive Savitzky-Golay filter successfully smoothed the time series and substantially reduced noise. Based on the smoothed time series data, a large variety of intra-annual phenology metrics as well as spectral and multispectral annual statistics were derived, which served as input variables for random forest (RF) classifiers. High quality reference data sets were derived from very high resolution imagery for each year independently of which 70 % trained the RF models. The accuracy assessments for all regionally specific defined thematic classes were based on the remaining 30 % reference data split and yielded overall accuracies of 87 % and 84 % for 2003 and 2013, respectively. The first regional adapted Yellow River Land Cover Products (YRB LC) depict the detail spatial extent and distribution of the current land cover status and dynamics. The novel products overall differentiate overall 18 land cover and use classes, including classes of natural vegetation (terrestrial and aquatic), cultivated classes, mosaic classes, non-vegetated, and artificial classes, which are not presented in previous land cover studies so far. Building on this, an extended multi-faceted land cover analysis on the most prominent land cover change types at finer spatial and temporal scales provides a better and more detailed picture of the Yellow River Basin dynamics. Precise spatio-temporal products about mining, agriculture, forest, and urban areas were examined from long-trem Landsat satellite time series monitored at annual scales to capture the rapid rate of change in four selected focus regions. All archived Landsat images between 2000 and 2015 were used to derive spatially continuous spectral-temporal, multi-spectral, and textural metrics. For each thematic region and year RF models were built, trained and tested based on a stablepixels reference data set. The automated adaptive signature (AASG) algorithm identifies those pixels that did not change between the investigated time periods to generate a mono-temporal reference stable-pixels data set to keep manual sampling requirements to a minimum level. Derived results gained high accuracies ranging from 88 % to 98 %. Throughout the basin, afforestation on the Central Loess Plateau and urban sprawl are identified as most prominent drivers of land cover change, whereas agricultural land remained stable, only showing local small-scale dynamics. Mining operations started in 2004 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which resulted in a substantial loss of pristine alpine meadows and wetlands. In this thesis, a novel and unique regional specific view of current and past land cover characteristics in a complex and heterogeneous landscape was presented by using a multi-source remote sensing approach. The delineated products hold great potential for various model and management applications. They could serve as valuable components for effective and sustainable land and water management to adapt and mitigate the predicted consequences of Global Change processes. ; Der Gelbe Fluss - in der Landessprache Huange He genannt - ist für die Ausprägung und Entwicklung der chinesischen Kultur von großer Bedeutung. Aufgrund der frühen Einflussnahme auf die natürlichen Ökosysteme in dieser Region durch den Menschen, entwickelte sich dort eine ausgeprägte Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Diese Wechselbeziehung hat sich infolge der gegenwärtigen rapiden sozioökonomischen Veränderungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten weiter intensiviert. Das Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses bildet die Lebensgrundlage für fast 190 Millionen Menschen, die zum Großteil von natürlichen Ressourcen abhängig sind. Zudem gehört es zu den wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten und am schnellsten wachsenden Regionen in ganz China. Durch weitreichende Reformen wurde ein wirtschaftlicher Aufstieg forciert, um den Agrarstaat China zu einem modernen Industrie- und Dienstleistungsstaat weiterzuentwickeln. Ein derartiges rasantes wie auch ressourcenintensives Wirtschaftswachstum führte schließlich zu einem enormen Wandel in den Bereichen der Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Hinzu kamen neue und komplexere wirtschafts-, sozial- und umweltpolitische Herausforderungen, die bis heute eine langfristige und nachhaltige Entwicklung der Region gefährden. Aus diesem Blickwinkel kann das Becken des Gelben Flusses als regionales Spiegelbild der durch den Globalen Wandel bedingten, gegenwärtigen Veränderungsprozesse in ganz China gelten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den adäquaten Umgang mit den Herausforderungen des Globalen Wandels sind kontinuierliche Informationen über aktuelle sowie historische Veränderungen von Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Infolge der technologischen Entwicklung steht heute eine Vielfalt an Satellitenbildsystemen mit immer höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung zur Verfügung. In Verbindung mit kostenfreien und offenen Datenzugriffen ist es möglich, daraus neue Forschungsperspektiven im Bereich der Landoberflächenkartierung - insbesondere für heterogene Landschaften - zu entwickeln. Zur Generierung thematischer Karten werden häufig Klassifikationen entlang verschiedener räumlicher und zeitlicher Skalen vollzogen. Daraus können zusätzlich die nötigen Informationen für lokale wie auch regionale Entscheidungsträger abgeleitet werden. Trotz dieser neuen Möglichkeiten sind regionalspezifische Informationen, die einem besseren Verständnis der Dynamiken von Landoberflächen im Bereich des Gelben-Fluss-Beckens dienen, noch rar. Dieses Forschungsdesiderat wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen, wobei folgende Schwerpunkte gesetzt werden: (i) Zunächst werden die vorherrschenden sozioökologischen Herausforderungen für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses dargestellt sowie verschiedene Management- sowie Politikmodelle für eine nachhaltigere Ressourcennutzung diskutiert. (ii) Darauf aufbauend wird die fernerkundliche Ableitung von Landbedeckungs- und Landnutzungsveränderungen der letzten Dekade im Gebiet des gesamten Gelben Flusses flächendeckend durchgeführt und anschließend interpretiert. (iii) Im letzten Schritt werden basierend auf den zuvor abgeleiteten Informationsprodukten die dominierenden Landoberflächendynamiken in höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung detailliert untersucht. Insbesondere die dynamischen Prozesse der Minenausbreitung, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebiete und der urbanen Räume rücken in den Fokus. Aufgrund jahrzehntelanger Übernutzung der natürlichen Ressourcen im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses in Verbindung mit politischen Entscheidungen, der vorherrschenden kulturellen Prägung wie auch der Entwicklung der dort ansässigen Institutionen ist eine vielschichtige Problematik entstanden, die für die gesamte Region eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Durch frühzeitige Maßnahmen der Flutbekämpfung und Flussregulierung konnte den zahlreichen Überflutungen der Vergangenheit entgegengewirkt und das Risiko großflächiger Überschwemmungen minimiert werden. Trotz dieser Erfolge ergeben sich laufend neue, komplexere Herausforderungen mit verheerenden Auswirkungen auf Ökologie und Gesellschaft, wie zum Beispiel Boden- und Wasserdegradation, Entwaldung, Rückgang der Artenvielfalt, Ernährungsunsicherheiten und ein steigendes soziales Ungleichgewicht. Durch den anthropogenen Klimawandel werden diese negativen Probleme noch weiter verstärkt. Zwar wurden sie von der chinesischen Regierung als solche erkannt, dennoch scheiterten die Versuche, mit zahlreichen Gesetzen und Verordnungen die genannten Folgen einzudämmen, an unkonkreten Formulierungen, so dass diese der Komplexität der Herausforderungen nicht gerecht wurden. Die in jüngster Zeit verfolgten modernen und deutlich flexibleren, marktorientierten Ansätze (z.B. Subventionen, Wasserzertifikate), die speziell an die lokalen Gegebenheiten angepasst wurden, zeigen bereits Erfolge. Mit Hilfe einer gemeinsamen Daten- und Informationsplattform, beispielsweise in Form eines Geographischen Informationssystems (GIS), wäre eine integrierte und holistische Flussmanagementstrategie für den Gelben Fluss leichter realisierbar. Auf diese Weise könnten alle verfügbaren statistischen-, räumlichen- und Feldaufnahmen gespeichert, harmonisiert und geteilt und so die bisher noch unvollständigen und veralteten Daten laufend aktualisiert werden. Die Flussbehörde des Gelben Flusses (Yellow River Conservancy Commission) böte sich an, ein solches System zu verwalten. In dieser Arbeit wird die heterogene Landbedeckungsstruktur für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses für die Jahre 2003 und 2013 erfasst und interpretiert. Die fernerkundlichen Eingangsdaten für die einzelnen Klassifikationen bestehen aus optischen MODIS NDVI-Zeitserien, aus denen jährlich phänologische Parameter berechnet werden. Da die Qualität optischer Satellitenbilder häufig durch Wolken und Schatten beeinträchtigt ist, müssen die betroffenen Flächen maskiert und entfernt werden. Die so entstandenen Lücken in der Zeitserie werden durch einen Filteralgorithmus (SavitskyGolay) aufgefüllt und geglättet. Die verwendeten RandomForest-Klassifikationsverfahren ermöglichen die Ableitung von Landbedeckungen und -dynamiken. Diese neuen und räumlich detaillierten Produkte unterscheiden insgesamt 18 verschiedene Landbedeckungsund Landnutzungsklassen. Erstmals liefern diese eine regional spezifische Charakterisierung der vorherrschenden Landbedeckung im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine sowohl zeitlich als auch räumlich detailliertere Untersuchung der wichtigsten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landbedeckung, die auf dichten Landsat-Zeitserien basiert. Jährliche Informationen über Dynamiken von Minenabbaugebieten, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebieten und urbanen Räumen zeigen präzise lokale Veränderungen im Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse lassen insbesondere auf dem Lössplateau die Auswirkungen ökologischer Restorationsmaßnahmen erkennen, bei denen degradierte Flächen in Waldsysteme umgewandelt wurden. Auf dem Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau zeigt sich eine dramatische Ausbreitung von Kohletagebau zu Lasten der besonders anfälligen alpinen Matten und Feuchtgebiete. Auch der anhaltende Trend zur Urbanisierung spiegelt sich in den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen deutlich wider. Durch die Kombination von Fernerkundungsdaten unterschiedlicher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösungen liefert diese Arbeit neue und bisher einzigartige Einblicke in historische und aktuelle Landbedeckungsdynamiken einer heterogenen Landschaft. Die regionalen Analysen wie auch die thematischen Informationsprodukte besitzen somit großes Potential zur Verbesserung der Informationsgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse dienen außerdem als aussagekräftige Entscheidungsgrundlage mit dem Ziel eines angemessenen und nachhaltigen Land- und Wassermanagements für die natürlichen Ökosysteme im Becken des Gelben Flusses.
This country note for Armenia is part of a series of country briefs that summarize information relevant to climate change and agriculture for three pilot countries in the Southern Caucasus Region, with a particular focus on climate and crop projections, adaptation options, policy development and institutional involvement. The note series has been developed to provide a baseline of knowledge on climate change and agriculture for the countries participating in the regional program on reducing vulnerability to climate change in Southern Caucasus Agricultural systems. This note for Armenia was shared with the government and other agricultural sector stakeholders and used as an engagement tool for a national awareness raising and consultation workshop, held in Yerevan in April 2012. Feedback and comments on the note from this consultation process have been incorporated into this updated version in collaboration with the Armenian Ministry of Agriculture.
This technical note on access to finance addresses six questions: 1) what is the access to and use of financial services in the Philippines, how does it vary, and how does it compare to other countries? 2) What financial services are available to different market segments? 3) How do different categories of financial institutions contribute to outreach, and what is their potential to expand outreach? 4) How does the regulatory environment support access to finance? 5) What financial infrastructure is available to make credit decisions? 6) What are the results of government policies or programs to promote access to financial services? The note concludes with recommendations to improve access to finance. An estimated 30 percent of Filipinos use formal financial services. This is lower than the East Asia region average. Access to finance has improved since the 2002 Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP). The provision of financial services to low-income individuals has expanded. The Philippines has received international recognition for its favorable regulatory policies to promote pioneering use of mobile payments technology and its microfinance regulatory framework.
This review of public expenditures on Social Protection (SP) in Nicaragua is based on the analytical framework of Social Risk Management (SRM) developed by the World Bank. The concept of managing social risk comes from the notion that certain groups in society are vulnerable to unexpected shocks which threaten their livelihood and/or survival. Social protection focuses on the poor since they are more vulnerable to the risks and normally do not have the instruments to handle these risks. This prevents the poor from taking more risky activities that usually yield higher returns and that could help them overcome gradually their poverty situation. Social risk management involves policies and programs aimed at reducing key risks, breaking inter-generational cycle of poverty and vulnerability. Risk management consists in the choice of appropriate risk prevention, mitigation and coping strategies to minimize the adverse impact of social risks. Social protection under SRM is defined as public interventions to assist individuals, households and communities to better manage risk and provide support to the critically poor. Thus Social protection should provide: a safety net, particularly for the poor that are likely to fall in the cracks of established programs; and a springboard for the poor to bounce out of poverty.
Розглянуто передумови становлення та історичні аспекти розвитку кафедри обліку та оподаткування НУБіП України, проаналізовано основні напрями її діяльності, що стали визначальними у формуванні наукового світогляду студентів. Розкрито зміст базових досліджень науковців, їх вклад у професійне становлення конкурентоспроможних сучасних фахівців з бухгалтерського обліку в умовах навчального процесу. Систематизовано результати науково-дослідної роботи студентів як невід'ємної складової навчального процесу і одного із найважливіших засобів підвищення якості підготовки і виховання фахівців з вищою освітою, професійної компетентності і конкурентоспроможності майбутніх випускників на ринку праці, здатних творчо застосовувати в практичній діяльності наукові досягнення. Окреслено стратегію розвитку кафедри обліку та оподаткування, що спрямована на всебічне оновлення всіх сфер її діяльності, інтенсифікацію навчально-виховного процесу, поглиблення науково-дослідницької роботи зі студентами, зростання кваліфікації майбутніх бухгалтерів і престижу професії.Ключові слова: кафедра обліку та оподаткування, підготовка кадрів, професорсько-викладацький склад, навчально-методична робота, науково-дослідна робота ; The preconditions of formation and historical aspects of development of the accounting and taxation Department of NULES of Ukraine are considered. In particular, it is substantiated that the Department of Accounting and Taxation is leading in the training of specialists in the field of specialty (training direction) "Accounting and Taxation" ("Accounting and Audit"). Periodization of the history at the Department with refinement names (Accounting and Auditing, Accounting, Analysis and Audit) appears as a consistent change at the chronological stages. Its founder-organizer and first head in 1959 became Associate Professor S.M. Rogachenko. With his participation, calculation type of the estimated accounting Plan in the collective farms, which was officially recognized in Ukraine, and subsequently became the all-union, which contributed to the creation of integrated system of Accounting in agriculture instead of an autonomous. Historically, a powerful scholarly school has been formed, aimed at further development of fundamental search and applied research on Accounting, and over time - Audit and Taxation. The emergence, development and enrichment of the academic accounting school coincides with the leadership at the Department of the Doctor of Economics, Professor I.V. Malyshev, who carried out a fundamental scientific research with an impact on the theory of Accounting by substantiating the method of double recording.The content of the basic researches of scientists, their contribution to the professional formation of competitive modern accountants in the conditions of the educational process is revealed. In particular, Professor Kireytsev G. G. prepared 32 Candidates and two Doctors of Economic Sciences (L.V. Gutsalenko, P.L. Suk); carried out scientific research at the most important theoretical socio-economic and scientific and technical problems of Accounting development in Ukraine. The scientist carried out his scientific research in two main areas: theoretical and methodological principles of Accounting development and training of accounting personnel in the system of higher agroeconomic education. The results of scientific research were published in more than 200 scientific and methodological works, among them were monographs, textbooks, manuals. Among the scientific works in the nomination "Monograph in the field of economic knowledge in the direction of: Accounting, Audit and Statistics", in particular the monograph "Globalization of the Economy and the unification of the Accounting methodology" (2008), was recognized as the best one by NAAS of Ukraine. The scientific achievements of the Professor at the Department L.K. Suk are outlined: he has developed the Recommendations of the check form of control of the internal economic calculation, Recommendations of the application of the journal-order form of Accounting, Typical standards for the planning, accounting and calculation of the production (works, services) cost of agricultural enterprises; the imitative accounting and analytical model of reproduction management of long-term biological plant production assets has been formed; in practice, proposals have been approved to reflect and group the costs of their cultivation. 14 candidate dissertations have been defended under scientific guidance of the scientist.The directions of modern researches of leading scientists, which became the decisive factors in forming the scientific outlook of students, were determined. In particular, head of the Department Professor E.V. Kaliuga within the Strategy for the Modernization of the Accounting System in the Public Sector for 2007-2015 (Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 34 of 16.01.2007) took a direct part in the elaboration and final editing of national accounting standards drafts (public accounting standards) (forward - NP(S)APS: 122 "Intangible assets", 124 "Revenue", 126 "Rent", 127 "Impairment of assets", 136 "Biological assets", built on the basis of the IPSAS, taking into account the IMF GFSM 2001). E. V. Kalyuga was awarded with gratitude of the Methodological Accounting Board under the Ministry of Agrarian Policy of Ukraine (2010), with the Honorary Diploma of the Ministry of Finance of Ukraine (2011), with other awards for a significant contribution to the development of Ukraine's Accounting and high professionalism. Effective scientific and methodological work on updating and improving the normative-methodical providing of Accounting and financial reporting was carried out by E.V. Kaliuga in the composition of the Methodological Accounting Council of the Ministry of Finance of Ukraine (from 2007 for the next eight years). In scientific researches of Professor E.V. Kaluga theoretical and methodological principles of Accounting in the state sector of Economy, the estate of economic control in Ukraine and directions of its reform are prioritized. Various problematic issues of Accounting, Auditing and Taxation in the conditions of harmonization of domestic Accounting and Control to the requirements of international standards are consistently developed in secured dissertations under the direction of Professor E.V. Kaluga (five Candidates of Economic Sciences have been prepared and defended).The article systematizes the results of research work of students as an integral part of the educational process and one of the most important means to improve the quality of training and education of specialists with higher education, professional competence and competitiveness of future graduates in the labor market, able to creatively apply in practical activities scientific achievements.Significant attention is dedicated to the international activity at the Department, which became an integral part of its evolutionary development. Professors carry out joint research on the problems of the theory and methodology of Accounting with scientists from foreign educational institutions through the preparation of scientific articles, reports for international conferences, postgraduate students for the implementation of dissertation papers; lecturers undergo a scientific-pedagogical internship at the Warsaw University of Life Sciences under a program of scientific exchanges organized by UNESCO (Ph.D., Associate Professor Litvinenko V.S., 2016). The activization of international activity at the Department with the direct participation of students is emphasized. In particular, the American Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), which has more than 80,000 members from 120 countries, has provided six scholarship grants to the most talented Master students: A. Dudnichenko, R. Gorbunenko, V. Chekarev, V. Vovchenko, O. Gnesy and N. Pinchuk. The program provides free training and passing exams to one of the most popular among practitioners international qualifications in managerial Accounting, "Certified Management Accountant (CMA)", and as a result - the acquisition of complex competencies which are necessary for the work of specialists in the field of Accounting, Audit and Taxation or related financial sector at domestic and international companies. Within international cooperation the University Bachelors, Masters and Postgraduate Students of the Department of Accounting and Taxation successfully study abroad at leading universities and study internships at enterprises in Poland, Czech Republic, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Japan, USA, gaining experience in European education and innovative knowledge in specialty.The necessity of cooperation not only with foreign ones, but also with domestic scientific and educational institutions is substantiated because the issue of graduate`s employment has special importance for the Department of Accounting and Taxation. The Department's own experience in shaping the bases of passing students' practice and ensuring the employment of graduates is revealed. Range of business and scientific partners are used in full measure, among them are the Research Financial Institute DNNU «Academy of Financial Management», State Audit Office of Ukraine, leading consulting company EBS and others. The need and high value of cooperation with experts-practitioners, representatives of government bodies is confirmed by the cycle of recent meetings.The strategy of Accounting and Taxation Department aimed at the comprehensive updating of all spheres of its activity, the intensification of the educational process, deepening of research work with students, the growth of qualifications of future accountants and the prestige of the profession is outlined. The presented scientific achievements, the developed partnership relations testify that the Department is not just a certain contingent of scientific and pedagogical workers, the place of transfer of their knowledge to the next generation. This, above all, is traditions based on the years and style of study, the motivational atmosphere of scientific knowledge with the involvement of students in this process. At the same time, the new challenges of society development, the current world crisis of education and, finally, the scientific achievements of the Department of Accounting and Taxation require its modern faculty members to formulate and implement new tasks and goals. Among the priorities are identified the search for alternative and rational ways to strengthen positions at the educational field, multiplying and disseminating at the domestic and international levels scientific achievements that would meet modern European challenges, including life-long learning, reorientation of the educational process from traditional ways of transferring existing knowledge to students to development their abilities and innovations, their ability to learn. At the same time, it is important to integrate the directions of educational, research and educational work of students, which must be realized both during studying and outside the educational process. The driving principles of the Department of Accounting and Taxation are defined: combination of the best existing educational traditions of the Department and the experience of domestic and international higher educational institutions; flexibility in responding to existing social changes, creativity and innovation of faculty members.
The relevance of the study has two sides — individual and general. In its essential aspect, it is the development of achievements of predecessors by consistently taking into account the latest data on trends and changes in the interconnected spheres of education, economics and culture. In the individual aspect, it is about improving the professional means of improving the efficiency of teaching foreign languages in order to form students with a high level of linguistic-professional competence. Public relevance is the goal of educating young people in a new patriotic direction, because today, due to various global influences, the classical principles of life in the agrarian system (in which Ukrainians have a good national heritage), created in recent centuries, or in the industrial society, are devalued due to various global influences.The purpose of the study in a broad sense was to highlight the causes and consequences of the European religious Reformation as the main factor in accelerating the movement of the whole of Western Europe to the position of the world leader that previously belonged to China. We see precise tasks in the integrated analysis on the basis of the latest discoveries of many humanities and exact sciences in the educational, economic and cultural systems of Germany and other successful European states. On this basis, we hope to fulfill the public task which is to make significant proposals in the plans and practice of higher education reform in Ukraine. The methodology of the study relies on the best classical means, on the principle of historicism and the continuity of the connection between the material and the ideal, a modern multidisciplinary approach. For the highest effectiveness of the research, we will use the latest scientific data and recommendations of the innovators who collect and use these data. The results of the study mostly follow from the mentioned new discoveries. They testify that in ancientt history, in the role of locomotives of civilizational progress in the western part of Eurasia, direct descendants of the inventors of agriculture acted, among which the especially great contribution (domestication of the horse, the invention of the wheel and the efficient metallurgy of copper) belongs to the ancestors of Ukrainians from the territories of Trypillya and the Great Trypillya. It is indicated that during the existence of the Great Trypillya, future German farmers acquainted themselves with the technologies of the Great Trypillya, so the German language, through borrowed words, became part of the Indo-European family. It is noted that after the collapse of the Great Trypillya, the Germans and Slavs became neighbors along the meridian Elbe. In the age of steppe invasions, future Ukrainians and Germanic tribes did not get in contact, and the influence of the Roman Empire was mostly experienced by western lands. Emphasis was placed on the evolution of ideological, religious and other paradigms in the territory of Germany after the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, which determined the development of the nation for the next hundreds of years. The religious and philosophical paradigmatic origins of those unique features of culture and education that during the nineteenth century were emphasized. brought Germany to the position of the scientific and technological leader of the world. The high role of German neo-humanism and the Berlin Research University were noted. In the final section, special attention is paid to religious issues and to the destructive impact on social and other processes in the German immigration flows of Islamists. The conclusions focus on the competition of several important paradigms in the education of modern Germany and the proposals made to incorporate German experience in legislation and the use of the Bologna process. An important caution is made regarding the choice of Germany's strategy for the development of the scientific and educational complex 'within the framework of the Lisbon project (2000). This country has become a world leader not only in alternative energy, but also in the implementation of the fourth industrial revolution. We consider an example of this leadership like the regular world conferences in Davos, which involve the majority of influential politicians and economists (in particular, from Ukraine) ; Актуальность нашего исследования имеет две стороны - индивидуальную и общественную. В сущностном аспекте она заключается в развитии достижений ученых-предшественников через последовательный учет новейших данных о трендах и изменениях взаимосвязанных сфер образования, экономики и культуры. В индивидуальном аспекте речь идет о совершенствовании профессиональных средств повышения эффективности преподавания иностранных языков для формирования у студентов высокой культурно-профессиональной компетентности. Общественную актуальность составляет воспитание молодежи в новом патриотическом направлении, ведь настоящее через различные глобальные влияния обесценивает созданные в последние века классические основы жизнедеятельности в аграрном (здесь украинцы имеют хороший национальный наследству) или индустриальном обществе. Целью исследования в широком аспекте мы выбрали изучение причин и последствий европейской религиозной Реформации как главного фактора ускорения движения всей Западной Европы в положение мирового лидера, ранее принадлежавшее Китаю. Конкретные задачи мы видим в интегральном анализе на основе новейших открытий многих гуманитарных и точных наук событий в образовательных, экономических и культурных системах Германии и других успешных европейских государств. На этой основе мы надеемся выполнить общегражданскую задачу - внести весомые предложения в планы и практику реформ высшего образования Украины. Методология исследования опирается на лучшие классические средства, на принцип историзма и неразрывность связи материального и идеального, современный мультидисциплинарний подход. Для высшей результативности исследования воспользуемся новейшими научными данными и рекомендациями ученых-инноваторов, которые и накапливают эти данные и используют их. Результаты исследования, большей частью вытекают из указанных новейших открытий. Они свидетельствуют, что в долетописные времена в роли локомотивов цивилизационного прогресса в западной части Евразии выступали прямые потомки изобретателей земледелия, среди которых особенно большой вклад (одомашнивание лошади, изобретение колеса и эффективной металлургии меди) принадлежит предкам украинцев с территории Триполья и Большого Триполья. Указано, что уже во время существования Большого Триполья будущие немцы-земледельцы знакомились с технологиями Большого Триполья, поэтому немецкий язык через заимствованные слова вошел в состав индоевропейской семьи. Отмечено, что после распада Большого Триполья немцы и славяне стали соседями по меридиану Эльбы. В век степных нашествий будущие украинцы и германские племена контактировали мало, а влияние Римской империи испытали преимущественно западные земли. Сделан упор на эволюции мировоззренческих, религиозных и других парадигм на территории Германии после распада Священной Римской империи, которые определили развитие нации на следующие сотни лет. Подчеркнуто религиозные и философские парадигмальные истоки тех уникальных черт культуры и образования, которые в течение XIX в. вывели Германию на позицию научного и технологического лидера мира. Отмечена высокая роль немецкого неогуманизма и Берлинского исследовательского университета. В заключительной части особое внимание обращено на религиозные вопросы и на деструктивное влияние на социальные и другие процессы в Германии иммиграционных потоков исламистов. В выводах акцентировано внимание на конкуренцию нескольких важных парадигм в образовании современной Германии и сделаны предложения учета в Украине немецкого опыта в законодательстве и в использовании Болонского процесса. Сделано важное предостережение по выбору Германией стратегии развития научно-образовательного комплекса в рамках Лиссабонского проекта (2000 г.). Эта страна стала мировым лидером не только в альтернативной энергетике, но и в воплощении в жизнь четвертой промышленной революции. Примером этого лидерства мы считаем регулярные мировые конференции в Давосе, в которых принимают участие большинство влиятельных политиков и экономистов (в частности, и из Украины) ; Актуальність нашого дослідження має дві сторони – індивідуальну і загальносуспільну. В сутнісному аспекті воно полягає в розвитку досягнень науковців-попередників через послідовне врахування найновіших даних про тренди і зміни взаємопоєднаних сфер освіти, економіки та культури. В індивідуальному аспекті йдеться про вдосконалення фахових засобів підвищення ефективності викладання іноземних мов задля формування у студентів високої мовно-фахової компетентності. Загальносуспільну актуальність складає мета виховання молоді у новому патріотичному скеруванні, адже сьогодення через різноманітні глобальні впливи знецінює створені в останні століття класичні засади життєдіяльності в аграрному (тут українці мають хороший національний спадок) чи індустріальному суспільстві. Метою дослідження в широкому аспекті ми обрали вивчення причин і наслідків європейської релігійної Реформації як головного чинника прискорення руху всієї Західної Європи до становища світового лідера, що раніше належало Китаю. Конкретні завдання ми вбачаємо в інтегральному аналізі на основі найновіших відкриттів багатьох гуманітарних і точних наук подій в освітніх, економічних і культурних системах Німеччини та інших успішних європейських держав. На цій основі ми сподіваємося виконати загальносуспільне завдання – внести вагомі пропозиції в плани і практику реформ вищої освіти України. Методологія дослідження спирається на кращі класичні засоби, на принцип історизму і нерозривність зв'язку матеріального та ідеального, сучасний мультидисциплінарний підхід. Для вищої результативності дослідження скористаємося найновішими науковими даними і рекомендаціями науковців-інноваторів, які і накопичують ці дані, і використовують їх. Результати дослідження, більшою частиною випливають з вказаних новітніх відкриттів. Вони свідчать, що в долітописні часи у ролі локомотивів цивілізаційного прогресу у західній частині Євразії виступали прямі нащадки винахідників землеробства, серед яких особливо великий внесок (одомашнення коня, винахід колеса та ефективної металургії міді) належить пращурам українців з теренів Трипілля і Великого Трипілля. Вказано, що вже під час існування Великого Трипілля майбутні німці-землероби знайомилися з технологіями Великого Трипілля, тому німецька мова через запозичені слова увійшла у склад індоєвропейської сім'ї. Відзначено, що після розпаду Великого Трипілля німці і слов'яни стали сусідами по меридіану Ельби. У століття степових навал майбутні українці і німецькі племена контактували мало, а впливу Римської імперії зазнали переважно західні землі. Зроблено наголос на еволюції світоглядних, релігійних та інших парадигм на теренах Німеччини після розпаду Священної Римської імперії, які визначили розвиток нації на наступні сотні років. Підкреслено релігійні та філософські парадигмальні витоки тих унікальних рис культури та освіти, які впродовж ХІХ ст. вивели Німеччину на позицію наукового й технологічного лідера світу. Відзначена висока роль німецького неогуманізму і Берлінського дослідницького університету. У заключній частині особлива увага звернута на релігійні питання і на деструктивний вплив на соціальні та інші процеси в Німеччині імміграційних потоків ісламістів. У висновках акцентовано конкуренцію кількох важливих парадигм в освіті сучасної Німеччини і зроблені пропозиції врахування в Україні німецького досвіду у законодавстві та у використанні Болонського процесу. Зроблено важливе застереження щодо вибору Німеччиною стратегії розвитку науково-освітнього комплексу в рамках Лісабонського проекту (2000 р.). Ця країна стала світовим лідером не тільки в альтернативній енергетиці, а й у втіленні у життя четвертої промислової революції. Прикладом цього лідерства ми вважаємо регулярні світові конференції у Давосі, в яких беруть участь більшість впливових політиків та економістів (зокрема, і з України)
Dottorato di ricerca in Storia d'Europa: società, politica, istituzioni (XIX - XX secolo) ; La ricerca realizzata ha inteso studiare, in un'ottica di lungo periodo e in una prospettiva complessiva, ciò che ha rappresentato l'esperienza del fascismo in un contesto territoriale periferico e non omogeneo, di cui è espressione quel segmento dell'Umbria meridionale costituito in provincia nel gennaio 1927. Tale area si è rivelata un case study esemplare, in grado di offrire interessanti spunti interpretativi. In effetti, all'unico grande polo industriale della provincia, compreso nel territorio della conca ternana, si contrappone la restante parte del territorio provinciale, comprendente città come Orvieto e Amelia, contrassegnate da consolidate relazioni con le regioni limitrofe, espressione di un'Umbria verde, agricola e mezzadrile, ma anche francescana, terra d'arte, di misticismo, ritenuta dalla pubblicistica di regime "cuore" dell'Italia fascista. A partire da ciò, si è creduto opportuno impostare la ricerca attorno a tre questioni principali, ritenute essenziali per cogliere aspetti e dinamiche della società locale nel ventennio mussoliniano. Per fare questo è stata definita una griglia interpretativa funzionale a verificare il ruolo del Pnf nel quadro del rapporto centro-periferia, continuità-rottura. Si è così puntato a esaminare come il fascismo abbia influito sui processi di formazione e consolidamento dei ceti dirigenti locali, verificandone la capacità di rapportarsi con le vecchie élites, di promuoverne di nuove o, magari, di fare coesistere entrambe. Si è poi cercato di approfondire il ruolo che il partito ha svolto in ambito locale, la sua capacità di inserirsi nelle diverse dinamiche territoriali, di creare e controllare reti clientelari e, soprattutto, di rapportarsi con le due realtà che rimangono fuori dal suo controllo, il grande gruppo polisettoriale rappresentato dalla "Terni" polisettoriale di Bocciardo e la Chiesa locale, il tutto al fine di conseguire i propri obiettivi totalitari. Infine, si è affrontata la questione del consenso. In questo senso, è stato preso in considerazione non soltanto il ruolo della violenza attuata dal fascismo per conquistare il potere e la stessa azione repressiva dispiegatasi negli anni del regime, che si dimostra concreta e reale come è normale in una situazione di dittatura, ma si è provato a fare luce sul dissenso e sulle aree di rassegnazione o di consenso tiepido che sembrano persistere nella società locale. Nel procedere si è poi cercato di coniugare la storia politicoistituzionale con quella sociale e in parte economica, attraverso un costante lavoro di analisi e incrocio delle fonti studiate, scelta ritenuta utile per conseguire gli obiettivi prefissati. Certamente, la riflessione sulle origini, l'affermazione, il consolidamento del fascismo in provincia di Terni, offre sostanziali conferme a quanto una parte della storiografia aveva proposto. Nell'Umbria meridionale il fascismo, nei suoi vertici, sorge e si afferma come punto d'incontro dei ceti dominanti tradizionali. Esso si afferma in quanto strumento della reazione agraria e dei gruppi industriali monopolistici di 2 fronte alla conflittualità contadina e operaia e al dilagare del socialismo. La sconfitta delle élites politiche tradizionali alle elezioni politiche del 1919 e a quelle amministrative del 1920, che seguiva l'effervescenza sociale del biennio rosso; la stipula del patto colonico del 1920 sfavorevole per gli agrari; la stessa esperienza, sebbene breve e contraddittoria, dell'occupazione delle fabbriche, sullo sfondo di una situazione economica difficile, ne determina la reazione, che si concretizza per l'appunto nell'adesione al fascismo. Dapprima nella versione squadrista, capace di sconfiggere sul piano militare gli oppositori, anche grazie al diffuso sostegno degli apparati di sicurezza dello Stato, quindi come blocco elettorale e nuova struttura politica in grado di conquistare il potere, il fascismo si configura come una sorta di union sacrée contro il "bolscevismo", in cui confluiscono conservatorismo agrario ma anche impulsi industrialisti e modernizzatori. Più concretamente, esso viene accorpando tutte quelle correnti politiche, contrapposte tra loro nel primo quindicennio del secolo, che avevano costituito il frastagliato universo giolittiano. In questo senso, come l'analisi dei vertici del Pnf provinciale e degli amministratori locali ha permesso di verificare, sino al 1927 a essere protagonisti sulla scena politica locale sono le forze che tradizionalmente facevano parte del blocco agrario. In primo luogo i proprietari terrieri, molti dei quali appartenenti alla nobiltà, a cui si affiancano esponenti della borghesia delle professioni, le cui proprietà erano cresciute a cavallo tra Ottocento e Novecento, nonché alcuni settori espressione diretta del mondo rurale, come gli agenti di campagna, i fattori, ma anche quei contadini che nei primi anni venti erano riusciti ad accedere alla proprietà della terra. In provincia di Terni quindi, dalla conquista fascista sino all'introduzione della riforma podestarile ma, in gran parte, anche dopo, la presenza ai vertici delle amministrazioni municipali e di quella provinciale di esponenti del notabilato locale, essenzialmente aristocratici, proprietari terrieri, professionisti, si rivela dato costante che permette di accomunare la provincia di Terni a realtà come la Toscana, l'Emilia-Romagna e, anche, a parte dell'Italia meridionale. L'attuazione della riforma podestarile, con le prerogative concesse al prefetto nella nomina dei vertici delle amministrazioni comunali, non sembra variare di molto la situazione, almeno nella prima fase di attuazione della riforma. Come è emerso nei comuni della provincia di Terni, il criterio seguito dai prefetti per l'individuazione dei podestà era connesso con la rilevanza sociale ed economica riconosciuta in una comunità ai candidati alla carica che, senza dubbio, un titolo nobiliare e una professione adeguata erano in grado di assicurare, anche magari a scapito della mancanza di qualche requisito previsto dalla legge istitutiva della riforma podestarile. In questo senso, sembra dunque perpetuarsi un modello burocratico e ottimatizio insieme, grazie al quale il fascismo intendeva presentarsi alle comunità locali con un volto rassicurante, al fine di accattivarsi il favore della popolazione. L'analisi prosopografica dei profili relativi a presidi, consultori provinciali, podestà, membri delle consulte municipali, per il periodo 1926-1943, ha reso possibile definire un quadro che vede sostanzialmente confermata l'analisi fatta in una prospettiva nazionale da Luca Baldissara ormai più di una decina di anni 3 fa1. E' cosi emerso il carattere di classe della rappresentanza politico-amministrativa fascista in questi anni, sebbene con alcune differenze effetto delle specificità socioeconomiche caratterizzanti l'area esaminata. Nello specifico, l'esame condotto sul corpus di 147 amministratori (78 podestà e 69 commissari prefettizi) che si succedono nei Comuni della provincia nell'arco di tempo considerato, ha permesso di tracciare l'identikit di un funzionario con un'età compresa tra i quaranta e i cinquanta anni; in possesso di un titolo di studio elevato (laurea o diploma di scuola superiore); in cui la proprietà della terra riveste un ruolo essenziale, coerentemente al tessuto socio-economico prevalente in provincia, e in cui dal punto di vista della professione esercitata appare predominante la figura del libero professionista (in genere avvocato e notaio). Forte è poi il legame dei podestà con il Pnf, più della metà del campione individuato risulta nel partito dal biennio 1920-1922; al tempo stesso, la maggioranza delle designazioni effettuate dai prefetti avviene in accordo con la federazione provinciale fascista. Sembra quindi delinearsi un quadro d'assieme che nel corso degli anni trenta, in gran parte della provincia, vede la predominanza delle gerarchie notabilari nella gestione del potere locale. Da tale situazione si discosta in parte l'area industriale compresa tra Terni e Narni, in cui come avviene in altri contesti urbani o regionali, attraverso il Pnf si assiste all'ascesa di personalità espressione della media e piccola borghesia urbana, per i quali l'istituto podestarile diventa uno strumento di promozione sociale e di affermazione nella gerarchia del potere locale. L'immagine del governo locale che si profila non è però statica, appare invece dinamica e contrassegnata da una forte conflittualità che, a vari livelli, si dimostra uno dei tratti comuni percepibili sotto l'apparente pacificazione realizzata dal fascismo. La forte instabilità presente nelle amministrazioni comunali della provincia di Terni, attestata dall'elevato numero di commissari prefettizi e di podestà retribuiti che si succedono, è testimonianza non solo delle difficoltà incontrate dai prefetti nella selezione di un ceto dirigente adeguato ma, soprattutto, del tentativo delle élites tradizionali, attraversate da interessi diversi e relazioni clientelari e familiari molteplici, di resistere all'azione omologatrice del regime. Indubbiamente, lo Stato fascista, attraverso la promozione di un modello di podestà fondato su competenza, capacità di agire, allineamento alle direttive dei vertici, in nome della proclamata modernizzazione puntava a ricondurre le periferie sotto il controllo del centro. Ecco allora che la ricerca di una concreta azione di governo delle amministrazioni locali, frequentemente sollecitata dal prefetto, da perseguire, ad esempio, attraverso la realizzazione di opere pubbliche funzionali alla mobilitazione di settori diversi della società, diventava il riferimento attraverso cui misurare l'efficienza e, soprattutto, "l'operosità" degli amministratori locali. L'elevato turnover dei podestà rappresenta pertanto una spia che si presta a misurare significativamente le difficoltà incontrate dal regime nell'affermare la propria azione in periferia. Non di rado tuttavia l'intervento del prefetto sui podestà si rendeva necessario per stroncare le lotte intestine e di fazione che si scatenavano all'interno delle élites locali per la gestione del potere. Le modalità attraverso cui tali scontri si manifestano sembrano esprimere dinamiche del conflitto omogenee a quanto accertato da altri studi 1 Luca Baldissara, Tecnica e politica nell'amministrazione. Saggio sulle culture amministrative e di governo municipale fra anni Trenta e Cinquanta, Il Mulino, Bologna 1998. 4 riguardanti realtà comunali, provinciali e regionali diverse. Esse assumono la forma di lettere, esposti, denunzie anonime, che divengono lo strumento di lotta principale tra le fazioni in una dimensione comunale ma, come è stato accertato in chiave provinciale, anche tra i rappresentanti dei diversi poteri locali, oltre che all'interno degli stessi vertici della federazione fascista ternana. A partire dal 1927, con la nascita della Provincia e l'insediamento di istituzioni politiche e amministrative nella città capoluogo, anche per il fascismo locale inizia una fase nuova, l'esame della quale ha permesso di meglio comprendere come in questa realtà si viene definendo il rapporto con il centro. La genesi della nuova entità territoriale è frutto di una serie di variabili legate, da un lato, alle esigenze politiche amministrative dello Stato fascista divenuto regime; a cui si sovrappongono le dinamiche conflittuali interne al fascismo regionale, che portano alla pacificazione dello stesso e alla nascita della federazione provinciale del Pnf. Infine, un ruolo determinante lo ha l'affermazione della "Terni" polisettoriale, vero e proprio potere forte nella nuova provincia, in grado di dare vita a un originale sistema di fabbrica a metà strada tra paternalismo assistenziale e truck-system. Con essa il regime dialoga direttamente, baypassando la neonata federazione provinciale del Pnf e, se necessario, intervenendo per normalizzarla, come dimostra esemplarmente la vicenda politica e personale di Elia Rossi Passavanti, primo federale e podestà di Terni. In questo senso, la ricostruzione dei percorsi personali e professionali dei vertici dell'amministrazione statale (prefetti e questori), degli organi politici (federali, vicefederali, segretari amministrativi, componenti del Direttorio della federazione fascista) ed economici (membri del consiglio provinciale dell'economia, di quello delle corporazioni e del principale istituto bancario del capoluogo), è stata preziosa per le riflessioni che permette di realizzare rispetto al ruolo avuto dal Pnf in provincia e, specialmente, alle dinamiche politiche che si innescano nei rapporti che il partito instaura con le altre autorità, a cominciare da quella prefettizia. Proprio con riferimento ai prefetti, si è potuto osservare che sui nove che si succedono in provincia di Terni nel periodo considerato, ben sei provengono dal Pnf. Tale fatto non sottende necessariamente un'automatica collaborazione con la federazione fascista, quanto piuttosto sembra rispondere all'esigenza del centro di superare i contrasti esistenti tra la federazione fascista e la prefettura che, invece, è situazione ricorrente in provincia. Nel contempo, il succedersi di dodici federali alla guida del partito è prova di una significativa instabilità, dato peraltro ulteriormente confermato dalla netta prevalenza di personalità estranee all'ambiente locale, ben nove. Questo fatto non esprime solo una certa debolezza del fascismo locale, incapace di fornire un ceto dirigente adeguato, ma dimostra la stessa evoluzione che subisce la figura del segretario federale, nei termini di una spiccata professionalizzazione inquadrabile nel più generale contesto di crescente burocratizzazione del Pnf funzionale a consolidarne il ruolo di mediazione e di intervento nell'amministrazione dello Stato, che si rivela uno dei tratti tipici del Pnf staraciano. In questo senso, le guerre che si scatenano tra prefetto e federale nel corso degli anni trenta, ad esempio per la questione delle nomine dei podestà, in cui ruolo determinante lo acquista ancora una volta l'arma dell'esposto e della lettera anonima, attestano il tentativo portato avanti dal partito di far sentire il proprio peso al fine se non di sovrapporsi, quanto meno di affiancare lo Stato in periferia. Affiora così quella di5 mensione policratica che si configura come uno degli elementi caratterizzanti la politica in periferia negli anni del regime. Nonostante i contrasti che si scatenano tra i poteri, le lotte intestine all'interno del Pnf, la cronica debolezza dimostrata dai ceti dirigenti, la federazione provinciale fascista nel corso degli anni trenta riesce comunque a essere vitale e in grado di esercitare il proprio ruolo ai fini della fascistizzazione della società locale. D'altra parte, ai vertici del partito se si escludono i federali e i loro più stretti collaboratori, le restanti cariche continuano a essere gestite in larga parte dal medesimo nucleo originario fascista, fatto di appartenenti al ceto agrario e alla borghesia delle professioni provenienti, per la maggior parte, dall'area ternana. Ciò attesta lo scarso ricambio generazionale esistente all'interno della federazione, ma anche il peso politico ed economico ricoperto dal capoluogo rispetto all'intera provincia. Questi dirigenti fanno parte dei diversi Direttori federali che si succedono e, talvolta, ricoprono contemporaneamente, laddove la legislazione lo consente, incarichi in organismi quali il Consiglio provinciale dell'economia o, anche, alla guida della principale banca locale. Ai vertici del partito il peso degli appartenenti a settori della piccola borghesia e del ceto operaio è invece minore. Soltanto con l'approssimarsi del secondo conflitto mondiale, si fanno strada figure espressione del ceto impiegatizio, ma anche tecnici e qualche sindacalista con alle spalle una carriera nell'apparato burocratico della federazione provinciale, i quali assumono incarichi di un certo peso, come quello di segretario amministrativo o di componente del Direttorio. In questo modo sembra prefigurarsi, sebbene in maniera timida e non paragonabile a quanto accade in altre province, l'affermazione «dal basso e dalle periferie [di] una nuova classe dirigente del regime totalitario»2. Nel corso degli anni trenta dunque, sebbene tra molteplici difficoltà di natura anche economica, il Pnf riesce a dare vita in provincia a una struttura organizzativa in grado di penetrare e inquadrare la società locale. Peraltro, l'afflusso costante di contributi concessi da enti pubblici diversi (amministrazioni provinciali, comunali, Consiglio provinciale dell'economia) e soggetti privati (la Società "Terni" in primo luogo, ma anche altre aziende) a un partito alla continua ricerca di risorse, che la documentazione amministrativa della federazione ternana ha permesso di verificare, rappresenta testimonianza esemplare degli sforzi profusi dal regime per rendere il Pnf un volano di sviluppo del peculiare welfare funzionale alla fascistizzazione della società locale. In questa prospettiva, il rapporto con la Società "Terni" si è rivelato una chiave di lettura che non è possibile trascurare se si vuole comprendere la natura dell'esperienza fascista in provincia di Terni. Si è visto che la stessa nascita della nuova Provincia è connessa alla questione del controllo delle acque del sistema Nera-Velino, presupposto essenziale per la creazione dell'impresa polisettoriale; così come la stipula della convenzione tra il Comune di Terni e la società guidata da Bocciardo, sanziona di fatto in maniera prepotente la forza non solo della grande azienda, ma l'affermazione dello stesso "centro" sulla "periferia". Da quel momento e anche dopo l'inserimento della "Terni" nel sistema delle partecipazioni statali attra- 2 Marco Palla, Il partito e le classi dirigenti, in Renato Camurri, Stefano Cavazza, Id. (a cura di), Fascismi locali, "Ricerche di Storia politica", a. X, nuova serie, dicembre 2010, 3/10, p. 296. 6 verso l'Iri, operazione che garantì allo Stato il controllo pubblico sull'azienda e sul suo assetto produttivo, la grande impresa per il fascismo ma, più in generale, per la stessa società locale diventa emblematicamente una madre-matrigna. Essa viene percepita come un complesso capitalistico che invade la città e, con i suoi vertici, in grado di dialogare con il centro e, anche, direttamente con il duce, si pone rispetto al Pnf locale in una situazione super partes. Non è così casuale che i federali presentino come risultato della loro azione politica i buoni rapporti che riescono a intrattenere con i vertici aziendali, i quali peraltro si dimostrano costantemente impermeabili all'influenza della federazione fascista. D'altra parte, a partire dalla stipula della convenzione del 1927 e per tutto il decennio successivo la "Terni", insieme al partito, appare senza alcun dubbio uno dei pilastri del regime in provincia. Non soltanto sostiene la federazione provinciale con contributi costanti, essenziali per assicurargli la possibilità di svolgere la propria azione sul territorio; ma, più in generale, con tutto il suo peso di grande gruppo polisettoriale sposa in pieno le politiche economiche, sindacali, sociali del regime, garantendo allo stesso le condizioni per affermare «un sistema di aggregazione/costruzione del consenso/controllo sociale e politico che si adegua al modello del regime reazionario di massa»3. In queste dinamiche si inserisce anche, per quanto è stato possibile accertare in relazione alle fonti disponibili, l'atteggiamento tenuto dalla Chiesa cattolica locale nei riguardi del fascismo. L'analisi condotta con riferimento specifico alla diocesi di Terni-Narni e al vescovo Cesare Boccoleri che la guida nel Ventennio fascista, ha permesso di accertare che, come succede in altre diocesi italiane e coerentemente con le scelte fatte dai vertici vaticani, la Chiesa ternana sembra tenere una posizione di sostanziale appoggio al fascismo e di collaborazione con il Pnf. Ciò emerge in maniera evidente in alcuni momenti: ad esempio, in occasione delle campagne promosse dal regime sul terreno economico e sociale, come per la Battaglia del grano e, soprattutto, dopo la stipula del Concordato, o nel corso della guerra d'Etiopia e di Spagna. Al tempo stesso, anche quando si hanno tensioni nei rapporti tra Stato e Chiesa (per effetto della crisi del 1931 sulle prerogative dell'Azione cattolica o in occasione dell'introduzione delle leggi razziali), le conseguenze concrete per la Chiesa locale sono di scarso rilievo e, comunque, tali da non incidere sostanzialmente sulla natura dei rapporti esistenti con la federazione fascista. Anche la Chiesa locale quindi, sebbene con l'obiettivo di preservare e, per quanto possibile, incrementare la presenza cattolica nella società locale, contribuisce nella sostanza a consolidare e, anche, ampliare il consenso al regime. In particolare, essa si dimostra attiva nel favorire, specialmente nelle aree rurali, quell'azione di «modernizzazione politica» di natura reazionaria, conseguenza del tentativo di organizzazione della società italiana secondo criteri gerarchici e accentratori, che il fascismo è impegnato a portare avanti in periferia. Certamente, un ruolo essenziale ai fini della creazione e, soprattutto, del mantenimento del consenso lo esercita anche la costante opera di vigilanza e repressione di ogni forma di dissenso organizzato e di attività politica di opposizione, che si attua in provincia per opera degli apparati di sicurezza dello Stato fascista. Tale azione si rivela particolarmente efficace se negli anni del regime solo i comunisti, essenzial- 3 Renato Covino, L'invenzione di una regione, Quattroemme, Perugia 1995, p. 58. 7 mente nell'area industriale ternana, riescono a mantenere in vita, per quanto a fatica e in misura ridotta, una forma di opposizione organizzata. E tuttavia, il fatto che continuamente le autorità, sebbene nell'ambito del riconoscimento di quanto fatto dalle diverse organizzazioni del partito a favore del ceto operaio, lamentassero l'inadeguato grado di "comprensione fascista", quando non la scarsa fascistizzazione dei lavoratori delle industrie ternane e la loro "pericolosità" politica, sembra essere la conferma implicita di come in provincia, non solo non scompare l'insofferenza e il dissenso, anche politicamente organizzato, ma, più in generale, sotto la camicia nera, a prescindere dalla propaganda e dall'attività delle differenti istituzioni del regime, non vengono meno nemmeno gli interessi molteplici che contrassegnano la società locale e le diverse realtà presenti sul territorio. In ultima analisi, il fascismo locale appare in grado di esercitare un ruolo attivo nel disegno di fascistizzazione della società, coerentemente con l'accelerazione nel processo di creazione dello Stato totalitario di cui è strumento il Pnf staraciano. Il partito si rivela dunque un vero e proprio centro di potere, espressione di un regime autoritario e tendenzialmente totalitario, con cui, inevitabilmente, tutti i cittadini si trovano a confrontarsi per le necessità della vita quotidiana: in altre parole, a dover essere, almeno una volta nella vita, fascisti. ; This research project is an in-depth study, in a comprehensive and long-term perspective, of what Fascism represented at a local level in a peripheral and non-homogeneous context, as in the case of the Southern Umbria areas, established as an administrative province in 1927. This specific geographical district flagged-up all the prerequisites for an exemplary case study, featuring several significant explanatory points. To this unique large provincial administrative industrial hub located within the Terni basin, other districts, part of the same province, remained juxtaposed. Within their respective areas, these districts included towns such as Orvieto and Amelia, which had strong links with the neighbouring communities, representing the rural, agricultural and mezzadrile aspects of Umbria, land of Saint Francis of Assisi, rich in art and religious meanings, which the Fascist Regime came to proclaim officially as the "heart" of Fascist Italy. On the basis of these introductory remarks, the study focuses its scope of research on three main points, all but essential to understand fully the aspects and dynamics of the local society during the Fascist period, also referred to as the ventennio mussoliniano. An interpretative functional grid has been designed with a view to describe the role of the National Fascist Party (Nfp) within the centre-periphery and continuity-innovation relationships with the previous regime. The study seeks to investigate how Fascism exerted its influence on the establishment and process of strengthening of the local ruling ranks, attesting its ability to relate with the old dominant élites, or promote the emerging of new ones or, in addition, facilitate and support the coexistence of both. Furthermore, the research focuses on the role exerted by the Nfp at a local level, its capability to affect the various localised dynamics of power, to create and control networks of affiliates and, above all, to relate with the two main subjects which remained independent from its control, the important industrial group represented by "Terni" of Bocciardo and the local Catholic Church, with an overarching aim to achieve its totalitarian objectives. Finally, the question of popular consent has also been scrutinised. At one level, the study analyses the 2 role of fascist violence deployed to obtain power and the repressive actions carried out under the Regime, which were highly effective, as one might expect under a dictatorship. At another level, it investigates the popular dissent and the grey areas of passive acceptance and weak consent which were common among strata of the local population. Additionally, in a broader perspective, political and institutional historical analysis has been coupled with social and economic investigation, through a systematic scrutiny and cross-examination of the main sources, as a methodological approach needful to the achievement of the final outcomes of the research. Findings on the origins, development, and strengthening of Fascism within the Terni province appear to concur with the conclusions reached by previous historical research. In the Southern areas of Umbria, Fascism, at its highest level, was brought into power and successfully established by the traditional ruling classes. The establishment of Fascism was supported and facilitated by the agrarian reaction and the monopolistic industrial groups threatened by the discontent of the rural and working classes and the rapid advancement of Socialism. The political defeat of the traditional ruling élites at the 1919 general election and the 1920 local elections, which followed the social turmoil of the so-called red biennium; the agreement of the 1920 patto colonico, disadvantageous to landowners; the occupation of factories, though a brief and contradictory experience, against a background of economic difficulty, caused their reaction and prompted their acceptance and support for Fascism. Firstly, Fascism, in the form of Fascist action squads and their capability of defeating its opponents militarily, with the extensive assistance of the State security services, then as an electoral block and political force capable to achieve power, presented itself as a sort of union sacrée against the threat of Bolshevism into which various groups appear to converge: the agrarian conservatism but also industrial and more modern forces. Undoubtedly, Fascism drew together different political forces, which during the first decade of the twentieth-century had been mutually antagonistic, and segments of the complex and divided political establishment of the Giolitti era. The scrutiny of the highest levels of the local Nfp and civil servants has revealed that, at least till 1927, the main political figures belonged to those forces already part of the agrarian block. Firstly, the landowners, many of whom belonged to the local nobility, supported by members of the professional bourgeoisie, whose estates and wealth had augmented during the nineteenth- and twentieth-century, and other sectors which were the direct expression of the rural milieus, such as the rural agents, farmers, but also those peasants whom, during the first two decades of the twentieth-century, had succeeded in becoming landowners themselves. Therefore in the Terni province, from the establishment of the Fascist regime to the introduction of the office of podestà and, for some time even after, 3 the highest offices of the municipal and provincial administration were held by members of the local nobility, primarily aristocrats, landowners and professionals. This is an invariable characteristic which put the Terni province in alignment with similar situations in Tuscany, Emilia Romagna and other areas of Southern Italy. The administrative reform and the establishment of the podestà authority, together with the prerogatives of the prefectures in appointing members of the highest offices within the municipal administrations, did not radically change, at least during the early phases of the reform, established practice. A survey of the municipalities located within the Terni province, shows that the prefects in the selection process to appoint the podestà took greatly into account the candidates' social and economic status of and, without doubt, a honorific title and tenure of highly considered profession were often sufficient criteria for a candidate to be nominated even when lacking some of the prescribed requisites as outlined by the administrative reform. The Fascist regime therefore, in perpetuating a bureaucratic and grandees system, showed an intention to reassure the existing ruling élites and obtain the support of the local population. A prosopographical analysis of the biographical profiles of headmasters, members of the provincial advice bureaus, podestà, members of the municipal advisory councils, during the 1926-1943 period, has made it possible to outline a summary framework which strongly corroborates the analysis carried out at a national level by Luca Baldissarra over a decade ago.1 What has emerged from this analysis is the class-based character of the Fascist political and administrative representation during those years, though presenting various differences linked to the social and economic specificity of the area scrutinised. In more depth, the study carried out on a corpus of 147 civil servants (78 podestà and 69 prefectural officers) employed by the municipalities of the province during the examined period, made it possible to draw up a profile of the typical officer: between forty and fifty years of age; highly educated (having achieved a high-school or university degree); often a landowner, a characteristic consistent with the social and economic structure prevailing throughout the province, and among whom the status of self-employed (generally lawyer or public notary) represented the most frequent professional position held. Relations between the podestà and the Nfp appear to have been particularly close, over half of the sample identified is composed by individuals who had joined the Fascist Party at an early stage, during 1920-1922; additionally, the majority of the appointments made by the prefects were agreed in advance with the Provincial Fascist Federation. It would therefore appear that during the 1930s, in 1 Luca Baldissara, Tecnica e politica nell'amministrazione. Saggio sulle culture amministrative e di governo municipale fra anni Trenta e Cinquanta, Il Mulino, Bologna 1998. 4 large areas of the province, the highest hierarchies of grandees were the prominent figures holding local high office. The industrial area comprised within the administrative territories of the two municipalities of Terni and Narni, however, appears to contrast with other districts of the province. In this area, as for similar cases in other municipalities or other regional administrations, the Nfp supported the emergence of members of the small and medium local urban bourgeoisie, as the office of podestà became a vehicle of social advancement and an opportunity to climb up the local hierarchy of power. Despite the apparent pacification established forcibly by the Fascist regime, the dynamics of power within the local government remained characterised by extreme unrest and strong conflict at various levels. The sizeable number of prefectural commissioners and remunerated podestà who succeeded in office, often in rapid succession, bears witness to the instability which marred almost all the municipal administrations of Terni province. This is evidence of the obstacles encountered by the prefects during the selection process of a qualified managerial class but, above all, of the resistance put up by the traditional élites of power, motivated by divergent interests and loyalty to various networks of familial and personal relations, to the process of homologation pursued by the Fascist regime. Undoubtedly, the Fascist regime, in implementing a model of podestà based on competence, on the energetic ability to act, on its alignment to official directives, and in order to achieve a modernisation of the administrative system, aimed at placing the local authorities under the prescriptive control of a centralised State. The actual administrative actions implemented by the local administrative offices, frequently under the guidance and pressure of the Prefects, as for example in the case of the accomplishment of public works functional to the civil mobilisation of various segments of the local community, became a measure of their efficiency and, above all, a measurement of how industrious the local administrators should be. The high turn-over of podestà is a clear indication of how difficult it was for the Fascist regime to implement its plans of action in peripheral areas. Additionally, direct intervention by the Prefects was often necessary to put an end to rivalries and internal power struggles which frequently broke out among local élites. These clashes and their manifestations appear to be similar in their dynamics, as pointed out by previous studies, to other cases occurred in different municipalities, provinces and regions. Resorting to anonymous letters, official complaints, accusations, came to represent the instrument to attack and weaken the opposite factions at a local level, within the municipalities, but also within the provincial administration, among the various representatives of the local administration and even the highest offices of the Terni Fascist Federation. From 1927, following the establishment of the 5 Province and the set up of political and administrative authorities in Terni, now seat of local government, a new phase emerged for the local Fascist Party too. The study of this new province has facilitated the understanding of its relations with central authorities. The establishment of this new local administration was the result of various circumstances linked to the political requirements of the Fascist State following the transition to a totalitarian regime. Additionally, the internal conflict dynamics of the regional Fascist Party played an important role. These led to the inner pacification of the Party and the set up of a Nfp Provincial Federation. Finally, the establishment of "Terni" had a pivotal role too. "Società Terni" (also referred to as "La Terni") came to represent the real "strong power" of the province, capable of imposing a factory regimen based partially on paternalistic assistance and partially on a truck-system model. The Fascist regime dealt directly with "Terni", bypassing the newly-established Nfp Provincial Federation and, where necessary, intervened to impose its authority, as the political and personal vicissitudes of Elia Rossi Passavanti, the first Federal secretary and podestà of Terni, exemplified. In this perspective, drawing together personal and professional career paths of the highest officers (prefects and police commissioners), of both political (federals, deputy federals, administrative secretaries, members of the Fascist Federation Federal Bureau) and economic authorities (members of the Provincial Economic Council, members of the Provincial Corporations Council and of the main bank) has represented an invaluable study, conducive to the understanding of the Nfp's role within the province and, in addition, of the political dynamics at play among the Fascist Party and other authorities, such as the prefectures. With specific reference to the prefects, it is worth noticing that of the nine prefects in office in the Terni province during the period under scrutiny, as many as six were Nfp members. This situation, however, did not necessarily imply a spontaneous collaboration between the prefectures and the Fascist Federation, but it would appear to have been a response to the need of overcoming the conflictual antinomy between the two authorities, which was a recurrent event throughout the Terni province. In addition, the succession of twelve Federals as leaders of the Fascist Party bears witness to a pervasive instability, a fact which is also confirmed by the noticeable preference given to individuals, as many as nine, unconnected with the local milieu. This is certainly a clear manifestation of the local Fascist Party's weakness - which appeared unable to express and produce capable managerial ranks - and of the evolution of the Federal Secretary's role, becoming more and more a professional one, in the context of the remarkable bureaucratisation of the Nfp, aimed at strengthening its mediatory and interventional role on the local administration, one of the main characteristics of the Nfp 6 under the leadership of Starace. Within this framework, the contrast between the prefects and the Fascist Federal secretaries during the 1930s, with regard, as a case in point, to the appointments of the podestà, and the crucial utilisation of official complaints and anonymous letters, bears witness to the Party's attempt to impose its decisions or, at least, to influence the administration at a local level. This, in turn, resulted in a situation of polycracy, which was one of the factors denoting local politics during the Fascist regime. During the 1930s, despite deep rooted conflict among the authorities, the internal power struggles within the Nfp and the endemic ineptitudes of the ruling class, the Fascist Provincial Federation was successful in exerting and promoting the fascistisation of the local community. It is manifest that the highest authorities within the National Fascist Party, with the exception of the Federals and their closest advisors, remained the domain of the original Fascist core, composed by members of the rural class and the bourgeoisie originating primarily from the Terni area. This explains the inadequate generational change within the Fascist Federation and, in addition, the political and economic importance of the Terni area in comparison to the entire province. These political figures were part of the various Federal Bureau and, in some cases at the same time, if the law permitted, held additional offices in different institutional bodies, such as the Economic Provincial Council or were in charge of the main local bank. On the contrary, the influence exerted on the high levels of the National Fascist Party by the small bourgeoisie or by members of the working class remained negligible. It was only with the approach of the Second World War that members of the clerical class, but also technicians and a few tradeunionists already employed within the bureaucratic structure of the Provincial Federation, acquired an enhanced importance and gained access to higher office, such as administrative secretaries or members of the Federal Bureau. The Terni area too, though in a more limited way, which bears not comparison with other provinces, saw the rising «from the bottom and the periphery of a new ruling class within the totalitarian regime»2. During the 1930s therefore, despite various difficulties, including economic issues, the Nfp was successful in creating at a provincial level an organisational structure capable of influencing and organising the local community. Additionally, the regular flow of financial contributions bestowed by various public authorities (provincial administrations, municipalities, Provincial Economic Council) and private companies ("La Terni", first of all, but other businesses too) to a political party constantly seeking financial backing, as thoroughly documented by records of the Terni Fascist Federation, bears witness to the outstanding efforts the Regime made to 2 Marco Palla, Il partito e le classi dirigenti, in Renato Camurri, Stefano Cavazza, Id. (a cura di), Fascismi locali, "Ricerche di Storia politica", a. X, nuova serie, dicembre 2010, 3/10, p. 296. 7 successfully present the Nfp as a conducive mean to the development of this specific welfare model, with a view to promote the fascistisation of the local community. In this perspective, the Nfp's relation with the "Società Terni" is key to understanding the nature of the Fascist Regime and its role within the Terni province. The establishment of a Province was connected to the control of the water-system of the two rivers Nera-Velino, essential to create an industrial hub; similar reasons were behind the agreement stipulated between the Terni municipality and the Bocciardo Company, which came to sanction resolutely the importance of the Company and, additionally, the supremacy of the "centre" over the "periphery". It was from this period and following the inclusion of "Società Terni" within the system of state-controlled industries through the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, a transaction which secured State control over the Company and its productive branches, that "La Terni" became firmly linked to Fascism and, more in general, to the local community, though in a controversial and ambivalent mutual relation. The Company was perceived as a capitalistic enterprise which took over the city, its directors being able to negotiate with the central Government directly and with the Duce himself, taking a super partes position in relation to the local Nfp. It was not a fortuitous occurrence that the Federal secretaries gauged their political influence against the effectiveness and strength of the relations they were able to maintain with the executive directors of "Società Terni", whom, on their part, appeared to be impenetrable to any influence exerted by the local Fascist Federation. Additionally, following the 1927 agreement and during the ensuing decade, "La Terni", in conjunction with the Fascist Party, appeared to become, without doubt, one of the main pillars of the province. At one level, it supported the Fascist Provincial Federation through a constant flow of financial contributions, vital to bankroll the Federation's activities within the province; but, at a more general level, asserting its influence as a large industrial group, it was capable of shaping the economic, trade-union and social policies of the Fascist regime, creating those conditions to establish «a system of aggregation/disaggregation of the social and political consensus/control conforming to the mass reactionary regime model»3. Within this dynamic interactions, and on the basis of documents available, the local Catholic Church played a significant role in relation to the Fascist Party. With reference to the specific case of the Terni-Narni dioceses and bishop Cesare Boccoleri, the Church's main leader during the Fascist ventennio, this research has showed that, as in the case of other Italian 3 Renato Covino, L'invenzione di una regione, Quattroemme, Perugia 1995, p. 58. 8 dioceses and in alignment with the decisions taken by the Vatican, the Church authorities in Terni supported the Fascist apparatus and adhered to a policy of collaboration with the Nfp. This was particularly manifest on specific occasions: for example during the economic and social campaigns promoted by the Regime, as a case in point the so-called "Battle of the wheat" and, above all, following the 1929 Concordat with the Catholic Church, or during the Ethiopian and Spanish conflicts. At the same time, even when tensions arose and marred the relations between the Fascist regime and the Catholic Church (following the 1931 crisis caused by the limitations imposed on the prerogatives of Azione Cattolica or the adoption of the 1938 racial laws), the consequences for the local Church were negligible and did not appear to affect the on-going relations with the local Fascist Federation. The local Church therefore in pursuing the aim of preserving and, wherever possible, augmenting the Church's influence on the local community, contributed to reinforce and widen consensus for the Fascist regime. More specifically, the Church's actions were particularly effective in encouraging, especially in rural areas, that precise process of "political modernisation", though reactionary at its core, based on organising the entire Italian society on hierarchical and centralising criteria, which Fascism was promoting particularly at a local level. Additionally, and without doubt, the important function to create and, above all, to maintain a high level of consensus was exerted by the pervasive surveillance and repression of any form of dissent and political opposition, enforced within the province by the Fascist security services. A repressive action which was extremely effective and, during the dictatorship, only the Communist Party, despite being hemmed in to the Terni industrial area, was able to maintain, albeit with great difficulty and in a limited way, a form of organised resistance. The fact that the Fascist authorities continuously, though recognising what had been achieved by the Party's multifarious organisations to favour and support the working classes, lamented the feeble "fascistisation" of the Terni industrial workforce and their being "politically dangerous", would appear to confirm implicitly that throughout the province the opposition and political dissent had not completely ceased. More in general, under the "black shirts", despite the propaganda and the activities of various Fascist authorities and institutions, it remained evident that the diversified interests which characterised the local society and the different realities rooted at local level persisted. Ultimately, the local Fascist Party appeared capable of exerting an active role in the "fascistisation" process of society, in alignment with the creation and implementation of a totalitarian state, being the main objective of the National Fascist Party under the leadership of Starace. The Nfp was therefore a real centre of power, expression of an authoritarian 9 regime leaning toward totalitarianism. A regime against which all citizens had to relate for their everyday life needs: that is to say, all citizens had to act, at least outwardly, as fascists.