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This article argues that Hobbes constructed the sovereignty acknowledged among European states on the supposition of the absence of sovereignty in the New World. The notion of international anarchy found in Hobbes before the twentieth century was not the anarchy of interstate relations later posited by realism, but the anarchy of prepolitical societies outside the ordered system of European states. The modern geography of sovereignty that Hobbes established is demonstrated with reference to the cartographic traditions that informed his representation of the state of nature and the civil state, and to the historical context of the law of nations as it was understood to manage colonial rivalry in the seventeenth century. By constructing savages as absolutely free individuals in the state of nature, he precluded their recognition as free sovereign states. He thus contributed a set of premises to natural jurisprudence that denied indigenous societies statehood and excluded them from the family nations. A sketch of the Hobbesian legacy among theorists of the law of nations and international law is made, showing how his motif of savage anarchy remained central to our conceptualization of the sovereign state within the international realm into the twentieth century.

Das WTO-Übereinkommen TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) stellt einen Konsens bezüglich des Schutzes geistiger Eigentumsrechte auf multilateraler Ebene dar. Der hierdurch erzielte Schutzstandard wurde jedoch vor allem durch die entwickelten Staaten als zu gering angesehen. Daher nutzten diese ihre politisch machtvolle Stellung, insbesondere gegenüber den Entwicklungsländern, und erzielten in bi- bzw. plurilateralen Verhandlungen einen weitergehenden Schutz geistiger Eigentumsrechte im Rahmen der sogenannten internationalen Investitionsschutzverträge. Diese erhöhten Schutzstandards werden als "TRIPS-plus" bezeichnet. Der vorliegende Beitrag wird sich in einem ersten Schritt mit der Einbeziehung der geistigen Eigentumsrechte in den Investitionsbegriff der Investitionsschutzverträge beschäftigen. Anschließend wird der Beitrag eine Vielzahl an materiell-rechtlichen und prozessualen "TRIPS-plus"-Standards bzw. -Mechanismen darstellen. Einen Schwerpunkt wird hierbei die Wechselwirkung bzw. gegenseitige Beeinflussung der beiden internationalen Vertragsregime einnehmen. Dies wird z.B. im Rahmen der Überprüfung einer WTO-rechtlich zulässigen Zwangslizenz anhand des investitionsschutzrechtlichen Enteignungsschutzes verdeutlicht. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss der verschiedenen "most-favoured-nation"-Regelungen auf die Erhöhung des Schutzniveaus erläutert. The WTO-Agreement TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) presents a multilateral consensus on the protection of intellectual property rights. Nevertheless the developed countries regarded the TRIPS protection standards as insufficient for their interests. As a consequence, they used their politically powerful position, especially vis-à-vis developing countries, and achieved a further going protection of intellectual property rights under international investment treaties. These more favorable standards of protection are called "TRIPS-plus" standards. In a first part, this paper will illustrate the ...

Der Treibhauseffekt und die verschiedenen Aspekte des Handels mit Emissionsrechten von Treibhausgasen werden diskutiert. Die handelbaren Emissionsrechte werden mit anderen Lenkungsinstrumenten verglichen. Der Inhalt der Emissionsrechte, Besonderheiten des Handels mit Emissionsrechten und die Bedingungen der Einhaltung der Emissionsziele werden problematisiert. Vor diesem Hintergrund werden die Ergebnisse der Konferenz der Vertragsparteien der Klimarahmenkonvention in Kyoto 1997 bzw. des Kyoto-Protokolls analysiert. Dabei werden auch die Aufteilung der Emissionsziele innerhalb der EU, die Teilnahme von Entwicklungsländern, die Unternehmensbeteiligung am Handel mit Emissionsrechten u.a. angesprochen. Insgesamt ist die Umsetzung vieler Bestimmungen zum allgemeinen Handel mit Emissionsrechten aus dem Kyoto-Protokoll bereits entschieden. (prf)

The praxeological approach to international relations obviates the difficulty of defining a basically -- & perhaps more & more -- heterogeneous "international system," at least for the actors concerned. Specific international problems can thus be identified -- regional crisis, nuclear proliferation, terrorism -- & for which the states, still dominant on the international scene, can develop their cooperation. Adapted from the source document.

The article provides a profound analysis of the main trends of international student migration for tertiary education, discusses the key factors influencing the choice of destination for studying abroad, and reveals the regional peculiarities of instruments for student migration regulation. The first part of the paper highlights the official statistics showing that in recent decades the world witnessed the steady increase in the number of international students, concentrating mainly in the USA and the European Union. Almost 48% of all international students in the world study in the European Union. This region also shows the highest internal student mobility. Among others, such countries as Austria, Luxemburg, Switzerland, Australia and New Zealand demonstrate the biggest shares of foreign students in the total number of university students. As for donor countries, the dynamics proves the major role of the Asia region, with a half of all international students originated from it. The largest number of foreign students come from China, India and South Korea. Nonetheless, the Asia region becomes a popular destination of student mobility nowadays. The second part of the article concerns different coordination policies of tertiary migration in the regional context. Mostly in developed countries, practices of attracting foreign students to study in professional programs and degree programs with a perspective to enter a national labor market after graduation become more and more popular. Postgraduate migration remains a priority. Most countries encourage job-searching for foreign graduate students, as they are considered to have a high-skill level, international views and an opportunity to live and work in a variety of socio-cultural conditions. Further analysis refers to the main factors determining the choice of destination for foreign students, which are: geographical proximity, language skills, cultural proximity, the cost of education, and a country's reputation in the field of higher education. The paper reveals the leading role of the EU in the developed intraregional educational mobility, the regional asymmetry of migration processes in other regions of the world, and Asian countries actively promoting temporary educational and labor migration to developed countries with incentives to return to a home-country in the future. In recent years, due to positive dynamics of the return migrants number, an interest in the creation of the returnees strategy grows as well as desire of developed and developing countries to benefit most from the return migration.