While the process of European integration has been forming since the years following the end of the Second World War, a process in an early stage of economic and then political integration, we have been witnessing a gradual disappearance of checks at the common borders of the member states that, despite the increased controls at the external border of the Union, has been accompanied by a wide range of problems to the internal security of the Union itself and the states themselves, which as been observed on many occasions and once overcome (legal or irregular) this barrier to external input, the arrival of unprecedented migration. Throughout this article I analyze the measures that have been developed on irregular immigration and repatriation or removal thereof, also depending among other initiatives undertaken in the field of passenger transport, the use of irregular labor force in Europe and the utility of readmission agreements for the operation of the immigration policy. ; Con el proceso de integración europeo que se ha venido constituyendo desde los años posteriores al fin de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, proceso en un primer estadio de integración económica y posteriormente política, hemos venido asistiendo a una paulatina desaparición de los controles en las fronteras comunes de los Estados miembros que a pesar del aumento de los controles en la frontera exterior de la Unión, se ha visto acompañado de un amplio abanico de problemas a la seguridad interna de la propia Unión y de los propios Estados, los cuales vienen observando como en no pocas ocasiones y una vez superada (de manera legal o irregular) esta barrera a la entrada externa, la llegada de flujos migratorios sin precedentes. A lo largo del presente artículo pretendo analizar las medidas que se han venido desarrollando en materia de inmigración irregular y repatriación o expulsión de la misma, atendiendo además entre otras cosas a las iniciativas llevadas a cabo en el ámbito del transporte de personas, el empleo de mano de obra proveniente a Europa de modo irregular y la utilidad para el funcionamiento de la política migratoria de los acuerdos de readmisión.While the process of European integration has been forming since the years following the end of the Second World War, a process in an early stage of economic and then political integration, we have been witnessing a gradual disappearance of checks at the common borders of the member states that, despite the increased controls at the external border of the Union, has been accompanied by a wide range of problems to the internal security of the Union itself and the states themselves, which as been observed on many occasions and once overcome (legal or irregular) this barrier to external input, the arrival of unprecedented migration. Throughout this article I analyze the measures that have been developed on irregular immigration and repatriation or removal thereof, also depending among other initiatives undertaken in the field of passenger transport, the use of irregular labor force in Europe and the utility of readmission agreements for the operation of the immigration policy.
Seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg ist beständig und mit steigender Intensität eine Zunahme zwischenstaatlicher Politik- und Wirtschaftsbeziehungen zu beobachten. Die Internationalisierung von Politik und Wirtschaft nimmt teils weltumspannend globale Formen an, teils ist sie auf Großregionen der Welt, wie etwa die Europäische Union, konzentriert. Mit der Zunahme transnationaler Interdependenz geht der Auf- und Ausbau multinationaler Organisationen samt angegliederter Behördenapparate einher. Über die Arbeitsbedingungen und Beteiligungsrechte der Beschäftigten sowie die gewerkschaftliche Vertretung in diesen transnationalen Behörden ist wenig bekannt. In diesem Beitrag, der auf einer im Auftrag der Hans-Böckler-Stiftung des DGB im Jahre 1995 abgeschlossenen Studie (Hassel und Jacobi) beruht, werden die wichtigsten Informationen über die industriellen Beziehungen in EU-Behörden zusammengetragen und um Empfehlungen zur Verbesserung der gewerkschaftlichen Vertretung ergänzt. ...(Transfer / FUB)
This article examines why employer opposition is stimulated by the introduction of statutory union recognition provisions in Britain, Ireland and the US. It examines the impact of the provisions for encouraging union organizing, which in turn stimulates employer anti-unionism, which then negates the intention of the provisions.
Bibliografia ; The aim of this project is to recognize which economic consequences could have for the European airline operators being subject under the Cap-and-Trade System where CO2 emissions are traded as allowances. ; El treball establert proposa entendre quins son els efectes de la inclusió de l'aviació internacional dins el sistema europeu ETS. Concretament, es pretén analitzar com podria repercutir en termes econòmics el fet de tractar les emissions de CO2 procedents de l'aviació com a drets d'emissió subjectes al sistema Cap-and-Trade. ; El trabajo establecido propone entender los efectos de la inclusión de la aviación internacional dentro del sistema europeo ETS. Concretamente, se pretende analizar como podría repercutir en términos económicos el hecho de tratar las emisiones de CO2 procedentes de la aviación como derechos de emisión sujetos al sistema Cap-and- Trade.
In this discussion of the fate of the Kurdish people in Turkey, the author argues that understanding the future of the Kurds must include acknowledgement of the unique polemics between the Turkish state & the Kurdish battle for recognition & representation. The relationship between the state & the Turkish Kurds is traced in a historical narrative to contextualize issues of Kurdish nationalism, membership in the EU, & insurgency & the civilizing mission of the Kemalist state. Europeanization of Turks & Kurds is asserted to conflict with the growing autonomy of the Kurdish population of northern Iraq, & the need for Turkey to provide a safe environment & legal recognition through the Copenhagen criteria. The inadequacies of the Copenhagen criteria are argued to not allow Kurds to exist without restrictions, & the old ideologies of the Turkish state & military need to be controlled by democratic principles. J. Harwell
Abstract. This article starts from the assumption that the current process of globalization or denationalization leads to the formation of a new structural conflict in Western European countries, opposing those who benefit from this process against those who tend to lose in the course of the events. The structural opposition between globalization 'winners' and 'losers' is expected to constitute potentials for political mobilization within national political contexts, the mobilization of which is expected to give rise to two intimately related dynamics: the transformation of the basic structure of the national political space and the strategic repositioning of the political parties within the transforming space. The article presents several hypotheses with regard to these two dynamics and tests them empirically on the basis of new data concerning the supply side of electoral politics from six Western European countries (Austria, Britain, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland). The results indicate that in all the countries, the new cleavage has become embedded into existing two‐dimensional national political spaces, that the meaning of the original dimensions has been transformed, and that the configuration of the main parties has become triangular even in a country like France.
Global warming combined with low carbon transition plans is threatening the future of high energy consumption industry sectors in the European Union (EU). The need to respond to environmental challenges is demonstrated by support for international level energy policies and legal requirements, such as the Kyoto Protocol which the EU supports, and increased EU-level environmental legislation and energy policies. The effect of these initiatives is gradually transforming industrial activities in the EU. However, since not all countries have adopted these policies, evaluation of their net effect needs to take account also of side-effects such as delocalization of industry activity and the legal environmental frameworks in the countries where companies have chosen to relocate. This paper analyses EU energy policy and its impact on a particular energy intensive industry, the European ceramic tile sector. The discussion in this paper is not about the purpose of EU legislation, but about its effects on a specific industry. The effect of policy on industry is not a new topic, but the question of the unwanted effects of environmental and energy policy on European industry is becoming more relevant as the struggle to achieve a post-carbon Europe increases. In focussing on a specific set of EU legislation on a particular industry this article adds to the debate by showing the negative effects of policy mechanisms. The need for a scientific evaluation of the systemic changes required for a transition to a resource-efficient, green and competitive low-carbon economy outlined in the 7th Environment Action Programme is highlighted. It is suggested that the EU should periodically re-evaluate its Emissions Trading Scheme legislation to include specific actions and a follow up system which would prevent the best performing environmental companies from delocalizing or shutting down.
"In recent years, the failure of the constitutional process, the difficult ratification and implementation of the Lisbon Treaty, as well as the several crises affecting Europe have revitalized the debate on the nature of the European polity and the balance of powers in Brussels. This book explains the redistribution of power in the post-Lisbon EU with a focus on the European Council"--
The European Monetary Union policy was evaluated using a global macroeconomic model. Results show that the optimal design of monetary and fiscal policies in Europe cannot be derived easily. The optimization experiments in this analysis have shown that the ranking of different institutional setups for European policy making in terms of total welfare is not stable with respect to different types of shocks and different geographical magnitudes of these shocks.
The European Monetary Union policy was evaluated using a global macroeconomic model. Results show that the optimal design of monetary and fiscal policies in Europe cannot be derived easily. The optimization experiments in this analysis have shown that the ranking of different institutional setups for European policy making in terms of total welfare is not stable with respect to different types of shocks and different geographical magnitudes of these shocks.
Following the adoption by the Basel Committee of new capital rules for banks, a process is now taking place in the EU to transpose the rules into Community law and, ultimately, into national legislation. This paper gives an overview of the main issues that relate to the EU implementation, mainly from the perspectives of financial stability and financial integration. Although the EU rules are to a large extent based on the texts of the Basel Committee, modifications have been introduced to account for the specific legal and institutional setting, as well as for some features of the European financial system. The paper gives an overview of these modifications and deals in greater detail with a number of selected topics: the monitoring of procyclicality, the role of the consolidating supervisor and the treatment of real estate lending and covered bonds. The paper concludes with an outlook for the future.
Tutkimuksen maantieteellinen konteksti on Euroopassa, jossa on viimeisten 60 vuoden ajan poistettu työvoiman liikkuvuuden esteitä tiettyjen maiden väliltä. Suuri osa eurooppalaisista voi nykyään opiskella, työskennellä, tai viettää eläkepäiviään missä tahansa 28 Euroopan unionin (EU) jäsenmaasta tai asettua asumaan Sveitsiin, Norjaan, Islantiin tai Liechtensteiniin. Euroopassa sijaitseekin globaalisti ainutlaatuinen vapaan liikkuvuuden alue, jonka merkitys näkyy myös Suomesta muihin Euroopan maihin suuntautuvan muuttoliikkeen kasvuna Suomen liityttyä Euroopan talousalueen jäseneksi vuonna 1994 ja EU:n jäseneksi vuonna 1995. Tämä sosiologian tieteenalaan kuuluva tutkimus käsittelee yhden Euroopan sisällä muuttavan ryhmän, EU15 maihin muuttaneiden korkeasti koulutettujen suomalaisten, työmarkkinakokemuksia. Tutkimus pohjaa kahteen Working in Europe (2008 ja 2010) verkkokyselyyn sekä 18 ulkomaille muuttaneen suomalaisen haastatteluihin. Tutkimus pyrkii vastaamaan kolmeen empiiriseen kysymykseen: "Miksi korkeasti koulutetut osaajat muuttavat ulkomaille?", "Kuinka korkeasti koulutetut osaajat löytävät töitä ulkomailta?", ja "Minkälaiset taidot ja kvalifikaatiot edesauttavat tai vaikeuttavat kohdemaan työmarkkinoille siirtymistä ja minkälaisissa työpaikoissa nämä suomalaiset työskentelevät?". Olemassa olevien taitojen, koulutuksen ja aikaisemman työkokemuksen tunnustaminen on tärkeää erityisesti korkeasti koulutetuille muuttajille, jotka hakevat töitä ulkomailta. Tässä tutkimuksessa näihin tietoihin ja taitoihin viitataan kulttuurisen pääoman käsitteellä ja tutkimuksen teoreettinen tutkimuskysymys käsittelee tuon pääoman siirtymistä eurooppalaisten rajojen yli. Tutkimuksessa käytetty lähdekirjallisuus käsittelee kolmea teemaa: korkeasti koulutettujen osaajien muuttoliikettä, Euroopan sisällä tapahtuvaa liikkuvuutta sekä kulttuurista pääomaa ja muuttoliiketutkimusta. Tutkimus tarkastelee korkeasti koulutettujen suomalaisten työmarkkinakokemuksia ulkomailla. Vaikka tutkimuksen fokus on siten yksittäisten muuttajien tasolla, myös monet historialliset prosessit, kuten globalisaatio ja Euroopan integraatiokehitys, sekä kulttuuriset ja taloudelliset ilmiöt, vaikuttavat ulkomaille muuttoa harkitsevan päätöksentekoon. Siten myös yksilöä itseään laajemmat rakenteelliset ilmiöt osaltaan vaikuttavat siihen, miksi Suomesta muutetaan ulkomaille, milloin muutto tapahtuu sekä minne se suuntautuu. Tutkimuksessa todetaan, että kansainvälisesti suuntautuneille, suhteellisen nuorille ja hyvin koulutetuille Euroopan kansalaisille muutto EU:n sisällä on yksi mahdollinen väylä työmarkkinoille. Ulkomaille muutto nähdään usein kokeiluna, jota motivoivat erilaiset elämäntapaan ja henkilökohtaiseen kasvuun liittyvät tekijät eivätkä pelkästään urakehitys tai mahdollisuus parempiin ansioihin. Tutkimuksessa käytetään status-siirtymän käsitettä kuvaamaan sitä aikaa, jolloin koulutettu osaaja työskentelee koulutustaan vastaamattomissa töissä, opiskelee, on työttömänä tai hakee ulkomailta töitä Suomesta käsin. Status-siirtymää, jonka jälkeen muuttaja työllistyy koulutustaan ja/tai kokemustaan vastaaviin tehtäviin, tarkastellaan sekä sen ajallisen keston että työpaikan saamiseksi vaadittavien ponnistelujen kautta. Valtaosalle tämän tutkimuksen osallistujista tuo status-siirtymä oli ollut lyhytkestoinen ja sopivan työpaikan löytäminen ulkomailta oli ollut suhteellisen helppoa. Tutkimuksen osallistujat olivatkin hyvin tyytyväisiä työmarkkinatilanteeseensa ulkomailla. Osa tutkimukseen osallistuneista oli siirtynyt ulkomaille työnantajansa lähettäminä, ja osa oli rekrytoitu Suomesta suoraan johonkin tehtävään. Itsenäisesti ulkomailta töitä hakeneiden kokemuksissa oli yhtäläisyyksiä, vaikka tutkimukseen osallistuneet suomalaiset edustavatkin kovin erilaisia ammatteja ja koulutustaustoja. Työnhakutilanteissa esimerkiksi seuraavilla tekijöillä on ollut merkitystä: 1) tutkimukseen osallistuvien hyvä kielitaito oli auttanut heidän kulttuurisen pääomansa arvon määrittelyssä, 2) osallistujien suomalaisuus ja skandinaavisuus oli nähty positiivisen stereotypian kautta, 3) osallistujat olivat hakeneet työtä kansainvälisistä yrityksistä tai järjestöistä, joissa muutkin työntekijät ovat ulkomaalaisia ja 4) osa osallistujista oli löytänyt kilpailuetua siitä, että he kuuluvat pieneen muuttajaryhmään, joka osaa harvinaisia kieliä (suomi ja ruotsi). Tutkimuksen tulosten perusteella voidaan todeta, että korkeasti koulutettujen osaajien kulttuurinen pääoma siirtyy eurooppalaisten rajojen yli suhteellisen helposti, ainakin jos muuttaja on kotoisin Suomen kaltaisesta Pohjoismaasta. Ulkomailta töitä hakevan täytyy kuitenkin olla joustava ja valmis mukautumaan kohdemaan olosuhteisiin. Tähän tutkimukseen osallistuneet suomalaiset käyttivät kolmea eri strategiaa pyrkiessään kohdemaan työmarkkinoille: sopeutumista, erottautumista ja uudelleen orientaatiota. Tutkimuksen mukaan korkeasti koulutetut suomalaiset osaajat eivät kohtaa ylitsepääsemättömiä esteitä hakiessaan työtä muista EU-maista, mutta osaamista ja koulutusta vastaavan työpaikan löytäminen vaatii sopeutumista, määrätietoisuutta ja joskus jopa hakeutumista kokonaan toiselle ammattialalle. ; The geographical context of the study lies in Europe, where over the past 60 years a progressive lessening of restrictions on labour mobility between certain countries has taken place. It is possible for the majority of Europeans to study, work, or retire in any of the 28 European Union (EU) member states, as well as in Switzerland, Iceland, Norway, and Liechtenstein. Europe is thus a unique area, where sovereign states have given parts of their legislative power to supranational institutions and have given up one of the fundamental rights that define a nation state – that of deciding who can cross its borders. Increased mobility to other EU member states after Finland joined the European Economic Area (EEA) in 1994 and the EU in 1995 testifies to the fact that also Finns are taking advantage of the free movement regime. This sociological study examines the labour market experiences of one intra- European migrant group: highly skilled Finns who have moved to other EU15 countries. Based on two consecutive Working in Europe online surveys (2008, 2010) and 18 migrant interviews, this study addresses three empirical questions: "Why do highly skilled Finns move abroad?", "How do highly skilled Finns find work in the EU15 countries?", and "What kinds of skills and qualifications ease or impede labour market access and what kinds of jobs do these Finns work in?" The recognition of skills, educational qualifications and work experience, i.e. one's cultural capital, is a key question for any migrant and especially so for highly educated professional migrants. The main theoretical question asked therefore is: "How does the cultural capital of the highly skilled migrants transfer across intra-European borders?" The study engages with three related literatures focusing on highly skilled migration, intra-European mobility, and cultural capital during migration. The study examines the personal experiences of highly skilled Finns and thus the main focus of the study is on the micro level of international mobility. Yet also various historical processes, such as globalisation and Europeanisation, cultural phenomena, and economic developments outside the control of individual migrants influence the reasons why particular individuals decided to move, where they moved to and when they moved. The study concludes that for internationallyminded, relatively young and well-educated European citizens mobility in the EU area is one possible path among many, and experimenting with living abroad may be motivated by a range of different reasons related to lifestyle and personal growth that are not directly linked with one's professional career or the possibility of earning a better salary. The concept of status passage, i.e. a transitional period that is spent doing lowskilled jobs, studying, in unemployment, or continuing to work in Finland while applying for highly skilled jobs abroad, is used to describe how the Finns of the study entered the labour market of their destination country. It is examined through two dimensions: as the effort required in finding a job and in terms of its duration in time. The duration of the status passage had been short for most participants of the study and finding a highly skilled job had been relatively easy. The respondents were therefore quite content with their labour market situation in the new country. While many of the highly skilled Finns of the study moved abroad to continue on their professional career as intra-company transferees or because they were headhunted to a particular company, the study also notes four interrelated reasons for the experienced labour market success of those, who had looked for work on their own. First, their good language competence helped negotiate the value of their cultural capital abroad; second, participants were often seen through a positive Finnish or Scandinavian stereotypic image; third, the ease of finding work had often been based on applying for jobs in international workplaces; and fourth, the participants had found advantages from belonging to a small national group with skills in rather rare languages, Finnish and Swedish. Based on the results of this study it can be concluded that the cultural capital of highly skilled intra-European migrants' transfers across national borders rather smoothly, at least when they originate from a Scandinavian country such as Finland. Yet transnationally mobile individuals, however highly skilled and educated they are, must be willing and able to adapt to the situation in the local labour market. The Finns of this study used three strategies to facilitate labour market entry: adaptation, distinction, and re-orientation. The results of this study demonstrate that highly skilled Finns do not face insurmountable barriers when they enter the labour market of another EU country, but they are also not welcomed with open arms as brains gained: finding a highly skilled job in the country of destination demands adaptation, perseverance, and sometimes even a total re-orientation of one's career.
