Concluding this article, the importance of the rational discourse in modern classes and local forums in contemporary Central Asia should be mentioned again. The liberation of knowledge should be a permanent part of educational initiatives in this region, which is on its long journey from one party autocratic system to the democratic pluralistic one. During this transition some few things should be central. 1. All innovations on education, including the revising role of humanities should be based on the indigenous traditions and the long history of the region including Islamic, Jadid's tradition, but also soviet experiences in the last century (historically inherited German system). Furthermore, the modern international experiences on humanities should be not only superficially implemented from outside, but thoroughly integrated. The development of independent and creative thinking of the learners (students) should be always central for reform initiatives. 2. The revised concept of knowledge and cognitive system has to be based on new epistemology with broader perspective, including all the types of knowledge. These different types of knowledge include not just so called "rationalistic" one, which in fact often serves the interests of ruling classes, but also the experiences of all slices of societies, as well as the cross-civilization approaches, which open the way of dialog and communication with others. 3. It should be suggested to remove the dominating dichotomy type of thinking, escape Manichean dualistic concepts in order develop new bodies and research areas of humanities, based on pluralism (but not on secularism only). Communication and collaboration with the educational and research institutions of developed countries like EU and US would be essential for achievement of the desired goals and implementation of projects. During a conference on higher education in developing countries with focus on Muslim regions organised by the Institute for the Study of Muslim Civilization AKU ISMC in February - March 2005 in London one participant pointed out the importance of mentioning the indigenous Islamic educational heritage like memorization in Central Asian education. Regarding this remark, the questions arises, whether the memorization is the only real indigenous Islamic heritage in education. In this case what is the role of memorization in Muslim philosophy, arts, sciences, other creative professions? Was memorization essential for such Muslim scholars and encyclopaedists from the10th to the15th centuries like Avicenna, Abu Raikhan Biruni, Nasiriddin Tusi and Mirzo Ulughbek, artists like Kamaliddin Behzod or esoteric teachers such as Sufis like Jalaliddin Rumi etc.? Memorizing was not the only learning method in Muslim culture. According to his autobiography, Avicenna read Aristotle´s 'Metaphysics' time, but not only for the sake of memorization, but mostly to find its adequate meaning. Every time time, when he understood the meaning of this book with help of Abu Nasr Farabi´s comments, he celebrated this event by sending charity to the people in mosque. The memorization would be essential, if one accepts Islam only as religion, but not as culture and civilization. Of course, memorization has an important role in education, but only at the beginning, in elementary and secondary schools, but not at the universities. It is a useful tool for teaching and performing of religious rituals, for poetry and other humanities, as well as for medicine (for example, the formulation of the treatments in poetic form as in Urjuza fi-t-tib,Ibn Sina). Memorization in Muslim culture was the way to refer to the other sources, as scholars used to cite by memory, not by direct copying of the sources. It is well-known fact, that humanities have played an important role in Muslim civilisations (Goodman, 2003) and they had a strong impact on other cultures, especially, western European. Many scholars agree with the statement, that Muslim humanistic traditions was transformed by Europeans and served as one of the sources of humanism and renaissance. Recent scientific works on humanities have redefined the disciplinary organization of teaching and research and have introduced wider variety and new areas, such as gender or minoritie issues, studies of cultural diversities etc. However, many American scholars nowadays are worrying about the decline of humanistic research (Kernan, 1997) and about the shift of curriculum from university to "multiversity" and to "demoversity". It is necessary to analyse, rethink and spread the positive experiences of Jadids and AKHP, as well as to motivate and encourage humanities teachers for innovations. Central Asian scientists in humanities have wide field for new research area. There are so many unknown (unthought) slices of culture (formal, informal), which never have become the object of research because of the political correctness, ideology, religious, ethnics or gender superstitions. Central Asian universities need to develop new research programs in humanities, similar to the well-known works by Martha C. Nussbaum (2000, 2004), Peter N. Stearns (1993) and others in USA. However, these kinds of works depend on investments, which cannot be provided by the current central state budget due to corruption, turbulent financial crisis and economic stagnation. Regarding this issue, one should think about new projects for collaboration and integration with EU. The courses in humanities with new approaches in arts, literature, sociology, philosophy, religions, political sciences, research in gender, cultural, religious and minorities issues, as well as analysis of such human behaviour like disgust, shame or hatred are important for liberation of thinking process in order to develop new generation of leaders in the region. Only the modern values, based on indigenous roots can help to build new and good society. However, this should not be implemented artificially. Currently several educational programs organised by EU for Central Asian countries, like Tempus, Erasmus Mundus etc. are working in the region. Last years the majority of Central Asian countries joined Bologna-process of education. The dialog between higher education institutions is important and the communicative ethics (the notion of J. Habermas) play a central role in this exchange. More effective support in form of scholarships, research programs, training projects for teachers and the students will have a very positive influence on Central Asia with regard to the broader mutual understanding and democracy promotion.
Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Smoking is a potentially causal behavioral risk factor for type 2 diabetes (T2D), but not all smokers develop T2D. It is unknown whether genetic factors partially explain this variation. We performed genome-environment-wide interaction studies to identify loci exhibiting potential interaction with baseline smoking status (ever vs. never) on incident T2D and fasting glucose (FG). Analyses were performed in participants of European (EA) and African ancestry (AA) separately. Discovery analyses were conducted using genotype data from the 50,000-single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) ITMAT-Broad-CARe (IBC) array in 5 cohorts from from the Candidate Gene Association Resource Consortium (n = 23,189). Replication was performed in up to 16 studies from the Cohorts for Heart Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology Consortium (n = 74,584). In meta-analysis of discovery and replication estimates, 5 SNPs met at least one criterion for potential interaction with smoking on incident T2D at p<1x10-7 (adjusted for multiple hypothesis-testing with the IBC array). Two SNPs had significant joint effects in the overall model and significant main effects only in one smoking stratum: rs140637 (FBN1) in AA individuals had a significant main effect only among smokers, and rs1444261 (closest gene C2orf63) in EA individuals had a significant main effect only among nonsmokers. Three additional SNPs were identified as having potential interaction by exhibiting a significant main effects only in smokers: rs1801232 (CUBN) in AA individuals, rs12243326 (TCF7L2) in EA individuals, and rs4132670 (TCF7L2) in EA individuals. No SNP met significance for potential interaction with smoking on baseline FG. The identification of these loci provides evidence for genetic interactions with smoking exposure that may explain some of the heterogeneity in the association between smoking and T2D. ; WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through contracts HHSN268201100046C, HSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, and HHSN271201100004C. The grant funding of WHI are R21 HL123677, R56 DK104806 and R01 MD012765 to NF. The FamHS was funded by R01HL118305 and R01HL117078 NHLBI grants, and 5R01DK07568102 and 5R01DK089256 NIDDK grant." and "The Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health (project # Z01-AG000513 and human subjects protocol number 09-AGN248). Support for GENOA was provided by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (HL119443, HL087660, HL054464, HL054457, and HL054481) of the National Institutes of Health. Ruth loos is supported by the NIH (R01DK110113, U01HG007417, R01DK101855, R01DK107786). The Rotterdam Study GWAS datasets are supported by the Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research NWO Investments (nr. 175.010.2005.011, 911-03-012), the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2), and the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA), project nr. 050-060-810. The ERF study as a part of EUROSPAN (European Special Populations Research Network) was supported by European Commission FP6 STRP grant number 018947 (LSHG-CT-2006- 01947) and also received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)/grant agreement HEALTH-F4-2007-201413 by the European Commission under the programme "Quality of Life and Management of the Living Resources" of 5th Framework Programme (no. QLG2-CT-2002- 01254). The ERF study was further supported by ENGAGE consortium and CMSB. Highthroughput analysis of the ERF data was supported by joint grant from Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWORFBR 047.017.043).ERF was further supported by the ZonMw grant (project 91111025), and this work was partially supported by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study (Contract No. N01-HC25195) and its contract with Affymetrix, Inc for genotyping services (Contract No. N02-HL-6- 4278). This study is also supported by National Institute for Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) R01 DK078616 to Drs. Meigs, Dupuis and Florez, NIDDK K24 DK080140 to Dr. Meigs, and a Doris Duke Charitable Foundation Clinical Scientist Development Award to Dr. Florez. The HERITAGE Family Study was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant HL-45670. The Women's Genome Health Study is supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Instutute (HL043851 and HL080467) and the National Cancer Institute (CA047988 and UM1CA182913). Additional support for endpoint collection was provided by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute under ARRA funding (HL099355). HyperGEN (Hypertension Genetic Epidemiology Network): The hypertension network is funded by cooperative agreements (U10) with NHLBI: HL54471, HL54472, HL54473, HL54495, HL54496, HL54497, HL54509, HL54515, and 2 R01 HL55673- 12. The AGES study has been funded by NIH contracts N01-AG-1-2100 and 271201200022C. Caroline Hayward is supported by an MRC University Unit Programme Grant MC_UU_00007/10 (QTL in Health and Disease)"and "Generation Scotland received core funding from the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health Directorate CZD/16/6, the Scottish Funding Council HR03006 and the Wellcome Trust through a Strategic Award (reference 104036/Z/14/Z) for Stratifying Resilience and Depression Longitudinally (STRADL). Genotyping was funded by the UK's Medical Research Council. Jose C. Florez, NIDDK K24 DK110550 The MESA project is conducted and supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) in collaboration with MESA investigators. Support for MESA is provided by contracts 75N92020D00001, HHSN268201500003I, N01-HC-95159, 75N92020D00005, N01-HC-95160, 75N92020D00002, N01-HC-95161, 75N92020D00003, N01-HC-95162, 75N92020D00006, N01-HC-95163, 75N92020D00004, N01-HC-95164, 75N92020D00007, N01-HC-95165, N01-HC-95166, N01-HC-95167, N01-HC-95168, N01-HC-95169, UL1-TR-000040, UL1-TR-001079, UL1-TR-001420, UL1-TR-001881, and DK063491. Additionally, one or more authors are affiliated with the following commercial entities: Interleukin Genetics, GlaxoSmithKline, Daiichi-Sankyo, AstraZeneca, Data Tecnica International LLC, Illumina Inc., University of California Healthcare, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Goldfinch Bio, and Novo Nordisk. Please see the Competing Interests Statement for additional details. The funders provided support in the form of salaries for authors but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific roles of these authors are articulated in the 'author contributions' section. ; Peer Reviewed
The work was performed as part of the Crisis and Risks Engineering for Transport Services project of Erasmus+ program. Purpose. Nowadays the key role in ensuring business processes both within the state and in the performing of foreign economic activity belongs to the transport industry. Carriage of goods and passengers over relatively short distances is economically attractive for road transport, which has shown a significant increase of traffic volumes in recent years. At the same time, there are random factors and the resulting risks during international road transportation, which does not allow us to estimate the cost and duration of such delivery with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to analyze the process of international cargo delivery by road and identify risks and reasons for their occurrence at each stage of transportation. Methodology. To achieve the goal of the work, the methods of statistical analysis were used to determine the volume and structure of foreign economic activity in the provision of transport services; methods of system analysis, including SWOT analysis, to determine the characteristic features and identify risks at the stages of international cargo transportation by road. Results. The analysis of the volume of foreign economic activity of Ukraine made it possible to establish that the European Union (EU) is its main foreign economic partner, and the transportation of 10% of goods by volume and 38% by value between that countries is carried out by road. Increasing the road transport part in foreign trade providing with the EU is also confirmed by the increase in the trucks number that crossing the western part of the Ukraine state border, especially the section adjacent to Poland. Using SWOT-analysis, the strengths and weaknesses, as well as risks and opportunities of international transportation of goods by road, are identified. Scientific novelty. It was found that the presence of a large number of participants in the transportation process and their possible incompetent actions lead to an increase in the number of random factors and the resulting risks. The authors identified transport risks and the reasons for their occurrence in the international road transportation. Practical significance. The obtained results can be used in the process of risk management to increase the efficiency of management of international cargo transportation by road. ; Работа выполнена в рамках проекта «Кризисы и риск-инжиниринг транспортных услуг» по программе Эразмус +. Цель. В современных условиях ключевая роль в обеспечении бизнес-процессов как внутри государства, так и при и осуществлении внешнеэкономической деятельности принадлежит транспортной отрасли. Перевозка грузов и пассажиров на относительно коротких расстояниях экономически привлекательна для автомобильного транспорта, который за последние годы демонстрирует значительный прирост объемов перевозок. В то же время при выполнении автомобильных перевозок в международном сообщении имеют место случайные факторы и вызванные этим риски, что не позволяет с достаточной точностью оценить стоимость и продолжительность такой доставки. Поэтому целью данной работы является анализ процесса международной доставки грузов автомобильным транспортом и идентификация рисков и причин их возникновения на каждом этапе перевозки. Методика. Для достижения поставленной в работе цели использованы методы статистического анализа для определения объемов и структуры внешнеэкономической деятельности в сфере предоставления транспортных услуг; методы системного анализа, в том числе SWOT-анализ, для определения характерных особенностей и идентификации рисков на этапах осуществления международной доставки грузов автомобильным транспортом. Результаты. Выполненный авторами анализ объемов внешнеэкономической деятельности Украины позволил установить, что Европейский Союз является основным её внешнеэкономическим партнером, а перевозка 10% товаров по объему и 38% по стоимости между указанными сторонами выполняется именно автомобильным транспортом. Увеличение доли автомобильных перевозок в обеспечении внешней торговли с ЕС также подтверждается ростом количества пересечений грузовыми автомобилями западной части государственной границы Украины, особенно смежного с Польшей участка. С использованием SWOT-анализа определены сильные и слабые стороны, а также риски и возможности при оказании услуг международной доставки грузов автомобильным транспортом. Научная новизна. Установлено, что наличие большого количества участников процесса перевозки и возможные их некомпетентные действия приводят к росту количества случайных факторов и вызванных этим рисков. Авторами выполнена идентификация транспортных рисков и причин их возникновения при осуществлении автомобильных перевозок грузов в международном сообщении. Практическая значимость. Полученные результаты могут быть использованы в процессе риск-менеджмента для повышения эффективности управления международными грузоперевозками автомобильным транспортом. ; Робота виконана в рамках проекту «Кризи і ризик-інжиніринг транспортних послуг» за програмою Еразмус+. Мета. В сучасних умовах ключова роль в забезпеченні бізнес-процесів як в середині держави, так і при здійсненні зовнішньоекономічної діяльності належить транспортній галузі. Перевезення вантажів і пасажирів на відносно коротких відстанях є економічно привабливим для автомобільного транспорту, який за останні роки демонструє значний приріст обсягів перевезень. В той же час при виконані автомобільних перевезень в міжнародному сполученні мають місце випадкові фактори та спричинені цим ризики, що не дозволяє з достатньою точністю оцінити вартість та тривалість такої доставки. Тому метою даної роботи є аналіз процесу міжнародної доставки вантажів автомобільним транспортом та ідентифікація ризиків і причин їх виникнення на кожному етапі перевезення. Методика. Для досягнення поставленої у роботі мети використані методи статистичного аналізу для визначення обсягів та структури зовнішньоекономічної діяльності в сфері надання транспортних послуг; методи системного аналізу, в тому числі SWOT-аналіз, для визначення характерних особливостей та ідентифікації ризиків на етапах здійснення міжнародної доставки вантажів автомобільним транспортом. Результати. Виконаний авторами аналіз обсягів зовнішньоекономічної діяльності України дозволив встановити, що Європейський Союз є основним її зовнішньоекономічним партнером, а перевезення 10 % товарів за обсягом та 38 % за вартістю між вказаними сторонами виконується саме автомобільним транспортом. Збільшення частки автомобільних перевезень в забезпеченні зовнішньої торгівлі з ЄС також підтверджується зростанням кількості перетинів вантажними автомобілями західної частини державного кордону України, особливо суміжною з Польщею ділянки. З використанням SWOT-аналізу визначені сильні і слабкі сторони, а також ризики і можливості при наданні послуг міжнародної доставки вантажів автомобільним транспортом. Наукова новизна. Встановлено, що наявність великої кількості учасників процесу перевезення та можливі їх некомпетентні дії призводять до зростання кількості випадкових факторів та спричинених цим ризиків. Авторами виконано ідентифікацію транспортних ризиків та причин їх виникнення при здійсненні автомобільних перевезень вантажів в міжнародному сполученні. Практична значимість. Отримані результати можуть бути використані в процесі ризик-менеджменту для підвищення ефективності управління міжнародними вантажними перевезеннями автомобільним транспортом.
The work was performed as part of the Crisis and Risks Engineering for Transport Services project of Erasmus+ program. Purpose. Nowadays the key role in ensuring business processes both within the state and in the performing of foreign economic activity belongs to the transport industry. Carriage of goods and passengers over relatively short distances is economically attractive for road transport, which has shown a significant increase of traffic volumes in recent years. At the same time, there are random factors and the resulting risks during international road transportation, which does not allow us to estimate the cost and duration of such delivery with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to analyze the process of international cargo delivery by road and identify risks and reasons for their occurrence at each stage of transportation. Methodology. To achieve the goal of the work, the methods of statistical analysis were used to determine the volume and structure of foreign economic activity in the provision of transport services; methods of system analysis, including SWOT analysis, to determine the characteristic features and identify risks at the stages of international cargo transportation by road. Results. The analysis of the volume of foreign economic activity of Ukraine made it possible to establish that the European Union (EU) is its main foreign economic partner, and the transportation of 10% of goods by volume and 38% by value between that countries is carried out by road. Increasing the road transport part in foreign trade providing with the EU is also confirmed by the increase in the trucks number that crossing the western part of the Ukraine state border, especially the section adjacent to Poland. Using SWOT-analysis, the strengths and weaknesses, as well as risks and opportunities of international transportation of goods by road, are identified. Scientific novelty. It was found that the presence of a large number of participants in the transportation process and their possible incompetent actions lead to an increase in the number of random factors and the resulting risks. The authors identified transport risks and the reasons for their occurrence in the international road transportation. Practical significance. The obtained results can be used in the process of risk management to increase the efficiency of management of international cargo transportation by road. ; Работа выполнена в рамках проекта «Кризисы и риск-инжиниринг транспортных услуг» по программе Эразмус +. Цель. В современных условиях ключевая роль в обеспечении бизнес-процессов как внутри государства, так и при и осуществлении внешнеэкономической деятельности принадлежит транспортной отрасли. Перевозка грузов и пассажиров на относительно коротких расстояниях экономически привлекательна для автомобильного транспорта, который за последние годы демонстрирует значительный прирост объемов перевозок. В то же время при выполнении автомобильных перевозок в международном сообщении имеют место случайные факторы и вызванные этим риски, что не позволяет с достаточной точностью оценить стоимость и продолжительность такой доставки. Поэтому целью данной работы является анализ процесса международной доставки грузов автомобильным транспортом и идентификация рисков и причин их возникновения на каждом этапе перевозки. Методика. Для достижения поставленной в работе цели использованы методы статистического анализа для определения объемов и структуры внешнеэкономической деятельности в сфере предоставления транспортных услуг; методы системного анализа, в том числе SWOT-анализ, для определения характерных особенностей и идентификации рисков на этапах осуществления международной доставки грузов автомобильным транспортом. Результаты. Выполненный авторами анализ объемов внешнеэкономической деятельности Украины позволил установить, что Европейский Союз является основным её внешнеэкономическим партнером, а перевозка 10% товаров по объему и 38% по стоимости между указанными сторонами выполняется именно автомобильным транспортом. Увеличение доли автомобильных перевозок в обеспечении внешней торговли с ЕС также подтверждается ростом количества пересечений грузовыми автомобилями западной части государственной границы Украины, особенно смежного с Польшей участка. С использованием SWOT-анализа определены сильные и слабые стороны, а также риски и возможности при оказании услуг международной доставки грузов автомобильным транспортом. Научная новизна. Установлено, что наличие большого количества участников процесса перевозки и возможные их некомпетентные действия приводят к росту количества случайных факторов и вызванных этим рисков. Авторами выполнена идентификация транспортных рисков и причин их возникновения при осуществлении автомобильных перевозок грузов в международном сообщении. Практическая значимость. Полученные результаты могут быть использованы в процессе риск-менеджмента для повышения эффективности управления международными грузоперевозками автомобильным транспортом. ; Робота виконана в рамках проекту «Кризи і ризик-інжиніринг транспортних послуг» за програмою Еразмус+. Мета. В сучасних умовах ключова роль в забезпеченні бізнес-процесів як в середині держави, так і при здійсненні зовнішньоекономічної діяльності належить транспортній галузі. Перевезення вантажів і пасажирів на відносно коротких відстанях є економічно привабливим для автомобільного транспорту, який за останні роки демонструє значний приріст обсягів перевезень. В той же час при виконані автомобільних перевезень в міжнародному сполученні мають місце випадкові фактори та спричинені цим ризики, що не дозволяє з достатньою точністю оцінити вартість та тривалість такої доставки. Тому метою даної роботи є аналіз процесу міжнародної доставки вантажів автомобільним транспортом та ідентифікація ризиків і причин їх виникнення на кожному етапі перевезення. Методика. Для досягнення поставленої у роботі мети використані методи статистичного аналізу для визначення обсягів та структури зовнішньоекономічної діяльності в сфері надання транспортних послуг; методи системного аналізу, в тому числі SWOT-аналіз, для визначення характерних особливостей та ідентифікації ризиків на етапах здійснення міжнародної доставки вантажів автомобільним транспортом. Результати. Виконаний авторами аналіз обсягів зовнішньоекономічної діяльності України дозволив встановити, що Європейський Союз є основним її зовнішньоекономічним партнером, а перевезення 10 % товарів за обсягом та 38 % за вартістю між вказаними сторонами виконується саме автомобільним транспортом. Збільшення частки автомобільних перевезень в забезпеченні зовнішньої торгівлі з ЄС також підтверджується зростанням кількості перетинів вантажними автомобілями західної частини державного кордону України, особливо суміжною з Польщею ділянки. З використанням SWOT-аналізу визначені сильні і слабкі сторони, а також ризики і можливості при наданні послуг міжнародної доставки вантажів автомобільним транспортом. Наукова новизна. Встановлено, що наявність великої кількості учасників процесу перевезення та можливі їх некомпетентні дії призводять до зростання кількості випадкових факторів та спричинених цим ризиків. Авторами виконано ідентифікацію транспортних ризиків та причин їх виникнення при здійсненні автомобільних перевезень вантажів в міжнародному сполученні. Практична значимість. Отримані результати можуть бути використані в процесі ризик-менеджменту для підвищення ефективності управління міжнародними вантажними перевезеннями автомобільним транспортом.
Nel settore dell'Informazione Geografica (GI), esiste in generale un gap a livello europeo tra l'istruzione e la preparazione offerte dalle università e le competenze e capacità richieste sul mercato da aziende ed enti pubblici. Per far fronte alle nuove sfide poste dai continui sviluppi tecnologici in atto (basti pensare a temi quali Geo Big Data, posizionamento indoor, Internet of Things, ecc.) è perciò necessario introdurre nuove forme di collaborazione università-impresa. giCASES – Creation of a University-Enterprise Alliance for a Spatially Enabled Society (http://www.gicases.eu) è un'Alleanza per le Conoscenze, co-finanziata dal Programma UE Erasmus+, che affronta questo problema con l'obiettivo di sviluppare approcci innovativi e multidisciplinari all'insegnamento e all'apprendimento nel settore GI facilitando lo scambio, il flusso e la co-creazione di conoscenza. L'approccio consiste nello sviluppo collaborativo e condiviso, tra università ed imprese, di nuovi materiali didattici e processi di apprendimento basati su casi reali (case-based learning). In maniera innovativa rispetto alle tradizionali forme di collaborazione tra università ed imprese (spesso limitate a semplici tirocini e allo sviluppo di tesi presso le imprese), la collaborazione con le università finalizzata alla co-creazione di conoscenza si esplica sin dalla fase iniziale di progettazione del corso accademico e del processo di apprendimento. Il progetto, iniziato nel 2016 e formato da un consorzio di 14 partner da 8 diversi Paesi europei (con una componente bilanciata di università e imprese), ha visto una prima fase volta alla definizione della metodologia di case-based learning e alla progettazione dei casi di studio. Un questionario inizialmente distribuito tra università, imprese ed enti pubblici europei nel settore GI ha evidenziato che: a) la collaborazione tra il settore accademico e quello industriale è spesso organizzata in modo tradizionale; b) le competenze richieste dal mercato del lavoro (specialmente programmazione, analisi e modellazione spaziale) spesso non sono in linea con l'istruzione universitaria; c) l'apprendimento basato su casi reali è uno dei metodi suggeriti per rendere la preparazione degli studenti conforme alle richieste del mondo del lavoro. Utilizzando lo standard BPMN (Business Process Model and Notation), è stata quindi sviluppata una metodologia rigorosa per la modellazione degli schemi di co-creazione di conoscenza tra università ed imprese (ad esempio per lo sviluppo collaborativo del materiale didattico e la formazione congiunta degli studenti). Questi schemi descrivono analiticamente i processi di collaborazione utilizzati, i relativi attori e le loro reciproche interazioni. Un insieme di linee guida, modelli e bozze di convenzioni/accordi è stato prodotto per facilitare l'implementazione pratica degli schemi sviluppati. Parallelamente, è stata definita e condivisa una serie di strumenti software per garantire funzionalità collaborative (sviluppo congiunto di codice, produzione congiunta di materiale didattico, ecc.), facilitando così lo sviluppo pratico di conoscenze condivise e la messa in opera dei casi di studio. Il materiale didattico e la metodologia di apprendimento sviluppati sono infine sottoposti ad un'accurata fase di test e validazione (al momento in corso) tramite l'implementazione in 6 casi di studio (CS), ognuno dei quali prevede la partecipazione congiunta di un partner accademico ed uno industriale e si concentra su un tema attuale nel panorama GI: CS1 "Use of indoor GIS in healthcare"; CS2 "Environmental analysis using cloud service system"; CS3 "From INSPIRE to e-Government"; CS4 "Integrated management of the underground"; CS5 "Harmonizing data flows in Energy saving EU policies"; CS6 "GIS applications in Forestry". Per ognuno di essi è stato definito un dettagliato piano di lavoro comprendente la descrizione degli attori coinvolti (studenti, professori, tutor accademici, tutor industriali, ecc.), il contesto applicativo (ovvero la modalità con cui il CS è incluso nel corso/programma accademico), le tempistiche di svolgimento e i risultati attesi. Questi ultimi, che includono il materiale didattico e i processi collaborativi applicati, saranno resi disponibili con licenza aperta sulla piattaforma del progetto, in modo da massimizzarne l'adozione da parte di altre comunità e portatori di interesse. I risultati parziali ottenuti dall'implementazione dei CS stanno dimostrando, a giudizio non solo degli studenti ma di tutti gli attori coinvolti, elementi positivi in termini di innovazione ed efficacia. Benché l'uso di software open source (e in particolare FOSS4G) non fosse formalmente richiesto dalle specifiche del progetto, è interessante notare come in tutti i 6 CS sia largamente prevista l'adozione di tali tecnologie, in particolare di QGIS, GRASS GIS, PostGIS, GeoServer, OpenLayers, Leaflet e Geomajas. Ciò testimonia come le soluzioni open source siano già fortemente utilizzate tanto come strumenti didattici presso le università quanto, da parte delle imprese, come mezzi per realizzare prodotti da immettere sul mercato. Si può anzi affermare che il software open source (che, oltre all'ecosistema FOSS4G, comprende in questo contesto strumenti di condivisione e documentazione di codice, piattaforme di e-Learning e strumenti di Project Management) sia un elemento essenziale per il case-based learning. Non solo: le comunità ed i progetti open source sono per natura un habitat ideale per la co-creazione di conoscenza, fondandosi essi stessi sull'idea della creazione collaborativa del software per il bene comune. Il progetto giCASES, tra i cui partner figurano membri attivi della Open Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo), intende fare tesoro di queste esperienze per assicurare il successo dei propri risultati.
Forgotten children. The living situation of undocumented children in the NetherlandsThe Netherlands signed the UN Convention for the Rights of the Child two decades ago. However, various measures taken by the Dutch Cabinet indicate a narrowing of the rights of children. These measures are attracting a great deal of criticism from the High Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, the Children's Ombudsman, human rights organizations and interest groups. They base their criticism primarily on research into children with residence status: children in refugee centres and family detention centres, and individual under-age refugees.There is virtually no information on undocumented children. By this, we mean children who are not staying in family detention centres, have never requested asylum, or children who have been denied refugee status. Researchers and organizations estimate this group of children to number in the thousands. No recent information is available about the current situation of undocumented children living in the City of Utrecht. This was the reason for conducting this study into the number of undocumented children and the conditions in which they live.Fanga Musow, a shelter project for undocumented women and children in Utrecht, initiated the study. Stichting Los ("National Support Point for Undocumented Migrants"), HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht (Research group Innovation in Social Work) and Defence for Children were also all involved in this study. The request for a follow-up on this initiative came from the City of Utrecht. The municipality wanted to know what it could do to improve the situation of this group of children in the city.The objective of the study was to gain insight into the number of undocumented children and into their living and housing circumstances.There were four research questions: 1) How many undocumented children are there in the Netherlands and in the City of Utrecht? 2) How do undocumented children experience their housing and living conditions? 3) To what extent are conditions for the children's development guaranteed? And 4) What recommendations should be formulated for municipal policy to ensure decent conditions for development of undocumented children?To answer these research questions, we conducted a quantitative study to estimate the number of undocumented children, and a qualitative study to examine the developmental situation of these children.The data was collected using the following methods: through a written questionnaire sent out and phone calls made to educational institutions (primary schools and secondary education institutions) and early development centres in Utrecht; secondary analyses of the databases belonging to the City of Utrecht; semi-structured interviews with undocumented children between 6 and 19 years old; and a study of the scientific literature on the housing and living conditions of undocumented children.We used a model from Kalverboer and Zijlstra (2008) as a source for the interview questions. On the basis of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the researchers formulated fourteen conditions for development. We reduced this number of conditions to eight, distributed over the categories inside and outside the family. The conditions inside the family are livelihood, housing, pedagogical environment and health. The conditions outside the family are social networks, education, interaction with peers and the future. Fourth-year students from HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht conducted the interviews and transcribed them verbatim. They performed the analyses together with the researchers from HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. The reason for involving students in the research was to make these prospective professionals in the social and legal sectors aware of the issues surrounding this group of vulnerable children. The children were recruited via social work institutions and intermediaries. Since we did not manage to find enough children in Utrecht who would agree to an interview within the research period, we expanded the area of recruitment to the three other major cities in the Netherlands: Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague."Only" 45 children without a permanent residence are recorded in the education files of the City of Utrecht. Our survey and calls to schools and early development centres revealed that seven undocumented children live in Utrecht. Most of the intermediaries that we approached indicated that they did not have enough time to participate in the study.The interviews resulted in the following findings. Of the 29 children, 16 were born in the Netherlands. More than half are growing up without a father. The children form part of a total of 21 families. All of these children attend school. They have a social network that they can fall back on and that supports them in practical matters but also in legal procedures. Most of the children aspire to a future in the Netherlands. A large number of the children indicate that they lack basic needs such as school supplies, toys, (sports) clothing or a bike. Of the 21 families to which the children belong, seven are completely dependent on donations. The children also say they suffer from the many relocations that they have gone through and their cramped housing conditions. Furthermore, the children indicate that there are many things they cannot do, such as work, obtain a scooter or driving license, visit places where they will need to show identification, or travel abroad.Determining the actual number of undocumented children in the Netherlands and Utrecht turned out to be quite challenging. The scientific literature, municipal database and the intermediaries who were approached did not provide conclusive information about the group. It was not possible to establish an exact number for the City of Utrecht based on the numbers that we found.The children who were interviewed reported problems that correspond in part to those of documented children and particularly those growing up in poverty. Many children who live in poverty suffer from problems related to an unhealthy or unvaried diet, or cannot afford the membership of (sports) clubs. These issues are not unique to undocumented children. However, our study shows that the problems of undocumented children are more fundamental in their nature than those of documented children who grow up in poverty.Kinderen buiten beeld. De leefsituatie van ongedocumenteerde kinderen in NederlandDit artikel werpt licht op de omstandigheden waaronder kinderen zonder verblijfsstatus (ongedocumenteerde kinderen) opgroeien in Nederland en niet in beeld zijn bij de overheid. Het betreft uitgeprocedeerde kinderen en kinderen die nooit een asielaanvraag hebben ingediend. In beide gevallen gaat het om kinderen die met hun ouders een bestaan in de illegaliteit opbouwen. De data zijn afkomstig uit een studie naar de woon- en leefsituatie van 29 illegale kinderen tussen 6 tot 19 jaar oud. De kinderen benoemen problemen die gedeeltelijk samenvallen met die van andere kinderen in Nederland, ook kinderen die in armoede opgroeien. De problemen van ongedocumenteerde kinderen werken echter zwaarder door. Ook staan zij onder grote psychische druk. Ze leven met het geheim van hun juridische status, zijn bang door de politie te worden opgepakt, weten niet wie ze kunnen vertrouwen en ervaren hun toekomst als ongewis.
Kwalitatieve onderzoekers hebben moeite met het bepalen van de populatie en met het vaststellen van de steekproef van hun onderzoek. Bovendien wordt in de literatuur op totaal verschillende wijzen geschreven over de steekproef in kwalitatief onderzoek, wat het voor onderzoekers niet gemakkelijker maakt om verantwoordbare keuzes te maken (Baker & Edwards, 2012). Vaak volstaan we in kwalitatief onderzoek met een gemakssteekproef (convenience sample), waarbij we eenheden kiezen die gemakkelijk zijn te bereiken zonder ons druk te maken over de vraag welke populatie door deze steekproef vertegenwoordigd wordt en wat het geldigheidsbereik kan zijn van uitspraken die we op basis van de steekproef kunnen doen. Een bijdrage in KWALON over de steekproef (zie het artikel van Van Hulst en Van Zuydam hiervoor) is dan ook van harte welkom.Deze bijdrage konden we goed volgen tot het schema. Daar raakten we het spoor bijster. In onze ogen hebben de auteurs twee onderzoeksstappen door elkaar gehaald, namelijk de onderwerpkeuze en de steekproefselectie. Dit wordt niet verbeterd door het ontbreken van naamgeving aan de 'stappen', waardoor onduidelijk blijft hoe het schema door andere onderzoekers ingezet zou kunnen worden. Hieronder lichten we dit toe.In het bovenste deel van het schema kiezen de auteurs hun onderwerp van onderzoek en dat is heel wat anders dan de selectie van de steekproef. Immers, als onderzoeker ben je niet geïnteresseerd in 'crises' in de meest brede zin van het woord (stap 1 in het schema), maar in de rol van bestuurders in het verloop van politieke crises in het Nederland van nu. Dat komt overeen met de uitspraak bij stap 8 in het schema. Daarmee staat het eigenlijke onderwerp van onderzoek dus niet bovenaan in het schema, maar ergens in het midden. Dit onderwerp heb je bijvoorbeeld geformuleerd omdat je in de literatuur hebt ontdekt dat er een hiaat is in de kennis die we daarover hebben (kennisprobleem), of omdat je in de praktijk van bestuurlijk Nederland problemen hebt gesignaleerd over lokale, politieke crises (praktijkprobleem).We kunnen ons voorstellen dat de stappen 1 tot en met 8 expliciet doorlopen worden in een onderwijssituatie, waarbij de deelnemers van tevoren nog geen ideeën hebben over een onderwerp, behalve 'crises', en dat begeleider en deelnemers door erover te praten tot een onderwerpkeuze komen. Dit verloopt dan ongeveer zoals het bovenste deel van het schema, maar is als het gaat om wetenschappelijke rechtvaardiging en generalisatie niet uiterst relevant: de keuzes lijken immers puur voort te komen uit wat de onderzoeker als een interessante verdere afbakening van het algemene onderwerp ziet, en heeft met het trekken van een steekproef weinig te maken.In het onderste deel van het schema gaat het om de vraag waar je het onderwerp van onderzoek het beste kunt onderzoeken. Dan hebben we het in onderzoekstermen over de selectie van de onderzoekseenheden (de steekproef). In hun inleiding geven de auteurs al aan dat er vele soorten steekproeven zijn. Creswell (2005) bijvoorbeeld geeft een rijtje met de steekproef gebaseerd op diversiteit, de homogene steekproef, de aselecte steekproef en de steekproef gebaseerd op ontwikkelende theorie. De keuze van de steekproef zal vaak mede worden bepaald door praktische zaken, zoals het netwerk van de onderzoeker, middelen en voorkeuren, en niet zozeer door generaliseerbaarheid van de onderzoeksresultaten. Maar de mogelijkheden tot generalisering worden uiteindelijk wel bepaald door de steekproef. In het voorbeeld van Van Hulst en Van Zuydam: wanneer je de lokale bestuurscrisis in Rotterdam in een afgebakende korte tijdsperiode kiest als geval of casus, wat kun je dan zeggen over je eigenlijke populatie, zijnde alle gevallen van lokale, politieke crises in modern Nederland?Ter geruststelling, want daarmee begint het hele artikel, over de onderwerpkeuze hoef je je als onderzoeker niet te verantwoorden. Althans, niet in termen van 'de keuze van het empirisch geval', zoals Van Hulst en Van Zuydam aangeven. Wel in termen van de doelstelling van het onderzoek en de relevantie: wat weet je of wat kun je als je onderzoek is uitgevoerd? De selectie van één of meer gevallen als steekproef, moet je wel verantwoorden. Maar wanneer je onderwerp duidelijk is, kun je heel nadrukkelijk beargumenteren welke gevallen je hebt gekozen en wat je daarvan denkt te leren. Hierbij gaat het niet zozeer om een verdere afbakening van de onderzoekspopulatie, waar de afbakening in bijna elke stap van het schema op aan lijkt te komen, maar juist om het rechtvaardigen van het niet-aselect selecteren van één of meerdere casussen uit de onderzoekspopulatie (politieke crises in het Nederlands lokaal bestuur in de moderne tijd).Als het trekken van een aselecte steekproef niet mogelijk en/of wenselijk is, dan is het zaak om expliciet in te gaan op de argumenten waarom de gekozen gevallen representatief of informatief zouden moeten zijn voor de hele onderzoekspopulatie. Smaling (2009) geeft enkele fraaie voorbeelden van steekproeven vanuit verschillende vormen van ontworpen (door de onderzoekers) generaliseerbaarheid. Als de stap van de gevallen naar de populatie niet goed te zetten valt, rest de onderzoekers nog de mogelijkheid om de onderzoekspopulatie verder te verkleinen en af te bakenen. Daardoor zullen zij weliswaar over een kleinere populatie uitspraken kunnen doen, maar dan valt wel makkelijker hard te maken dat de getrokken conclusies daadwerkelijk valide zijn voor die populatie. Hoe zwakker de argumenten waarom de casus representatief zou zijn voor de populatie, hoe voorzichtiger de conclusies van het onderzoek over de populatie zullen moeten zijn, waarmee duidelijk wordt dat er verder onderzoek nodig is om tot breder geldende conclusies te komen. Bij afwezigheid van deze argumenten valt de externe validiteit van de conclusies niet te beoordelen, dus de vraag naar de rechtvaardiging van de gekozen casus is zelf altijd gerechtvaardigd.We komen tot de conclusie dat de auteurs geen duidelijkheid verschaffen over de stappen die gezet worden om van een onderwerp tot een passend empirisch geval te komen. Daarnaast is het schema een voorbeeld; het zijn geen stappen die andere onderzoekers ook kunnen doorlopen. Wel heeft het artikel het onderwerp van de steekproefselectie weer onder de aandacht gebracht en het belang gedemonstreerd van explicitering van de stappen die worden gezet in de afbakening van het beoogde geldigheidsdomein (de populatie) en de selectie van de steekproef daaruit. Dat kan bijdragen aan de versterking van dit zwakke punt in veel kwalitatief onderzoek.
Dr Hinko Urbach napisao je dirljiv tekst o nadrabinu aškenaske opštine u Sarajevu dr Samuelu Weszel-u koji je iznenada preminuo 1928. godine. Dr Weszel je poticao od pobožnih i učenih roditelja - Mojsija Weszela i Sare Hirschfeld. Rodio se u Vacz-u (Mađarska) 25. maja 1871. U sedmoj godini ostao je siroče zbog čega je njegov životni put bio veoma težak. Uprkos tome posvetio se nauci. Sa 10 godina čitao je "maftir" (počasno čitanje poslednjeg odlomka Tore u javnom bogosluženju), sa 13 je davao "seder" i išao u veliku "ješivu" u Bonybad, sa 16 je podučavao mladiće mnogo starije od njega. Sa 18 godina već je držao predavanja u hramu. U Bernu i Minhenu je studirao filozofiju i semitsku filologiju kod poznatih profesora i promovisan je za doktora filozofije. U praktičnoj pedagogiji usavršavao se u Hamburgu, Beču i Bazelu, odakle su ga pozvali za rabina u Roterdam, a potom u Sarajevo. Službu rabina aškenaske opštine u Sarajevu započeo je 1. novembra 1898. godine a 1900. godine se oženio Paulom, kćerkom naučnika Isaka Robinšona iz Šarlotenburga. Svoj poziv dr Weszel je veoma voleo i postigao je značajne uspehe. Na početku svoga delovanja pokazao je veliko razumevanje za instituciju "Hevra Kadiše" koja ga je izabrala za počasnog člana. Osnovao je prvo "Židovsko Omladinsko Društvo" u kome je uspeo da okupi sefardsku i aškenasku omladinu u zajedničkom radu. Iz ovog društva se kasnije, 1912. godine razvilo "Židovsko Nacijonalno Društvo", čiji je on bio prvi član osnivač. Zajedno sa svojom suprugom osnovao je 1901. godine "Židovsko aškenasko gospojinsko društvo". Svojim neumornim radom doprineo je da opština sagradi impresivan hram, koji je posvetio 1902. godine. Velike zasluge imao je oko osnivanja i delovanja "Ahdusa", društva Jevreja sa Istoka, i omladinskog društva "Makabi". Ogroman doprinos dao je na polju veronauke: izradio je "Nastavni plan za jevrejski vjeronauk", koji je tadašnja Zemaljska vlada uvela u škole Bosne i Hercegovine. Bio je član uprave Saveza rabina i Glavnog odbora Saveza jevrejskih veroispovednih opština. Dr Weszel je bio odličan govornik, govorio je blago, toplo i ubedljivo, sa posebnom personalnom notom. Bio je impresioniran Prvim cionističkim kongresom u Bazelu 1897. godine na kome je imao lične kontakte sa svim velikanima nacionalnog pokreta. Nikad nije izgubio zanos i oduševljenje i neumorno je radio na obnovi Jevrejstva u dijaspori i Erec Izraelu. Njegovo delo "Das Targum zuni Buche Ruth" u kojem je obradio aramejsku parafrazu ove biblijske knjige izašlo je u Berlinu 1898. godine na nemačkom jeziku i ima naučnu vrednost. Za "Jewish Encyclopedia" napisao je istoriju jevrejskih opština u Bosni i Hercegovini: u Sarajevu, Travniku i Mostaru. Napisao je brojne naučne članake i predavanja, koji su, nažalost zbog njegove skromnosti, ostali u rukopisima. Povodom 25-e godišnjice njegovog službovanja 1923. godine kralj Aleksandar ga je odlikovao ordenom Svetog Save IV stepena. Na kraju teksta o životu i radu dr Weszela objavljen je govor koji je Vrhovni rabin dr Isak Alkalay iz Beograda održao na njegovoj sahrani. ; Dr. Hinko Urbach wrote a touching text about the senior rabbi of the Ashkenazi community in Sarajevo, Dr. Samuel Weszel, who died suddenly in 1928. Dr. Weszel came from religious and scholarly parents - Moses Weszel and Sarah Hirschfeld. He was born in Vacz (Hungary) on May 25, 1871. When he was seven, he has left an orphan, which made his life very difficult. Despite this, he devoted himself to science. He dedicated all his strength to science. At the age of 10, he read the "maftir" (honorary reading of the last passage of the Torah in public worship), at the age of 13 he gave "seder" and went to the big "yeshiva" in Bonybad, at the age of 16 he taught young men much older than him. At the age of 18, he was already lecturing in the temple. In Bern and Munich, he studied philosophy and Semitic philology with famous professors and was promoted to doctor of philosophy. He studied practical pedagogy in Hamburg, Vienna and Basel, from where he was invited to become a rabbi in Rotterdam, and then in Sarajevo. He began his service as a rabbi of the Ashkenazi community in Sarajevo on November 1, 1898, and in 1900 he married Paula, the daughter of the scientist Isaac Robinson from Charlottenburg. Dr. Weszel loved his invitation very much and achieved significant success. At the beginning of his career, he showed great understanding for the institution "Hevra Kadisha", which elected him an honorary member. He founded the first "Jewish Youth Society" in which he managed to gather Sephardic and Ashkenazi youth in joint work. Later, in 1912, the "Jewish National Society" developed from this society, of which he was the first founding member. Together with his wife, he founded the "Jewish Ashkenazi Lady's Society" in 1901. With his tireless work, he contributed to the community building an impressive temple, which he dedicated in 1902. He had great merits for the founding and operation of "Ahdus", the Society of Jews from the East, and the youth society "Maccabi". He made a huge contribution in the field of religious education: he developed the "Curriculum for Jewish Religious Education", which the then Provincial Government introduced in schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was a member of the board of the Federation of Rabbis and the Main Board of the Federation of Jewish Religious Communities. Dr. Weszel was an excellent speaker, he spoke softly, warmly, and convincingly, with a special personal note. He was impressed by the First Zionist Congress in Basel in 1897, where he had personal contacts with all the giants of the national movement. He never lost his enthusiasm and worked tirelessly to restore Judaism in the Diaspora and Eretz Israel. His work "Das Targum zuni Buche Ruth", in which he processed the Aramaic paraphrase of this biblical book, was published in Berlin in 1898 in German and has scientific value. For the "Jewish Encyclopedia", he wrote the history of Jewish communities in Bosnia and Herzegovina: in Sarajevo, Travnik, and Mostar. He wrote many scientific articles and lectures, which, unfortunately, due to his modesty, remained in manuscripts. On the occasion of the 25th on the anniversary of his service in 1923, King Alexander honored him with the Order of Saint Sava IV degree. At the end of the text about the life and work of Dr. Weszel, a speech was given by the chief rabbi Dr. Isak Alkalay from Belgrade at his funeral. ; Str. 19: Fotografija dr Samuela Weszel-a. ; Na kraju teksta o životu i radu dr Weszela objavljen je govor koji je Vrhovni rabin dr Isak Alkalay iz Beograda održao na njegovoj sahrani (At the end of the text about the life and work of Dr. Weszel, a speech was given by the Chieff Rabbi Dr. Isak Alkalay from Belgrade at his funeral).
Introduction. In the modern educational space, an intensive digital transformation is currently taking place, which imposes new requirements for teacher competencies. This determines the relevance of setting goals and solving problems in order to develop up-to-date models for improving the qualifications of teachers of vocational education and training (VET). The paper discusses the current state of the development of digital competencies of teachers and teachers of Serbia and Russia in line with the European Digital Competence Framework (DigComp) and the European Digital Competence Framework for Educators (DigСompЕdu). The paper includes an analysis of the peculiarities of vocational education and training systems, as well as the directions of further training of teachers, conducted by participants in the international project "Professional Development of Vocation Education Teachers with European Practices (Pro-VET)". In order to better understand national contexts, the content of the reports of the participating countries of the project was analysed in the context of the EU policy and strategy for the development of digital competency of VET teachers. In this article, the authors focus on exploring digital competencies required of VET teachers within the European Digital Competence Framework for Educators (DigСompЕdu) to identify digital competencies and development needs of Serbian and Russian VET teachers when working in online learning environments. The aims of the research are the following: 1) to compare the educational needs of Russian and Serbian VET teachers in the development of their digital pedagogical competencies; 2) to identify the theoretical and practical base for VET teachers' digitally competent development programme design in the context of online learning according to the best European practices in the field of VET. Methodology and research methods. The development of the model was based on learning theories, didactics and practical approaches to soft skills development in online learning environments. The research has been conducted by the means of document analysis, theoretical analysis and synthesis methods, comparative method, modelling method and expert estimation method. Results and scientific novelty. Key aspects of VET teacher training systems in Russia and Serbia are compared and needs in development of digital pedagogical skills of Russian and Serbian VET teachers are identified. A developed model of VET teachers' digitally competent development programme design in the context of online learning according to best European practices in this fields is represented by two components: structural and functional. The structural component of VET teachers' digitally competent development model contains: learning theories and didactics, adult learning theories, soft skills development approaches in online learning, learning outcomes development approaches. The functional component of the model contains: national and European educational policy, strategies in the field of digitalisation of education and the development of digital competencies of teachers, European Union policies related to online learning; pedagogical, psychological and didactical design parameters of the content of advanced training programmes in the context of e-learning. Practical significance. The demonstrated model is being tested in the framework of the implementation of the international Pro-VET project supported by ERASMUS+. Methodological approaches, procedure and tools of VET teachers' digitally competent development are being developed and tested. The application of digitally competent development programmes ensures the transparency of training and allows for the correlation of national and international training programmes as well as the development of academic and professional mobility of VET teachers. The process of designing such educational training programmes in online environment for VET teachers has begun at some universities in Russia and Serbia (participants of the project). The developed online training programmes can be used as a basis to design more quality online courses beyond the Pro-VET project in the sphere of professional development for VET teachers. ; Введение. В современном образовательном пространстве происходит интенсивная цифровая трансформация, которая предъявляет новые требования к компетентности преподавателя. Это определяет актуальность постановки и решения проблемы разработки современных моделей повышения квалификации преподавателей профессионального образования и обучения (ПОО). В статье обсуждается текущее состояние развития цифровых компетенций преподавателей ПОО Сербии и России в соответствии с европейскими рамками цифровизации образования (DigComp) и цифровой компетентности преподавателей (DigCompEdu); представлен анализ особенностей систем профессионального образования и обучения, а также направлений повышения квалификации педагогов, проведенный участниками международного проекта «Повышение квалификации пре подавателей профессионального образования и обучения по европейским практикам (Pro-VET)». С целью лучшего понимания национальных контекстов проанализировано содержание докладов стран – участников данного проекта в контексте политики и стратегии ЕС в области развития цифровой компетентности преподавателей ПОО. Выявлены соответствующие образовательные потребности сербских и российских преподавателей ПОО и цифровые компетенции, которые, согласно европейской рамке цифровой компетентности преподавателей (DigCompEdu), необходимы педагогам ПОО для работы в онлайн-среде обучения. Цели исследования: 1) сравнить образовательные потребности российских и сербских преподавателей ПОО в развитии их цифровых педагогических компетенций; 2) определить теоретическую и практическую основы разработки модели развития цифровой компетентности педагогов в контексте онлайн-обучения в соответствии с лучшими европейскими практиками в области ПОО. Методология и методы исследования. Разработка указанной модели базировалась на теориях обучения, дидактики и практических подходах к развитию гибких навыков в онлайн-среде обучения. Исследование проводилось с помощью анализа документов, теоретического анализа, сравнительного метода, методов синтеза, моделирования и экспертной оценки. Результаты и научная новизна. Сопоставлены аспекты системы подготовки преподавателей ПОО в России и Сербии, определены их потребности в совершенствовании цифровых компетенций. Разработана модель развития цифровой компетентности преподавателей ПОО, включающая два компонента: структурный и функциональный. Структурный компонент, представленный теориями обучения и дидактики, теориями обучения взрослых, определяет подходы к вырабатыванию мягких навыков в онлайн-обучении и использованию его результатов. Функциональный компонент, который основывается на национальной и европейской образовательной политике, стратегиях в сфере цифровизации образования и развития цифровых компетенций педагогов, политике Европейского союза в области онлайн-обучения, содержит педагогические, психологические и дидактические параметры дизайна содержания программ повышения квалификации в контексте электронного обучения. Практическая значимость. Указанная модель тестируется в рамках реализации международного проекта Pro-VET. Разрабатываются и тестируются методологические подходы, процедуры и инструменты совершенствования цифровой компетентности преподавателей ПОО. Применение программ повышения квалификации в сфере цифровых технологий обеспечивает прозрачность и сопоставимость национальных и международных образовательных программ, а также способствует развитию академической и профессиональной мобильности преподавателей ПОО. В университетах России и Сербии (участниках проекта) создаются программы онлайн-обучения для преподавателей ПОО на базе разработанной модели. Данные программы могут стать основой для разработки эффективных онлайн-курсов за пределами проекта Pro-VET в сфере повышения квалификации педагогов ПОО.
[spa] Investigación histórica y etnográfica en el espacio simbólico y ceremonial más emblemático de la ciudad de Lisboa: O Rossio. Tratamos de agotar sus elementos físicos, relacionales y simbólicos, siguiendo varias escalas de análisis, en una interpretación general de la sociedad lisboeta. 1-("Presentación del Objeto de Estudio"): se introducen las fuentes teóricas generales que atraviesan el texto, centradas en la antropología urbana y en la problemática del espacio en tanto que producción social. Asimismo, desarrollamos una breve historia de la Praça do Rossio para proporcionar la medida de su importancia y las funciones que desempeña en el marco de la ciudad. 2-("Culturas de la Miseria, Miserias de la Cultura"): Empezamos con un primer ensayo etnográfico sobre las técnicas interactivas y las dramaturgias de la pobreza en Rossio. A modo de estudio comparativo, sigue una crítica a las políticas de governabilidad urbana en Barcelona, especialmente beligerantes ante la visibilidad de la miseria. Cerramos el bloque repasando las controversias relativas a la construcción identitaria portuguesa y su "excesso de diagnóstico", donde creemos localizar el núcleo discursivo de una cierta familiaridad con la subjetivación de la pobreza. 3-("Los Espacios y sus hombres"): Un pequeño capítulo sobre las metodologías y los protocolos etnográficos utilizados, da paso al análisis socioespacial "delimitado" de la Praça do Rossio. Se emprende aquí una revisión espacial de las 12 áreas en que dividimos la plaza, con el fin de conocer sus atributos en profundidad, descubriendo las relaciones que se establecen con su entorno constituyente -visible e invisible-, y dando lugar a las primeras reflexiones sobre el papel de Rossio en tanto que dispositivo sociourbano modular. Los mapas y diagramas ayudan a la comprensión microsocial de las trayectorias, las apropiaciones y las logicas socioespaciales que tienen lugar en la plaza. Profusamente conocido ya el espacio y sus derivaciones, en los bloques cuarto y quinto se tratan las profundas relaciones de la plaza con la evolución de la ciudad, tomando el terremoto de 1755 como acontecimiento sociourbanístico central. 4-("La fisura pombalina I: la imaginación patrimonial"): Presentamos una breve etnografía del comercio informal en Rossio, descubriendo su estrecha vinculación con procesos de patrimonialización contemporáneos, especialmente la folclorización de Alfama y el proceso político de control sobre las festas de Lisboa. En él descubrimos que los erasmus de Alfama reproducen el imaginario pintoresquista de los estudios olisipográficos, en procesos que se operan a través de la sublimación del comercio informal. Las variaciones históricas en la adscripción topológica de las prácticas de mercadeo, así como las particularidades de su versión patrimonial reificada, nos conducen a la cuestión del terremoto, cuando en la Rossio del comercio informal tenga lugar la reconfiguración forzada de la ciudad entera. 5-("La fisura pombalina II: la deriva urbana"): Nos centramos en las funciones morfológicas y simbólicas de Rossio en tanto que pieza articuladora del urbanismo lisboeta en general: siguiendo la pista anterior, ahondamos en el significado último de la intervención del Marqués después del seísmo de 1755. Un estudio de caso sobre la apropiación lusoafricana en una esquina de Rossio, nos permite profundizar en las consecuencias sociomorfológicas del terremoto: la "fisura pombalina" conduce, mediante dos "movimientos" simultáneos, a la bipolarización urbanística actual. Finalmente, analizaremos varios procesos recientes de capitalización en el centro de la ciudad, reconociendo asimismo el papel de diferentes actores sociales en la intervención urbana. ¿Sigue la Praça do Rossio conservando aquella inercia que la caracteriza más allá de "brechas" y "fisuras"?, ¿cuál es su papel en la articulación sociourbana de la ciudad?, ¿sigue siendo O Rossio un rossio, es decir, un espacio de apropiación colectiva marcado por la confluencia de las energías societarias? ; [eng] The present historical and ethnographic research is focused on the most emblematic space in Lisbon's downtown, Praça do Rossio. The comprehension of its historical function and cultural significance is explored by the following arguments and study cases: 1- The state of art on urban anthropology and an introduction to the social and political history of this emplacement. 2- An essay about beggar's performance and poverty visibility on Lisbon's streets, regarded as a discursive effect based on Portuguese identity construction, in contrast to Barcelona's anti-poor governance strategies. 3- An in-depth description of every single material element and detail from square's morphological composition, that lead us to consider Rossio both as a relationship playground and as historical emplacement. Besides, this chapter includes maps and diagrams showing the complexity of appropriations and circulations, as well as ethnographic insights and cultural issues. With all morphological details displayed, and with a large cultural square's acknowledgment, chapters 4 and 5 introduce the core of interpretation, allowing us to comprehend the urban and social function of Rossio through the most critical urban event in Lisbon's history: The 1755 earthquake. First, in chapter 4, informal economy and its liturgical dramatizations on Santos Populares city feasts -stated by olisipography's nineteenth-century discourses- are analyzed as an heritagization process. Rossio was the heart of the historical street-vendor practices, symbolized in current hegemonic city representations. Secondly, in chapter 5 the daily Portuguese-Africans meetings on Rossio Largo's corner are analyzed and considered as a symbol of the preservation of square's communicative and political functions. Summarizing the urban history of the city -and the social characterization, problems and representations of different neighborhoods-, Rossio is found to be the center of the politico-cultural and socio-morphological phenomena which is called "pombaline's fissure": the symbolic and material displacement caused by 1755 urban disaster and its later reconstruction, that reorganizes the axis between the bourgeois and the popular city. The theoretical and methodological approach of urban and social anthropology, as well as all this data collection, allow us to argue that Rossio performs a function as an urban hinge, articulating the city's sociospatial bipolarization and its symbolic representations.
In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough. Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Senior Arts/Humanities category. ; In the Margins of Literary and Architectural Discourse: A Comparison of Arabic Commentary in Cervantes's Don Quixote and Moorish Architectural Inscription Pablo Picasso: Don Quixote, August 10, 1955. Internet: Public Domain Alexandra Parent SP 415: Seminar on Don Quixote Professor Stallings-Ward 28 February 2020 1 Introduction The history of the Iberian Peninsula is a rich one, filled with influences from the entire European and Asian continents over time. When we think about Spain, there is one defining factor that distinguishes her from the rest of Europe: the presence of racial, ethnic and religious influence from Africa, and, resulting therefrom, a unique moment in world history: the confluence of three major world religions in one geographical place. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam once flourished side by side in mutual tolerance and economic interdependence in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, known as 'Al-Andalus,' in the High Middle Ages. Tolerance of others who are different, as Maria Rosa Menocal points out, is the underpinning of this unique historical coincidence and the essential component for the development of science, philosophy, medicine, urbanization, and hence trade and commercial prosperity.1 The Jews and Christians of Muslim Andalusia flourished economically and culturally under the Umayyad, whose dynasty (661-750) was transplanted from Damascus to Cordoba by Abd al-Rahman (756- 1031) after a civil war between two rival Caliphates. These three religions borrowed language and architecture from one another leaving traces of their coexistence, not surprisingly, within the architecture and literature of Spain. In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's 1 Menocal, The Ornament of the World. 2 novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best- known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough.2 Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. My essay is divided in three sections. In the first section, I will present a historical overview of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula. In the second section, I present a survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia based on the results of a photographic study of architecture I did while visiting Spain during study abroad. I survey the presence of Muslim architecture found throughout Andalusia, placing particular emphasis on the function of the margin in the design of the walls of the mosque reserved for the calligraphy that features citations of scripture from the Holy Koran. The margin, although small in size compared to the rest of the entire structure of the mosque, is as I will show, actually the most important part of the mosque. In the third section of my essay, I analyze the literary margin treated in the episode of the lost manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote. I will look at 2 Judith Stallings-Ward, Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020, 175. 3 the coexistence of the Christian and Arab writers in Cervantes's Don Quixote. The collaboration between Cervantes and Cide Hamete Benengeli allows Cervantes to establish a metaphor between the architectural margin of the mosque and the literary margin of the manuscript as the place for covertly expressing his esteem for multiculturalism and his condemnation of the expulsion of the Moors by national decree; a ploy he uses to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The play with spatial perspective (margin vs center) and the severance of the manuscript (with the lost section recovered in the market of Toledo) establishes the architectural and narrative metaphor that recalls the physical and cultural coexistence between Muslims and Christians valued by Cervantes. In addition, I examine how Cervantes extends this metaphor to also evoke the rupture of that coexistence through expulsion of the Moors, which Cervantes believed broke the backbone of the country. Part I: Historical Overview of Muslim Presence in the Iberian Peninsula The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula began with one young man named Abd Al- Rahman, the son of the Arab family ruling Damascus in the east—the Umayyads. However, during a civil war, his family was massacred, and his escape left him the sole survivor. He fled through North Africa into Cordoba where he began to establish himself as the Caliph, or ruler.3 After the Visigoth monarchy fell, Muslim control dominated the Iberian Peninsula. From 711 through 1492, Islamic society had a long and profound presence on shaping Spanish culture until the Christian kings unified the country. By 716, almost all of Iberia, with the exception of the far northwest and mountainous regions, was under Muslim control and the province was name 'Al- Andalus'. By naming the country in this manner, it directly opposes the 'Hispania' title that the 3 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. 4 Romans gave the peninsula, foreshadowing the enmity between the religions of Islam and Christianity.4 Abd Al-Rahman sought to recreate his cultural roots here in Iberia. The peninsula was dominated by the Umayyad dynasty, who had no affiliation to the eastern Muslim dynasties at the time, and were met with little to no resistance from the small groups of Christians still living in the peninsula. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the conquering forces came through Northern Africa and thus were also comprised of Berber forces from that region. By 741, there were approximately 12,000 Berber forces, 18,000 Arabs, and 7,000 Syrians entering through the Southern tip of the peninsula. This totaled anywhere from 4,000,000 to 8,000,000 living in the Iberian Peninsula at the time.5 6 Islam and Christianity under Islamic Rule By the mid eighth century, the population of Iberia had grown exponentially and became more diverse both racially and religiously. Although Muslim forces had conquered what remained of the Visigoth territories and established themselves as the dominant, ruling power, a 4 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 91. 5 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 6 Alchetron.com. "Umayyad Conquest of Hispania - Alchetron, the Free Social Encyclopedia," August 18, 2017. https://alchetron.com/Umayyad-conquest-of-Hispania. Figure 1: Depiction of the route of Abd-Al Rahman and the subsequent conquests of the Muslim Empire. From Internet: public domain.6 5 majority of the population living in Iberia was still Christian. This undoubtedly posed issues for the Moorish rulers who practiced Islam. As a result, conversion became a necessity for Christians. It is important to distinguish between the upper and lower class when discussing the notion of conversion. Many Visigoth royalty, nobles, and influential families saw it in their best interest to convert and to do what they could to join the new rulers in an effort to pursue political advantages.7 Yet, the majority of Iberia was home to lower class Hispano-Roman Christians who converted out of survival. Despite this, many of the people in this situation retained their Christian faith while adopting Muslim customs like learning Arabic so as to appease the rulers. The name given to these people are mozárabes, or 'Mozarabs', meaning 'Muslim-like'.8 A Christian writer noted the following about Christians living under Islamic rule in 854: Our Christian young men, with their elegant airs and fluent speech, are showy in their dress and carriage, and are famed for the learning of the gentiles; intoxicated with Arab eloquence they greedily handle, eagerly devour, and zealously discuss the books of the Chaldeans (i.e. Muhammadans), and make them known by praising them with every flourish of rhetoric, knowing nothing of the beauty of the Church's literature, and looking down with contempt on the streams of the Church that flow forth from Paradise ; alas ! The Christians are so ignorant of their own law, the Latins pay so little attention to their own language, that in the whole Christian flock there is hardly one man in a thousand who can write a letter to inquire after a friend's health intelligibly, while you may find a countless rabble of kinds of them who can learnedly roll out the grandiloquent periods of the Chaldean tongue. They can even make poems, every line ending with the same letter, which displays high flights of beauty and more skill in handling metre than the gentiles themselves possess.9 It is evident from this passage that the Christians admired the Arabs for the type of civilization they created. The Mozarabs recognized that the Arabs had something to offer them in terms of literature, character, and even language. This demonstrates that on some level, there was an 7 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 8 Phillips and Phillips. 9 Alvar, Indiculus luminosus; quoted from Arnold, The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith, 137-138. 6 acceptance of Muslim culture and practices which set the foundation for the incorporation of Islamic architectural styles and writing styles to be continued after the Christians' reconquering of Iberia. Christian Kingdoms and "La Reconquista" When the Muslim forces conquered Iberia, they were not able to infiltrate the regions in the north. These regions were not seen as an apparent threat because they were isolated, poor, and not heavily populated, so the Moors did not make a vigilant effort to convert or control these Christians.10 However, the Christian states organized themselves into kingdoms and solidified their control in northern Spain by the mid-twelfth century before moving into Southern Spain during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The progression of the Christian kingdoms' conquests can be seen in Figure 2. 11 At the height of the reconquest, there were seven individual Christian kingdoms within the peninsula: Asturias, Galicia, Aragon, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Valencia. Each of these kingdoms had their own struggles trying to gain territory, power, and recognition. The Kingdom 10 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain, 55. 11 "Reconquista+General.Jpg (1600×914)." Accessed February 19, 2020. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/- ofiGywz891k/TzynBPnsc7I/AAAAAAAAAok/ECNzH3rSp3E/s1600/Reconquista+General.jpg. Figure 2: Timeline of the Christian King's Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Internet: public domain.11 7 of Navarre was largely under the control of the French to the north and did not have much to do with the conquering of other Spanish Christian kingdoms, let alone taking a stance on combating the Arab south. However, not only were the Christian kings working to overthrow the Islamic caliphate and reconquer Iberia from the Muslims, they were all vying for control amongst themselves. In the tenth century, Alfonso III expanded into the regions of Galicia and Leon slowly gaining more territory and strengthening his Christian kingdom to combat the Moors. The kingdoms of Castile and Leon unified in 1085 and then under the kingship of Alfonso VI, they conquered Toledo.12 Toledo is situated where the Moorish Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Leon border each other, so the conquering of Toledo was a push in the right direction for the Christian kings' ultimate goal of expelling the Moors from Spain. In the northeast, Alfonso I of Aragon began consolidating his power and conquered Zaragoza by 1134, and joined with Barcelona in 1137 to form the Kingdom of Aragon. By this point, the Muslim empire was facing many issues in trying to run their territories and were slowly losing their sphere of power in the south. King Fernando III of Castile was able to penetrate Al-Andalus and conquer the Andalusian cities of Cordoba and Seville in the mid-thirteenth century. So, when the two kingdoms of Aragon and Castile prevailed over their Christian counterparts, they were left with only the Emirate of Granada as their last steppingstone to banish Muslim rule from the peninsula. King Fernando II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile married in 1469 and this consolidated the royal authority of Spain.13 In January of 1492, the city of Granada fell to the Spanish forces and this ended the 780 years of Muslim control in the Iberian Peninsula. This was the final act of La Reconquista and the beginning of the age of Los Reyes Católicos or 'The Catholic Kings.' King Ferdinand and Queen 12 Phillips and Phillips, 306. 13 Phillips and Phillips, 116. 8 Isabela ruled into the first few years of the sixteenth century, which is marked as the beginning of the Spanish Inquisition—a judicial institution that was used to combat heresy in Spain. Islam and Christianity under Christian Rule Islam first began to submit to Christian rule during the period when the Christian kingdoms were all building up their states and conquering each other in the eleventh century. When Toledo was captured in 1085, allowing the Muslims to stay was crucial to the economic stability and the intellectual advancement of Christian society.14 With the expulsion of the Moors came the expulsion of their religion and began the institution of Christianity, more specifically Catholicism. The immediate issue that the church saw after the reconquest of Spanish cities was the need to introduce their ecclesiastical structure, so they began to assign bishops to these major cities in addition to creating two new ecclesiastical provinces.15 This rapid organization and dispersion of the Catholic religion in previously Islamic territories was not good news for those Muslims still living in Spain after the reconquest. The Christians could not simply expel the Muslims because in some places they made up the majority of the population and were an integral part of the economy for the country.16 Muslims who continued to live under Christian ruler adopted the name mudéjares or 'mudejars' in English. This name is derived from the Arabic word mudajan meaning 'permitted to remain' with a colloquial implication of 'tamed or domesticated.'17 Ironically, the same way the minorities were treated under Islamic rule, to include Christians, was now how the Muslims were treated under Christian rule. The Mudejars would practice their religion, law, and customs in addition to being permitted to continue their 14 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 150. 15 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 488. 16 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 151. 17 Watt, 151. 9 craft so long as they paid a tax. It was not uncommon for these minority groups to distinguish themselves by dressing differently and even inhabiting different quarters of town. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a period known as the Mudejar age, it is evident that there is a culture common to both Christians and Muslims, and that coexistence, to the point of assimilation, was possible. However, it is important to note that the Christians, being the dominant power, were selective in what they chose to assimilate. The most evident piece demonstrating assimilation is the artistic productions, both architecturally and literarily. It was obvious that incorporating the Muslims into society was necessary and beneficial, but towards the end of the fifteenth century, economic disparages were becoming obvious and the Mudejars were the wealthier of the two groups. This jealousy and animosity led to a growing prejudice of Mudejars and once Ferdinand and Isabella unified the peninsula, they turned this prejudice into policy. The previous flirtation of religious tolerance was coming to an end, but due to the policy written for the surrender of Granada, many people of Islamic faith were briefly safe in 1492, so these religiously intolerant policies attacked other groups, namely the Jewish factions of the country. This period of brutal intolerance is known as the Inquisition, and it drastically influenced Spanish society for the years to follow, to include Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote of La Mancha. Part II: Survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia Moorish architecture is something that when one sees it, they know it. It is a mixture of oriental and occidental to create a recognizable and unique form of architecture. There are certain staple architectural features that help make this style so well-known and are also the features that other cultures adopt simply because of their beauty. Some of these features include 10 stone parapets with Islamic crenellations, horseshoe windows and doors, towers sometimes evoking a minaret, domes, arches, slender pillars, and many of these features were typically constructed with alternating colors of yellow and red brick and stone.18 The following figures demonstrate these architectural features. 18 Kalmar, "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture," 73. Figure 4 (above): The series of arches and horshoe shaped doors. Taken by Alexandra Parent in the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 5 (below): The classic Islamic crennelations and attention to detail that characterizes all of Islamic architecture. This is also exemplatory of the domes that were utilized in Moorish architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 3: The slender pillars and open courtyards. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 6: The Torre del Oro or Tower of Gold located in Seville, Spain. Exemplifies the use of towers and minarets in Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent in Seville, Spain. April 12, 2018. 11 19 These features are apparent throughout all the everyday buildings within the cities of Al- Andalus, but they also came together to make great, exceptional buildings. One in particular is the Great Mosque in Cordoba. This was built when the religion of Islam was only a century old, so it is renowned as one of the first mosques ever built. This mosque is truly grandeur in architectural style in addition to sheer size. In Islamic faith, it is forbidden to depict Allah, or any religious figure, so the traditional methods of using a painting to inspire religious awe was not possible, thus allowing for architecture to take its place. As seen in Figure 7, the rows of archways are seemingly never ending and absolutely uniform. 20 The architectural margin of the mosque (Fig 8 and Fig 10.D), which Cervantes metaphorizes with the annotation of Dulcinea written on the margin in Don Quixote, refers to the most important part of the mosque: the inscriptions. In the Islamic religion, as aforementioned, worshipping any idols or to depict Allah, Muhammad, or any other important religious figures 20 "The Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba (Spain)." Accessed February 19, 2020. https://www.turismodecordoba.org/the-mosque-cathedral-of-cordoba-spain. Figure 7: The Great Mosque located in Cordoba, Spain. Known for the uniformity and neverending archways and pillars. From Internet: public domain.20 12 through paintings are prohibited. So, the role of the inscriptions becomes the most important and revered part of the mosque much like the depiction of Jesus on the cross is worshipped by Christians. This is because the inscriptions are the holy words of the Koran. The phrase most 21commonly inscribed in these architectural margins are 'only Allah is victorious.' The metaphor Cervantes makes between the architectural and literary margin is developed to a second degree with the handwriting in the margin of the manuscript being Arabic calligraphy. This can be compared to the inscriptions in the architectural margin of the mosques, which are also written in Arabic calligraphy. This type of writing is very distinct from Western modes of writing because the purpose of Arabic calligraphy is "no como un medio utilitario de 21 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 10: Architecture of the Mosque21 (from left to right and top to bottom): A) ataurique B) interlacing decoration C) calligraphy in the margin of the wall with scripture "Only Allah is Victorious". Also shown in Fig 11. D) horseshoe arc E) muqarnas F) half horseshoe arcs G) arc with muqarnas H) column with crowned capital Figure 8 (above): The horsehoe shaped windows and use of alternating colors and very detailed crennelations. The Arabic calligraphy can be seen above the windows. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 9 (above): Fig 8 on a closer scale to better see the calligraphy 13 comunicación entre los hombres sino como un medio sagrado de comunicación entre Dios y los hombres," meaning, it is not like a utilitarian means of communication between humans, but rather a sacred means of communication between God and men.22 This type of calligraphy that Arabs place in the margins of their mosques obviously have religious value and is called caligrafía cúfica or 'Kufic calligraphy' as is shown in Figure 11. 23 The text written in Arabic calligraphy in the margin of the wall of the mosque is epigrafía. It is present in all mosques and throughout the royal palace known as La Alhambra in Granada. As Fernando Aznar explains, "El texto tiene gran importancia en la decoración. Frases que ensalzan a Alá, o que hace referencia a las bellezas del lugar donde se encuentra, ditando a veces a los constructores de cada zona, se reparten por todos los muros de la residencia real."24This quote says that text has great importance in the decoration of the buildings, and that the phrases that praise Allah, or that refers to the beauties of the place where Allah is located, are all throughout the royal palace. It amplifies the important role that language has in religious symbols. 22 "La Caligrafía Árabe." 23 "Arabic Inscription." Alamy. Accessed February 24, 2020. https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-arabic-inscription- carved-in-a-palace-wall-of-the-alhambra-in-granada-17181753.html. 24 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 11: An example of Kufic calligraphy. The style of the Arabic writing in this image is classically used in Islamic mosques to state the word of Allah from the Holy Koran. This is the architectural margin. From Internet: public domain.23 14 Moorish Architectural Influence Under Christian Rule As the Christians slowly began organizing themselves into kingdoms and conquering Moorish cities in Al-Andalus, two incredibly different cultures met each other. As previously stated, an assimilation of sorts was taking place by the Christians who were adopting Islamic practices and other elements of their culture. Architecture was one of these elements that Christian rulers not only preserved, but in some cases built from bottom up utilizing these inherently Moorish styles. Using the example of the Mosque of Cordoba, it is important to note that in the middle of this Islamic prayer hall, there is something unknown to Islam; a Catholic Cathedral (Fig. 12, 13, and 14). This addition was made in the sixteenth century after the Moors were abolished from Iberia. The rulers who erected this cathedral demolished the central columns in order to make room for the Christian edifices, however, Charles V recognized the gravity of this action and how it drastically changed the ambiance and historical significance of this architectural feat. This cultural vandalism by the Christians is symbolic of the enforcement and imposition of their religion onto a different group of people. This theme is also apparent in the literary works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to include Don Quixote of La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes. Figure 12: Located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Christian, gothic architecture meeting with Islamic architectural styles. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 15 An example of Mudejar work is the Cathedral of Seville, built after the demolition of a mosque, in order to increase the power of the Christian rulers. The architectural style of the building is very European and gothic with high vaulted ceilings and stained glass.25 As a statement piece for Christianity in former Islamic Spain, it is not expected for one to find traces of Moorish architectural influence, but there is. The Cathedral was built by Christian architects, so there was no lack of qualified Christian craftsmen, however there are qualities inherently Moorish that make its way into this grand architectural achievement. As depicted in Figure 15, the high altar in the Cathedral is adorned in so much detail that it mimics the Moorish tendency to not leave any blank space. The incessant ornamental decoration style that was a part of Islamic Spain bled into and permeated traditional Christian and European styles of architecture making its way into the very soul of Christian craftsmanship. Although the Christian Spanish rulers 25 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. Figure 13 (right): Christian altar located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 14 (left): Example of Christianity inserting itself into Muslim architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 16 erected this cathedral as a statement to assert their religious dominance, the Moorish aesthetic had already made its way into the minds of the architects of that era. In addition to this, the minaret attached to the Cathedral of Seville, La Giralda (Figure 16), is evidence of this as well. The construction of this minaret concluded in 1568 and is the twin tower to the city of Marrakech. Having begun construction in 1184, La Giralda is host to the visible mixing of Moorish and Christian culture. Through the stonework, inscriptions, and different styles used, La Giralda is evidence of this assimilation of cultural and architectural practices. 26 Perhaps the most notable architectural feat in regard to Moorish influence on Christianity is seen in the Real Alcázar, or Royal Alcazar. At first glance, it is a very distinct Moorish-looking building in terms of architecture; it contains the classic Moorish archways, courtyards, crenellations and pillars (Fig 17 and 18), so it would be reasonable to conclude that it was 26 "Cathedral of Seville. Aerial View." Accessed February 24, 2020. https://seebybike.com/blog/must-see-cathedral-and- alcazar-of-seville/cathedral-of-seville-aerial-view/. Figure 15 (right): The altar located inside the Cathedral of Seville. Known for it's incredulous detail and extravagant style that is suspected to be a result of lingering Moorish influences. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 16 (left): An aerial view of the Cathedral of Seville. It includes many influences of Morrish architecture to include the large tower known as La Giralda, the minarets all over the building, and the many domes that make up the cathedral. From Internet: public domain.26 17 constructed under Islamic rule. However, Christian king Peter of Castile, also known as Peter the Cruel, commissioned the Alcazar as his royal palace in the fourteenth century. He made the Alcazar identical to the architectural stylings of the Spanish Middle Ages. So, the question arises as to why a Christian ruler would deliberately choose Islamic decoration? The answer is that it comes down to power. By appropriating the Islamic art and traditional expressions, the Christian ruler projects a sort of authority over the minority subjects.27 The Moorish expressions of wealth and power are understood differently than traditional Europeans, so by creating something that the Muslim population would recognize as powerful, Peter the Cruel wielded a sort of power over the Mudejars. 27 Fernández, "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Figure 17 (left): The courtyard of the Royal Alcazar. Despite being built by a Christian king, it has many, if not completely full of, influences from Islamic architecture. Note, the pillars, the archways, the courtyard, the crennelations. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 18 (right): The Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. This wall has both Christian and Islamic influences. Note the differences between the lower floor and the second floor of the archways. The bottom is much more functional and plainer, like traditional Christian architecture whereas the top portions are much more detailed and colorful such as depicted by Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 18 Part III: The Literary Margin Treated in the Episode of the Lost Manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote When reading Don Quixote, the reader is frequently taken off the main narrative path involving the adventures of the main characters, the knight and his squire Sancho Panza, and led down secondary narratives involving encounters with characters who interrupt the main narration with tales of their own stories of love, captivity, and triumph. The complexity of the narrative shows the novel to be an amalgam of many different short novels, much like the way of the river Amazon, which is fed by many smaller rivers, at the heart of which is Cervantes's parody of books of chivalry. Nevertheless, the one unchanging constant is the way the novel opens a window onto the life and times of the man who wrote it. Cervantes's novel reflects his lived experience rooted in multicultural society whose heterogeneity was the source of Spain's economic and agricultural well-being. Cervantes saw the well-being of his country destroyed by the Hapsburg dynasty's religious intolerance and persecution of minorities who did not convert from their Jewish or Muslim faith. Cervantes himself was of Jewish ancestry. His father was a surgeon, a vocation known to be practiced by Jews. Cryptic references to his Jewish ancestry appear in the portada, or cover page of this novel. For example, the phrase from the book of Job—after darkness light is hoped for—and references to their inability to worship on the Sabbath appear in the first chapter of the novel; a day when the Jewish population must be in duelos and quebrantos, or 'pain and suffering'. While a student, Cervantes was arrested and ordered to have his right hand cut off for allegedly shooting a man who had insulted his sisters. Cervantes escaped punishment by fleeing to Italy from where he joined the Holy League (an alliance among the Vatican, France, and Spain) in the Battle of Lepanto, a major battle against the Turks in the waters of the 19 Mediterranean, during which Cervantes lost the use of his left hand. After his distinguished military service in this major victory against the Turks, Cervantes was taken captive and held prisoner for five years in Algeria. His profound understanding of the Islamic world of the Maghreb, as the northern region of Africa is known, is reflected throughout Don Quixote. Upon return to Spain, he obtained work as a tax collector tasked with gathering funds throughout Andalusia for the construction of the Spanish Armada. His detailed knowledge of the geography and customs of Southern Spain is reflected throughout the novel as well. Cervantes's experiences from his military expedition against the Turks, his years in captivity in northern Africa, his travels through Andalusia, and his Jewish ancestry can be added as another factor that forged the broad multicultural perspectivism formed in his novel. As a student, Cervantes was taught by Lope de Hoyos, a known follower of the Dutch humanist philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus criticized the empty ritual of the Catholic Church as well as its intolerance for Christians, especially followers of Martin Luther, who sought an unmediated religious relationship with God; one that did not require mediation by a Catholic priest. The teachings of Erasmus, an intellect who denounced the hypocrisy of the Catholic Church and its persecution of minorities and different versions of Christianity, are embraced by Cervantes and find expression in a covert manner in Don Quixote (II: 22-23).28 The episode of the lost manuscript (Volume I:8-9) reflects the perspective of multiculturalism and diversity Cervantes gained from the life experiences outlined above. Chapter eight is first and foremost about Don Quixotes's iconic battle with the windmills, the most well-known episode of the novel. Don Quixote's illusion leads him to believe that the windmills were originally giants that have been transformed into windmills by his enemy, the 28 Judith Stallings-Ward, "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." 20 wizard Freston, to cheat Don Quixote from a victory in battle against them. The deception of the knight conveys Cervantes's use of humorous parody to denounce the books of chivalry whose fantasy version of reality has brainwashed Don Quixote. A subsequent adventure in this chapter reveals Don Quixote has another lapse of reason. He believes that a Basque woman travelling to Seville, preceded by two Benedictine friars who are not in her party, and surrounded by her own men on horseback, is a princess being kidnapped. Upon observing once again his master's mind in the grip of delusion, Don Quixote's squire Sancho Panza replies, "This will be worse than the windmills."29 This foreshadows the battle that Don Quixote will ultimately have with the Basque. At the end of Chapter eight, we are left with both men having their swords unsheathed and raised at each other, but then the narration of the story abruptly stops. The narrator, a literary form of Cervantes inserted into the story by the real historical Cervantes, begins to speak directly to the reader as if in an informal conversation with them to convey that the end of the scene and the rest of the history are missing.30 This narrative style continues into Part II, chapter nine when the narrator begins a search for the missing manuscript. In this chapter we are brought to Toledo and the narrator brings the reader through the Alcaná market. The narrator Cervantes tells the story of his journey to find the manuscript in the market and how he comes across a young boy trying to sell him some notebooks, old torn papers, and other small commodities. Cervantes is inclined to pick up a certain book that the boy has and realizes the script on the front is in Arabic. Since he could not read Arabic, he finds a Morisco aljamiado, so called for their ability to speak both Arabic and Spanish, who can help translate the manuscript. It was not difficult to find this person and soon Cervantes flipped to the middle of the book and asked the Morisco to translate. Cervantes points out the availability of translators of 29 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 62. 30 Cervantes, 65. 21 all classic languages in the market, thus underscoring the advantage of multicultural spaces such as the markets of Spain. As the translator--the Morisco aljamiado--began to read the page, he laughed at something written in the margin: it stated, "'This Dulcinea of Toboso, referred to so often in this history, they say had the best hand for salting pork of any woman in La Mancha.'"31 The narrator immediately knew that this was the missing manuscript he was looking for, so he had the Morisco read even more. It is then that the reader learns the novel was originally written in Arabic by the Arab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli. Narrator Cervantes commissions the Morisco to translate the entire novel, paying him in "two arrobas of raisins, and two fanegas of wheat," so that the story of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza can be continued.32 This process of translation of the original manuscript from Arabic to Spanish is now the source of the narrator Cervantes's history of Don Quixote, and it is a collaboration between the literary Christian "Cervantes" and the original Arabic author Cide Hamete Benengeli, delivered through the translator. The reader is now being told the story through someone else's eyes and mind. The novel descends into a rabbit hole of authorship in which, ironically, the new lens is a Morisco translator. This metaphor demonstrates that true Spanish history is written as a compilation between Christianity and Islam, not one or the other, thus demonstrating historical Cervantes's disdain and disapproval of the expulsion of the Moors. Rather, Cervantes displays the importance and necessity of diversity and multiculturalism. The true author, historical Cervantes, also establishes a metaphor between the literary margin, in which the literary Cervantes discovered the novel was indeed Don Quixote, and the architectural margins of the mosque. Cervantes does this in a very clever and implicit manner, 31 Cervantes, 67. 32 Cervantes, 68. 22 otherwise he would be severely censored. Through this implied metaphor of architectural and literary margins, Cervantes is able to write a novel that has commentary to covertly express his condemnation of the Moors and announce his glorification of multiculturalism. The focus of attention placed on the margin of the manuscript wherein Arabic commentary is written calls to mind the architectural margin of the mezquita, or 'mosque', in which the Arabic calligraphy is written. The comparison between the textual margin of Cervantes's manuscript and architectural margin of the walls of the mosque would be easy for the readers of Cervantes's day to recognize given the prevalence of Muslim architecture throughout Spain, as my survey in the first part of this essay shows. Furthermore, the handwriting in Arabic by the Arab historian easily calls to mind the calligraphy used for citations from the Koran. The Arabic commentary—associated with the authoritative word of the Koran placed in the margin of the walls of the mosque—second guesses the religious purity of Dulcinea, the object of courtly worship by the Christian knight. When the translator points out the Arab historian's commentary in the margin of the manuscript, that 'the Lady Dulcinea has the best hand at salting pork,' he taints her purity by placing her in contact with a food source that is considered polluted for Muslims. The comment casts Dulcinea in tainted light. The Arab historian's questioning of religious purity occurs in tandem with the questioning of the authority or authorship of the history of Don Quixote. The literary Cervantes is a Christian writer, but he is not the true author of the original manuscript; the Arab historian Cide Hamete claims true authorship; and Dulcinea is not the pillar of religious purity she is perceived to be. The play with the double meaning of the margin (textual vs architectural) occurs with the play of spatial perspective between margin vs center. The reader sees through Cervantes's use of the metaphor as a multicultural perspective that questions the absolute status of Christian 23 authority and Christian purity. The play with meaning and perspective in Cervantes's treatment of the margin in chapters eight and nine may be taken to one final and third level of development. The margin, shown to be central in connection with the ruptured or severed manuscript, is a covert expression for Cervantes's esteem for the contributions to Spanish society by the Muslim population of his country and his condemnation for their expulsion by governmental degree from Spain. In the eyes of Cervantes, this broke of the backbone of Spain's culture and economy since the Arab population made up an incredibly large portion of the Iberian Peninsula. Cervantes accomplishes this by, not only changing chapters, but beginning a whole new section of the novel. Part I concludes with chapter eight and the pending battle between Don Quixote and the Basque, then Part II begins with the narrator Cervantes informing the reader of his journey to find the rest of the novel. Being wary of the censorship that plagued others during the Inquisition, Cervantes chose this metaphorical approach to convey his true sentiments about the situation of Spain at this moment in history. This rupture in Don Quixote's history is reflective of the moment in Spain's history where law has been decreed to banish something so inherent to the nation itself: the Moorish people. By placing these episodes side by side, Cervantes invites the reader to compare the delusion of the Hapsburg imperial vision and its expulsion of the Moors with the episode of the windmills. The blindness of Spain's government seems even more laughable than Don Quixote's own misguided attack on the windmills. Cervantes's play with the margin allows him to express his views on multiculturalism in an indirect manner that allowed him to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The Inquisition was not savvy enough to realize that this profound division between Part I and II is symbolic of the division of tolerant Spain into an intolerant Spain. After Cervantes 24 died, the Inquisition did censor and expurgate a passage that was considered too directly stated. In chapter thirteen, Don Quixote is once again declaring his servitude and attesting to the beauty of his beloved Dulcinea of Toboso. In his description to Vivaldo, he uses a Petrarchan metaphor, a very classical and renaissance style of poetry, to describe Dulcinea. Don Quixote states (Volume I:13): "Her tresses are gold, her forehead Elysian fields, her eyebrows the arches of heaven, her eyes suns, her cheeks roses, her lips coral, her teeth pearls, her necklace alabaster, her bosom marble, her hands ivory, her skin white as snow, and the parts that modesty hides from human eyes are such, or so I believed and understand, that the most discerning consideration can only praise them but not compare them."33 While eloquently put, Cervantes is nonetheless making references to the private areas of Dulcinea's body and thus was censored by the Catholic Church in 1624 after his death; they dared not censor him before since his novel made him so beloved by the people. Cervantes was too clever to have to follow the rules. His questioning of authority was apparent from the very opening words of the novel when he writes, "[s]omewhere in La Mancha, in a place whose name I do not care to remember…"34 Cervantes conveys how exact places and names are all arbitrary and are not relevant to the novel. This echoes Cervantes own questioning of authority and Spain's religious Inquisition going on that persecuted the Moors and other minorities alike. 33 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 91. 34 Cervantes, 19. 25 Conclusion The religious tolerance and interdependence between minorities of Al-Andalus, which are reflected through the architecture of Andalusia and also underscored in Cervantes's Don Quixote through the metaphorical treatment of the literary margin in the episode of the lost manuscript, seems evermore elusive today. In light of the divisiveness and racism rampant in our society that mars efforts toward multiculturalism and diversity, such as those undertaken at universities like Norwich, tolerance seems like the impossible dream that is the object of the quest of the chivalrous knight Don Quixote. 26 Bibliography Arnold, Thomas Walker. The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. New York: C. Scribner's sons, 1913. http://archive.org/details/preachingofisla00arno. Aznar, Fernando. La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos Declared of World Interest by Unescco. Mariarsa:1985. BBC Worldwide Learning. The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711- 1492. Documentary Film. The Art of Spain: From the Moors to Modernism, 2009. https://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=39408. Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. Translated by Edith Grossman. 5 edition. New York: Harper Collins, 2003. Fernández, Luis. La Historia de España en 100 preguntas. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Nowtilus, 2019. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/reader.action?docID=5703133&ppg=1. Fernández, María Luisa. "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Saudi Aramco World, The Legacy of Al-Andalus, 44, no. 1 (February 1993): 36–41. Harsolia, Khadija Mohiuddin. "Captivity, Confinement and Resistance in Mudejar and Morisco Literature." University of California, Riverside, 2016. WorldCat.org. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1849025713?accountid=14521. Kalmar, Ivan Davidson. "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture." Jewish Social Studies 7, no. 3 (2001): 68–100. "La Caligrafía Árabe." Accessed February 21, 2020. http://www.arabespanol.org/cultura/caligrafia.htm. Maíz Chacón, Jorge. Breve historia de los reinos ibéricos. 1a. edición. Quintaesencia ; 6. Barcelona: Ariel, 2013. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy1313/2013369841- b.html. Menocal, Maria Rosa. The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Reprint edition. Boston: Back Bay Books, 2003. O'Callaghan, Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain. 1st ed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1975. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/detail.action?docID=3138541. 27 Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://library.norwich.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true &db=e000xna&AN=490553&scope=site. Raquejo, Tonia. "The 'Arab Cathedrals': Moorish Architecture as Seen by British Travellers." The Burlington Magazine 128, no. 1001 (1986): 555–63. Sheren, Ila Nicole. "Transcultured Architecture: Mudéjar's Epic Journey Reinterpreted." Contemporaneity: Historical Presence in Visual Culture 1 (June 1, 2011): 137–51. https://doi.org/10.5195/contemp.2011.5. Stallings-Ward, Judith. "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." Comparative Literature Studies. 43.4 (2006) special issue: Don Quixote and 400 Years of World Literature. 441-65. Stallings-Ward, Judith. Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020. Urquízar-Herrera, Antonio. Admiration and Awe: Morisco Buildings and Identity Negotiations in Early Modern Spanish Historiography. 1 online resource (289 pages) vols. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2017. http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4850548. Watt, W. Montgomery. A History of Islamic Spain. Islamic Surveys; 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1977.
IntroducciónSe estima que durante el régimen militar comandado por el General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (11 de septiembre de 1973-11 de marzo de 1990) alrededor de 200.000 chilenos se exiliaron en 110 países en los 5 continentes. De ellos, 35.000 accedieron al status de asilados políticos, principalmente a través de embajadas latinoamericanas y europeas. A su vez, cerca de 5000 fueron expulsados del país a través de mecanismos de una legalidad solo formal (por ejemplo, los decretos leyes 81 y 504, de noviembre de 1973 y abril de 1975, respectivamente)(1).El estudio del exilio y renovación de la izquierda chilena presupone una decisión metodológica importante: cómo delimitar qué es el exilio y qué definimos cómo renovación. Los exiliados se dividían en dos expresiones distintivas: los dirigentes y los militantes. Los primeros fueron los mas perseguidos, pero justamente por ello recibieron un trato mas urgente y privilegiado tanto por parte de las instituciones o embajadas que organizaban la salida como de los gobiernos y organismos que lidiaban con ellos en los países de destino. En cambio, los militantes rasos enfrentaron situaciones mucho mas caóticas y dramáticas. Por un lado, eran personalidades anónimas que no podían argüir contactos para una salida rápida. Por otro lado, en los lugares de destino no recibían ni la ayuda ni el reconocimiento suficiente, por lo que no solo se encontraban aislados humanamente sino (mas relevante para este trabajo) no pudieron desarrollar los nexos políticos y analíticos necesarios como para comenzar un proceso de autocrítica que, eventualmente, desencadenara en un proceso de renovación filosófica e ideológica.Por ende, nuestra unidad de análisis será principalmente el exiliado en tanto expresión de un dirigente político relevante o medianamente relevante hasta 1973, que posteriormente pudo insertarse en la vida política e intelectual de su lugar de destino y que, paso seguido, debió enfrentar el desafío de la vida política en un escenario mas complejo.A su vez, esta distinción (entre exiliados-dirigentes y exiliados-militantes) no solo ha generado tensiones humanas entre los dos grupos en épocas del destierro sino que ha provocado una tensión política tanto durante el proceso de transición como en los 20 años de gobierno de la coalición de centro-izquierda formada principalmente por socialistas, democristianos y radicales (Concertación de Partidos por la Democracia, 1990-2010). El no-dialogo (explícito y tácito, en el pasado y en el presente) entre estas dos expresiones del exilio es en si un programa de investigación todavía inexplorado. La actual crisis política que se vive hoy (septiembre de 2011) en Chile refleja una parte de esa tensión irresuelta.Así, marcamos que ha habido una distancia considerable entre el grado de renovación y moderación alcanzado por los exiliados-dirigentes versus los exiliados-militantes. Es decir, ambos procesos pueden servir como una herramienta analítica comparativa válida, en tanto la inmersión de los dirigentes-exiliados en el debate público los catapultó al cambio mientras el aislamiento de los exiliados-militantes generalmente consolidó a estos en sus antiguas creencias. Podemos citar las palabras del exiliado en Venezuela Guillermo Meza, un simpatizante de la Unidad Popular sin pertenencia partidaria: "The solidarity of the Venezuelans was impressive. Acción Democrática [Democratic Action, or AD], which was the party in power, gave a good deal of help to all Chileans. But, of course, to some more than others and, especially, to those linked with political parties. We who were from the independent left were obliged to fend for ourselves…. Another thing to point out about Caracas is that an elite of exile leaders developed -- an elite that received aid from international organizations, who had honorary positions in the Venezuelan government but who didn't work in the government, but rather concentrated on political work. Very linked to the AD Party and who sometimes lived in very luxuriant conditions. They received special treatment that was sometimes pretty shocking. There were others who did not receive this kind of protection, like Mario Palestro, a ex-Socialist deputy. He had some very hard times, did unpleasant work, especially for someone of his age. Also Carmen Lazo, another Socialist deputy who also had to work hard to survive. José Carrasco, a journalist, who worked very hard in solidarity with Chile and who had a very hard time, subsisted with the bare minimum. Mario Díaz, another journalist, was in the same situation and finally died due to a long illness. He had to go to Cuba where they took him for medical care that he could not afford in Venezuela because of his precarious economic situation. People who were very honest and very committed. And among these people, there were extraordinary foreigners who were more Chilean than many of our countrymen. This was the case of the Argentines Tomás Vasconi, Irene Decar, and Luis Vitale -- people who have dedicated their lives to writing and researching our country and who have an incredible amount of affection for our country. Well, they returned to Chile and live there now. Three intellectuals of very high caliber. …I returned to Chile in 1985 because they asked me to come back again…" (2)A su vez, el estudio del exilio chileno posee otros desafíos metodológicos importantes: en primer lugar, es un acontecimiento históricamente reciente. En segundo lugar, no comienza en un momento cronológico unívoco. Es decir, si bien la diáspora se inicia con el golpe de estado del 11 de septiembre de 1973, los perseguidos políticos continúan emigrando incluso en los inicios de los 80'. En tercer lugar, los destinos del exilio son diversos y antagónicos. Si bien los principales destinos son América latina (Argentina, Brasil, Costa Rica y, principalmente, Cuba, México y Venezuela) y Europa, es posible encontrar destinos de exilio tan disímiles como Australia, Canadá, Angola, Mozambique, EE.UU., Senegal, Egipto, entre otros. Así, encontramos exiliados en los 5 continentes. Rody Oñate y Thomas C. Wright sostienen que "One of the hallmarks of the Chilean exile experience is the worldwide dissemination of its protagonists. The geography of Chilean exile was such that no single continent, country, or area within a country could be identified as the primary exile destination -- in contrast with the case of Cubans and Miami. It is commonly estimated that Chileans settled in a minimum of 110 countries and possibly in as many as 140 (Oficina Nacional de Retorno (ONR), 1993). As with the number of political exiles, the exact number of host countries is impossible to establish. By the end of 1992, the ONR reported having processed nearly 8,700 heads of family from 63 host countries, including Burundi, Cyprus, Indonesia, Kuwait, and Iceland… Exiled Socialist leader Clodomiro Almeyda claimed that Chileans had taken residence in Kenya, Bangladesh, the Cape Verde Islands, and even Greenland. As a result of the diaspora, noted another exile, "There is no important city in the world where you will not find a Chilean, nor a city that is not familiar with empanadas [meat pies] and peñas [informal cafés with folk and protest music]." (3). Luego, hoy es imposible saber cuantas personas han formado parte del exilio.Por ende, es difícil definir con total rigurosidad qué ha sido el exilio chileno, qué magnitud real ha tenido y cómo puede interpretarse su papel en la posterior renovación de la izquierda chilena y la hija predilecta de ésta: la exitosa experiencia de la Concertación y sus 20 años en el poder. Introducir el papel del exilio supone así remarcar tanto que su rol ha sido relevante para entender la renovación como que esa relevancia será muy difícil de demarcar en su verdadero alcance. Como sostiene Alejandro San Francisco Reyes, citando al ex presidente socialista Ricardo Lagos Escobar: "El propio Lagos, en una larga entrevista, sostuvo que fueron decisivos los años de exilio y las reuniones políticas en Europa: 'Recuerdo-dice Lagos- que a comienzos de los ochenta, se hizo la primera reunión de la renovación socialista en Chantilly, una pequeña localidad cerca de París. Fue una experiencia notable. Eran unas 200 o 300 personas que venían de todas partes de Europa…Este es un capítulo no escrito de la historia cultural de nuestro país…"(4).El exilio chileno se divide principalmente entre exilio europeo y latinoamericano. El exilio europeo fue masivo y orgánico, principalmente en lo que respecta a las cúpulas de los partidos y organizaciones que habían sido participes de la experiencia de la Unidad Popular (en adelante, UP). En cambio, el exilio latinoamericano estuvo mayormente integrado por dirigentes y militantes jóvenes y de menor peso específico. Eso lo hizo mas inorgánico e irrelevante a la hora de influir en el proceso de renovación político e ideológico. Sin embargo, es necesario marcar el papel de la diáspora chilena en Venezuela y México. Allí se radicaron importantes teóricos de la renovación socialista, como por ejemplo Sergio Bitar (Venezuela) o Luis Maira (México). Mas aun, México fue testigo de una de las publicaciones editoriales mas articuladas del exilio: la revista "Convergencia". Si una medida de la capacidad de un lugar (físico y político) para influir en la renovación fuera la publicación sistemática de artículos relevantes, ciudad de México estaría en condiciones de competir casi en pie de igualdad con Roma, Rótterdam y Paris. Sin embargo, la opacidad de la propia experiencia política mexicana (influida por la poca o nula riqueza analítica que aportaba la hegemonía del PRI) conspiraría para hacer de México DF un espacio de referencia ineludible.(5)Por su parte, el exilio europeo tiene dos grandes corrientes que poseen sus sub-corrientes respectivas. Las dos grandes corrientes son 1) Europa Occidental y 2) el mundo socialista o Europa Oriental. A su vez, Europa Occidental puede dividirse en Europa continental, Escandinavia e Islas Británicas. El exilio en Escandinavia consiste principalmente de la masiva emigración a Suecia (6). Sostienen Oñate y Wright que "…While exile dispersed Chileans around the globe, between a third and a half of all Chileans forced out of their country spent most or all of their exile in Western Europe. Some of the Western European countries had been very supportive of the defeated side from the moment of the coup; the Italian, Swedish, and French governments opened their embassies for asylum and with others, including Belgium, Germany, and Holland, were especially generous in accepting refugees and providing moral and material aid. These countries commonly offered a range of programs and facilities to equip the exile for subsistence and employment: language courses, free or subsidized apartments, job training and placement, and sometimes counseling. These incentives, combined with Chileans' admiration of European culture and institutions and the clear advantages of settling in developed countries, made Western Europe a major exile destination" (7).En segundo lugar, el exilio en los países de la orbita socialista fue masivo y crucial en los primeros años posteriores al golpe. Una radiografía del exilio chileno detrás de la cortina de hierro supondría en si mismo un trabajo de investigación, tanto por su relevancia como por la inexistencia de trabajos que desarrollen una critica desapasionada sobre lo acontecido. Los principales ámbitos para los exiliados eran Moscú y Berlín Oriental. En Moscú residía la cúpula del Partido Comunista (PC) y en Berlín la cúpula del Partido Socialista (PS). A su vez, las organizaciones menores como el MAPU (Movimiento de Acción Política Unitario) y el MIR poseían oficinas en ambas capitales, aunque el presupuesto para ellas era mucho mas acotado. Por ejemplo, el MAPU poseía en Moscú un pequeño presupuesto financiado por el PCUS, que sin embargo le permitió al influyente Enrique Correa articular nexos y acuerdos con las distintas corrientes de la oposición tanto dentro como fuera de Chile.Publicaciones del exilioUna rigurosa recopilación bibliografía sobre el exilo chileno y sus manifestaciones culturales e ideológicas ha sido realizada por Estela Aguirre, Sonia Chamorro, Carmen Correa en "Exilio chileno, cultura y solidaridad internacional." (8).El papel de las publicaciones y desarrollos teóricos de los exiliados ha sido central en el proceso de renovación. Si bien es difícil conocer y comparar la producción bibliográfica de las distintas diásporas, la comunidad chilena exiliada estaría en condiciones de competir por el primer lugar en cantidad y calidad de producciones artísticas, literarias y científicas con otras diásporas en el siglo XX.Una primera aproximación a la producción bibliográfica de los chilenos en el exterior en el periodo 1974-1989 es la siguiente (9): América Joven, Amsterdam, Holanda (Juventud Socialista).Amérique Latine, París, Francia (24 números publicados hasta 1986).ANCHA, Agencia Chilena Antifacista (Berlin Oriental)- Aquí y Ahora, Suecia.- Araucaria de Chile, París y Madrid (1978 a 1989, números 1 a 47-48).- Araucaria "i Norge", Noruega (primer número 1980).- Boletín del Comité Exterior de la Central Única de Trabajadores, en Francia y RDA (138 números). - Boletín del Exterior, llamado Boletín Rojo, Moscú (Partido Comunista, entre1973 y 1989).- Boletín Internacional Informativo, trimestral.- Boletín Informativo Exterior, México (Mapu Obrero y Campesino, mitad de los 70).- Canto Libre, Colombes, Francia (1978).- Canto Libre, París, Francia (1965 a 1980).- Cañuela, Milán, Italia.-CAUSA ML (Publicado en Paris por el Partido Comunista Revolucionario)-Contacto (Hoja de carácter informativo editada por exiliados en Paris y ocasionalmente en Madrid. 1973-79)- Cuadernos del ESIN, Rótterdam, Holanda.- Chile Democrático, Italia.- Chile Informativo. Boletín, Cuba y México (década de los 70).- Chile-América, Roma, Italia (1974 a 1983).- Convergencia, México (Convergencia Socialista).- Cuadernos, Ottawa, Canadá.- Cuadernos. Monografías, México.- Cuadernos de Orientación Socialista, Berlín Oriental, Alemania (Partido Socialista de Chile, mediados de los 80).- Don Reca, Frankfurt, Alemania, RFA. (Los comunistas en la República Federal Alemana publican la revista durante más de diez años, con dos ediciones mensuales).- El Barco de Papel, París, Francia (Izquierda Cristiana, años 80).- El Canillita (Creación de la Asociación de chilenos exiliados en Ginebra, Suiza. La publicación continua editándose en la actualidad y, según sus responsables, va camino a convertirse en la publicación decana de las realizadas en el exilio. A su vez, en los años 80 existió una publicación en Ginebra, en el barrio Les Avanchets, que se llamaba "El Pelambre").- El Séptimo Sueño, México, 1982.- Fuego Negro, Francia. (una pre-cuela de esta publicación puede verse enhttp://www.sitiosculturales.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0005660.pdf. Este primer numero se edita en la ciudad obrera de Concepción-Chile, en junio de 1973)- Hombre y Cultura, Unidad, Compañero, en diversas ciudades de Canadá. - Informativo de Casa de Chile, México (años 80). - Izquierda Cristiana, México. Dirigida por Luis Maira (primer numero, 1981)- Lar, Madrid, España, 1983 (continuación de Literatura Chilena en el Exilio y Literatura chilena. Creación y Crítica).- La Pomada, París, Francia.- La Papa, Estrasburgo, Francia.- Límite Sur, México (Partido Socialista y Socialdemócrata Latinoamericano).- Literatura Chilena en el Exilio (a partir del número 15 se llamó "Literatura chilena. Creación y Crítica". Publicada primero en California y luego en Madrid (1977 a 1989)).- Noticias de Chile, México (236 números entre 1973 y 1990).- Nueva Historia, Gran Bretaña (1981 a 1989).- Nueva Voz, Estocolmo, Suecia.- Pacaypaya, Inglaterra. - Palimpsesto, Italia. - Pensamiento Socialista (Análisis. Estudio. Teoría), República Federal Alemana.- Socialismo Chileno, Bruselas, Bélgica.- Plural, en Rotterdam, Holanda (1983).- Retorno, Costa Rica. - Selso, Luxemburgo. - Taller Literario, Oslo, Noruega.- Trilce, en Rumania y España (1982-.) y convertida después en revista LAR- UP informa, Dinamarca. - Ventanal, Revista de Creación y Crítica, Francia. Publicación originada por exiliados chilenos que participaban como estudiantes y profesores en la Universidad de Persignan (Francia). La revista era dirigida por Pablo Berchenko - Verso, Francia. - Resistencia chilena (pueden leerse algunos números en el Fondo Documental Eugenio Ruiz-Tagle) )10)(1) En la delicada tarea de ayudar a miles de personas a salir del país, por medio legales o ilegales, ha sido central el papel jugado por organizaciones nacionales e internacionales, seculares y religiosas, como el Comité Pro Paz (que había sido formado por el Obispo católico Fernando Ariztía y por el Obispo luterano Helmut Frenz, con el apoyo del World Council of Churches. El comité Pro Paz fue remplazado en 1975 por dos organizaciones: Vicaría de la Solidaridad y la Fundación de Ayuda Social de las Iglesias Cristianas, FASIC). A su vez, algunas de las organizaciones internacionales principales fueron: el Comité Intergubernamental para las Migraciones Europeas (CIME) u Organización Internacional para las Migraciones (OIM), la Cruz Roja Internacional, el Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados (UNHCR, por sus siglas en ingles) y la World University Service (WUS, proveyendo becas para estudios en el exterior), entre otras.(2) Rody Oñate y Thomas C. Wright (1998): "Flight from Chile- Voices of Exile". University of New Mexico Press. Página 102 y 103.(3) En "Flight from Chile- Voices of Exile". Rody Oñate y Thomas C. Wright University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque. 1998. Capitulo 5:. "The Diaspora. Exile on Four Continents". Pagina 91.(4) San Francisco Reyes, Alejandro (2002): "Chile y el fin de la historia", en Bicentenario, revista de Historia de Chile y América. Volumen 1, numero 1. pagina 39(5) La misma lógica sirve para entender la declinante influencia de Berlín Oriental y Moscú como referencias analíticas y políticas de la renovación: mientras el debate político e ideológico consistió en como renovar a la UP para retomar el poder, los países de la orbita socialista fueron ámbitos de desarrollos teóricos importantes, pero cuando la discusión empezó a girar en torno a la necesidad de articular una renovación del socialismo, los teóricos de la renovación debieron volver a emigrar, esta vez a Europa occidental. Obviamente Cuba fue un ineludible destino de parte del exilio chileno. La Revolución Cubana había sido un actor relevante durante los años de la presidencia de Salvador Allende. Fidel Castro tuvo particular simpatía por el MIR (Movimiento Izquierda Revolucionario) y por su legendario líder, Miguel Enriquez, carismático y brillante joven salido de la combativa Universidad de Concepción. Así, la cúpula del MIR se instalaría en La Habana. El ambiguo papel jugado por Castro y la revolución cubana en el inédito proyecto revolucionario chileno es descripto por el periodista y diplomático Jose Sanchez Elizondo en "Crisis y renovación de la izquierdas: de la revolución cubana a Chiapas, pasando por el 'caso chileno'" (Edtitorial Andres Bello. Santiago de Chile.1995). La diáspora chilena en Cuba no solo no pudo ni quiso articular una crítica a la experiencia de la UP, sino tampoco intentó innovar en relación a la versión oficial castrista sobre el fracaso de la UP, en tanto verificación de la imposibilidad de la vía pacifica al socialismo. El escritor Roberto Ampuero ha vivido esa época y la ha relatado magistralmente en su ya clásica novela: "Nuestros años verde olivo" (Editorial Planeta. Santiago de Chile. 2004)(6) El exilio en Suecia ha sido el mas numeroso. Allí se asientan 30.000 chilenos. La razón principal de ello ha sido la generosa política inmigratoria de esta nación. En relación a ello, ver "Tan lejos y tan cerca, historia del exilio chilena en suecia". Por su parte, un clásico libro que estudia la vida de los chilenos en el exilio se desarrolla en Edimburgo, Escocia. Kay, Diana (1997): "Chileans in Exiles: Private struggles, Public lives"(7) Rody Oñate y Thomas C. Wright, obra citada. Capitulo 5:. "The Diaspora. Exile on Four Continents". Pagina 122(8) El trabajo se encuentra íntegramente en: http://chile.exilio.free.fr/chap03g.htm. La introducción sostiene que "La bibliografía abarca parte de la producción literaria, científica y técnica publicada en libros, así como tesis de grado. No recopila documentos, revistas ni artículos de prensa. Tampoco cataloga las reediciones de libros publicados con anterioridad a septiembre de 1973, pese a la cantidad de ellas como consecuencia de la conmoción que produjo en el extranjero el golpe militar de 1973 y el interés que despertó Chile. Cataloga también obras de teatro y guiones radiales, considerando que una obra representada o transmitida equivale a un libro publicado. Consta de 1.068 entradas de libros publicados en 37 países de diversos continentes."(9) La información ha sido recabada principalmente de http://chile.exilio.free.fr, secundariamente del Fondo Digital Eugenio Ruiz Tagle de FLACSO-Chile (http://www.flacso.cl/flacso/index.php) y del CIDOC (Centro de Investigación y Documentación en Historia de Chile Contemporáneo, http://www.finisterrae.cl/cidoc/index.php) de la Universidad Finis Térrae. El autor desea agradecer la muy generosa ayuda de Francisco Bulnes Serrano, Director del CIDOC.(10) A su vez, en http://www.salvador-allende.cl/prensa/prensa.htm podemos ver las portadas de algunas de las mencionadas revistas socialistas del exilio. Por ejemplo, Boletín informativo del Partido Socialista de chile, Orientación, Plural, Unidad y Lucha, Pensamiento Socialista, Cuadernos de Orientación Socialista, Convergencia y Rumbo. *Profesor Depto. Estudios Internacionales, FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay.Master en Filosofía Política, London School of Economics and Political Science.
-Dennis Walder, Robert D. Hamner, Derek Walcott. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1993. xvi + 199 pp.''Critical perspectives on Derek Walcott. Washington DC: Three continents, 1993. xvii + 482 pp.-Yannick Tarrieu, Lilyan Kesteloot, Black writers in French: A literary history of Negritude. Translated by Ellen Conroy Kennedy. Washington DC: Howard University Press, 1991. xxxiii + 411 pp.-Renée Larrier, Carole Boyce Davies ,Out of the Kumbla: Caribbean women and literature. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1990. xxiii + 399 pp., Elaine Savory Fido (eds)-Renée Larrier, Evelyn O'Callaghan, Woman version: Theoretical approaches to West Indian fiction by women. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. viii + 126 pp.-Lisa Douglass, Carolyn Cooper, Noises in the blood: Orality, gender and the 'vulgar' body of Jamaican popular culture. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. ix + 214 pp.-Christine G.T. Ho, Kumar Mahabir, East Indian women of Trinidad & Tobago: An annotated bibliography with photographs and ephemera. San Juan, Trinidad: Chakra, 1992. vii + 346 pp.-Eva Abraham, Richenel Ansano ,Mundu Yama Sinta Mira: Womanhood in Curacao. Eithel Martis (eds.). Curacao: Fundashon Publikashon, 1992. xii + 240 pp., Joceline Clemencia, Jeanette Cook (eds)-Louis Allaire, Corrine L. Hofman, In search of the native population of pre-Colombian Saba (400-1450 A.D.): Pottery styles and their interpretations. Part one. Amsterdam: Natuurwetenschappelijke Studiekring voor het Caraïbisch Gebied, 1993. xiv + 269 pp.-Frank L. Mills, Bonham C. Richardson, The Caribbean in the wider world, 1492-1992: A regional geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. xvi + 235 pp.-Frank L. Mills, Thomas D. Boswell ,The Caribbean Islands: Endless geographical diversity. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992. viii + 240 pp., Dennis Conway (eds)-Alex van Stipriaan, H.W. van den Doel ,Nederland en de Nieuwe Wereld. Utrecht: Aula, 1992. 348 pp., P.C. Emmer, H.PH. Vogel (eds)-Idsa E. Alegría Ortega, Francine Jácome, Diversidad cultural y tensión regional: América Latina y el Caribe. Caracas: Nueva Sociedad, 1993. 143 pp.-Barbara L. Solow, Ira Berlin ,Cultivation and culture: Labor and the shaping of slave life in the Americas. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. viii + 388 pp., Philip D. Morgan (eds)-Andrew J. O'Shaughnessy, Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630-1641: The other puritan colony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. xiii + 393 pp.-Armando Lampe, Johannes Meier, Die Anfänge der Kirche auf den Karibischen Inseln: Die Geschichte der Bistümer Santo Domingo, Concepción de la Vega, San Juan de Puerto Rico und Santiago de Cuba von ihrer Entstehung (1511/22) bis zur Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts. Immensee: Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft, 1991. xxxiii + 313 pp.-Edward L. Cox, Carl C. Campbell, Cedulants and capitulants; The politics of the coloured opposition in the slave society of Trinidad, 1783-1838. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1992. xv + 429 pp.-Thomas J. Spinner, Jr., Basdeo Mangru, Indenture and abolition: Sacrifice and survival on the Guyanese sugar plantations. Toronto: TSAR, 1993. xiii + 146 pp.-Rosemarijn Hoefte, Lila Gobardhan-Rambocus ,Immigratie en ontwikkeling: Emancipatie van contractanten. Paramaribo: Anton de Kom Universiteit, 1993. 262 pp., Maurits S. Hassankhan (eds)-Juan A. Giusti-Cordero, Teresita Martínez-Vergne, Capitalism in colonial Puerto Rico: Central San Vicente in the late nineteenth century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. 189 pp.-Jean Pierre Sainton, Henriette Levillain, La Guadeloupe 1875 -1914: Les soubresauts d'une société pluriethnique ou les ambiguïtés de l'assimilation. Paris: Autrement, 1994. 241 pp.-Michèle Baj Strobel, Solange Contour, Fort de France au début du siècle. Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994. 224 pp.-Betty Wood, Robert J. Stewart, Religion and society in post-emancipation Jamaica. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992. xx + 254 pp.-O. Nigel Bolland, Michael Havinden ,Colonialism and development: Britain and its tropical colonies, 1850-1960. New York: Routledge, 1993. xv + 420 pp., David Meredith (eds)-Luis Martínez-Fernández, Luis Navarro García, La independencia de Cuba. Madrid: MAPFRE, 1992. 413 pp.-Pedro A. Pequeño, Guillermo J. Grenier ,Miami now! : Immigration, ethnicity, and social change. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. 219 pp., Alex Stepick III (eds)-George Irving, Alistair Hennessy ,The fractured blockade: West European-Cuban relations during the revolution. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. xv + 358 pp., George Lambie (eds)-George Irving, Donna Rich Kaplowitz, Cuba's ties to a changing world. Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993, xii + 263 pp.-G.B. Hagelberg, Scott B. MacDonald ,The politics of the Caribbean basin sugar trade. New York: Praeger, 1991. vii + 164 pp., Georges A. Fauriol (eds)-Bonham C. Richardson, Trevor W. Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, color, and culture among West Indians in Costa Rica. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Afro-American studies, 1993. xxi + 198 pp.-Gertrude Fraser, George Gmelch, Double Passage: The lives of Caribbean migrants abroad and back home. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. viii + 335 pp.-Gertrude Fraser, John Western, A passage to England: Barbadian Londoners speak of home. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992. xxii + 309 pp.-Trevor W. Purcell, Harry G. Lefever, Turtle Bogue: Afro-Caribbean life and culture in a Costa Rican Village. Cranbury NJ: Susquehanna University Press, 1992. 249 pp.-Elizabeth Fortenberry, Virginia Heyer Young, Becoming West Indian: Culture, self, and nation in St. Vincent. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. x + 229 pp.-Horace Campbell, Dudley J. Thompson ,From Kingston to Kenya: The making of a Pan-Africanist lawyer. Dover MA: The Majority Press, 1993. xii + 144 pp., Margaret Cezair Thompson (eds)-Kumar Mahabir, Samaroo Siewah, The lotus and the dagger: The Capildeo speeches (1957-1994). Port of Spain: Chakra Publishing House, 1994. 811 pp.-Donald R. Hill, Forty years of steel: An annotated discography of steel band and Pan recordings, 1951-1991. Jeffrey Thomas (comp.). Westport CT: Greenwood, 1992. xxxii + 307 pp.-Jill A. Leonard, André Lucrèce, Société et modernité: Essai d'interprétation de la société martiniquaise. Case Pilote, Martinique: Editions de l'Autre Mer, 1994. 188 pp.-Dirk H. van der Elst, Ben Scholtens ,Gaama Duumi, Buta Gaama: Overlijden en opvolging van Aboikoni, grootopperhoofd van de Saramaka bosnegers. Stanley Dieko. Paramaribo: Afdeling Cultuurstudies/Minov; Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, 1992. 204 pp., Gloria Wekker, Lady van Putten (eds)-Rosemarijn Hoefte, Chandra van Binnendijk ,Sranan: Cultuur in Suriname. Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen/Rotterdam: Museum voor Volkenkunde, 1992. 159 pp., Paul Faber (eds)-Harold Munneke, A.J.A. Quintus Bosz, Grepen uit de Surinaamse rechtshistorie. Paramaribo: Vaco, 1993. 176 pp.-Harold Munneke, Irvin Kanhai ,Strijd om grond in Suriname: Verkenning van het probleem van de grondenrechten van Indianen en Bosnegers. Paramaribo, 1993, 200 pp., Joyce Nelson (eds)-Ronald Donk, J. Hartog, De geschiedenis van twee landen: De Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba. Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek, 1993. 183 pp.-Aart G. Broek, J.J. Oversteegen, In het schuim van grauwe wolken: Het leven van Cola Debrot tot 1948. Amsterdam: Muelenhoff, 1994. 556 pp.''Gemunt op wederkeer: Het leven van Cola Debrot vanaf 1948. Amsterdam: Muelenhoff, 1994. 397 pp.
Why do we teach cartography? The need for cartographic education: In our day to day life, on an individual or societal level there is a continual need or even demand for geospatial information. On an individual level this need is expressed by questions like: Where am I?, How far away is my new doctor's office?, Which route should I take to get to my destination based on current traffic patterns? Other questions may include: What is the spatial extent of my land parcel? What do I have permission to build on my parcel? On a societal level questions include: What cities suffer from high unemployment? What are the most efficient spots to build a new wind farm? Where is the optimal place to build a new road without fragmenting important species habitats? To offer answers to these questions, geographic information systems (GIS) including tools and instruments have been developed. The most important communication tool to foster decision making, as part of a GIS, is the map. Reality is too complex to comprehend with the naked eye. Therefore patterns are often missed, maps and other cartographic models are an interface between humans and the reality used to abstract, symbolized, a simplify view of the world. These maps then allow us to view spatial patterns and relationships between objects in the world. The world cannot do without maps. Why? Because they tell us about spatial issues on both local and global scale that influence our lives. How? Maps are the most effective and the most efficient tools to into and overview of geographical data which help us answer spatio-temporal questions and to provide new insight. What is ongoing in our world? Trends in our domain: yesterday, today and tomorrow: Looking at the timeline of our domain, cartography, we could argue that after a long period where maps where seen as artifacts, maps are now considered to be interactive and dynamic (web) services, and in the near future we move to human centered cognitive map displays that are immersive and ubiquitous. Yesterday, the map could be considered an artifact, a static object, on paper or on a screen. The map stores the information and can no longer be changed. The user did not play a prominent role in map design. Today, with the internet, there has been a huge increase in data access and generation resulting in maps being produced and used especial to satisfy individual location-based queries such as 'Where am I right now' and 'How-do-I-get-there?' questions. Societal questions are answered by maps available via automated services accessible via dedicated portals. Today maps are no longer artifacts, but provided as a digital map services. However, tomorrow the map will yet again be different. We are able to sense and monitor the world real time and ubiquitously, including human users' spatial abilities, emotions, needs and requirements. With developments in interface design including more opportunities for 3d/4d/Virtual Reality/Augmented Reality Human-Computer-Interfaces are becoming even "closer" to our human processing system. Maps will increasingly become human-centered, highly interactive, dynamic and adjustable visual displays. Purpose: What are the cartographic consequences of these developments? Required cartographic competences: The above developments have resulted in the expansion of what define the existing established cartographic method: making geospatial data and information accessible for users to foster discovery and insight into and overview of spatiotemporal data. Map design, including fundamentals such as projection, scale, generalization and symbolization, remain core to cartography. Yesterday, cartographic education was focused on how to optimally create fixed graphical representations at a defined scale constrained by the media, but with an eye for syntactical as well as graphical/aesthetical quality. Today knowledge and skills cartographers require have expanded, and they include an understanding of Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) that house Big Data and Data Science, Web Services, Programming, Style Definitions, Algorithms, Semantic web and Linked Data and Interactivity and other relevant technological skills. Increasingly, more attention has also been, and will have to be, paid to use and user (requirement) analysis and usability assessment. Users will simple not use cartographic services that are not enjoyable and do not help them meet their goals. We will continue to conduct usability evaluations in new sensing and map display environments. Based on technological advances and social uptake thereof, tomorrow will yet again ask for an adaption of the cartographic education and research dealing more and more with the "human" embodied experience. Figure 1a shows the relation among the current skills and competences a cartographer needs. In the center of the triangle the map and the cartographic method. Data, Media and Users are found around. Knowledge and skills about data handling refer to selection, integration and abstraction, as well as analysis. Media skills and knowledge are about the interface, interaction, adapted design, technology and coding. Users refers to usability (enjoyment), cognition, perception, sensors (robots) and requirements. In Figure 1b the changing paradigm of the map as interface between human and reality as seen yesterday, today and tomorrow. How do we do it? Our MSc Cartography: The Erasmus Mundus Master of Science in Cartography program is characterized by its worldwide unique profile and comprehensive and in-depth cartographic lectures and lab works. All four partner universities (see involved authors) jointly developed and defined the learning outcomes after intensive cooperation and consultation. The program takes all theoretical as well as practical aspects of the broad and interdisciplinary field of cartography into account. Graduates of the program are able to meet the variety of requirements placed on a cartographer today. An obvious strength of this program is the clear research-driven orientation of selected lectures, e.g. visual analytics, web and mobile cartography and the close binding of M.Sc. topics to ongoing research projects. Students in the Cartography program learn how to develop and evaluate cartographic tools on the basis of firmly established theories and methods. The focus lays in developing and applying scientific methods and techniques to improve geo-information services for a diverse range of heterogeneous users. Another added value of the program is its educational execution in locations across Europe, a historic center of excellence in the field of cartography, integrating it within interdisciplinary fields. Excellently educated students from this program will fill the gaps not only in the cartographic research community and geosciences, but also in other related research fields that address the global challenges as defined by bodies like the United Nations or the European Union.
