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Transport activity, a key component of economic development and human welfare, is increasing around the world as economies grow. For most policymakers, the most pressing problems associated with this increasing transport activity are traffic fatalities and injuries, congestion, air pollution and petroleum dependence. These problems are especially acute in the most rapidly growing economies of the developing world. Mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can take its place among these other transport priorities by emphasizing synergies and co-benefits (high agreement, much evidence). Transport predominantly relies on a single fossil resource, petroleum that supplies 95% of the total energy used by world transport. In 2004, transport was responsible for 23% of world energy-related GHG emissions with about three quarters coming from road vehicles. Over the past decade, transport's GHG emissions have increased at a faster rate than any other energy using sector (high agreement, much evidence). Transport activity will continue to increase in the future as economic growth fuels transport demand and the availability of transport drives development, by facilitating specialization and trade. The majority of the world's population still does not have access to personal vehicles and many do not have access to any form of motorized transport. However, this situation is rapidly changing. Freight transport has been growing even more rapidly than passenger transport and is expected to continue to do so in the future. Urban freight movements are predominantly by truck, while international freight is dominated by ocean shipping. The modal distribution of intercity freight varies greatly across regions. For example, in the United States, all modes participate substantially, while in Europe, trucking has a higher market share (in tkm1), compared to rail (high agreement, much evidence). Transport activity is expected to grow robustly over the next several decades. Unless there is a major shift away from current patterns of energy use, world transport energy use is projected to increase at the rate of about 2% per year, with the highest rates of growth in the emerging economies, and total transport energy use and carbon emissions is projected to be about 80% higher than current levels by 2030 (medium agreement, medium evidence). There is an ongoing debate about whether the world is nearing a peak in conventional oil production that will require a significant and rapid transition to alternative energy resources. There is no shortage of alternative energy sources, including oil sands, shale oil, coal-to-liquids, biofuels, electricity and hydrogen. Among these alternatives, unconventional fossil carbon resources would produce less expensive fuels mostcompatible with the existing transport infrastructure, but lead to increased carbon emissions (medium agreement, medium evidence). In 2004, the transport sector produced 6.3 GtCO2 emissions (23% of world energy-related CO2 emissions) and its growth rate is highest among the end-user sectors. Road transport currently accounts for 74% of total transport CO2 emissions. The share of non-OECD countries is 36% now and will increase rapidly to 46% by 2030 if current trends continue (high agreement, much evidence). The transport sector also contributes small amounts of CH4 and N2O emissions from fuel combustion and F-gases (fluorinated gases) from vehicle air conditioning. CH4 emissions are between 0.1–0.3% of total transport GHG emissions, N2O between 2.0 and 2.8% (based on US, Japan and EU data only). Worldwide emissions of F-gases (CFC-12+HFC- 134a+HCFC-22) in 2003 were 0.3–0.6 GtCO2-eq, about 5–10% of total transport CO2 emissions (medium agreement, limited evidence). When assessing mitigation options it is important to consider their lifecycle GHG impacts. This is especially true for choices among alternative fuels but also applies to a lesser degree to the manufacturing processes and materials composition of advanced technologies. Electricity and hydrogen can offer the opportunity to 'de-carbonise' the transport energy system although the actual full cycle carbon reduction depends upon the way electricity and hydrogen are produced. Assessment of mitigation potential in the transport sector through the year 2030 is uncertain because the potential depends on: • World oil supply and its impact on fuel prices and the economic viability of alternative transport fuels; • R&D outcomes in several areas, especially biomass fuel production technology and its sustainability in massive scale, as well as battery longevity, cost and specific energy. Another problem for a credible assessment is the limited number and scope of available studies of mitigation potential and cost. Improving energy efficiency offers an excellent opportunity for transport GHG mitigation through 2030. Carbon emissions from 'new' light-duty road vehicles could be reduced by up to 50% by 2030 compared to currently produced models, assuming continued technological advances and strong policies to ensure that technologies are applied to increasing fuel economy rather than spent on increased horsepower and vehicle mass. Material substitution and advanced design could reduce the weight of light-duty vehicles by 20–30%. Since the TAR (Third Assessment Report), energy efficiency of road vehicles has improved by the market success of cleaner directinjection turbocharged (TDI) diesels and the continued market penetration of numerous incremental efficiency technologies. Hybrid vehicles have also played a role, though their market penetration is currently small. Reductions in drag coefficients of 20–50% seem achievable for heavy intercity trucks, with consequent reductions in fuel use of 10–20%. Hybrid technology is applicable to trucks and buses that operate in urban environments, and the diesel engine's efficiency may be improved by 10% or more. Prospects for mitigation are strongly dependent on the advancement of transport technologies. There are also important opportunities to increase the operating efficiencies of transport vehicles. Road vehicle efficiency might be improved by 5–20% through strategies such as eco-driving styles, increased load factors, improved maintenance, in-vehicle technological aids, more efficient replacement tyres, reduced idling and better traffic management and route choice (medium agreement, medium evidence). The total mitigation potential in 2030 of the energy efficiency options applied to light duty vehicles would be around 0.7–0.8 GtCO2-eq in 2030 at costs <100 US$/tCO2. Data is not sufficient to provide a similar estimate for heavy-duty vehicles. The use of current and advanced biofuels would give an additional reduction potential of another 600–1500 MtCO2-eq in 2030 at costs <25 US$/tCO2 (low agreement, limited evidence). Although rail transport is one of the most energy efficient modes today, substantial opportunities for further efficiency improvements remain. Reduced aerodynamic drag, lower train weight, regenerative breaking and higher efficiency propulsion systems can make significant reductions in rail energy use. Shipping, also one of the least energy intensive modes, still has some potential for increased energy efficiency. Studies assessing both technical and operational approaches have concluded that energy efficiency opportunities of a few percent to up to 40% are possible (medium agreement, medium evidence). Passenger jet aircraft produced today are 70% more fuel efficient than the equivalent aircraft produced 40 years ago and continued improvement is expected. A 20% improvement over 1997 aircraft efficiency is likely by 2015 and possibly 40 to 50% improvement is anticipated by 2050. Still greater efficiency gains will depend on the potential of novel designs such as the blended wing body, or propulsion systems such as the unducted turbofan. For 2030 the estimated mitigation potential is 150 MtCO2 at carbon prices less than 50 US$/tCO2 and 280 MtCO2 at carbon prices less than 100 US$/tCO2 (medium agreement, medium evidence). However, without policy intervention, projected annual improvements in aircraft fuel efficiency of the order of 1–2%, will be surpassed by annual traffic growth of around 5% each year, leading to an annual increase of CO2 emissions of 3–4% per year (high agreement, much evidence). Biofuels have the potential to replace a substantial part but not all petroleum use by transport. A recent IEA analysis estimates that biofuels' share of transport fuel could increase to about 10% in 2030. The economic potential in 2030 from biofuel application is estimated at 600–1500 MtCO2-eq/yr at a cost of <25 US$/tCO2-eq. The introduction of flexfuel vehicles able to use any mixture of gasoline2 and ethanol rejuvenated the market for ethanol as a motor fuel in Brazil by protecting motorists from wide swings in the price of either fuel. The global potential for biofuels will depend on the success of technologies to utilise cellulose biomass (medium agreement, medium evidence). Providing public transports systems and their related infrastructure and promoting non-motorised transport can contribute to GHG mitigation. However, local conditions determine how much transport can be shifted to less energy intensive modes. Occupancy rates and primary energy sources of the transport mode further determine the mitigation impact. The energy requirements for urban transport are strongly influenced by the density and spatial structure of the built environment, as well as by location, extent and nature of transport infrastructure. If the share of buses in passenger transport in typical Latin American cities would increase by 5–10%, then CO2 emissions could go down by 4–9% at costs of the order of 60–70 US$/tCO2 (low agreement, limited evidence). The few worldwide assessments of transport's GHG mitigation potential completed since the TAR indicate that significant reductions in the expected 80% increase in transport GHG emission by 2030 will require both major advances in technology and implementation via strong, comprehensive policies (medium agreement, limited evidence). The mitigation potential by 2030 for the transport sector is estimated to be about 1600–2550 MtCO2 for a carbon price less than 100 US$/tCO2. This is only a partial assessment, based on biofuel use throughout the transport sector and efficiency improvements in light-duty vehicles and aircraft and does not cover the potential for heavy-duty vehicles, rail transport, shipping, and modal split change and public transport promotion and is therefore an underestimation. Much of this potential appears to be located in OECD North America and Europe. This potential is measured as the further reduction in CO2 emissions from a Reference scenario, which already assumes a substantial use of biofuels and significant improvements in fuel efficiency based on a continuation of current trends. This estimate of mitigation costs and potentials is highly uncertain. There remains a critical need for comprehensive and consistent assessments of the worldwide potential to mitigate transport's GHG emissions (low agreement, limited evidence). While transport demand certainly responds to price signals,the demand for vehicles, vehicle travel and fuel use are significantly price inelastic. As a result, large increases in prices or taxes are required to make major changes in GHG emissions. Many countries do heavily tax motor fuels and have lower rates of fuel consumption and vehicle use than countries with low fuel taxes (high agreement, much evidence). Fuel economy regulations have been effective in slowing the growth of GHG emissions, but so far growth of transport activity has overwhelmed their impact. They have been adopted by most developed economies as well as key developing economies, though in widely varying form, from uniform, mandatory corporate average standards, to graduated standards by vehicle weight class or size, to voluntary industry-wide standards. The overall effectiveness of standards can be significantly enhancedif combined with fiscal incentives and consumer information (medium agreement, medium evidence). A wide array of transport demand management (TDM) strategies have been employed in different circumstances around the world, primarily to manage traffic congestion and reduce air pollution. TDMs can be effective in reducing private vehicle travel if rigorously implemented and supported (high agreement, low evidence). In order to reduce emissions from air and marine transport resulting from the combustion of bunker fuels, new policy frameworks need to be developed. However ICAO endorsed the concept of an open, international emission trading system for the air transport sector, implemented through a voluntary scheme, or incorporation of international aviation into existing emission trading systems. Environmentally differentiated port dues are being used in a few places. Other policies to affect shipping emissions would be the inclusion of international shipping in international emissions trading schemes, fuel taxes and regulatory instruments (high agreement, much evidence). Since currently available mitigation options will probably not be enough to prevent growth in transport's emissions, technology research and development is essential in order to create the potential for future, significant reductions in transport GHG emissions. This holds, amongst others, for hydrogen fuel cell, advanced biofuel conversion and improved batteries for electric and hybrid vehicles (high agreement, medium evidence). The best choice of policy options will vary across regions. Not only levels of economic development, but the nature of economic activity, geography, population density and culture all influence the effectiveness and desirability of policies affecting modal choices, infrastructure investments and transport demand management measures (high agreement, much evidence).

Technical Report 2018-08-ECE-141 Technical Report 2002-12-ECE-012 Defense Presentations (I) Ozgur Aktunc, Rajani Sadasivam, Urcun Tanik, Kazuhiro Abe, Praneet Deo This technical report is a reissue of a technical report issued December 2002 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham August 2018 · . Technical Repm12002-12-ECE-012 Defense Presentations (I) Ozgur Aktunc, Rajani Sadasivam, Urcun Tanik, Kazuhiro Abe, Praneet Deo TECHNICAL REPORT Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham December 2002 ' . Masters Thesis Presentation Ozgur Aktunc Thesis advisor: Dr. Murat M. Tanik The Role of Component Technologies on Enterprise Engineering Department of [locbi, 2002 Publications · ~1:~fk~c~srr~s~ lo:;;lu~i{lg:, ~;.~:~':Is~: .~ ~!,~ M. World Conference on Intcgr,lted Design & Process Technology, 2000, Proceedings co. • 2. o. Aktonc, P. Oeo, aniverslty of Alebllma at Blnninoham, september 2001, p.4L • • .}~·~.!.:~·. ~t1t~U!o~i.r8::e~we:~ at Birmingham, October 2001, p.47. • 3. o. Aklunc and M. M. Tanlk. ·p-SubmiSSion and Review ~;,~ • A component model defines a set of standards for component Implementation, cuslomization, composition, evolution, and deployment. • Component models set the standards for application developers, help the businesses to Implement the business logic Into their systems In a methodology. Current Component Models • There are numerous component models today. • The main component models are: "; Microsoft's .Net !. Sun Mlcrosystems' Enterprise Java Beans f. OMG's CORBA Component Model (CCM) Usage of components and objects • Objects - suitable to describe the problem domain of a system. • Components - suitable to describe the functionality of a system. • ";Objects vs. components" = ";identity vs. services". [6] • CBSE = components + objects Component Model Operation A component model operates on two levels; • Defines how to construct an Individual component. Microsoft's .Net Model, ! unknown interface. • Sets the communication and Interaction standards of the components. Component Model Implementations and Services • Standardizes the run-time environment. • Defines the specification of Interfaces to both general and domain-specific run-time services. • General services include user Interface management services, system management services etc. • Domain- specific services can Include financial, healthcare and telecommunication services. [ 4] 4 Services lniOJ!.11"1'''"' J i ,.,.,.;~.;, l lo"'"'"'O"i~ J ! Pa tltq) rmi'i.ep ).I.e N-Queens Problem • The domain was chosen the combinatorial N-Queens problem . • This problem has applications in • Communication. • VLSI testing. • Dead lock prevention. • Memory management. • Traffic control. Component Technologies • Component technologies have flourished surrounding the established component models such as Microsoft's COM and Sun's JavaBeans . • Component technologies and models have been the driving forces of each other. Research collaboration test-bed • We built a research collaboration test-bed using component technologies and utilizing enterprise engineering principles. • The prototype Is built on a Java three-tier architecture with an Oracle database storing a large number of N·Queens solutions. • We had the chance to apply several component technologies such as servlets, XML and Database Management. Our problem solving domain: N­Queens research environment This soll« -ECE-012, Ur~verclly of Alabama at Olrmlnghe.m, October :>001. R. S. SadQSJvam, U. J . Tnnik, and M. M. Tanik 'A Tesi-Bed for llle Corrolallon Center lor Digital Servlcos,"; Technical R&port 2001 - 08-ECE-006, University ol Alabama 81 Blrmlngham, August U. T anlk, A framework lor lnlemet Enterprtso F.ng:J(Iij , , lffML Ole., May 2002. Future Work • To programmatically identify software components and assemble them in a structured manner by using late binding techniques • To build the Correlation Engine References P. Dao, Ernarprlse Dovck>flmont Using Java and XML Teehnologlos, Master's Thesis, UAB, BirrnlngMm. At2001. U. J. Tanlk. M.M Tanik, nrld L Jolo!ian, ";'nternet Enterprise Enginoorf11g: A Zero-limo rramewortc based on T Slmlegy.' Proc. cl IEEE SOOfC9 (CREC}, at the Un/119Jsity of Te- 17 Preliminary Consultations Pr-Ies: After COO>IAialion with Or. Ych, Or. Kozmetsky. and Or. Ramamoonlly, I continued to study and assimilate mei~k Aller discussion .;tt, 0ts and tecllnologles U$Od in EleCtronic Eolerprlse Eng(necMg (EEE) Aller d:.:ussion with 0.JeKMI(>Ie entOIJ)Iise prOIOIY1)C calfud F.ng!io;r.tex1doclor.oom using Olfolhtt-SileU leelrnology (bocame a case s!ud)? All above actMiios led me to unoersmr.d I he importance of mappff!Q l)uslnoss IJ(OCGSS to enterprise uo1o comp&lEII\CY tor Cho service inclllstry Personal Publications Relevant to lEE Thesis Jnh:t TnnLk. Murat Ttl'l{l:. and I,IX!f, Jdlllbit. l ntt mtt E 1U t'l)ri~ PAf:,JJlttrin~: A uz.m.Hult' . f'r:unt-.u·k based un ";'f -Sfr~ttCJ•''. l:Ef:.l1 S1lodiN.Stoo». 2001. John Tmk and KaR2dllro Abe, 11\Q Japlnes~Amefkan Handshak&: The Into mot CMmensfon, . SOPS T•a.nsacllon: Joumnl or lntegratod Design ood Process Sclence, VelA, No.1. PI> 57·72, 2000. Resulting Pressures Eootromle: 1o= E~1lny (Fklr, 2001} ~t-Bttsifle';$ & e-Ccmmtm:o. HOlY k> Progrsm {DeJa!, 0.1"' & Nie1o. 2001) !N'rocess E(fg9, Cte81/Jlg Cuslom/N Va:U• and ovsines:s Weall1> kl 1/le lnfi:mel Em {Kc'ell & Mc:Dona/0. 2(JQ()) Et>le !Jiil, 2000) Zero T"";"; (Kozme/slry & Yeh, 200(1) Cracking lito Value Clxlo, HJ.v Suct;esSfuiBvsli>esses Ate C'o~ealir>g W•am> Ill lf>e Nm• EcofiOtny (Arthur AndctSM, 2000) Drumbeal2000 (Macrorne 00fl1ic gtowth and kai\Siormalion allr'lbuled to new technOICokml to11:os shaping lll•wol ld ecOllO!IIy, cspeefally dueiO lhe lmf)QCI 01 me !nleJrlel[Price Waletho!>Sej. . Hyper-eompeHllon In o glObal ma1~01 Rapid tecmorogylran~lormatiOOS A vary ln~1conr.edcd oooaomic value chain EmergIJy on tho lnlemol. Resulting Internet Enterprise Needs As a rewlt, a need exfsls lor a : I. Formal a;scipline such as kllemot Enlerprise Engineering (lEE) - lor syarornalic construcUoo ol on nne onrorpfiSes • Reliollly • Cct·ol:.ctiYcty • Timely 2. Process-cenlrtc management - For baclcond automation of ptocess • lor elllly by focusing tnelf eiiOtiS on lll1fliC>Vo>g Ulelr process as lhelr chief core Clyplr.g and Development 9. Government Initiatives In Cytlemtntalion 14. Larg&-scale Enterprise Ooveloprnent Ellvtmrlments IS. Enabl'rl!J Tochnotogles and CO lont~ . =:.:.~r.~e Cosmos- Holistic Framework for Managing Change l:'lr~li'Uo;'t• ~ . l.o~fll UffMF. )In\,ltm~i\t• A•-tt\11)'~1n~ s""; iHI>· ,,., k~litr Process-Driven Service Software Thesis Presentation by Kazuhlro Abe September 19,2002 21 Acknowledgements ~ Dr. Leon Jololian t. Dr. Murat Tanik ~v Dr. Raymond Yeh I', Dr. C.V. Ramamoorthy I', Brian Young, CEO f,";~u~k,. .,.,;-_.~-:.:r-:,•;;•.-:.";!':t:~!'f~-.:'::·'1- :-•1.N -1 : Three-Tier Software I • _____A _r_c_h_i=~.~--J ifM&\BJ" ' ~hJ!tiif:~!fi~\mmJ ii)11-j§~ Three-Tier Software Architecture Da1a layer - Conceptual Procoss Logic laye.- Prii$Gnlatlon layer Outline ;o,. Three-Tier Software Architecture ~',. Service-Based Software . Process-Based Software We propose . ~ An Architecture and Infrastructure for Process-Driven Service Software Three-Tier Software Architecture -Physical •· Put a middle tier between client user interface and database management systems (DBMS) ";' Overcame many limitations of two· tier architecture • Pertormance, scalabllily, llexibility, _ • .,,~ ~••m••:~ ~---· . ·- Data Layer ~ Low-level manipulation of data ~Technologies: • DBMS • Directory I', Issues and Challenges: • Dialects in SOL • Stored Procedures 22 Process Logic Layer $ High-level manipulation of data ~Technologies: • Object Oriented Middleware (OOM) - ION A Orblx, Highlander VisiBroker • Message Oriented Middleware (MOM) - IBM MOSories, TIBCO Rendezvous Presentation Layer $ Construction and delivery of presentation ~; Technologies: • Thin-Client Browser-based Application, Citrix • Thick-Client- Stand-alone Apps., Java Apple!, Java Web Start Service-Based Software Process Logic Layer (Cont.) ~. Issues and Challenges: • Complexity of Development • Vendor Dependency • Difficulty of Integration • Difflcully of Maintenance Presentation Layer (ConL) ~ Issues and Challenges: • Thin-Client- Limited User Interface and Interaction • Thick-Client- Management of Code, Delivery Service-Based Software - Service Unit f> Examples • Stock Quote Service • Weather Service 23 Service-Based Software - Objective , Another abstraction layer on components - Characteristics (Cont.) & Compared to objects and components, services have higher abstraction and are more understandable by domain experts. 6o Unlike objects and components, services are platform independence. --- t---.'.-.- - +-- -- Service-Based Software - Characteristics fJ Developing services requires programming knowledge. $ Services are built to be used by each other and other applications. Service-Based Software - Sample Architecture f·.:· . ~· . :: . . ·.:)_._;. .· ::: t --- ·-- +-- - -··____;_· Process-Based Software G Process specifications executed on a process engine • A process specification describes llow of the process and the interaction between components. 24 Process-Based Software (Cont.) Typical CBS g ~ ~· Process-Based SofiNvare 1. By having a process engine, a process and component integration are separated. Process-Based Software - Example (Cont.) r:~=$!4j!:J:. ·n,.,.,.Mil:l!7i!£l/,.,.~t I Process-Driven ~::::~:::$] Process-Based Software -Example Process-Based Software -- ·- . bt-'VW---~ ";I"M~W'r.,._~t#O't> .-;~. '1.'1.(";. ~··v n·.,.re•~"";";";";'·.,. . -~ _,.,.,,. ___ . ~,.,. ._,.,._._ 'O. _ w. __,.-·--~­~ . ·- __.-.,.,. -·.Jrol,. .~. -·-~. . ::::";";''~""; . \0-. ~·-~f'--~ ~---~ ~·"' . ~.,.,·r -.o._-~ --~···_.,.L'Dt_ ,.M'). - Example (Cont.) Process-Driven Service Software 6> A new kind of service that is constructed with process technologies Service-Based Software + Process-Based Software • Process-Driven Service Software 25 Process-Driven Service Software - Architecture Process-Driven Service Software - Composition 41 Example S1ock Quote E-mail Service !!zW::f~ l:l.\jif%~sa':'t6i~WMWE~ Process-Driven Service Software -Effect Process-Driven Service Software - Architecture (Cont.) Process-Driven Service Software 1, Process-Driven Service Editor 2. UDDI Registry 3. Process Registry - Composition (Con t , - Infrastructure 26 Process-Driven Service Software - Infrastructure (Cont.) 4. Dynamic Web Service Adapter 5. 6. 7. Process Engine UDDI Adapter Process Adapter .- · ;,. . ~@ Comparison -· - --.·.- .--· ";•' ~d:~)'l '"' . . --- Future Work ·~ . t4 Od. 2001). ~ 8/zTaJic Frame1W>rlt 2.0: DocumorJ and Msssage Spocillcailon, Microsoft Corporallon. Oec. 2000. 27 A THESIS DEFENSE ENTERPRISE DEVEWPMENT USING JAVA AND XML TECHNOWGJES BJ• Pmnrtl R. 0811 Pre.re11tatio11 Outiine • Ntw bnrintss tHJironnttNI. • En!erplist sol~rtions. o Thm-titr mrhiterfurr m()((fl }mm mvcr.sidc tcdJ!iologiu. o XML ttrh11olo!,J'· • NQIItt/IJ Jni!J/>It appiirotibJJ. Rwtlls '!/ J!Jt tbtsis work and j11tnrr uvmt. o DtJIIOHS!mlion '!/tiN tiNsir 11'/Jrk. Be11ejits ojE11tetp1ises lntegmtio11 Fa. t~' opm11io11ol mi.-. • Lo1m·prod11dion costs. UJI'fl' lilvtJIIO!)' (f)i/Y. Backgrom/(1 • Co11;p/rltd Doc/Jclor '![E 11gi11ttring 1i1 ]1111t, 1998 in Indio. • )oi11rd UllivmirJ• of AfobaJJJa at Bin11i11gho'" (UAB) for molltr's prugrrmt in Elutriral and C0111p111tr EJiflimnng in Srpttml~tr. 1999. o Fot· /aJI 12 months worki11g 1111rftrlbe gllidaJite oJDr.l~l(l'af To11iA1 for JJIOJiu'r tbrsis mtitltd ";Hnte1pn>-e De;.~lfJ/)JJtwl Usingjm'll ond XML Trdmologiu."; New .B11si11ess E11vironmenl o 1 llftl'lltf ond Ntfl/lfni. EttJnomy - INimtll ";";' dw"!,tJ !ht ~ bJuiMmJ 6f>ti>J/t, - 'J'bm isM"' Nrtswrk EtrJI1Mry tllltf}!/1/l. ••bttr bnsilrt1JtllnJ!k n•it!J pm11ttf1111NI t'YJHJ/1/1/ll'l (WIY /ht /nltl"iitl. • E111trplist ilttcgmlio!l - .1'• thm is" Hrtd of F.ntttpti.ll 1 •111,nlfi•11. - F.NtrtptiN IJII'I,mliM .un JJ:IiJ I# Itt tht i~ltfiiJliiNJ ofmrio:u nlfitJ #f/NisiJii$f(i i• o Ji!lflt sojhtt11r. Enterprise SystemJ • Tlim it a ll(tr/ to mare mtopJise [)'JftJJIS rtt/J tnltNitft ttdJJlo!ogiu - jtlni Stn{tiJ. - )rim Dnltt&n UIIRtditi{J {/DTJQ. - }om Srntr Put;t.J 2 /.;";Nitrpriw Etltifon 0217F.). - J' ·luJ!r morr. AdvaNtages of Java Se1vlct Tccbnolo._zy • Smwts art JRbrt d/ifitAI that trotlitiD11nl CCI programs. • Stw!tU ( Oif bt iJ:rotpQra!ttl m~b olbtr jniXl ltcbr.o/ogiff li.U ]SJ> and ]DBC S rmltU ot~ s'!ft. S emlriS pmtJtflt a compo11wl·bt1mi, ph(fomNildej>mdtlll lllttbod for buildi11g tvtb-btuul upplirotioll!. • Sttvlett btu a Jfi/>POI1 I!{ n~b .ft- wtb mvn: St~vltt.r 1!1111t a life o•de t/Jal ituludtt iml() and tlui!!!J'() .rlagu. JDBC: ]atJa DataBase Co!lmt'livity • ]DBC i1 a StoAdord Query l.at~glltJ8t (JQLJ database o«tss API. Providu pn;gmt/111/ttY 1vitb tt llll{forlll inttlfoce to arws ttodOltf t!atabtucs nog,ardleff o/ t!fffmtJctS i tt illlj>leJIItltfalion. XMJ.J Technology Xl\1L Jltmtft for eXttlltible Markup l.otJ,glfage. Ftoturv of XJ.1L - Al'-11• J!K .!fillb• installtd aJid t'O!?Jigmld IVving t!JJ: front tnt! 1vith )SP .• ~b:Ozg11r Aklullc will JIJOI'k 011 ibir projttl. Mon~ge the data 1110rt tjfitiMI/y. Mr.Sacbli1 Cbi11tbofikar will n•ork OJJthis prry'ttf. lmp!Vl!t tbe midd!tJJJaJ~ peifomtanct Jvilh ]2EE. Mr.IV:Jja11i SndaJbivon nli/1 work OJ/ this projttl. • Dn~tlop Rmm11J-Rmon11 rollobomli011 m:ter ll>ing nn·biterfllml ji'OIJitiiJOrk o/ N -QIIet/11 npplitnlim:. Mi:}Jilal Ynldiz n·illwork Oil Ibis pnyecl. D e1no ll.ft l'tltio 11 • DtmQI/.J/mtioJI o[the N -Queens Af!Pikotion. 33

This paper will present our explorative work in software reusability and concurrent programming. This work was divided into two parts. First, in order to abstract the reusable components, three application problems were tried to be solved by means of object-oriented programming using Ada. Second, in order to address how Ada provides an environment for concurrent programming, several concurrent programming concepts were described using Ada. ; Technical Report 2018-07-ECE-005 Technical Report 87-CSE-11 Reusability and Concurrency Issues in the Real-time Use of Ada* W. P. Yin P. H. Liou Murat M. Tanik This technical report is a reissue of a technical report issued May 1987 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birn1ingham July 2018 Technical Report 87-CSE-11 REUSABILITY ABD COBCURREIICY ISSUES IB THE REAL-TIME USE OF Ada• V. P. I:in P. B. Liou H. H. Tanik Department of Computer Science and Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, Texas 75275 May 1987 *Ada is a registered trade mark of the U.S. government, Ada Joint Program Office. Abstract REUSABILITY AND CONCURRENCY ISSUES IN THE REAL-TIME USE OF Ada* W. P. Yin P. H. Liou M. M. Tanik Department of Computer Science and Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, 'IX 75275 This paper will present our explorative work in software reusability and concurrent programming. This work was divided into two parts. First, in order to abstract the reusable components, three application problems were tried to be solved by means of object-oriented programming using A da. Second, in order to address how Ada provides an environment for concurrent programming, several concurrent programming concepts were described using Ada. 1. Introduction Reusability is a general engineering principle . It derives from the desire to avoid duplication and to capture commonality in undertaking classes of inherently similar works[ 1]. When software engineers try to apply this principle to software production, it brings many research questions into the open. The arguments focus on the question that what are the candidates for software reuse, how reusable software components should be stored, how we can locate reusable software components, and how we can incorporate reusable software components into our own software system. Concurrent Programming is the name given to programming notations and techniques for expressing paten tial parallelism and for solving the resulting synchronization and communication problems. Traditionally, the programs that run asynchronously were written in assembly language for the reasons : • High-level languages did not provide the appropriate tools for writing concurrent programs. • High-level languages for concurrent programming were not efficient. However, high-level language programs are easier to test, verify, and modify. Due to the progress on compiler techniques, we can obtain efficient object code for concurrent programs written in a high-level language. Concurrent programming is important because it provides an abstract setting in which studying parallelism becomes possible . The basic problem in writing a concurrent program is to identify the activities which are concurrent. It is also difficult to ensure the correctness of concurrent programs. In addition, concurrent programs are much more difficult to debug than sequential programs. * Ada is a registered trade mark of the U .8. government, Ada Joint Program Offi ce. - 2- Occasionally, asynchronous processes must interact with one another and these interactions can be complex. The following sections constitute a brief presentation of our explorative work for software reusability and concurrent programming using Ada. 2. Reusability Issue 2.1 Software Components and Their Reusability The term "; Computer Software" is used very often by most professionals and many members of the public at large . They feel they understand it. Most professionals have an intuitive feeling of it, but there is no complete and formal definition . Informally, computer software can be regarded as information having two basic formats: non-machine-executable and machine-executable[2]. Any information unit created by a software engineer during software development, such as specification, design, code, data and so on , is a software component. More abstractly, the problem solving knowledge, programming knowledge, problem domain knowledge and other knowledge which are used by software engineers in order to solve a problem by computer software are also software components. These knowledge assume specification, design, code and data as their external formats . Therefore, software reusability manifests itself in many forms . It can roughly be classified into reuse of data, reuse of code including programs, systems and libraries, reuse of programming knowledge including system architecture and detail design , reuse of domain knowledge including specification and reuse of abstract modules[3 ,4] . With respect to the time the reusable components are used , software reusability can be divided into two groups-reusability of components in building a variety of structures and reusability of components in performing a variety of tasks . Figure 1 depicts this idea. 2.2 Software Reusability Problems As a general engineering principle, reusability implies the obvious system benefits of lower cost, increased reliability and easier maintenance. It appears that the reusability principle should be used widely in software engineering. Unfortunately this is not true . According to some statistics, in commercial banking and insurance applications, about 75% of the functions were common ones that occurred in more than one program. There is also statistical data indicating that less than 15% of the code written in 1983 was unique, novel and specific to individual applications while the remaining 85% was more or less generic[3]. The main reason for the above situation is that regardless of the particular programming technique , design methodology or developing environment, software engineering is divided into individual creative processes. The exact nature of those individual process, such as problem identification, conceptual solution , design of implementation, testing of solution and so on , is poorly understood. Hence, reusing the software designed by other people is in general not a simple matter. Besides this , there are other reasons. First, some software is ";malevolent" because it is strongly self-centered and highly proprietary. That means it cannot be reused by organizations other than the developer. Second, even with "; benevolent" software, there are software engineers who may feel that they could produce a "; better" solution anyway. Third, some software may have to be modified excessively to fit the new application precisely. Fourth , some software may require a great effort to be understood in order to be reused. In the last two situations, software engineers would rather rewrite .[ 5] . - 3 - Figure 2 shows reusable component characteristics m terms of their functionality and scope. 2.3. Explorative Work in Software Reusability 2.3.1. The Problems In the following sections three problems are investigated. The problems are the environmental monitor problem[6], the cruise-control problem[7] and the message switching problem [8]. Those three are real-time problems. All of them require parallel processing, realtime control, exception handling and unique input/ output control. 2.3.2. The Method The ";object-oriented methodology" is chosen for solving the problems . Object-oriented methodology is a software approach in which the decomposition of a system is based upon the concept of objects. In real-time systems, often the problem is given by the description of entities, their behaviors and relations among the entities . In addition, object abstraction is a promising avenue for reusability. The object-oriented design methodology has the following steps [6, 7]: • Identify the objects and their attributes. • identify the operations. • Establish the visibility of each object in relation to other objects. • Establish the interface of each object. • Implement each object. 2.3.3. The Language Ada was chosen as the design language. Ada was chosen as a design language because of its rich variety of program units such as subprograms, packages and tasks . It is convenient for software engineers to choose one of the most suitable program units to represent classes of objects, instances of objects and primitive operations of each object. More importantly, the capabilities of Ada make it possible for us to break from the traditional flat, sequential design style into the object-centered design style. In particular, using Ada as a design language can improve the quality of the design by highlighting interfaces and formally capturing many important design decisions. 2.3.4. The Case Studies The case studies are concerned with the use of object-oriented design method for software reusability. The goal of the case-study was to explore how well the object-oriented method can apply the reusability principle. More specifically, how well the object-oriented method can recognize and abstract reusable software components for a specific class of problems (the real-time systems) . In this paper, the detailed case explanations will not be presented. Only are the observations and experiences listed. For each problem, first, a problem definition in problem space is given , then an informal system architecture design in conceptual solution space is presented . In the solution space , the details will be ignored; only objects and their operations are indicated. - 4- 2.3.4.1. Ca.se-1: Environmental Monitor Problem The environmental monitor problem is explained in detail in [6]. The figure 3 is the problem definition abstracted from [ 6] . And the figure 4 is the partial formalization of the system architecture design. Problem~ Objects and their Operations: ( 1) A user interacts with the system by setting the sensor limits, reading the status of all sensors , or q.u.it the system . ( 2) A printer Jlli,n.ts. the current reading of each sensor or s.h.u.t. rl.mYn. by the user. (3) Sensor r.e.ads. temperature or setting limit or s.h.u.t. d.mm. or initialized by user. ( 4) Monitor responds to out-of-limits sensor reading or detects the printer failure by setting an alarm. Also the alarm can be sh.n.t ~ Keeping the object-oriented methodology in mind, the transformation from the figure 3 to figure 4 is straightforward. In the step of identifying the objects and their attributes, the decision for specific representation of objects is delayed . We only take into account what objects in the problem space we are interested in . In general, the nouns denote the objects and the adjectives represent the attributes of each object. After identifying objects, extracting operations appropriate to each object is straightforward . The verbs attached to each object can be abstracted as corresponding operations . Those operations are visible outside. The object together with its operation forms one unit which can be defined by one program unit. The arrows are used to indicate the operation application direction . If there is one arrow from object A to object B, it indicates that the object A does one operation requiring something from B, or triggering B's operation . In this situation , the object A is an active object. If A is a passive object which does not have operations, all the arrows connected to A must point to A. System Specification in A.d.a package PRINTER is task THEYRINTER is entry PRINT_READING (THE_ITEM: in STRING); entry SHUT_DOWN; end THEYRINTER; end PRINTER; package ALARM is task THE_ALARM is entry REPOR T_OF LIMIT; entry REPORTYRINTER_ERROR; entry SHUT_DOWN; end THE_alarm; end ALARM; generic type NAME is ( ); type VALUE is range ; SENSE_RATE: in DURATION; - 5 - with function VALUE_OF (THE_NAME m NAME) return VALUE; with procedure SOUND_ALARM; package SENSORS is task type SENSOR is entry START (THE_NAME : in NAME) ; entry SET_LIMIT (THE_VALUE : in VALUE) ; entry GET_8TATUS (THE_VALUE : out VALUE; OUT_OF LIMITS : out BOOLEAN); entry SHUT_D OWN; end SENSOR; end SENSORS; type COMMAND is (SET_LIMIT, GET_8TATUS, SHUT_DOWN); procedure MONITOR is -- local type declarations -- ALARM task specification -- PRINTER task specification -- SENSOR task specification -- USER_COMMAND declaration -- task bodies begin -- manipulation of USER_COMMAND end MONITOR; Abstractions from ease-l: 1 Object-oriented design methodology is fundamentally different from traditional functional methods. Traditional functional methods factor system in problem space into operational modules in solution space , in which each operation module represents a major step in the overall transformation process. The object-oriented design method decomposes problem around objects that exist in the real world. 2 The object-oriented design method needs different requirement analysis to support. During the problem definition step, the requirement analyst must keep object orientedness in mind, because different analysis will get different problem decompositions. During the problem analysis , a good domain knowledge certainly helps a lot. 3 4 - 6 - It is necessary to use object-oriented system specification methodology during the system specification step. The specification is the result of a process of requirements analysis, and represents the first complete description of the conceptual solution. It contains clear descriptions of the external view of the system the user required along with any related or implied system constraints. The object-oriented system specification ideally closely matches the user's problem. It is desirable to make system specification consistent, completely, comprehensible and traceable to the requirement. Also , the object-oriented s specification will make the transaction between system specification and system design smooth, and easy. It is desirable to keep the system specification to be independent from the implementation . That means the transaction from problem space to conceptual solution space should not be restricted by implementations, especially not limited by the capability of implementation tools. Ada has the design description capability, but there is no direct notations for objects. 2.3.4.2. Ca.se-2: Cruise-Control System The Cruise-Control system problem is given in [7]. A data flow diagram (figure 5) is used to express the problem. This problem is more complicated than the environmental monitor system problem. The data flow diagram gives a clear view of each main step of the system transaction . Using object-oriented method the problem space is abstracted as in figure 6. From problem space the system architecture was abstracted using the object-oriented method (figure 7) . First, the objects and their operations are identified . Especially, the passive objects (no operations) and active objects (having operations) are distinguished; the required operations (triggered externally) and suffered operations (not triggered by outside world) are distinguished. For example, brake and accelerator are passive objects, others are active objects. Throttle has two v visible operations which are triggered by other objects and one invisible operation which is hiding in throttle's body. That invisible operation can only be seen by throttle itself. Problem~ Objects and their Operations: ( 1) Pulse from wheels: A pulse is. 5.f.D.t for every revolution of the wheel (2) Clock: Timing~ every milli-second. ( 3) Driver: If the driver s.fls. system on, it denotes that the cruise-control system should maintain the car speed. Also , the driver may require increasing or decreasing maintained speed when cruise-control on . Or, the driver requires resuming the last maintained speed. ( 4) Brake: If brake is. pressed, then cruise-control temporarily reverts to the manual control. ( 5) Brake state: Cruise-control requires the current brake state . ( 6) Engine state: If engine-on, the cruise-control may be active. (7) Accelerator: Accelerator state is. required by the cruise-control system. (8) Throttle: Setting the throttle value . Abstraction from case-2: - 7 - 1 An object is an entity that exists in time and space . An obje ct also has state . The operations indicate the object's state. Each object will be in one state at one time . The object state may change by the activity of other objects or as the time changes. We can trace the system activity in the state space . 2 We need facilities to indicate the time constraints of the system . For example, the clock's and wheel's operations must be synchronized. and the throttle has one operation-desired speed which can be visible by all the three operations of control increase, decrease and resume . 3 The ease-l and case-2 deal with different problems. The objects abstracted from these two problems are different, except one situation that the control object in cruise-control system is interacting with driver's requirement, the monitor object in environmental monitor system is interacting with user's command. Both system needs an interface with the user who will dynamically input his requirements / commands. This interface can be a reusable component. 2.3.4.3. Ca.se-3: Message Switching System The message switching problem is addressed in [8] . Figure 8 is the problem abstraction . The message switching system consists of a network of switching nodes connected via trunk lines. Each switching node is locally attached to subscribers , an operator, archive tape , and auxiliary memory. The operator can send and receive messages like any subscriber. In addition , the operator monitors and controls the node activity. The function of each node is to route input messages to one or more output destinations . Three successive phases are involved in processing each message: input, switch and output. inputReading input from a local subscriber or trunk link and storing the message on both auxiliary memory and an archive tape . switch Each input message contains a header, body and end marker. The header is examined to determine the output destination. For each destination , a directory is consulted to determine the appropriate output line to use and a copy of the message is queued for output on each distinct line. output A message is retrieved from auxiliary memory and written on the appropriate output line . Each message contains a priority as part of its header so that, at all times, the highest priority message for an output line is transmitted . If preempted, a message is later transmitted in its entirety. Having the experience of solving previous two problems, abstract objects and their operations can be obtained by repeatedly using the object-abstraction. Thus, we get the problem definition in object space (figure 9) and the concept solution (figure 10~. Pro b 1e m 8.p.a.c.e. Objects and their Operations: (1) Switches i.n.p.u.t message head and control signal. (2) Switches s.tu.r.e. the message on the auxiliary memory. (3) Switches archive message on the tape. . 8 . ( 4) Switches consult the cross-reference table to determine the appropriate output port. (5) Switches handle th e output message priority and preemption-output queue. (5) Switches output the message head and control signal to the output port. (7) Operator monitors the switch system . (8) Output ports retrieve the message body. This problem solution must solve the following four problems: • maximize I/ 0 parallelism , • control different I/0 devices, • coordinate mode activity, • handle output message preemptions. System Specification in A.d.a type MSG_A.DDR is STRING(l.20); type MSG is record HEAD : STRING(l.20); BODY: STRING(l.lOO); end record; task type ARCHIVE_TAPE is entry ARCHIVE (THE_NISG: in MSG); end ARCHIVE_TAPE; task type AUX_MEM is entry OUTPUT_NISG (THE_NISG_A.DDR in MSG_A.DDR); entry INPUT . MSG (THE_NISG_A.DDR : in MSG_A.DDR); end AUX_MEM; task type OUTPUT_CONTROL IS entry OUTPUT. . Jv1SG ( OUTPUT_pORT THE_NISG_A.DDR : in end OUTPUT_CONTROL; task type SWITCH is in STRING(1.20); MSG_A.DDR); entry INPUT_CONTROL (THE_NISG in MSG); end SWITCH; task type OPERA TORS is entry INPUT_MSG (THE_MSG m MSG); end OPERA TORS; task type SUBSCRIBER is entry INPUT.Jv1SG (THE_NISG in MSG); end SUBSCRIBER; OPERA TOR : OPERATORS; task body OPERA TOR is -- local type declarations -- ARCHIVE TAPE task declaration - g - -- AUXILIARY MEMORY task declaration -- OUTPUT CONTROL task declaration -- REFERENCE TABLE data structure declaration -- OUTPUT QUEUE data structure declaration THE.BUBSCRIBER : array ( 1.100) of SUBSCRIBER; task body THE.BUBSCRIBER is task OUTPUT_MSG; • • • end THE.BUBSCRIBER; THE.BWITCH : SWITCH; task body THE.BWITCH is procedure STORE_MSG (THE_MSG in MSG); procedure ARCHIVE_MSG (THE_MSG : in MSG); procedure CONSULT_TABLE (OUTPUT _FORT : out STRING( 1.10); THE_MSG : in MSG) ; procedure PREEMPTION (THE_MSG : in MSG; -- subprogram body • • • end THE.BWITCH ; -- other task bodies begin loop PRIORITY : out INTEGER); accept INPUT_MSG ( THE_MSG in MSG) do • • • end INPUT_MSG; end loop; end OPERATOR; - 10- Abstractions from case-3: 1 2 Using the object-oriented method to do system design really requires a great deal of real world knowledge and intuitive understanding of the problem, especially for abstracting operations. Listing the goal of the system requirements helps to decide which object should do which operation . For example, for this specific problem, the solution must solve the maximizing I / 0 parallelism and control different I/0 devices, it had better make auxiliary memory and archive-tape become active objects. The control issue and time constraint are important. It definitely needs some facilities to specify them . For example, the input-control for switch needs to specify its input trigger is exclusive OR, its output is sequential. In system architecture design using Ada, it seems that Ada's program units are not sufficient for this specification. 3 The three case studies come from different application fields. The software systems are required for different purposes. They deal with totally different objects. From the domain object level, it is not clear what is the reusable component. 2.3.5. Summary of Reusability Concepts 1 2 3 Software reusability is an attribute of software relative to its applicability in different computational contexts as well as different application areas. The object-oriented methodology is a better fit for real applications than other traditional methodologies. It is at least useful to apply reusability principle in the same application domain. Reusable software components tend to be objects or classes of objects. Given a rich set of reusable software components, the implementation would proceed via composition of these parts, rather than further decomposition. The greater abstraction of object models provides greater potential reusability. The level of abstraction has a great effect on reusability. Higher the abstraction, the greater overhead it may require for interpretation and it provides less intuitive understanding. Lower the abstraction, the chance of recognizing reusable components become less. 3. Concurrency Issues 3.1. Synchronization In a real time system, several processes may access the same data at the same time . This situation may result in inconsistent data. A language dealing with concurrent programming must guard against this possibility. That is, the language must provide the means to guard against time-dependent errors. When a process is accessing shared data, the process is said to be in its critical section ( or critical region). The concept of allowing only one process into its critical region at a time is known as mutual exclusion. An elegant software implementation of mutual exclusion was presented by Dekker. Dijkstra also abstracted the key notation of mutual exclusion in his concept of semaphores [10] . 3.1.1. Semaphores A semaphores is a protected integer variable which can take on only non-zero values and whose value can be accessed and altered only by the operations P(s), stands for wait, and V(s), stands for signal, and an initialization operation. Binary semaphores can accept only the - 11 - values 0 or 1. General semaphores can accept non-negative integer values . The definition of P and S is as follows : P(s): If s > 0 then s :=s- 1 else the execution of the process that called P(s) is suspended. V(s) :If some process P has been suspended by a previous P(s) on the semaphores then wake up P else s := s + 1 3.1.2. Monitors The above methods are so primitive that it is difficult to express solutions for more complex concurrency problems, and their presence in concurrent programs increases the existing difficulty of proving program correctness [ 12]. Another drawback of the above methods was that every procedure had to provide its own synchronization explicitly. A desire to provide the appropriate synchronization automatically led to the development of a new construct, a monitor [10]. A monitor is a concurrency construct that contains both the data and the procedures needed to perform allocation of a shared resource or group of shared resources. The monitor enforces information hiding - processes calling the monitor have no idea of, nor access to, data inside the monitor. Mutual exclusion is rigidly enforced at the monitor boundary- only one process at a time is allowed to enter. If a process inside the monitor cannot proceed until a certain condition becomes true, the process calls wait (variables name) and waits outside the monitor on a queue for ";variables name" to be signaled by another process. To ensure that a process already waiting for a resource eventually does get it, the monitor gives higher priority to a waiting process relative to a new requesting process attempting to enter the monitor. A process calling wait is threaded into the queue; a process calling signal causes a waiting process to be removed from the queue. 3.2. Ada Rendezvous Ada is a higher-level program mg language which can be used for conventional programming. In this section, we are concerned with the features of Ada related to concurrent programming. Central to these features is the concept of the task which is a program module that is executed asynchronously. Tasks may communicate and synchronize their actions through : 1 accept statement: It is a combination of procedure calls and message transfer. 2 select statement : It is a non-deterministic control structure based on guarded command construct. The BNF of them are : accept statement has the form : accept entry~imple_name [( entry_index)] [formal_part] do sequence_of~tatemen ts end [ entry~imple_name]; select statement has the form : select [when boolean_expression =>] - 12- acce p L.s tate men t seq ue n ce_of .s tatements {or [when boolean_expression =>] acce pt.s tatemen t} se qu ence_of.s tatemen ts [else se quence _of.s tatemen ts] end select; Following sections are Ada programs that implement the above mentioned concurrent problems. 3.2.1. Dekker's Algorithm procedure DEKKER is FAVOREDPROCESS : INTEGER; Pl WANTSTOENTER, P2WANTSTOENTER : BOOLEAN; procedure TWOYROC (PlWANTSTOENTER, P2WANTSTOENTER : in out BOOLEAN; FAVORED PROCESS : in out INTEGER) is task Pl; task body Pl is begin loop Pl WANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; while P2WANTSTOENTER loop if FAVOREDPROCESS = 2 then Pl W ANTSTOENTER := FALSE; while FAVOREDPROCESS = 2 loop null; busy waiting end loop; PlWANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; end if; -- you can enter critical region for Pl from here FAVOREDPROCESS := 2; PlWANTSTOENTER :=FALSE; -- you may put other s tuff here end loop; end loop; endPl; task P2; task body P2 is begin P2WANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; while Pl WANTS TO ENTER loop - 13 - ifF A VORED PROCESS = 1 then P2WANTSTOENTER := FALSE; while FAVORED PROCESS = 1 loop null; busy waiting end loop; P2WANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; end if; -- you may enter critical region for P2 form here FAVOREDPROCESS := 1; P2WANTSTOENTER :=FALSE; --you may put other stuff here end loop; end loop; endP2; begin null; -- main program for TWO_pROC end TWO_pROC; begin P1 W ANTSTOENTER := FALSE; P2WANTSTOENTER :=FALSE; FAVORED PROCESS := 1; TWO_pROC (P1wantstoenter, P2wantstoenter, favoredprocess) ; end DEKKER; 3.2.2. Semaphore (Binary) The following are two approaches of Binary Semaphore . The first one is described in [10] and the second one exactly follows the original definition of sem aphore. 3.2.2.1. procedure BINARY ,SEMAPHORE is ta.sk SEMAPHORE is entry P; entryV; end SEMAPHORE; ta.sk body SEMAPHORE is begin loop accept P; only after P has been called that V accept V; can be accepted and vice versa end loop; end SEMAPHORE; task Pl; task body P 1 is begin loop - 14- -- you may put the remainde r of the program one here SEMAPHORE.P; -- call the P entry -- now you can go ahe ad to access the critical region SEMAPHORE.V; -- call the V entry end loop; end Pl; task P2; task body P2 is begin loop -- you may put the remainder of the program one here SEMAPHORE.P; -- call the Pen try -- now you can go ahead to access the critical region SEMAPHORE.V; -- call the V entry end loop; end P2; begin -- main program for BINARY_8EMAPHORE null; end BINARY_8EMAPHORE; 3.2.2.2. According to the definition, semaphore is a protected variable whose value can be accessed and altered by operations P and V and initial operation. So, we declare semaphore as private type and only those subroutines inside this package can access its value package BIN_8EMAPHORE is type SEMAPHORE is private; procedure P (S: in out SEMAPHORE); procedure V (S: in out SEMAPHORE); procedure INITIAL_8EMAPHORE(S: in out SEMAPHORE; VALUE : in INTEGER); private type SEMAPHORE is record VAL : INTEGER; end record; end; package body BIN.SEMAPH ORE is NO_ WAITING :INTEGER := 0; - 15 - -- Il:um her of processes that have been suspended task CONTROL is entry SUSPEND ; entry W AKE_UP; end; task body CONTROL is begin loop accept WAKE_UP do accept SUSPEND; end; end loop; end CONTROL; procedure P (S : in out SEMAPHORE) is begin if S.VAL > 0 then S.VAL := S.VAL - 1; else NO_ WAITING := NO_WAITING + 1; CONTROL.SUSPEND; -- suspend the process end if; endP; procedure V (S : in out SEMAPHORE) is begin if NO_ WAITING > 0 then CONTROL.WAKE_UP; -- wakeup one of the suspended processes NO_WAITING := NO_WAITING- 1; else S.VAL := S.VAL + 1; end if; end V; procedure INITIAL.SEMAPHORE (S: in out SEMAPHORE; VALUE : in INTEGER) is begin S.V AL :=VALUE; end INITIAL_sEMAPH ORE; end BIN_sEMAPH ORE; - 16 - with BIN_sEMAPHORE; use BIN_sEMAPHORE; procedure SEMAPH ORE_EXAMPLE is S: SEMAPHORE; procedure TWOYROC is task PROCESSONE; task body PROCESSONE is begin loop -- put some stuff here P(S); -- now you are inside the critical region one V(S); -- put some other stuff here end loop; end PROCESSONE; task PROCESSTWO; task body PROCESSTWO is begin loop -- put some stuff here P(S); -- now you are inside the critical region two V(S); end loop; end PROCESSTWO; begin null; -- main program for two_proc end TWOYROC; begin -- main program for semaphore example INITIAL_sEMAPHORE(S, 1); TWOYROC; -- now, two processes are executing concurrently - 17 - end SEMAPH ORE_EXAMPLE; 3.2.3. Binary Semaphore Using Monitor Concept In the following example we describe the implementation of a binary semaphore by a monitor written in Ada. generic package GENERIC_MONITOR is task type COND PTR is entry WAIT; entry SIGNAL; end COND PTR; type CONDITION is access COND PTR; -- This condition type of variab le provides a queue for wait entry, also for the signal entry. end GENERIC_MONITOR; package body GENERIC_MONITOR is task body COND PTR is begin loop accept SIGNAL do accept WAIT; end; end loop; end CONDPTR; end GENERIC_MONITOR; with GENERIC_MONITOR; procedure SEMAPHORE_USE_MONITOR is This package(monitor) performs information hiding. Procedures calling the monitor have no idea of, nor access to, data inside the monitor. package MONITOR is procedure P; procedure V; end MONITOR; package body MONITOR is - 18- package TEMP is new GENERIC_MONITOR; use TEMP; NOT_BUSY : CONDITION; BUSY: BOOLEAN := FALSE; procedure P is begin if BUSY then NOT_BUSY.WAIT; -- wait entry provides a queue for the -- procedures waiting to be accepted end if; BUSY :=TRUE; endP; procedure V is begin BUSY := FALSE; NOT_BUSY.SIGNAL; -- wake up the procedure at the first -- on the queue of wait entry endV; end MONITOR; use MONITOR; procedure TWOYROC is task P1 ; task body P1 is begin loop P; -- you can enter the critical region 1 now V ; -- you may put the rest of the stuff here end loop; endP1; task P2; task body P2 is begin loop P; -- you can enter the critical region 2 now V; -- you may put the rest of the stuff here end loop; end P2 ; - 1 g - begin -- main program of two_proc null; now Pl and P2 are executing concurrently end TWOYROC; begin -- main program of SEMAPHORE_USE_MONITOR TWO_?ROC; end SEMAPHORE_USE_MONITOR; 3.3. Real-Time Interrupt Handling Efficient interrupt handling is critical in real-time environments. Interrupts are used to control the transfer of data to and from external devices, which often generate interrupts at high frequencies. If the interrupt is not handled quickly, external data can be lost or overall efficiency of the system can be severely degraded . Real-time performance requirements are determined by the minimum time between arrival of interrupts and the maximum time that can elapse while an interrupt is pending before data are lost or a hardware time-out occurs. When an interrupt occurs, a processor must begin executing code in another environment. Context switching is machine dependent, and in most modern computers it is supported by special privileged instructions. Interrupt handling takes at least two context switches, one from the program currently running to the interrupt handler and one at the completion of the interrupt handler. However, neither of these need to be full context switches, nor do interrupts need to be disabled for long. 3.3.1. Language Mechanisms for Interrupt Handlers in Ada Most real-time software for embedded systems use interrupt handlers to control and communicate with external devices . Interrupt handlers are usually responsible for initializing devices, initiating physical I/0 operations and responding to both anticipated and unanticipated interrupts. Ideally, interrupts would arrive only as a direct consequence of a previously issued software command. However, in practice, interrupts can arrive unexpectedly or fail to arrive when expected. Interrupt handlers have traditionally been written in assembly language because few high-level languages provide support for interrupts and because interrupt handlers must often meet severe real-time constraints [15] . Mechanisms for implementing interrupt handlers provided by systems programming languages such as Concurrent Pascal and Modubv-2 are usually not optimized for real-time applications. Since Ada was intended for embedded applications, interrupt-handling mechanisms were integrated into Ada. The Ada Language Reference Manual (LRM) [18] briefly describes interrupt handlers and their semantics (in sec. 13.7) . The following example from the LRM illustrates the specification of an interrupt handler: t.a.sk INTERRUPT_HAND LER is entry DONE; for DONE use at 16#40#; end INTERRUPT_HANDLER; - 20- The task specification n, or interface, de fines each externally visible task operation , referred to as an entry. The semantics of an interrupt is defined in terms of the rendezvous which was dis- [ cussed in previous sections. Each Ada process, or task, declares a list of entry procedures that can be called by other tasks. A rendezvous occurs between a calling task and the serving task when the caller is waiting to execute an entry call, and the server is waiting to accept the en try call. Each task specification must have a corresponding body that contains the executable code of the task. The following is a more realistic example of an interrupt handler for a printer device [ which illustrates some of the hardware and software run-time support actions that must be considered when programming interrupt handlers. task PRINTER_8ERVER is entry OUTPUT__LINE (ST : in STRING); entry IO_INTERRUPT; for IO_INrERRUPT use at 16#1234#; end PRINTER_8ERVER; task body PRINTER_8ERVER is HARDWAREYORT : CHARACTER; for HARDWAREYORT use at 16#1234#; begin loop accept OUTPUT__LINE (ST : in STRING) do for INDEX in ST'RANGE loop HARDWAREYORT := ST(INDEX); accept IO_INTERRUPT; end loop end OUTPUT__LINE; HARDWAREYORT := ASCII.CR; accept IO_INTERRUPT do HARDWAREYORT := ASCII.LF; end IO_lNTERRUPT; accept IO_INTERRUPT; end loop; end PRINTER_8ERVER; The above example illustrates how it is possible in Ada to serve the same interrupt entry point with different accept bodies. 3.3.2. Interrupt Handling Model in Ada Hardware interrupts generated by a device or its controller are usually described informally by means of flowcharts and timing diagrams, in contrast to software whose behaviour is defined by a program . A uniform description of both the hardware and software makes it possible to define a model for a general-purpose , interrupt-handling mechanism [17]. The complete chain of control from the hardware to the server can be modeled by three Ada tasks , where the first two are asynchronous tasks external to the server. The first task - 21 - represents a hardware device, which is a producer of interrupts and a producer or consumer of data. The second task represents the hardware /software interface , and performs interrupt enabling , disabling and context switching outside the normal Ada rendezvous mechanisms. The task specifications are as follows: HARDWARE_DATA : DEVICE_DEPENDENT; task ASYNCHRONOUS_HARDWARE; task INTERFACE is entry D ISPA TCHJNTERRUPT; end INTERFACE; task SERVER is entry OUTPUT_LINE (ST: in STRING) ; entry IOJNTERRUPT; for IOJNTERRUPT use at 16#1234#; end SERVER; The advantage of adopting an Ada model for devices and their run-time support is that the semantics of interrupt handling can be defined entirely in Ada. This model can be used conveniently to illustrate some of the problems an effective implementation must be able to handle : 1. hardware that generates interrupts at power-up and in error situations where there is no Ada program or handler ready to serve interrupts 2. hardware that generates spurious interrupts when the interrupt handlers are not ready to serve interrupts 3. hardware that requires immediate action on the interrupt to prevent the loss of data 4. a hardware interrupt that demands a specific program action to mask it out so that it is not constantly pending. 3.3.2.1. The Hardware/Software Interface The interface is modeled by a task representing the connection between the hardware and server tasks that are running concurrently on two conceptually different processors with a need to communicate. The hardware task has no knowledge of the state of the software and can try to interact with it at unexpected times. Some hardware tasks must be serviced immediately, even if the server is not ready, and can therefore generate unexpected interrupts (and race conditions in the server) when interrupt handlers are too slow to handle successive interrupts. A model for robust and usable interrupt support environment must provide services for situations in which either software or hardware is malfunctioning. This kind of failure handling can be represented by the following body of the interface task . task body INTERFACE is begin loop - 22- accept DISPATCHJNTERRUPT do select-- conditional en try call SERVER.IOJNTERRUPT; else FAIL URE_8ERVER.SERVER_NOT_READ Y; end select; end DISPATCHJNTERRUPT; end loop; end INTERFACE; 3.3.2.2. The Hardware Task The Ada hardware task example below models many of the problems caused by actual hardware . In the ex ample , the server and interface tasks communicate with the hardware task v1a a global HARDWARE_DATA variable, which includes the fields INTERRUPT_ENABLED , STARTJO and IO_DA TA. task body ASYNCHRONOUS_HARD WARE is -- lo cal declarations procedure GENERATEJNTERRUPT(TIMEOUT NATURAL) is begin PENDING JNTERR UPT: for I in O . TIMEOUT loop if HARDWARE_DATA.INTERRUPT_ENABLED then select -- conditional en try call INTERF A CE.D ISPA TCHJNTERRUPT; ifDATA_UNSTABLE then HARDWARE_DATA.IO_DATA := IND ETERMINANT; end if; exit PENDINGJNTERRUPT; else if DATA_UNSTABLE then HARDWARE_DATA.IO_DATA end if; end select; end if; end loop PENDINGJNTERRUPT; end GENERA TEJNTERRUPT; begin loop IND ETERMINANT; SERVICEJNTERVAL := SERVICEJNTERV AL + 1; if SERVICEJNTERVAL > SERVICE_TIMEOUT then GENERATEJNTERRUPT (INTERRUPT_TIMEOUT) ; SERVICEJNTERVAL := 0; end if; if HARDWARE_DATA.STARTJO then - 23- for I in O . DO_IO_TIME loop null; end loop; HARD WARE.J) ATA.IO_DA TA :=VALID _DATA; GENERA TE_INTERRUPT ( IO_D ONE_TIMEOUT); end if; end loop; end ASYNCHRONOUS.JIARD WARE; The hardware and interface model is sufficiently general to cover a wide range of hardware devices and enables a specification of requirements for designing a system hardware support package. Without such a formal definition, it is difficult to verify the correctness of the interrupt run-time support package. In addition, the model permits a software task to simulate a hardware device and test the interrupt run-time support package. 3.4. Conclusion The traditional approach to implementing interrupt handlers using assembly language le ads to systems that are difficult to develop, maintain or adapt to new hardware and software requirements. By providing a high-level interface, Ada simplifies the design and maintenance of interrupt handlers . 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This study examined advertising, exhibiting multilingual structures to reach the Nigerian audience. Halliday's mood system and morphological processes served as the theoretical configurations for analyzing textual elements of advertisements. These contextual terminologies permitted quantitative and qualitative approaches to thrive in order to culminate the investigation. Thus, the analysis showed political motifs, religious spheres, royal domains, musical settings, and friendship environment, as the fascinating panaceas to motivate readers. English, Yorùbá, and Hausa languages were functional facilities to mesmerize consumers. However, the advertisements displayed textual interruptions: FEBUHARI, FELABRATION, OBIdiently, and ATIKUlating, being strong prerequisites in persuasive designs. Creativity indicates the logically-minded behavior of publicists in blending grammatical structures of different languages together, yielding a unified whole, generating novel semantic values for regurgitation. It seems indisputable that such textual constructs have the capability to influence lexicographers, increase word-stock(s) of languages, and projecting the advertising industry as possessing cerebral proficiencies in linguistics' advancement. ; tdalamu@aul.edu.ng ; Taofeek O. Dalamu earned a PhD from the University of Lagos, Nigeria, under a methodical supervision of Prof. Adeyemi Daramola, with specialization in Systemic Functional Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, and Digital Humanities in relation, mostly, to advertising communications. Currently, Dr. Dalamu is a member of International Systemic Functional Linguistics Association, and teaches English courses at Anchor University, Lagos, Nigeria. This scholar has a variety of 32 publications in reputable international journals across the globe. See: www.hq.ssrn.com/taofeekdalamu/papers, www.researchgate.net.cdn/taofeekdalamu, www.academia.com/taofeekdalamuuniversityoflagos. ; Anchor University, Lagos, Nigeria ; Akinnaso, N. N. 2015. The politics of language planning in education in Nigeria. Word 41 (3): 337-367. Retrieved on 12 June 12 2018 from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00437956.1990.11435827?src=recsys. ; Alt, F., Evers, C. & Schmidt, A. 2009. Pervasive computing group users' view on context-sensitive car advertisements. Pervasive Computing 9-16. ; Ang, I. 1991. Desperately Seeking the Audience. London: Routledge. ; Arora, N., Dreze, X., Ghose, A., Hess, J., Iyengar, R., Jing, B., Joshi, Y., Kumar, V., Lurie, N., Neslin, S., Sajeesh, S., Su, M., Syam, N., Thomas, J. & Zhang J. 2008. Putting one-to-one marketing to work: Personalization, customization, and choice. 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Culture's Software: Communication Styles. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. ; Cook, G. 1992. The Discourse of Advertising. New York: Routledge. ; Dalamu, T. O. 2017a. A functional approach to advertisement campaigns in Anglo-Nigerian Pidgin. Studies in Linguistics 44: 155-185. ; Dalamu, T. O. 2017b. Maternal ideology in an MTN® advertisement: Analyzing socio-semiotic reality as a campaign for peace. Journal of Language and Education 3(4): 16-26. DOI:10.17323/2411-7390-2017-3-4-16-26. ; Dalamu, T. O. 2018a. Exploring advertising text in Nigeria within the framework of cohesive influence. Styles of Communication 10(1): 74-97. ; Dalamu, T. O. 2018b. Euphemism: The commonplace of advertising culture. Acta Scientiarum. Language and Culture 40(2): 1-15. ; Dalamu, T. O. 2018c. English language development in Nigerian society: A derivative of advertising communications. Complutense Journal of English Studies 26: 263-286. ; Dalamu, T. O. 2018d. 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(Views of Major General S B Asthana,SM,VSM, (Veteran), Questioned by Jiangtao Shi of South China Morning Post on 29 August 2017.Question 1 (SCMP)Are you surprised that the over 70-day military standoff ended all of a sudden just days ahead of PM Narendra Modi's trip to China for the BRICS summit? The deliberate ambiguity in both sides' statements seems to indicate that both sides were willing to make some kind of concessions in a bid to end the dispute in a mutually acceptable face-saving manner. What are the main reasons and factors behind the seemingly peaceful solution for China and India respectively? (For China , BRICS and the 19th party congress? For India, domestic political support and economic reform?)Answer 1 by Major General S B AsthanaI am not really surprised that the over 70-day military standoff ended all of a sudden just days ahead of PM Narendra Modi's trip to China for the BRICS summit. As you have rightly pointed out, both sides (China and India) were looking for an opportunity for a face saving resolution, without appearing to be weak domestically. The likelihood of absence of PM Modi in BRICS Summit, and its resultant political and diplomatic cost, triggered that opportunity. In my opinion, the main reasons behind such a sudden resolution were:-Any escalation beyond the point of standoff as on 28 August could have been cost prohibitive in terms of economical engagement, political and diplomatic cost, human casualties, without any worthwhile gains for both sides. Prolonging it was not in the national interest of either of the country.Success of BRICS is important for all member countries including China. China refusal to talk without precondition of Indian withdrawal and repeated provocative statements was exhibiting its arrogance. This wasn't going well with global community, besides giving an indirect message to all including BRICS, about its hegemonic intentions and poor diplomatic acumen. Even US and Japan, who were not involved with Doklam, chose to state that both must talk to resolve it. The fact that China did not accept ICA verdict, continued aggressive posturing in South China Sea, violated 2012 Agreement in Doklam Triangle, and was seen as not doing enough to implement UN obligation against North Korea. It was affecting its global image adversely, hence some midcourse correction was needed, which has been done through this adjustment.An India China conflict, besides shattering dreams of economic prosperity of both countries, could have escalated to international dimensions, more so with ongoing problems of North Korea and South China Sea, and turbulence in Af- Pak Region. The fact that both are nuclear states cannot be discounted in strategic calculus of escalation dynamics.Militarily the escalation dynamics was not thought through. If war gamed properly, the escalation would have resulted in stalemate, which would have damaged the image of President Xi Jinping and reduced his chances for getting favourable people in 19th Party Congress in his second term and any possible prospects of his third term.From Indian perspective also, escalation of this standoff wasn't in its National Interest. India needs China's market for its growth in future, even if the balance of trade is not in its favour today. Now that India is on 'Make in India' path, as fastest growing economy to bring prosperity to its people,it may not like to slow down due to such meaningless disruptions.There was no domestic pressure on Indian Government, as all political parties,Security forces and public were determined to check Chinese encroachment and arrogance, at any cost.Question 2(SCMP)While an "expeditious disengagement" in Doklam brought an end to the border standoff and ease tensions between the two countries, do you think it could fuel nationalist sentiment, mistrust and hostility in both nations and cast a long shadow over the longstanding border dispute between China and India and their relations? What are the immediate and long-term implications of the border standoff on bilateral relations, especially considering the strategic competition and rivalry for dominance in the region between the nuclear-armed Asian giants? Will it have a long-term impact on the regional geopolitical landscape?Answer 2 by Major General S B AsthanaDoklam standoff is neither the first, nor the last, and not even the longest standoff between India and China. Many strategists argue that Chinese President Xi Jinping and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi are strong leaders, leading their nations with patriotic sentiments. The nationalist self-confidence from both sides may ignite a heated rivalry in which bilateral relations could deteriorate, because an "expeditious disengagement" in Doklam is only a temporary answer to the bigger problem of longstanding border dispute between both.Out of 14 countries with which China had border issues, it has resolved with 12 except India and Bhutan. With India, China has been delaying settling the border issue on some pretext or the other, and with Bhutan it has been shifting its claim lines many times. I understand that permanent resolution of Border Dispute is the ultimate solution, which needs to be expedited. It is a complex problem, as both sides read history in a manner that it supports their claims. This was the reason for both countries to have signed various agreements to ensure peace and tranquillity along the borders, which have been reasonably successful, as no bullet has been fired amongst both Forces in last four decades.Even if resolution of boundary is considered to be a complex problem, the demarcation, delineation and defining of Line of Actual Control (LAC), (which is not a mutually accepted line as of now), is an inescapable necessity. This is do-able by cooperative political intent, to be followed by intense diplomatic efforts. This action cannot be postponed further if the two neighbours have to live peacefully in future without further standoffs'. It needs to be understood that with un-demarcated LAC, troops of both sides will patrol as per their own perceptions of LAC; some areas will be common which both sides will patrol to be its own. Every such patrol will be called as intrusion by the other side, hence such face-offs will continue tillit's demarcated, and the identification of its demarcation is made known to troops manning the borders. The short term impacts of standoffs were the anxiety among people, possible temporary setback to trade, tension on borders, non attendance of important events like BRF/BRICS if not resolved. The long term impact could have been hardening of varying stand on border resolution, aggressive strategic competition, and growth of interest based strategic partnerships to balance each other.Being neighbors, most populated, developing countries and significant trading partners of future, China and India have convergence of interests in many areas.Our economical engagements, mutual cooperation can proceed with strategic divergences, and this has been demonstrated adequately in past.Question3(SCMP)What are messages for other Asian nations caught between the increasing rivalry between China and India? What are the main takeaways for countries like Bhutan , Sri Lanka , Vietnam , Myanmar , Japan , Singapore and Mongolia ?Answer 3 by Major General S B AsthanaI do not subscribe to the idea of growing rivalry between China and India. The extension of economical and strategic space by large growing countries like China and India, to fulfil their genuine needs is natural and may not necessarily be a rivalry. In case some Asian nation is caught between contradictory needs of China and India, in my opinion it should look after its own national interest.The main message which comes out loud and clear from Doklam episode is that in today's world no country can afford to be arrogant to bully smaller sovereign nation, if the smaller Nation is determined to stand up for its national interest. If Cuba could stand up to US, Bhutan could stand up to China, Vietnam could stand up to China as well as US, then smaller countries should also look after their national interest, without worrying about the size and might of any power, trying to push them or manipulate their genuine strategic choices.In my perception, the DoklamPlateau was presumably chosen by China for road construction to violate 2012 Treaty at this point of time because:-India and Bhutan boycotted Belt and Road Forum (BRF) for International Cooperation, the Doklam ingress could embarrass both the countries simultaneously.Stressing on 1890 Treaty by China takes away the logic of Tibet, as a player in dealing with India, thus a subtle message to Dalai Lama that he is not a stake holder in Tibet.Test the depth of Indo- Bhutanese security relationship.The area being too close to Siliguri Corridor/Chicken's Neck, India had to be concerned and had to decide whether to intervene or otherwise in India's own national interest, thereby conveying a message of standing up or not standing up to a challenge from Beijing in future too.As the construction activity was in Bhutanese Territory, a strong Indian reaction was not expected.In case India takes action, China can proclaim itself as an innocent victim and blame India to be an aggressor.China was however surprised by an unexpectedly strong Indian reaction, and then it realized that the point chosen was such, where it had strategic and tactical disadvantages for her in escalating it. China was also surprised that in multiparty democracy like India, all parties are on the same page as far as stand on sovereignty and Doklam Issue was concerned.The end result was that China was extremely disturbed about it, and churning out fresh provocative statements almost on daily basis, launching psychological and propaganda war, war of words, and resorting to every possible means short of war to put pressure on India to withdraw its troops. The Indian side on the other side has been relatively balanced, but firm in its stance, making very few statements, and was globally appreciated for its diplomatic maturity. No one bought the idea of India being an aggressor. India proved that it could physically resist China when its national interest demands so, and it also honors the security arrangement promised to Bhutan by physical action.Chinese efforts to establish bilateral talks with Bhutan, including financial allurement (Purse Diplomacy) did not materialize. India and Bhutan stood by each other and could resist Chinese aggressive activity. Chinese efforts to involve Nepal also resulted in response from their Deputy Prime Minister expressing unwillingness to take sides. Japanese Ambassador in New Delhi also said that there should be no attempt to change status quo on the ground by force.Vietnam has stood up earlier against China as well as US for its national interest. The Doklam episode will encourage countries like, Mongolia (Visit of Dalai Lama), Singapore( trade issues), Srilanka ( Hambantota Port), Myanmar( Dam construction), and Japan( East China Sea/Senkakuislands) to stand up to China for various issues of divergences, and cause others like Philippines, to reconsider their options to give away their strategic choices.China in last few years has been on island grabbing spree using 'Incremental Encroachment' as part of 'Active Defence' Strategy', with its economic and military clout, using 'Purse Diplomacy' with some countries and 'Infrastructure Diplomacy' with others. In some cases the disagreements amongst some countries have become quite pronounced due to unfair deals. Singaporehad a strong interest in ensuring navigation in South China Seas is not restricted. Mongolia displayed the temerity of hosting the Dalai Lama, despite Chinese opposition.The bigger lesson is that no sovereign country should be pushed to take sides, and if it is done aggressively by any stronger power, the nation which is being pushed will be forced to seek security and other interests elsewhere, in terms of various other partnerships.Question 4 (SCMP)With India insisting that China should respect the 2012 understanding on tri-junctions, which specifically said "the tri-junction boundary points between India, China and third countries will be finalised in consultation with the concerned countries," do you think it will further delay the border talks between China and Bhutan? Does it mean India will have to be directly involved as the third party in Sino-Bhutanese border talks in the future?Answer 4 by Major General S B AsthanaAs per the lay of the ground, the resolution of border dispute of China and Bhutan especially at triangle/ junction points, is closely linked and cannot be done in isolation. At Doklam plateau the location of Tri-junction as per India supported by Bhutan is Batang La, whereas China contends it to be at Gyemochenon Jampheri Ridge, which amounts to an encroachment of 7-8 km. These issues cannot be resolved in isolation. If there is political will to resolve it, then meeting of three delegation will not take any time. The delay is only in making political decision and directing the diplomats to resolve it in time bound manner.Additional PointAlthough there is a contradiction in the manner in which each country has reported it perhaps to amuse their domestic audience, and both sides can claim it to be a diplomatic achievement. It is a welcomed step towards peace and tranquilityalong the borders, hence which side blinked first or had an upper hand is not relevant, although both will claim it. This resolution has ensured that there has been no exchange of bullets, and India and China as responsible nations have been able to resolve their differences peacefully on Doklam Standoff. It also ensured that both the countries found a peaceful solution, with a face-saving gesture to ease tension, without disturbing the core interest of either.

In this thesis, we study the relationship between not-for-profit organisations and public authorities through the lense of the local support measure (DLA, dispositif local d'accompagnement).In the first part of the thesis, we focus on the genesis and shape of the DLA. We observe that the DLA is a policy of public employment, implementation of which is delegated to supporting structures, and that its action is intended to help employing organizations to maintain the jobs they provide and consolidate their economic model. Study of the origin of this public policy shows the state's growing interest in non-govornmental organisations from an economic point of view, specifically their importance in the job market. In the second part, we focus on the people who implement the DLA, the agents of this public policy. Although we observe that the policy has structure, the job description of professionals who implement the DLA remains "open"; they have large margins in the realization of their work. Despite this flexibility, they share the concern for employment and job creation. This analysis leads us to suggest that the subject device to a form of government by the accompaniment. Finally, in the third part, we describe the impact of the DLA on its 'modern professional' beneficiaries. The 'associative enterprises' are pushed to structure their work organization and diversify their resources, but also to mobilize for their jobs. The DLA is also involved in implementing management systems in the job-providing organisations: these are both strategically appropriated by non-for-profit directors by the authorities. Finally, the study of relationships between associations and public authorities shows that they are fragmented, producing an uncertain and competitive environment for these organisations.The dynamics observed provide lessons that exceed the effects of DLA; indeed, the policy simply accelerates an ongoing process. The changes observed at work in the employing organisations appear to be the result of changes in the environment of such organisations, which is, in turn, largely determined by the government. ; Dans ce travail de doctorat, nous avons exploré la transformation des relations entre l'État et les associations employeuses. Ces trente dernières années, le monde associatif s'est profondément métamorphosé. Il a notamment été marqué par une importante salarisation. Les salariés associatifs qui n'étaient que 600 000 dans les années 1980, sont aujourd'hui plus d'1,8 million. Cette dynamique à plusieurs explications. Elle est tout d'abord le résultat d'un engagement financier croissant de la part de la puissance publique. La décentralisation, et les nouveaux besoins sociaux nés des différentes crises - économique, écologique, urbaine - ont multiplié les sources et les volumes de financements à destination des associations. Elles se sont vues confier une part grandissante de la mise en œuvre de missions d'intérêt général et de service public.Parallèlement à l'augmentation des ressources publiques, les associations ont développé, encore plus rapidement, leurs ressources privées : celles-ci représentent aujourd'hui la moitié de leur budget total. Pour saisir les transformations des relations entre associations et puissance publique, et comprendre l'impact de ses transformations sur les associations, nous avons fait le choix d'étudier un dispositif public spécifique : le Dispositif Local d'Accompagnement (DLA).Lancé par l'État en 2002, la mise en œuvre de ce dispositif est déléguée par appel d'offres à des structures porteuses dans chaque département et dans chaque région. Il vise à professionnaliser les associations employeuses : il les accompagne à consolider leur modèle économique et à pérenniser leurs emplois. Chaque année c'est 6 000 petites et moyennes associations employeuses qui bénéficient d'un accompagnement, tous secteurs confondus (la France compte au total 180 000 associations employeuses). Observer les relations entre les associations et l'État par le biais du DLA est intéressant à plusieurs titres. Outre le fait qu'il est relativement nouveau et qu'il a été peu étudié : il s'adresse uniquement aux associations employeuses. Il permet de restreindre l'étude à ces structures et à leurs problématiques gestionnaires. Ce dispositif a aussi pour intérêt d'être transversal. Il s'adresse aux associations des différents secteurs qui composent le monde associatif. Il permet au chercheur de regarder le monde associatif comme un tout, de voir ce que les associations, tous secteurs confondus, ont en commun. Enfin, le dernier avantage, est que les accompagnements mobilisent un grand nombre d'acteurs ; leur étude offre l'occasion de recueillir une multiplicité de points de vue, interne et externes, à l'association. Nous avons utilisé ce dispositif comme une porte d'entrée pour comprendre pourquoi et comment l'État intervient sur l'emploi associatif ; pour voir pourquoi et comment les associations employeuses se transforment.Pour répondre à ces interrogations, nous avons exploré l'histoire du DLA, sa mise en œuvre et son impact sur les associations employeuses. L'idée étant, à travers le prisme de ce dispositif, d'observer l'évolution des relations entre l'État et les associations employeuses. D'interroger le gouvernement des associations par l'État. Notre questionnement s'inscrit dans la continuité des réflexions menées par les auteurs qui s'intéressent à la transformation des relations contractuelles entre associations, marchés et pouvoirs publics (Salamon, 1993, 1997, 2010 ; Archambault, 2012, 2013). Plus particulièrement, notre travail s'inscrit dans la continuité des travaux de la sociologie du travail associatif tel que l'ont notamment développé Matthieu Hély (2009 ; Hély & Moulévrier, 2013) et Maud Simonet (2010), mais aussi certains auteurs internationaux (Cunningham & James, 2009 ; Bach, 2012).Dans cette perspective, il s'agit d'aborder les associations non seulement comme des lieux d'engagement, mais comme des structures productives, de travail. Il convient alors d'interroger la division du travail, la recherche d'efficacité des acteurs associatifs. Il s'agit de penser les rapports sociaux à l'intérieur des associations, de les aborder comme un monde du travail où les bénévoles sont bien,eux aussi, des travailleurs.Pour aborder complètement la question du travail associatif, il est nécessaire de ramener l'État dans l'analyse (Evans, Rueschemeyer & Skocpol, 1985). Certains auteurs ont tendance à étudier le monde associatif comme une mobilisation intrinsèque de la société civile. Mais il nous semble que pour le saisir, il faut plutôt regarder le monde associatif comme un espace sous influence de l'État (Chevallier, 1981 ; 1986), sans pour autant le réduire à un strict instrument de politique publique sans autonomie. Ainsi, dans la perspective de la sociologie du travail associatif, il s'agit de regarder les associations au prisme des reconfigurations de l'État Providence. Notre travail de recherche nous a amenés à tirer quatre grands enseignements. Le premier enseignement est que l'enjeu de l'emploi remplace progressivement celui de la vie sociale dans les politiques publiques d'État vis-à-vis des associations. Nous sommes arrivés à cette conclusion en nous intéressant à l'histoire des politiques de l'emploi dans laquelle s'inscrit le DLA.Depuis les années 70, les associations sont mobilisées dans la lutte contre le chômage. Plus celui-ci augmente, plus les associations bénéficient d'emplois aidés, c'est à dire de subventions pour embaucher (Gomel, 2006). C'est d'ailleurs ce qui explique en grande partie la salarisation (Dussuet & Flahault, 2010 qui a marqué le monde associatif ces trente dernières années.Nous nous sommes plus particulièrement intéressés au programme « emplois jeunes » lancé par le gouvernement Jospin en 1997. Ce programme va créer plus de 200 000 emplois dans les associations. Il va aussi avoir une spécificité par rapport aux politiques de l'emploi précédentes. Ce programme ne prévoit pas simplement de subventionner des postes : il prévoit aussi de les accompagner. D'offrir du conseil aux structures pour qu'elles pérennisent les emplois une fois l'aide financière arrivée à terme.En 2002, à la fin du programme « emplois jeunes », cette logique d'aide à l'activité va s'autonomiser. Elle donnera naissance au DLA. Un dispositif qui vise officiellement la « professionnalisation » des petites et moyennes associations employeuses.En comparant ce nouveau dispositif étatique à destination des associations, avec ceux plus anciens portés par le Ministère en charge de la vie associative, nous avons observé que les politiques publiques de soutien à la vie associative avaient tendance à disparaître, quand à l'inverse le DLA s'est installé dans la durée et a vu ses crédits confortés d'année en année.Pour conclure sur ce premier enseignement ; notre travail de recherche nous amène à soutenir que nous assistons à une nouvelle dynamique : l'État a tendance à s'intéresser plus aux associations pour la charge en emploi dont elles sont porteuses que pour leurs projets et leur utilité sociale. Le deuxième enseignement de notre travail est que l'État, par le biais du DLA, gouverne les associations par l'accompagnement. Il les conduit dans un sens donné.Tout cela est rendu possible par plusieurs caractéristiques du DLA : si le dispositif est en apparence très structuré et cadré, il est néanmoins à la fois souple, ouvert et ajusté. Il est souple parce que sa mise en œuvre est déléguée, confiée à une diversité de structures porteuses qui sont toutes différentes et inscrites dans leurs territoires. Il est ouvert, parce les chargé-e-s de mission DLA, qui mettent en œuvre quotidiennement le dispositif, ont de grandes marges de manœuvre dans leur métier. Enfin, il est ajusté, car il est mis en œuvre par des associations, pour les associations et avec des consultants qui sont souvent d'anciens associatifs.Le DLA est aussi un dispositif privatisé (Lipsky & Smith, 1989-1990), complètement mis en œuvre par des structures de droit privé, en l'occurrence des associations. L'État semble disparaître, mais pour autant il n'est pas absent. Il reste pilote du dispositif. Il le dirige par des appels d'offres, par des comités de pilotage et par le biais d'une agence. Le DLA constitue un bon exemple de ces dispositifs nés ces dernières années, où « l'État stratège » délègue les fonctions opérationnelles mais continue d'en assurer le pilotage stratégique.L'État fixe notamment un objectif central : l'emploi. Nous avons observé que si les chargés de mission travaillent de manières différentes, que leurs actions passent par des détours, ils partagent tous ce « souci » (Jeannot, 2005) de l'emploi. Les accompagnements peuvent concerner le modèle économique, les RH, les outils de communication ou encore le projet de la structure, etc. : mais au final c'est toujours l'emploi qui est visé. Et en accompagnant les associations, les chargés de mission les font adhérer à leur tour à cette attente de l'État.Les accompagnements amènent en douceur, sans rien imposer, mais par l'incitation et l'adhésion, les associations à se transformer. Le troisième enseignement de notre travail est que le DLA accompagne les associations employeuses vers la « professionnalisation contemporaine » (Boussard, 2014). Derrière ce concept, nous entendons plusieurs choses.Tout d'abord que le DLA a un effet gestionnaire. Il implante des outils de gestion dans les associations. Ce n'est pas neutre : « enrôlés » (Boussard, 2008) par les dirigeants associatifs, cela va leurs donner une meilleure maîtrise de la structure, offrir de nouveaux outils pour mettre au travail les salariés et contrôler leurs activités.Le DLA va aussi avoir un effet sur la structuration du travail. Il pousse les associations à respecter davantage les normes légales : notamment le droit du travail et la loi 1901. Le DLA aide les structures à clarifier la division du travail, notamment entre bénévoles et salariés. Que chacun trouve sa place et son rôle dans l'association. Cela va aussi aider le directeur à mieux travailler et à corriger ses erreurs de gestion.Le DLA amène aussi les associations à être responsables de leurs emplois. Les emplois deviennent une finalité et non plus seulement un moyen. Pour les sauver, les bénévoles vont se mobiliser, prendre une part plus importante du travail, notamment au sein du bureau et du Conseil d'Administration. Pour les sauver, les associations vont aussi être amenées à chercher des solutions économiques. Et puisque les subventions manquent à l'appel, c'est vers le développement de ressources privées et marchandes qu'elles vont aller.Évidemment, selon les associations, les effets sont différents. Mais globalement, elles vont mieux prendre en compte la question de l'emploi et du travail, et aller dans le sens de la « professionnalisation contemporaine ». Le quatrième grand enseignement conclut notre thèse. Il concerne les relations entre l'État et les associations employeuses. Comme nous l'avons vu, le DLA a bien un impact gestionnaire, mais il ne faut pas en surestimer la « puissance » : il n'explique pas à lui seul la professionnalisation observée. Au final, le DLA ne fait qu'aider les associations à s'adapter à leur environnement économique et institutionnel. Il ne fait qu'accélérer leur adaptation.Pour comprendre ce qui pousse les associations à se transformer, nous avons cherché la réponse du côté des pouvoirs publics. En les étudiant, nous avons pu voir qu'ils sont morcelés et qu'ils ont des logiques différentes et parfois contradictoires. L'incertitude marque aussi leur budget, et par ricochet celui des associations. Paradoxalement, les pouvoirs publics demandent aux associations d'être professionnelles, de faire des projections de leurs budgets sur 3 ans, mais chaque année c'est l'incertitude sur leurs propres budgets. Et cela contraint les associations dans l'instabilité et l'incertitude : c'est l'un des puissants moteurs de la professionnalisation. Et ce d'autant plus que, comme l'a montré Viviane Tchernonog (2013), les pouvoirs publics changent leurs modes de contractualisation, passent d'une logique de subvention à une logique de marché public, de mise en concurrence.Nous défendons dans notre thèse que les pouvoirs publics sont producteurs de la « marchandisation » des associations ; les associations, pour mener à bien leurs missions et celles qui leur ont été confiées, n'ont d'autres choix que d'adopter des pratiques gestionnaires, de développer leurs ressources privées et commerciales. C'est le sens du « et inversement » du titre de la thèse : Le DLA professionnalise les associations employeuses pour les adapter en douceur à un environnement marchandisé. Mais l'inverse est d'autant plus vrai. Ce sont les contraintes du marché qui amène les associations à jouer le jeu du DLA et à se professionnaliser. Le véritable moteur de la professionnalisation contemporaine est la « marchandisation » publique - la market bureaucracy (Cunningham et James, 2014 ; Considine & Lewis, 2003 ; Sako, 1992) - de l'environnement associatif.

In this thesis, we study the relationship between not-for-profit organisations and public authorities through the lense of the local support measure (DLA, dispositif local d'accompagnement).In the first part of the thesis, we focus on the genesis and shape of the DLA. We observe that the DLA is a policy of public employment, implementation of which is delegated to supporting structures, and that its action is intended to help employing organizations to maintain the jobs they provide and consolidate their economic model. Study of the origin of this public policy shows the state's growing interest in non-govornmental organisations from an economic point of view, specifically their importance in the job market. In the second part, we focus on the people who implement the DLA, the agents of this public policy. Although we observe that the policy has structure, the job description of professionals who implement the DLA remains "open"; they have large margins in the realization of their work. Despite this flexibility, they share the concern for employment and job creation. This analysis leads us to suggest that the subject device to a form of government by the accompaniment. Finally, in the third part, we describe the impact of the DLA on its 'modern professional' beneficiaries. The 'associative enterprises' are pushed to structure their work organization and diversify their resources, but also to mobilize for their jobs. The DLA is also involved in implementing management systems in the job-providing organisations: these are both strategically appropriated by non-for-profit directors by the authorities. Finally, the study of relationships between associations and public authorities shows that they are fragmented, producing an uncertain and competitive environment for these organisations.The dynamics observed provide lessons that exceed the effects of DLA; indeed, the policy simply accelerates an ongoing process. The changes observed at work in the employing organisations appear to be the result of changes in the environment of such organisations, which is, in turn, largely determined by the government. ; Dans ce travail de doctorat, nous avons exploré la transformation des relations entre l'État et les associations employeuses. Ces trente dernières années, le monde associatif s'est profondément métamorphosé. Il a notamment été marqué par une importante salarisation. Les salariés associatifs qui n'étaient que 600 000 dans les années 1980, sont aujourd'hui plus d'1,8 million. Cette dynamique à plusieurs explications. Elle est tout d'abord le résultat d'un engagement financier croissant de la part de la puissance publique. La décentralisation, et les nouveaux besoins sociaux nés des différentes crises - économique, écologique, urbaine - ont multiplié les sources et les volumes de financements à destination des associations. Elles se sont vues confier une part grandissante de la mise en œuvre de missions d'intérêt général et de service public.Parallèlement à l'augmentation des ressources publiques, les associations ont développé, encore plus rapidement, leurs ressources privées : celles-ci représentent aujourd'hui la moitié de leur budget total. Pour saisir les transformations des relations entre associations et puissance publique, et comprendre l'impact de ses transformations sur les associations, nous avons fait le choix d'étudier un dispositif public spécifique : le Dispositif Local d'Accompagnement (DLA).Lancé par l'État en 2002, la mise en œuvre de ce dispositif est déléguée par appel d'offres à des structures porteuses dans chaque département et dans chaque région. Il vise à professionnaliser les associations employeuses : il les accompagne à consolider leur modèle économique et à pérenniser leurs emplois. Chaque année c'est 6 000 petites et moyennes associations employeuses qui bénéficient d'un accompagnement, tous secteurs confondus (la France compte au total 180 000 associations employeuses). Observer les relations entre les associations et l'État par le biais du DLA est intéressant à plusieurs titres. Outre le fait qu'il est relativement nouveau et qu'il a été peu étudié : il s'adresse uniquement aux associations employeuses. Il permet de restreindre l'étude à ces structures et à leurs problématiques gestionnaires. Ce dispositif a aussi pour intérêt d'être transversal. Il s'adresse aux associations des différents secteurs qui composent le monde associatif. Il permet au chercheur de regarder le monde associatif comme un tout, de voir ce que les associations, tous secteurs confondus, ont en commun. Enfin, le dernier avantage, est que les accompagnements mobilisent un grand nombre d'acteurs ; leur étude offre l'occasion de recueillir une multiplicité de points de vue, interne et externes, à l'association. Nous avons utilisé ce dispositif comme une porte d'entrée pour comprendre pourquoi et comment l'État intervient sur l'emploi associatif ; pour voir pourquoi et comment les associations employeuses se transforment.Pour répondre à ces interrogations, nous avons exploré l'histoire du DLA, sa mise en œuvre et son impact sur les associations employeuses. L'idée étant, à travers le prisme de ce dispositif, d'observer l'évolution des relations entre l'État et les associations employeuses. D'interroger le gouvernement des associations par l'État. Notre questionnement s'inscrit dans la continuité des réflexions menées par les auteurs qui s'intéressent à la transformation des relations contractuelles entre associations, marchés et pouvoirs publics (Salamon, 1993, 1997, 2010 ; Archambault, 2012, 2013). Plus particulièrement, notre travail s'inscrit dans la continuité des travaux de la sociologie du travail associatif tel que l'ont notamment développé Matthieu Hély (2009 ; Hély & Moulévrier, 2013) et Maud Simonet (2010), mais aussi certains auteurs internationaux (Cunningham & James, 2009 ; Bach, 2012).Dans cette perspective, il s'agit d'aborder les associations non seulement comme des lieux d'engagement, mais comme des structures productives, de travail. Il convient alors d'interroger la division du travail, la recherche d'efficacité des acteurs associatifs. Il s'agit de penser les rapports sociaux à l'intérieur des associations, de les aborder comme un monde du travail où les bénévoles sont bien,eux aussi, des travailleurs.Pour aborder complètement la question du travail associatif, il est nécessaire de ramener l'État dans l'analyse (Evans, Rueschemeyer & Skocpol, 1985). Certains auteurs ont tendance à étudier le monde associatif comme une mobilisation intrinsèque de la société civile. Mais il nous semble que pour le saisir, il faut plutôt regarder le monde associatif comme un espace sous influence de l'État (Chevallier, 1981 ; 1986), sans pour autant le réduire à un strict instrument de politique publique sans autonomie. Ainsi, dans la perspective de la sociologie du travail associatif, il s'agit de regarder les associations au prisme des reconfigurations de l'État Providence. Notre travail de recherche nous a amenés à tirer quatre grands enseignements. Le premier enseignement est que l'enjeu de l'emploi remplace progressivement celui de la vie sociale dans les politiques publiques d'État vis-à-vis des associations. Nous sommes arrivés à cette conclusion en nous intéressant à l'histoire des politiques de l'emploi dans laquelle s'inscrit le DLA.Depuis les années 70, les associations sont mobilisées dans la lutte contre le chômage. Plus celui-ci augmente, plus les associations bénéficient d'emplois aidés, c'est à dire de subventions pour embaucher (Gomel, 2006). C'est d'ailleurs ce qui explique en grande partie la salarisation (Dussuet & Flahault, 2010 qui a marqué le monde associatif ces trente dernières années.Nous nous sommes plus particulièrement intéressés au programme « emplois jeunes » lancé par le gouvernement Jospin en 1997. Ce programme va créer plus de 200 000 emplois dans les associations. Il va aussi avoir une spécificité par rapport aux politiques de l'emploi précédentes. Ce programme ne prévoit pas simplement de subventionner des postes : il prévoit aussi de les accompagner. D'offrir du conseil aux structures pour qu'elles pérennisent les emplois une fois l'aide financière arrivée à terme.En 2002, à la fin du programme « emplois jeunes », cette logique d'aide à l'activité va s'autonomiser. Elle donnera naissance au DLA. Un dispositif qui vise officiellement la « professionnalisation » des petites et moyennes associations employeuses.En comparant ce nouveau dispositif étatique à destination des associations, avec ceux plus anciens portés par le Ministère en charge de la vie associative, nous avons observé que les politiques publiques de soutien à la vie associative avaient tendance à disparaître, quand à l'inverse le DLA s'est installé dans la durée et a vu ses crédits confortés d'année en année.Pour conclure sur ce premier enseignement ; notre travail de recherche nous amène à soutenir que nous assistons à une nouvelle dynamique : l'État a tendance à s'intéresser plus aux associations pour la charge en emploi dont elles sont porteuses que pour leurs projets et leur utilité sociale. Le deuxième enseignement de notre travail est que l'État, par le biais du DLA, gouverne les associations par l'accompagnement. Il les conduit dans un sens donné.Tout cela est rendu possible par plusieurs caractéristiques du DLA : si le dispositif est en apparence très structuré et cadré, il est néanmoins à la fois souple, ouvert et ajusté. Il est souple parce que sa mise en œuvre est déléguée, confiée à une diversité de structures porteuses qui sont toutes différentes et inscrites dans leurs territoires. Il est ouvert, parce les chargé-e-s de mission DLA, qui mettent en œuvre quotidiennement le dispositif, ont de grandes marges de manœuvre dans leur métier. Enfin, il est ajusté, car il est mis en œuvre par des associations, pour les associations et avec des consultants qui sont souvent d'anciens associatifs.Le DLA est aussi un dispositif privatisé (Lipsky & Smith, 1989-1990), complètement mis en œuvre par des structures de droit privé, en l'occurrence des associations. L'État semble disparaître, mais pour autant il n'est pas absent. Il reste pilote du dispositif. Il le dirige par des appels d'offres, par des comités de pilotage et par le biais d'une agence. Le DLA constitue un bon exemple de ces dispositifs nés ces dernières années, où « l'État stratège » délègue les fonctions opérationnelles mais continue d'en assurer le pilotage stratégique.L'État fixe notamment un objectif central : l'emploi. Nous avons observé que si les chargés de mission travaillent de manières différentes, que leurs actions passent par des détours, ils partagent tous ce « souci » (Jeannot, 2005) de l'emploi. Les accompagnements peuvent concerner le modèle économique, les RH, les outils de communication ou encore le projet de la structure, etc. : mais au final c'est toujours l'emploi qui est visé. Et en accompagnant les associations, les chargés de mission les font adhérer à leur tour à cette attente de l'État.Les accompagnements amènent en douceur, sans rien imposer, mais par l'incitation et l'adhésion, les associations à se transformer. Le troisième enseignement de notre travail est que le DLA accompagne les associations employeuses vers la « professionnalisation contemporaine » (Boussard, 2014). Derrière ce concept, nous entendons plusieurs choses.Tout d'abord que le DLA a un effet gestionnaire. Il implante des outils de gestion dans les associations. Ce n'est pas neutre : « enrôlés » (Boussard, 2008) par les dirigeants associatifs, cela va leurs donner une meilleure maîtrise de la structure, offrir de nouveaux outils pour mettre au travail les salariés et contrôler leurs activités.Le DLA va aussi avoir un effet sur la structuration du travail. Il pousse les associations à respecter davantage les normes légales : notamment le droit du travail et la loi 1901. Le DLA aide les structures à clarifier la division du travail, notamment entre bénévoles et salariés. Que chacun trouve sa place et son rôle dans l'association. Cela va aussi aider le directeur à mieux travailler et à corriger ses erreurs de gestion.Le DLA amène aussi les associations à être responsables de leurs emplois. Les emplois deviennent une finalité et non plus seulement un moyen. Pour les sauver, les bénévoles vont se mobiliser, prendre une part plus importante du travail, notamment au sein du bureau et du Conseil d'Administration. Pour les sauver, les associations vont aussi être amenées à chercher des solutions économiques. Et puisque les subventions manquent à l'appel, c'est vers le développement de ressources privées et marchandes qu'elles vont aller.Évidemment, selon les associations, les effets sont différents. Mais globalement, elles vont mieux prendre en compte la question de l'emploi et du travail, et aller dans le sens de la « professionnalisation contemporaine ». Le quatrième grand enseignement conclut notre thèse. Il concerne les relations entre l'État et les associations employeuses. Comme nous l'avons vu, le DLA a bien un impact gestionnaire, mais il ne faut pas en surestimer la « puissance » : il n'explique pas à lui seul la professionnalisation observée. Au final, le DLA ne fait qu'aider les associations à s'adapter à leur environnement économique et institutionnel. Il ne fait qu'accélérer leur adaptation.Pour comprendre ce qui pousse les associations à se transformer, nous avons cherché la réponse du côté des pouvoirs publics. En les étudiant, nous avons pu voir qu'ils sont morcelés et qu'ils ont des logiques différentes et parfois contradictoires. L'incertitude marque aussi leur budget, et par ricochet celui des associations. Paradoxalement, les pouvoirs publics demandent aux associations d'être professionnelles, de faire des projections de leurs budgets sur 3 ans, mais chaque année c'est l'incertitude sur leurs propres budgets. Et cela contraint les associations dans l'instabilité et l'incertitude : c'est l'un des puissants moteurs de la professionnalisation. Et ce d'autant plus que, comme l'a montré Viviane Tchernonog (2013), les pouvoirs publics changent leurs modes de contractualisation, passent d'une logique de subvention à une logique de marché public, de mise en concurrence.Nous défendons dans notre thèse que les pouvoirs publics sont producteurs de la « marchandisation » des associations ; les associations, pour mener à bien leurs missions et celles qui leur ont été confiées, n'ont d'autres choix que d'adopter des pratiques gestionnaires, de développer leurs ressources privées et commerciales. C'est le sens du « et inversement » du titre de la thèse : Le DLA professionnalise les associations employeuses pour les adapter en douceur à un environnement marchandisé. Mais l'inverse est d'autant plus vrai. Ce sont les contraintes du marché qui amène les associations à jouer le jeu du DLA et à se professionnaliser. Le véritable moteur de la professionnalisation contemporaine est la « marchandisation » publique - la market bureaucracy (Cunningham et James, 2014 ; Considine & Lewis, 2003 ; Sako, 1992) - de l'environnement associatif.

Negli archivi europei un cercatore di immagini può davvero diventare il pescatore del mare di cui Hannah Arendt parla a proposito di Walter Benjamin collezionista, cioè di Benjamin storico. In breve, di Benjamin filosofo della storia. In particolare, si tratta di sapersi immergere, saper andare al fondo di un patrimonio fotografico enorme che mostra fin dal primo sguardo – e di sguardo si tratterà in modo esteso – una straordinaria accumulazione di immagini di guerra. La relazione tra fotografia e guerra, infatti, è stata sottolineata da molti pensatori e filosofi – e dallo stesso Benjamin –, ma anche da artisti e sperimentatori di tecniche fotografiche del XX secolo, e in particolare, da una gran parte di teorici di quella che dagli anni '70 è stata definita Visual Culture. Questi studi hanno riconosciuto nella produzione iconografica della Prima Guerra mondiale il momento-zero, l'inizio effettivo della fascinazione della fotografia per la guerra. O viceversa. In effetti, la produzione fotografica dei Servizi preposti dagli Eserciti e la produzione privata – intima – di soldati amatori si realizzano come fenomeno del tutto nuovo dell'esperienza di guerra e si caratterizzano per due aspetti che in questa ricerca si riconoscono fondamentali proprio sul piano del metodo di lavoro e di studio con cui si procede all'analisi: una inedita volontà documentaria dell'esperienza della trincea e una straordinaria necessità di produzione e riproduzione di immagini ad uso delle masse. Definire nel mare di fonti per la Prima Guerra mondiale un oggetto preciso ed efficace di studio è stato per questi due motivi particolarmente difficile ma è su quell'oggetto che si concentra lo scavo archeologico – o la pesca miracolosa – alla ricerca dei caratteri peculiari e in qualche modo "originari" del fenomeno novecentesco di fascinazione per la guerra da parte dello sguardo e dunque del dispositivo fotografico, nodi centrali della riflessione. Dunque, la necessità di lavorare su un corpus il più coerente e riconoscibile possibile, il problema dei diritti di consultazione e riproduzione dei materiali fotografici – problema dovuto a questioni di fragilità materiale della fonte e a questioni di risorse economiche degli istituti di conservazione – e la difficoltà di poterli analizzare, tutto questo obbliga il ricercatore, e allo stesso tempo lo invita, a operare una scelta, a restringere il campo il più possibile. Qui si è trattato di fare i conti con un oggetto che fosse da un lato riconoscibile – le generalizzazioni non sono quasi mai permesse o giustificabili – ma dall'altro anche estendibile – la pratica fotografica nel corso del primo conflitto mondiale viene continuamente descritta come comune a tutti gli schieramenti, su tutti i fronti, sottoposta a dinamiche censorie e politiche propagandistiche pressoché identiche per tutti i Paesi coinvolti nel conflitto. A questi due criteri di scelta, ha risposto con maggiore aderenza un gruppo di circa sessanta album fotografici prodotti dalla Sezione Fotografica dell'Esercito italiano e conservati presso l'Archivio Centrale del Risorgimento di Roma, già a partire dalla fine del conflitto per volontà dell'allora Ministro di Unità Nazionale Paolo Boselli. L'attenzione di allora per questo tipo di pratiche e produzione in tempo di guerra, e l'attenzione di oggi per la loro conservazione e fruizione in vista del centenario della Grande Guerra, hanno aggiunto a questa ricerca almeno due nuovi aspetti da tenere in conto, sia sul piano del metodo sia su quello delle considerazioni generali. Da una parte infatti, questo corpus è al centro di un progetto di digitalizzazione degli archivi iconografici e dei documenti della Grande Guerra condiviso e portato avanti da diversi istituti e enti di conservazione in Italia – si veda il sito www.14-18.it – sul modello di una più ampia progettazione telematica di stampo europeo – si veda il sito www.europeana.eu. Dall'altra, il fatto di essere alle porte del centenario del conflitto rimette straordinariamente in funzione retoriche e contenuti di un discorso nazionale identitario che si vuole fondare proprio sull'accessibilità diffusa a mezzo internet di fonti considerate popolari e fruibili acriticamente, come le immagini dal fronte. Si tratta quindi, sul piano metodologico di un tentativo di "salvare" il patrimonio di fotografie al centro dello studio da una morte "etica", dall'oblio dovuto a una fruizione troppo semplificata – l'interfaccia virtuale e l'infinita rete di link e connessioni possibili; emanciparlo da un uso semplicistico della fotografia come fonte per la storia – spesso decorazione della pagina o illustrazione di posizioni teoriche già stabilite; e in questo periodo, anche liberarlo dalle celebrazioni nazional-patriottiche, dalla riattivazione di ambigue e pericolose retoriche identitarie. Ma, allo stesso tempo, sul piano della Visual Culture di contribuire a rendere questi materiali un archivio aperto, un «archivio potenziale» e disponibile a una consultazione che vada al di là di una pretesa interpretazione ufficiale della Grande Guerra; indagare quindi i piani produttivi della ripetizione delle immagini, il montaggio stesso come dispositivo fotografico più o meno codificato nelle pagine dell'album, la possibilità stessa della loro riproduzione massificata per il tramite di altri strumenti di propaganda e d'informazione durante e dopo il conflitto. Nella prima parte della tesi quindi – la cui struttura generale si compone di quattro macro-sezioni di cui l'ultima è l'album-catalogo fotografico di materiali scelti – si è trattato di riflettere con attenzione sulla natura di questo archivio: una natura doppia, materiale e virtuale innanzitutto; ma anche rigida e ufficiale eppure aperta e passibile di manipolazioni, scomposizioni, connessioni virtuali. In questo senso, nel primo capitolo sono trattate anche le questioni relative alle caratteristiche proprie dell'album e delle singole immagini come oggetti-dispositivi fotografici a sé stanti; alle modalità e alle politiche coeve e recenti di accumulazione, conservazione e fruizione che li hanno prodotti e riprodotti. Tutto questo permette ci concepire il corpus degli album fotografici ufficiali come un archivio in se stesso – strutturalmente simile, come si è accennato prima, agli altri corpus dello stesso genere – nel quale cercare le caratteristiche di base di un materiale prodotto per documentare le attività dell'Esercito da una parte, e per essere diffuso attraverso la stampa di guerra e i giornali popolari, dall'altra. Questi aspetti che si iscrivono in un discorso sull'estetica della politica e della violenza di guerra – ovvero di una violenza legittimata dal monopolio del potere costituito e dalle pratiche stesse della sua circolazione propagandistica – nelle società europee coeve, sono elementi essenziali di una riflessione più ampia sulla visualità della guerra come esperienza percettiva e come espressione culturale – la Visual Culture in senso largo – dal suo debutto all'inizio del XIX secolo. Esiste infatti, una forte caratterizzazione della produzione fotografica nel milieu della guerra che sembra – ed è qui che si trova il nodo dell'analisi – influenzare la relazione tra fotografia e guerra e, di qui, tra esperienza della realtà novecentesca come di una «guerra totale» e la sua riproduzione tecnica che ne moltiplica le visioni fino a identificarla come fenomeno originario, matrice della storia contemporanea, esperienza collettiva e continuativa dell'individuo attore-spettatore del disastro. La seconda macro-sezione del lavoro si concentra quindi sul doppio binario di questo fenomeno spettatoriale nato nella trincea della Grande Guerra: doppio perché da un lato resta ancorato alla sua fonte – l'album fotografico e la fotografia come dispositivo – ma dall'altro, si eleva al livello teorico delle riflessioni e delle teorie sulla percezione, sui media nell'accezione benjaminiana di Apparatur, sull'antropologia della guerra seguendo una linea che parte proprio da Benjamin e da quanti – artisti e non – riflettono sul tema a partire già dagli anni '20 e '30. In modo particolare, il terzo capitolo della tesi cerca di fare il punto delle diverse prospettive e pratiche di manipolazione fotografica che prendono avvio proprio dall'esperienza e dal patrimonio iconografico della Grande Guerra per riflettere e riprodurre un sapere visuale sulla realtà, sul mondo e, in senso critico, sulle sue trasformazioni: naturalmente, il confronto sul dispositivo fotografico tra Benjamin e Kracauer e le opposte scuole di pensiero dell'avanguardia artistica tedesca, la più prolifica da queste punto di vista per quanto riguarda le pratiche e le tecniche di produzione, riproduzione e (foto)montaggio del materiale fotografico di guerra (Moholy-Nagy e Renger-Patzsch; Friedrich, Tucholsky e Heartfield). Questo capitolo si presenta infatti come un atlante dei maggiori fenomeni di produzione culturale in ambito visuale all'inizio del Novecento che sottolineano in modo esemplare – ed è questo ciò che s'intende di-mostrare – la stretta relazione tra cultura contemporanea e visualità e tra questa e l'esperienza della guerra moderna. Nelle trincee europee sembra prodursi infatti, una relazione ottica tra l'uomo e la realtà che dà luogo a una serie straordinaria di punti di vista sulla catastrofe, sulla rovina, sull'orizzonte (di senso), del tutto nuovi e sintomatici della condizione delle masse umane di fronte alla guerra totale di cui il primo conflitto mondiale rappresenta il vero esordio. Due elementi che si ritrovano nell'accostamento del lavoro sugli album fotografici della Grande Guerra e quello sull'atlante di immagini da Warburg a Jünger: da un lato, il profilo del ricercatore; dall'altro, la natura frammentata dell'oggetto che pure si tiene per l'intervento produttivo della disposizione delle immagini. Per quanto riguarda la figura del ricercatore, il pescatore di coralli nel mare della storia del XX secolo che all'inizio assomigliava a Benjamin, assume qui alcuni caratteri di un altro manipolatore di immagini interessato ai resti e ai fenomeni conflittuali della cultura e dell'antropologia visuale: Aby Warburg de «La guerra del 1914-1915. Rivista illustrata» e in parte, del Bilderatlas Mnemosyne; l'Ernst Jünger del «sillabario del mondo mutato» dalla «mobilitazione totale». L'esperienza della trincea rappresenta per questi due pensatori, il momento nel quale la percezione sensibile "omogenea" e pacificata – messa intanto in crisi già alla fine dell'800 – e, di conseguenza, la riproduzione tecnica dei suoi fenomeni sensibili – in particolare sul piano della visione – esplodono con lo scoppio della Grande Guerra e si dispiegano nello spazio terribile ma evidentemente prolifico di un'«urna» di terra. Nella terza sezione del lavoro, ci si impegna direttamente nello scavo metodologico dentro l'esperienza materiale della trincea, seguendo l'esempio del filosofo francese Paul Virilio di fronte ai bunker eretti sulle coste francesi nel corso della seconda guerra mondiale e i suoi studi sulla normalizzazione culturale delle pratiche e delle strategie militari della visibilità come regime che dura fino a noi, passando per alcuni aspetti centrali dell'antropologia fenomenologica di Hans Blumenberg e dell'antropologia delle immagini di Hans Belting e Georges Didi-Huberman. Questa parte del lavoro si presenta come quella più impegnativa sul piano dell'analisi dei concetti teorici di riferimento e della loro rielaborazione nel caso di studio. Un'intuizione porta direttamente dentro questo materiale prolificante di immagini – apparentemente omogenee e generalmente incapaci di sorprenderci: è possibile vedere dentro questo volume enorme di fotografie uno dei regimi scopici di cui si parla a proposito dello statuto dell'uomo come spettatore? Si può parlare dell'esperienza visuale della Prima Guerra mondiale e della sua riproduzione tecnica massmediatica come del momento-zero di una trasformazione antropologica che sposta – o meglio spiazza – l'uomo dalla sua posizione d'osservatore a distanza e pacificato del disastro – del naufragio di Blumenberg che diventa conflitto – in una posizione più complessa e problematica, allo stesso tempo di spettatore/attore, soggetto dello sguardo e della camera dentro il terreno stesso del disastro? È nel quinto capitolo di questa sezione del lavoro che si osserva appunto questo spiazzamento, questa dislocazione del soggetto insieme a quella delle immagini e dei punti di osservazione che nelle fotografie si individuano e da cui permettono di essere analizzate. Le fotografie infatti mostrano i meccanismi del montaggio originale – spesso dovuti a scelte casuali e a pratiche di mera accumulazione e catalogazione – e esse stesse si offrono alla possibilità di «emanciparsi» dal racconto stabilito sulla pagina che diventa terreno di lavoro e di ricerca ogni volta nuovo: un campo di stratificazioni archeologiche della Visual Culture del '900. Trattare album fotografici "aperti" allora, pagine nere per lo più sulle quali si dispongono centinaia di immagini di guerra disponibili ad essere manipolate, offre lo spazio e la possibilità appunto di analizzare i dettagli, di soffermarsi sugli intervalli dovuti alla sovrapposizione di riquadri e cornici – della trincea, della camera fotografica, dell'immagine, dell'ordine del montaggio –, di seguire così percorsi rizomatici e missing links – dovuti anche alla fruizione digitale in rete – che indicano le ripetizioni, le moltiplicazioni e le manipolazioni alle quali sono state sottoposte fin dall'inizio. Infine, dunque, la quarta sezione, costituita dall'album-catalogo fotografico prodotto nel corso dell'analisi dei materiali. Come momento nel quale l'album-archivio e l'archivio di album si aprono diventando materiale potenziale di ulteriori ridisposizioni, il lavoro sulle immagini trova alcuni richiami metodologici fondamentali – per quanto nella sostanza differenti e iscritti dentro pratiche e dispositivi con una propria natura e identità visuale – con l'atlante e il lavoro del montatore di immagini sulla placca nera del suo progetto. Nella visibilità frammentata, mutilata, eterogenea e ossimorica della guerra di trincea, si possono ritrovare dunque in nuce aspetti straordinariamente convincenti della natura visuale della Grande Guerra e quindi, della cesura causata da questa esperienza lunga, terrificante e collettiva, nella collocazione dello spettatore contemporaneo rispetto allo svolgersi del disastro, anche e soprattutto per il tramite del dispositivo fotografico prima, e della sua riproduzione tecnica poi. L'immagine della guerra, il paesaggio dell'assenza e del disastro, il vuoto delle rovine, le ferite delle trincee e dei corpi, lo sguardo mutilato e quasi vietato dello spettatore, la perdita di orizzonte e, allo stesso tempo, la conquista continua di nuovi spazi e punti di vista per una visione spesso caratterizzata dall'apparizione dell'invisibile, si emancipano dal limite dell'album per proporre nel sesto e ultimo capitolo una mise en abîme della geografia del taglio, della cesura, della ferita che vede la sovrapposizione dell'esperienza percettiva del disastro, della sua riproduzione e, infine, della sua accumulazione come patrimonio di una memoria visuale collettiva.

AMÉRICA LATINA Rousseff se enfrentará a Neves en la segunda vuelta de las elecciones presidenciales brasileñas. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2014/10/05/world/americas/ap-lt-brazil-elections.html?ref=worldhttp://www.economist.com/news/americas/21622767-president-dilma-rousseff-enters-election-day-handsome-lead-battle-second-place-toohttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732590-elecciones-en-brasil-dilma-rousseff-se-impuso-con-el-y-habra-segunda-vuelta-con-aecio-neveshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/elecciones-en-brasil-crisis-economica-y-agenda-social-los-desafios/14631535http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412500754_547837.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/06/world/americas/brazil-presidential-elections.html?ref=world&gwh=1222CDEA253F51A1B69194F2B9F59CB4&gwt=payhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29501500www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2014/10/141005_eleicoes_aovivo_bg.shtmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/brasil-se-inclina-por-dilma-segun-sondeos-88582.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/dilma-aecio-vao-disputar-2-turno-das-eleicoes-14152314#ixzz3FKDWXpkjhttp://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-brazilians-vote-president-20141005-story.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/10/05/les-bresiliens-ont-commence-a-voter_4500768_3222.html Muere el exdictador haitiano Jean-Claude Duvalier. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/haitis-former-president-jean-claude-baby-doc-duvalier-dies-63-n218431http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29492262http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732980-baby-doc-duvalier-el-heredero-de-una-sangrienta-dinastia-que-goberno-haiti-con-crueldad-y-despilfarrohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/muere-el-exdictador-haitiano-jean-claude-duvalier/14639836http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/04/actualidad/1412443789_056814.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/americas/jean-claude-duvalier-haitis-baby-doc-dies-at-63.html?ref=world&gwh=7743E8E852154BEED78995A043E10E46&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_nowhttp://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-jeanclaude-duvalier-20141005-story.html Cuba da grandes pasos para la futura eliminación de la doble moneda. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731981-cuba-da-grandes-pasos-para-la-futura-eliminacion-de-la-doble-moneda Violencia sacude el sur de México. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/americas/bodies-are-found-close-to-where-missing-students-clashed-with-police-in-mexico.html?ref=world&gwh=443131631DEE72A137747B8DBB507AF9&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_nowhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/04/actualidad/1412379709_680591.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29470025http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/mexico-massacre-victims-feared-be-missing-students-n218961http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2014/10/141005_mexico_estudiantes_desaparecidos_fosas_que_se_sabe_jcps.shtmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-hidden-graves-mexico-missing-students-20141005-story.html Venezuela enfrenta la escasez de medicamentos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-crisis-por-escasez-de-medicamentos/14636722 "Venezuela protege a los peores violadores de derechos humanos", afirmó el director para América de Human Rights Watch. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732383-jose-m-vivanco-venezuela-protege-a-los-peores-violadores-de-derechos-humanoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/entrevista-a-jose-miguel-vivanco/14636075 "The Economist" y "BBC" analizan la coyuntura económica argentina. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21621867-resignation-central-banks-governor-adds-gloom-thumbs-downhttp://www.bbc.com/news/business-29454152 Conmoción en Venezuela por el sangriento asesinato de un diputado chavista. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732747-el-chavismo-acuso-a-la-derecha-del-asesinato-del-diputado-serrahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/gobierno-venezolano-acusa-al-paramilitarismo-por-muerte-de-diputado/14630599http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29486243 Más de 21 millones de peruanos votan en elecciones regionales y municipales. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2014/10/141005_ultnot_peru_elecciones_regionales_msd.shtml Cae uno de los narcos más buscados en México. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731983-mexico-cae-uno-de-los-narcos-mas-buscados Guatemala espera avances en el juicio por crímenes de guerra. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-guatemala-justice-20141004-story.html Juan Manuel Santos dijo que la paz en Colombia "está más cerca que nunca". Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730249-juan-manuel-santos-dijo-que-la-paz-en-colombia-esta-mas-cerca-que-nunca ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁ El dilema de Obama: cómo destruir al Estado Islámico sin fortalecer a Al-Assad. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730812-el-dilema-de-obama-como-destruir-a-ei-sin-fortalecer-a-al-assad Canadá se sumó a la batalla contra el Estado Islámico. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/canada-joins-battle-against-isis-n217771http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29483160 Cuestionan el sistema de salud de Estados Unidos por la detección tardía del ébola. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/02/content_18691716.htmhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732937-ebola-funcionarios-de-salud-en-estados-unidos-no-registraron-nuevas-infecciones-pese-al-alto-numero-de-posibles-casoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/casos-de-ebola-en-estados-unidos/14632739http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29493759 Avances en negociaciones de liberalización comercial entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/business-29482892 Estados Unidos envía 600 militares a luchar contra el ébola en África. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/pentagon-sending-600-more-military-personnel-fight-ebola-africa-n217671 Renuncia la jefa del Servicio Secreto estadounidense por caso de intruso armado en la Casa Blanca. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731925-eeuu-renuncia-la-jefa-del-servicio-secreto-por-un-intruso-armado-en-la-casa-blanca Estados Unidos levanta parcialmente embargo de venta de armas a Vietnam. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/eeuu-levanta-parcialmente-embargo-de-venta-de-armas-a-vietnam/14628855EUROPAEuropa vive la amenaza del Estado Islámico. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-islamic-state-henning-20141003-001-photo.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/ei-decapita-a-britanico-amenaza-a-otro-rehen-88579.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/decapitacion-estado-islamico-cameron-usara-todos-los-recursos/14638455http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730582-el-parlamento-britanico-aprueba-ataques-aereos-contra-el-estado-islamico-en-irakhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/actualidad/1412368036_415379.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/10/05/la-france-va-accentuer-le-rythme-de-ses-patrouilles-contre-l-etat-islamique_4500839_3210.htmlConsulta independentista catalana se hará el 9 de noviembre. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/10/05/referendum-sur-l-independance-les-catalans-veulent-rester-dans-la-legalite_4500783_3214.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29490846http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730958-mas-desafia-a-rajoy-y-convoca-al-referendum-para-el-9-de-noviembrehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731441-la-justicia-fuerza-a-cataluna-a-resignarse-o-rebelarsehttp://elpais.com/elpais/2014/10/03/inenglish/1412327174_332125.htmlhttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/05/content_18698691.htm Un suicida mata a cinco policías en un atentado en la capital chechena. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412521983_410916.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/mueren-4-policias-rusos-en-atentado-en-chechenia-1043597.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29498909 Turquía atacará a los yihadistas en Siria e Irak. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/04/opinion/turkey-must-save-the-kurds.html?ref=worldhttp://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-turkey-syria-military-20141002-story.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29490256http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/turquia-atacara-a-los-yihadistas-en-siria-e-irak/14628436http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21621872-emergence-another-kurdish-entity-its-borders-unsettles-government-how-dealhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/europe/turkish-leader-demands-biden-apology.html?ref=world&gwh=FAB30154F3D1CE0213EA73D034562AE4&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now "The Economist" analiza posible reforma económica en Europa. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21621785-leaders-france-and-italy-have-window-pursue-genuine-reforms-it-only-narrow Ucrania rompe la tregua y bombardea la ciudad de Donetsk. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/europe/in-ukraine-civilians-in-crossfire.html?ref=worldhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732175-ucrania-rompe-la-tregua-y-bombardea-la-ciudad-de-donetskhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29481979http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/ukraine-military-says-separatists-violated-month-old-ceasefire-n218681Masiva protesta contra la política familiar francesa. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412525139_820929.html El ministro griego rechaza la necesidad de un nuevo pacto sobre la deuda de Grecia. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/actualidad/1412350301_977804.html Crecimiento económico abre puertas a Polonia. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/europe/poland-economy-european-union-russia-trade-sanctions.html?ref=world El ex primer ministro búlgaro, Boyko Borisov, tiene previsto regresar al poder. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/10/04/l-ex-premier-ministre-bulgare-boiko-borissov-s-apprete-a-revenir-au-pouvoir_4500537_3210.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29494877 Los tories proponen que el tribunal de Estrasburgo no rija sobre Londres. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/actualidad/1412345818_921344.html ASIA-PACÍFICO / MEDIO ORIENTE El Estado Islámico avanza. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21621863-are-american-led-air-strikes-creating-sunni-backlash-unintended-consequenceshttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/04/content_18697146.htmhttp://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/10/05/syrie-attentat-suicide-d-une-kurde-contre-l-etat-islamique_4500833_3218.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/nuevo-asesinato-por-parte-del-estado-islamico-decapito-a-britanico/14635195http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29498972http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/ejecutan-yihadistas-a-seis-soldados-iraquies-en-publico-1043589.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/airstrikes-hit-more-isis-targets-syria-iraq-n218671http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/estado-islamico-avanca-na-siria-sob-bombardeios-da-coalizao-internacional-14148811#ixzz3FKKYJVKVhttp://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iraq-mosul-front-20141005-story.html Protestas estudiantiles en Hong Kong. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2014/10/05/manifestants-et-policiers-s-affrontent-a-nouveau-a-hongkong_4500718_3216.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2014/10/hong-kong-slideshowhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732978-de-la-mano-de-los-estudiantes-hong-kong-quiere-subirse-al-tren-de-la-democraciahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/el-dialogo-en-hong-kong-se-complica-por-ataques-a-estudiantes-/14632475http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412530002_202681.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2014/10/05/manifestants-et-policiers-s-affrontent-a-nouveau-a-hongkong_4500718_3216.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29494885http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/manifestantes-retiraran-barricadas-en-hong-kong--1043561.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-hong-kong-leaders-20141006-story.html#page=1http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/hong-kong-protests/hong-kong-protesters-hold-huge-defiant-rally-n218551 Erupción del volcán Ontake en Japón. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29472384http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731915-los-dramaticos-esfuerzos-de-los-rescatistas-japoneses-que-luchan-contra-el-volcanhttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/01/content_18691389.htmhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29497179http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/typhoon-phanfone-churns-toward-tokyo-heavy-rain-n218616 Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur acuerdan un encuentro de alto nivel. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/asia/south-and-north-korea-agree-to-resume-high-level-talks.html?ref=world&gwh=7844F01D55ED73C9C4338C424BFBA191&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_nowhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29489134http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/corea-del-norte-y-corea-del-sur-acuerdan-un-encuentro-de- alto-nivel-/14638375http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/04/actualidad/1412431980_377337.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29460743http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-north-south-korean-leaders-meet-20141004-story.html El presidente de Irán defendió al grupo Hezbollah implicado en el ataque a la AMIA. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730674-el-presidente-de-iran-defendio-al-grupo-hezbollah-implicado-en-el-ataque-a-la-amia Irán no suplantará a Rusia como su principal proveedor de gas. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/04/content_18697127.htm Crece la tensión en el Golán. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-one-injured-israel-lebanon-border-20141005-story.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/in-golan-imagined-risks-become-all-too-real.html?ref=world China y su política para combatir polución. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/chi-la-fg-china-la-smog-policy-20140909-story.html#page=1 "The Economist" analiza cambio de escenario político en Indonesia. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21621874-old-guard-out-obstruct-next-presidents-ambitious-plans-reforms-empire-strikesÁFRICAÉbola: murieron más de 3000 personas en África occidental. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/africa/ebolas-cultural-casualty-hugs-in-hands-on-liberia.html?ref=worldhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/nadie-en-liberia-conoce-a-un-infectado-de-ebola-que-no-haya-muerto/14629675http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730905-ebola-murieron-mas-de-3000-personas-en-africa-occidentalhttp://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/outbreak-ebola-marburg-fever-kills-man-uganda-n218836http://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-ebola-us-liberia-20141004-story.html#page=1http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29489394 Nuevas inversiones para el Canal de Suez. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/wave-patriotism-egypt-raises-9-billion-suez-canal-n214681 El líder de Boko Haram desmiente su muerte a través de un video. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732111-el-lider-de-boko-haram-desmiente-su-muerte-a-traves-de-un-videohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/videos/1412334089_482247.html Somalia: ejército toma el último gran puerto en poder de Al-Shabaab. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2014/10/05/somalie-l-armee-prend-le-dernier-grand-port-tenu-les-chabab_4500740_3212.htmlOTRAS"The Economsit" publica su informe: "Business this week".Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21620281-business-weekA partir de ahora la ONU monitoreará para que no exista violencia contra gays y trans.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730632-a-partir-de-ahora-la-onu-monitoreara-para-que-no-exista-violencia-contra-gays-y-trans

[spa] Esta investigación trata sobre la evolución de la pobreza y la desigualdad social en el marco territorial del Estado de Ceará (Brasil). Se inscribe en el contexto de una de las temáticas más estudiadas y debatidas en Ceará, el Brasil y en todo el mundo, tanto desde el punto de vista académico como en lo que se refiere a la implementación de políticas públicas de superación de la pobreza y la desigualdad. La investigación profundiza diversos aspectos ya tratados en el proyecto de investigación sobre Desequilibrios Regionales realizado en el marco del DEA, y responde también a mi formación académica como economista y mi actuación profesional en el ámbito de la consultoría y la elaboración de planes directores sociales y territoriales. El objeto de estudio de la tesis tiene un carácter multidisciplinar que abarca la geografía, la economía, la historia y la sociología. La hipótesis principal parte de la base de que durante el período 1990 - 2010, el Estado de Ceará ha reducido de manera significativa sus niveles de pobreza y desigualdad, pero que esta reducción ha sido muy desequilibrada y desigual desde el punto de vista territorial entre los diversos municipios del Estado. La investigación se desarrolla en dos partes: la primera sitúa el marco teórico mediante el análisis y la valoración de las ideas, conceptos y contribuciones realizadas por varios autores en relación con el problema del desarrollo, la pobreza y la desigualdad. Se valoran especialmente las aproximaciones geográficas (espaciales, territoriales y demográficas) y económicas (indicadores de pobreza y desigualdad). La segunda parte tiene un carácter aplicado, y consiste en analizar la evolución de los indicadores de pobreza y desigualdad desde una perspectiva temporal (periodo 1991-2010) y a escala de los 184 municipios de Ceará. El objetivo general es detectar los desequilibrios territoriales en la evolución de la pobreza y la desigualdad en Ceará durante el período de estudio. Entre los objetivos específicos cabe señalar los siguientes: la naturaleza de los conceptos de desarrollo, la economía del desarrollo, la formación histórica del territorio y los condicionantes macros de la evolución económica de Ceará, de Brasil y del mundo. El análisis de los niveles de desarrollo de los municipios cearenses evaluados por IDHM muestra una notoria y considerable reducción de la pobreza entre 1991 y 2010, pero este importante avance ocurre de forma desequilibrada y los municipios con índices de desempeño más bajos consiguen mejorar a un ritmo más acelerado que los que se sitúan en lo alto de la pirámide. En cuanto a desigualdad, la evolución del índice de GINI muestra que ha habido una mejora, aunque proporcionalmente menor que la reducción de la pobreza. Finalmente, se señalan las cuestiones que habría que profundizar en nuevos trabajos académicos. ; [eng] This research concerns the evolution of poverty and social inequality in the physical territory of the State of Ceará (Brazil). It is insered into the context of one of the most studied and debated topics in Ceará, Brazil and the world, both in academia and in relation to public policy to overcome poverty and inequality. The research delves into various aspects dealt with in the research project on Regional Disparities held in DEA's mark and is coherent with my academic background as an economist and my professional experience within the consultancy and master social and territorial plans. The object of study has a multidisciplinary project involving Geography, Economics, History and Sociology. The Main Hypothesis assumes that during the period 1990-2010, the State of Ceará has significantly reduced its levels of poverty and inequality, but this reduction was very unbalanced and uneven from the territorial point of view among the towns of State. The research is developed in two parts: the first one refers to the theoretical framework and includes the analysis and valuation of ideas, concepts and contributions of various authors on the problems of development, poverty and inequality. It is valued especially the geographical approximations (spatial, territorial and demographic) and economic indicators (poverty and inequality). The second part has an applied nature, and consists in analyzing the evolution of indicators of poverty and inequality from a temporal perspective (1991-2010) and the scale of the 184 towns. The main goal is to detect the territorial unbalances during the evolution of the poverty and inequality in Ceará during the period of study. Among the specific goals, the following are highlighted: the natur of the development concepts, development's economy, historic forming of the territory and the conditional marks of th economic development of Ceará, Brazil and the world. The analysis of the levels of development of towns in Ceará evaluated by IDHM shows a remarkable and considerable reduction in poverty between 1991 and 2010, but this important breakthrough occurs unevenly where towns with lower levels of performance can improve in a faster pace than those at the top of the pyramid. Regarding inequality, the evolution of the GINI index shows that there was an improvement, but in a smaller proportion than in poverty reduction. Finally, it presents some issues to be probed in new academic papers. ; [cat] La present recerca tracta sobre l'evolució de la pobresa i la desigualtat social en el marc territorial de l'Estat de Ceará (Brasil). S'inscriu dins el context d'una de les temàtiques més estudiades i debatudes a Cearà i al Brasil i tot el món, tant des del punt de vista acadèmic com pel que fa al desplegament de polítiques públiques de superació de la pobresa i la desigualtat. La recerca aprofundeix diversos aspectes ja tractats en el projecte d'investigació sobre Desequilibris Regionals realitzat en el marc del DEA, i respon també a la meva formació acadèmica com a economista i a l'actuació professional desenvolupada en l'àmbit de la consultoria i l'elaboració de plans directors socials i territorials. En l'àmbit acadèmic, l'objecte d'estudi de la tesi té un caràcter multidisciplinari que comprèn la geografia, l'economia, la història i la sociologia. La hipòtesi principal parteix de la base que durant el període 1990 - 2010, l'Estat de Ceará ha reduït de manera significativa els seus nivells de pobresa i desigualtat, però que aquesta reducció ha estat molt desequilibrada i desigual des del punt de vista territorial entre els diversos municipis de l'Estat. La recerca es desenvolupa en dues parts: la primera situa el marc teòric mitjançant l'anàlisi i la valoració de les idees, conceptes i contribucions realitzades per diversos autors en relació amb el problemes del desenvolupament, la pobresa i la desigualtat. Es valoren especialment les aproximacions geogràfiques (espacials, territorials i demogràfiques) i econòmiques (indicadors de pobresa i desigualtat). La segona part té un caràcter aplicat, i consisteix en analitzar l'evolució dels indicadors de pobresa i desigualtat des d'una perspectiva temporal (període 1991-2010) i a escala dels 184 municipis de Cearà. L'objectiu general és detectar els desequilibris territorials en l'evolució de la pobresa i la desigualtat a Ceará durant el període d'estudi. Entre els objectius específics cal assenyalar els següents: la naturalesa dels conceptes de desenvolupament, l'economia del desenvolupament, la formació històrica del territori i els condicionants macros de l'evolució econòmica de Ceará, del Brasil i del món. L'anàlisi dels nivells de desenvolupament dels municipis cearencs avaluats pel IDHM mostra una notòria i considerable reducció de la pobresa entre 1991 i 2010, però aquest important avanç ocorre de forma desequilibrada i els municipis amb índexs d'acompliment més baixos aconsegueixen millorar a un ritme més accelerat que els que se situen al capdamunt de la piràmide. Pel que fa a desigualtat, l'evolució de l'índex de GINI mostra que hi ha hagut una millora, encara que proporcionalment menor que la reducció de la pobresa. Finalment, s'assenyalen les qüestions que caldria aprofundir en nous treballs acadèmics. ; [por] Esta investigação trata da evolução da pobreza e da desigualdade social no marco territorial do Estado do Ceará (Brasil). Está inserida no contexto de uma das temáticas mais estudadas e debatidas no Ceará, no Brasil e no Mundo, no que se refere às políticas públicas para superação da pobreza e da desigualdade. A pesquisa aprofunda diversos aspectos tratados no projeto de investigação sobre Desequilíbrios Regionais, realizado no marco do DEA, e está coerente com a minha formação acadêmica como economista e com a minha atuação profissional no âmbito da consultoria e da elaboração de planos diretores sociais e territoriais. O objeto de estudo possui um caráter multidisciplinar, envolvendo a Geografia, a Economia, a História e a Sociologia. A Hipótese Principal parte da premissa que, durante o período de 1990 a 2010, o Estado do Ceará reduziu de forma significativa os seus níveis de pobreza e desigualdade, porém essa redução ocorreu de forma desequilibrada e desigual, do ponto de vista territorial, entre os municípios do Estado. A investigação se desenvolve em duas partes: a primeira se refere ao marco teórico e compreende a análise e valoração das idéias, conceitos e contribuições de diversos autores em relação aos problemas de desenvolvimento, pobreza e desigualdade, valorizando-se especialmente as aproximações geográficas (espaciais, territoriais e demográficas) e econômicas (indicadores de pobreza e desigualdade). A segunda parte possui um caráter aplicado e consiste em analisar a evolução dos indicadores de pobreza e de desigualdade sob uma perspectiva temporal (1991-2010) e a uma escala dos 184 municípios do Ceará. O objetivo geral é detectar os desequilíbrios territoriais na evolução da pobreza e da desigualdade no Ceará durante o período de estudo. Entre os objetivos específicos, devem-se destacar os seguintes: a natureza dos conceitos de desenvolvimento, a economia do desenvolvimento, a formação histórica do território e os condicionantes macros da evolução econômica do Ceará, do Brasil e do Mundo. A análise dos níveis de desenvolvimento dos municípios cearenses avaliados pelo IDHM mostra uma notável e considerável redução na pobreza entre 1991 e 2010, porém esse importante avanço ocorre de forma desequilibrada, uma vez que os municípios com índices de desempenho mais baixos conseguem melhorar em um ritmo mais acelerado que aqueles que estão no topo da pirâmide. No que se refere à desigualdade, a evolução do Índice de GINI mostra que houve uma melhora, porém em menor proporção que na redução da pobreza. Finalmente, apresentam-se algumas questões que devem ser aprofundadas em novos trabalhos acadêmicos. ; [fra] Cette recherche porte sur l'évolution de la pauvreté et de l'inégalité sociale dans la limite territoriale de l'Etat du Ceará (Brésil). Elle se déroule dans le contexte de l'un des sujets les plus étudiés et débattus dans le Ceará, dans le Brésil et dans le Monde, en ce qui concerne les politiques publiques pour vaincre la pauvreté et l'inégalité. La recherche approfondit plusieurs aspects traités dans le projet d'investigation sur les Déséquilibres Régionaux. Elle est réalisée dans le cadre du DEA, est cohérente avec ma formation académique en tant qu'économiste et ma fonction professionnelle comme conseiller et dans le domaine de l'élaboration de plans directeurs sociaux et territoriaux. L'objet de l'étude a un caractère multidisciplinaire, impliquant la Géographie, l'Economie, l'Histoire et la Sociologie. L'Hypothèse Principale suppose qu'entre 1990 et 2010, l'Etat du Ceará présente la réduction significative des niveaux de pauvreté et de l'inégalité sociale, mais cette réduction s'est produite de façon déséquilibrée et inégale du point de vue territorial, parmi les municipalités de l'Etat. L'investigation se divise en deux parties : dans la première l'étude du repère théorique et comprend l'analyse et la valorisation des idées, les concepts et les contributions de divers auteurs sur des thèmes liés avec le développement, la pauvreté et l'inégalité, valorisant notamment les approches géographiques (spatiales, territoriales et démographiques) et économiques (indicateurs de pauvreté et d'inégalité). La deuxième partie a un caractère appliqué, qui consiste à analyser l'évolution des indicateurs de pauvreté et d'inégalité dans une perspective temporelle (1991-2010) et dans l'échelle municipale de 184 municipalités du Ceará. L'objectif général est de détecter les déséquilibres territoriaux dans l'évolution de la pauvreté et de l'inégalité dans le Ceará durant la période en question. Parmi les objectifs spécifiques, on doit mettre en relief notamment la nature des concepts de développement, l'économie du développement, la formation historique du territoire et les déterminantes macros de l'évolution économique du Ceará, du Brésil et du Monde. L'analyse des niveaux de développement des municipalités cearenses, évalués par l' IDHM montre une grande et considérable réduction dans la pauvreté entre 1991 et 2010, cependant cet important progrès est en déséquilibre, puisque les municipalités qui ont une performance plus basse s'améliore dans un rythme plus accéléré que celles qui sont au sommet de la pyramide. En ce qui se concerne l' inégalité, l'évolution de l'indice de GINI montre qu'il y a eu une amélioration, mais dans une proportion inférieure à la réduction de la pauvreté. Pour finir je présenterai quelques questions qui devraient être approfondies dans de nouveaux travaux académiques. ; [ale] Diese Untersuchung beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung von Armut und sozialer Ungleichheit auf dem Gebiet der Staates Ceará (Brasilien). Sie versteht sich im Kontext einer der meist untersuchten und diskutierten Themen im Ceará, in Brasilien und in der Welt, nämlich auf die Betrachtung öffentlicher Maßnahmen zur Überwindung von Armut und Ungleichheit. Die Untersuchung vertieft verschiedene Aspekte des Forschungsprojektes "Regionale Ungleichgewichte" im Rahmen von DEA und entspricht der Ausrichtung meiner akademischen Ausbildung als Ökonom sowie meiner aktuellen beruflichen Tätigkeit im Bereich der Beratung und Entwicklung von sozialen und territorialen Steuerungsplänen. Der Gegenstand der Untersuchung hat multidisziplinären Charakter und involviert u.a. die Bereiche Geographie, Ökonomie, Geschichte und Soziologie. Die Hauptthese geht aus von der Prämisse, dass der Staat Ceará zwischen 1990 und 2010 das Ausmaß von Armut und Ungleichgewicht signifikant verringert hat. Dies geschah jedoch in ungleichem und unausgewogenen Maße, was die Ergebnisse in den verschiedenen Städten und Gemeinden des Staates betrifft. Die Untersuchung wurde in zwei Teilen entwickelt: der erste Teil bezieht sich auf den theoretischen Rahmen und beinhaltet Analyse und Bewertung von Ideen, Konzepten und Beiträgen verschiedener Autoren mit Bezug zu den Problemen der Entwicklung, Armut und Ungleichheit. Hierbei stehen besonders die geographischen (räumlich, territorial und demographisch) und die ökonomischen Betrachtungen (Indikatoren für Armut und Ungleichheit) im Vordergrund Der zweite Teil hat eher Anwendungscharakter und besteht in der Analyse der Entwicklung von Indikatoren für Armut und Ungleichheit unter zeitlichen Aspekten (1991-2010) und bezogen auf den Vergleich der 184 Gemeinden des Staates Ceará. Das Hauptziel ist es, territoriale Ungleichheiten in der Entwicklung von Armut und Ungleichheit während des Untersuchungszeitraumes im Ceará zu identifizieren. Unter den spezifischen Zielen sind hervorzuheben: das Wesen der Entwicklungskonzepte, die Ökonomie der Entwicklung, die historische Herausbildung des Territoriums und der Makrobedingungen für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung des Ceará, Brasiliens und der Welt. Die Analyse der Entwicklungsstadien der Gemeinden im Ceará, so wie vom IDHM evaluiert, zeigt eine deutliche und beachtliche Verringerung der Armut zwischen 1991 und 2010. Diese verlief jedoch in unausgewogener Form, was sich daran zeigt, dass Gemeinden mit weniger diesbezüglichem Engagement sich schneller verbessern konnten als diejenigen an höherer Position der Pyramide. Bezogen auf die Ungleichheit zeigt der GINI Entwicklungsindex ebenfalls eine Verbesserung, dies jedoch proportional geringer als die Verringerung der Armut. Schließlich werden noch einige Fragen aufgezeigt, die in weiteren akademischen Arbeiten vertieft werden müssen.

Il tema dell'internazionalizzazione occupa nel contesto socio-culturale attuale una posizione di trasversalità privilegiata. Si tratta di un concetto che si pone in diretta ed immediata relazione sia con l'orizzonte amplissimo della globalizzazione, poiché ha le stesse coordinate storico-geografiche, sia con il fenomeno dei flussi migratori. L'esperienza della migrazione, con la sua ricaduta sociale oggi particolarmente problematica, fa parte da sempre, in realtà, della vicenda umana. A più riprese, dall'epoca del patriarcato, le contraddizioni della dialettica tra nomadi e stanziali si sono manifestate in una relazione complicata ulteriorimente dalla coincidenza storico-geografica che ha visto ritrovarsi negli stessi luoghi e negli stessi anni gruppi stanziali e gruppi nomadi. E' chiaro che solo dalla coincidenza di questi due fattori può configurarsi quel fenomeno sociologico che ha visto mutare nel tempo le relazioni tra indigeni e migranti e porre le basi concettuali del paradigma interculturale tanto più fiorente quanto più critica nel tempo si è rivelata le convivenza di gruppi diversi. Non è sempre stato difficile come oggi per i popoli abitare lo stesso luogo e lo stesso tempo. La memoria di un medioevo lungamente oscurato da una storiografia ostile sta lentamente riassumendo caratteri di luminosità nel proporsi come l'epoca della felice isola di un sincretismo dimenticato fatto di dialoghi tra le sponde del Mediterraneo, tra i confini più lontani e le arti più disparate. Se oggi appare superficialmente rivoluzionario parlare di globalizzazione e di internazionalismo, è proprio a causa dell'amnesia che ha occultato alla comune percezione storica il peso che l'idea di nazione ha esercitato sulla storia moderna. Dall'insorgenza delle monarchie nazionali al fenomeno imperialista per arrivare ai totalitarismi che hanno condotto al disastro della seconda guerra mondiale, lo stato nazionale, nato sul presupposto dell'omogeneità culturale di lingua, razza, religione come da relative tracce nel pensiero fichtiano, non ha cessato di difendere la sovranità del limite elevando la sacralità del confine, al punto di farne una vera e propria religione. In questo arco temporale, si può solo sostenere di aver rimosso la memoria di un internazionalismo che appartiene alla storia dei popoli e quindi presentarne il concetto con la sua istanza non ingenuamente innovatrice o innovativa, ma solo con la sua connotazione restauratrice, per così dire, di una dimensione già vissuta in molti momenti della storia dell'umanità. Il suo carattere apparentemente innovativo, senz'altro legato alla rivoluzione tecnologica, quella sì, originale, non riflette oggi che la necessità di tornare a dialogare pacificamente per culture che altri paradigmi hanno separato, messo le une contro le altre, posto in discussione concettualizzando ad hoc un'ideologia culturale ancora dura da mettere definitivamente da parte, nonostante il dibattito relativista. La risposta è nella formulazione di un nuovo concetto di cittadinanza, compito che lasciamo ai giuristi, ma che qui rimane al centro della riflessione in virtù del legame che lega in ogni paese la scuola, la carta costituzionale e la costituzione europea ad oggi parzialmente concretizzata nel Trattato di Lisbona. Al confine tra cittadinanza nazionale e cittadinanza sovranazionale siede la complessità del problema in questione: internazionalizzare la scuola per tutti senza tradire i patrimoni nazionali e senza rinunciare alla costruzione di un'identità e di un orizzonte di senso comuni. 2. L'Unione Europea, il corpo diplomatico e l'internazionalismo La storia dell'Unione Europea e dello sviluppo delle sue istituzioni è la traccia più evidente oggi di questa necessità: un bisogno che si è manifestato nella sua massima forza proprio nell'immediato postbellico degli anni successivi al 1945, un progetto di pace statuito nella Dichiarazione Schumann e simbolicamente fondato sulla condivisione delle risorse minerarie che sono state la causa dei ripetuti conflitti franco-tedeschi al quale madri e padri dell'Europa hanno partecipato con il loro contributo economico, diplomatico e intellettuale ponendosi al servizio dei governi in grado di determinare un nuovo orientamento unitario nella politica mondiale capace di salvaguardare a lungo gli equilibri totalmente sconvolti dalle due guerre del XX secolo. In tal senso, emerge chiaramente il ruolo delle diplomazie internazionali e la necessità di un lavoro alacre in questa direzione. Il corpo diplomatico vanta un prestigio e un ruolo che affonda le sue origini in età rinascimentale, quando tra una corte e l'altra della penisola frammentata si rendevano necessari interventi di mediazione politica e di dialogo. I negoziati, spesso condotti da grandi personalità del mondo della cultura, dovevano rivelarsi capaci di tutelare gli interessi dei governanti e di garantire la prosperità delle loro signorie. Si trattava di missioni che all'epoca solo chi fosse già in possesso di lauti mezzi di sussistenza poteva permettersi, dal momento che avevano un costo elevato, non finanziato dalle corti, dovuto alla condizione del viaggio. E si trattava di compiti che da soli bastavano ad aumentare il prestigio personale di coloro che accettavano di mettersi a disposizione dei signori per tali incarichi. Tra questi personaggi, in Italia, si contano numerose figure legate agli ambienti letterari. La diplomazia ha un posto importante in ogni discorso che riguardi l'internazionalità e l'internazionalizzazione e anche in questa sede costituisce la cerniera tra la prima e la seconda parte del saggio che si intende qui presentare sinteticamente. Negli anni Cinquanta, con lo sviluppo delle prime istituzioni europee, sono nate, infatti, esigenze legate alle professioni diplomatiche che si svolgono per loro stessa natura all'interno di quelle che definiamo per comodità coordinate migratorie, caratteristiche stabili dell'orizzonte esistenziale di chi le svolge: periodica mobilità, segmentazione dei percorsi di vita, sradicamento, prestigio economico e sociale. I diplomatici sono parte di una carovana migrante elitaria e, nel loro flusso, portano con sé esperienze e relazioni particolari, legate al mix culturale che oggi sembra l'eccezione, ma che in altri tempi era la regola. Famiglie dove normalmente si parlano due o tre lingue, figli bilingui o trilingui con percorsi educativi segmentati e spesso insoddisfacenti dal punto di vista affettivo, nuclei ricchi di altro, ma privi di una stabilità di cui bambini e adolescenti hanno bisogno per strutturare e sviluppare su basi solide la propria identità di persone e di parlanti. Per loro il rapporto tra l'identità e il linguaggio assume dimensioni non trascurabili, soprattutto perché si trovano ad affrontare situazioni di mobilità ripetuta e non priva di disagi. Una volta costruite le basi per la costruzione di una storia familiare propria, spostarsi non è stato facile nemmeno per i diplomatici di più antica tradizione familiare. 3. Le Scuole Europee di Bruxelles E' così che, nel cuore dell'Europa, si è pensato di dare loro un incentivo alla mobilità che non fosse solo di carattere economico salariale, ma che tendesse proprio alla risoluzione pratica di un problema: quale educazione per la prole europeista? Quale sistema di riferimento per allievi privi di riferimenti stabili, certi, continui e durevoli? Ecco, dunque, nel 1953, nascere la prima Scuola Europea nello Stato di Lussemburgo, il primo di una serie di istituti che apriranno nel tempo per intercettare e rispondere a questo bisogno e che costituiranno una vera e propria minirete dell''istruzione internazionale. Diverse dalle Scuole Internazionali e dalle scuole di paesi presenti sul suolo di altri stati, le Scuole Europee, ad oggi 15 tra quelle di tipo I e quelle di tipo II e III, si ispirano a un modello europeista più tendente a valorizzare le differenze nell'omogeneità dell'offerta formativa rispetto al modello americano più teso all'omologazione filo-occidentalista. Tutti gli altri tipi di scuole sono legate agli istituti di cultura nazionali di origine e fanno capo, di concerto, ai rispettivi ministeri dell'educazione e degli esteri. Di fatto, costituiscono il riferimento educativo delle famiglie che, dal loro paese, sono migrate in un altro, ma che desiderano mantenere nelle generazioni un legame con la tradizione culturale da cui provengono. Questa rete di scuole classificata sotto la denominazione di Scuole Europee di Bruxelles nasce, in primo luogo, per tutelare la differenza linguistica, dunque per garantire un insegnamento nella lingua madre degli allievi iscritti, armonizzando i programmi scolastici in modo che gli stessi contenuti siano affrontati parallelamente in tutte le sezioni linguistiche differenti. E' dall'analisi della struttura pedagogica e amministrativa, passando per programmi didattici, curricoli e materiali in adozione, ma anche per regolamenti inerenti la politica delle iscrizioni e il reclutamento del personale docente e educativo, che si evincono punti di forza e di debolezza rispetto agli obiettivi dichiarati nella Convenzione recante statuto delle Scuole Europee che ne sta a fondamento 4. Teoria, strumenti e metodi Per quanto riguarda la teoria, gli strumenti e i metodi adottati in questa ricerca, i punti di riferimento dell'analisi dei sistemi educativi nazionali dei paesi-membri dell'Unione Europea sono gli stessi ai quali sono stati ancorati gli strumenti pensati per osservare le Scuole Europee di Bruxelles: parametri di carattere pedagogico e normativo utilizzati nelle statistiche degli osservatori educativi internazionali, infatti, vengono analizzati e posti in relazione alle teorie di pensatori come il francese Durkheim de L'éducation morale, Education et Sociologie, L'évolution pédagogique en France, De la division du travail social, come l'americano Dewey di Le fonti di una scienza dell'educazione, The school&Society, Democracy and Education, come il belga Decroly di Le programme d'une école dans la vie o come Kymlicka de La cittadinanza multiculturale: autori ed opere selezionati secondo un criterio tematico piuttosto che monografico. D'altro canto ne vengono analizzate le specifiche e gli obiettivi raggiunti anche attraverso l'analisi secondaria dei dati ufficiali del Segretariato Generale delle Scuole Europee, del Sistema Statistico Europeo, Eurostat, Istat, dei rapporti Ocse e del Consiglio d'Europa, dei dati Eurydice nonché degli osservatori nazionali sull'internazionalizzazione della scuola e sull'intercultura. L'attenzione ai dati si integra e completa con la raccolta di interviste biografiche nel convincimento che il metodo quali-quantitativo sia il più adeguato alla costruzione di un quadro il più esaustivo possibile, ma anche per sopperire alle limitazioni di cui ha sofferto la rilevazione delle informazioni nel corso della ricerca sul campo. 5. Analisi dei sistemi educativi nazionali dell'Unione Europea L'intento comparativo della ricerca, tenendo fisso lo scopo della maturazione della cittadinanza europea, si fonda su un secondo cardine, quello dell'analisi dei sistemi educativi nazionali dei paesimembri dell'Ue nei loro aspetti amministrativi e didattici e si concentra in particolare sui contenuti, sulla misura e sugli strumenti delle discipline umanistiche previste nei curricoli con attenzione alle lingue straniere. In questo quadro, emerge un margine di flessibilità curricolare che costituisce, come nel caso delle Scuole Europee, un'apertura positiva verso il migliore raggiungimento del risultato, anche se, ad oggi, l'attenzione a spostare l'asse educativo verso l'acquisizione di competenze di cittadinanza sovranazionale è ancora carente. Si tende più facilmente, infatti, a risolvere il problema mediante l'aggiunta di materie di contenuto civico ad ambiti disciplinari che le comprendano anche dal punto di vista di una valutazione globale di area e comunque ancorate ai paradigmi ordinamentali nazionali. Si tratta di una soluzione di compromesso nata dalle tensioni conseguenti all'adozione del metodo intergovernativo che genera frizioni, competizioni e attitudini di chiusura tra stati costantemente sulla difensiva e poco disposti a porre in discussione il proprio canone culturale di riferimento. Poiché l'aspetto più interessante ai fini di questa ricerca è l'accessibilità a un sistema educativo europeizzante e inclusivo, perché tutti gli allievi possano tramite i suoi curricoli diventare futuri cittadini europei, pare opportuno considerare con maggiore attenzione la fascia della scuola dell'obbligo, le diverse tipologie di indirizzi nella scuola secondaria compresi nell'obbligatorietà e le fonti di finanziamento pubblico anche nel caso degli stati in cui la scuola di riferimento è quella privata. 6. Politica e educazione nell'Unione Europea Nel corso dello studio di questa tematica, la forbice filosofica tra le società della conoscenza così come viene delineata nel Trattato di Lisbona e la società della cittadinanza europea rappresenta lo stesso gap che esiste oggi tra l'Europa finanziaria e l'Europa sociale. E' per questo che viene offerta altresì una panoramica della storia politica europea, dei cambiamenti che nel quadro educativo hanno prodotto gli avvicendamenti delle maggioranze e dei punti di vista che si sono confrontati nei dibattiti interni alla Commissione, al Parlamento Europeo e all'organizzazione internazionale cui inizialmente era stato affidato lo sviluppo di un dibattito che favorisse l'integrazione delle culture dei paesi d'Europa e non solo, il Consiglio d'Europa. Lo sviluppo delle azioni e dei programmi successivi debitamente sostenuti è stato anche il risultato di un'elaborazione condivisa che ha condotto al consolidamento del ricorso alla mobilità, dello scambio e delle buone pratiche non solo al livello di utenza, ma al livello di comunità scolastica, dove cioè anche la formazione dei docenti e dei dirigenti ha il suo ruolo. E' un cammino di datazione trentennale dal quale la riflessione sullo sviluppo della scuola europea per tutti non può prescindere nonostante l'esigenza di fondarsi su basi più stabili e radicate sia ormai alle porte non solo per restare in vetta alla classifica del mercato mondiale, ma soprattutto perché le opportunità offerte dal mercato comune, dall'internazionalizzazione dei percorsi personali e professionali sia ampliata trasversalmente a tutte le classi sociali e non limitata alle esclusive capacità economiche di una borghesia medio-alta. L'anno europeo delle lingue, come ogni altra iniziativa legata alla diffusione delle L2 e L3, ha rappresentato un'occasione storica in tal senso e costituisce la premessa di un potenziamento del monte ore delle lingue nei curricoli nazionali anche in corso di riforma nonché di una definitiva, articolata e diffusa applicazione del clil-teaching, ossia dell'insegnamento di discipline non linguistiche in una L2 veicolare, nelle scuole di ogni ordine e grado con particolare attenzione al segmento dell'obbligo. 7. Una scuola europea inclusiva per i cittadini europei di domani In questo senso la strada da percorrere è lunga e necessita di svariati interventi di diversa natura. Una proposta curricolare di facile adozione e adattabilità ai patrimoni culturali nazionali dell'Europa a 27 viene avanzata e sottoposta all'attenzione degli ipotetici decisori politici nonostante resti aperto un problema di metodi mutuati dalla storia della diplomazia del continente e di competenze determinate da scelte politiche. In questo quadro, un progresso significativo si è concretizzato con la nascita e con l'ampliamento degli uffici della Direzione Generale Istruzione e Cultura della Commissione Europea che rappresenta in qualche modo le istanze discusse e dibattute in altri luoghi di elaborazione privi di forza istituzionale. Il cammino verso un sistema educativo internazionale è aperto e l'obiettivo della cittadinanza europea come risultato dell'unità nella diversità sempre più vicino.

Though New Zealand author Janet Frame (1924-2004) lived at a time of growing dissatisfaction with purely Western (i.e. European) cultural models, her work has so far never been examined from the vantage point of its indebtedness to Eastern epistemologies, and to Buddhism in particular. Even though it is possible to establish links between an author and a given system of thought (Heidegger's for instance) without necessarily buttressing the comparison from a factual perspective, in this case, the author's (auto-)biography, her fiction and letters, as well as the circles of Buddhists or Buddhist-sympathizers in which she evolved at a given time, all testify to the fact that a direct encounter between Janet Frame and Buddhism did occur. It can thus be affirmed that, just like W.B. Yeats, C.G. Jung, Heidegger and many others before her, one of the most striking personalities of the 20th century was drawn eastward. The relevance of this study to Janet Frame scholarship resides not only in its politicized angle of approach but also, more importantly, in the fresh light it sheds on entire segments of the Framean corpus which have tended to remain obdurately mysterious; this includes passages centering on e.g. the existence of a non-dual world, a reality un-harnessed by the partial categories of empirical thinking, on a character's sudden embrace of a non-ego-like self, or on the jolting back of distracted individuals into an awareness of their physical reality in 'this' profane world. On the whole, and despite this apparent profusion of themes, my concern is to show that these obscure passages, as well as many other key moments in the narratives, all coalesce into a systematic deconstruction of empirical thinking and its point of anchorage in a discriminating kind of consciousness, both notions forming excellent points of entry into virtually all the texts produced by Frame. Through a careful mapping of the impact of discriminating habits of thought on the self's place of being in the world and perception thereof, this work clarifies, or rather reconstructs, the narratological architecture of the studied texts – especially the novels – quite apart from the somewhat restrictive view, held in some circles of literary criticism, that they are mazes of random turnabouts and dead-ends where narrotological playfulness is valorized for its own sake. To provide just one example of how a study of Janet Frame via Buddhist thought facilitates the navigation of the author's intricate novels, the idea in Buddhism that the artist is the bow that shoots the arrows, but then s/he is the target also, is a useful starting point for analyzing the seminal "Jan Godrey" (one of Frame's best known short stories) in which a terrified author-figure finally allows her creature of words, described as an alien inside, to take full control of the speaking position. A contrario, Thora Pattern's willingness in The Edge of the Alphabet to trap her creation within neat academic cages of words (as she calls them) spawns images of a hellish self-scape of containment which translate in an endless regression of framed frames since her attitude is paralleled by some of her own creatures of words and by the Christian God Himself – each at his or her level of being and of influence. But that is not all for, in a last turn of the screw, and pace the critics who diminish their roles in the narrative, Thora's characters rebel against their creator, and they succeed in jamming her creative incarcerating mechanisms so that, by the end of the novel, the author-figure is no longer able to exist without the not-self. This dialectics of un/framing, in which a discriminating consciousness battles against the invading otherness of the non-dual, unharnessed world in all its manifestations, is one which typically informs the Framean corpus although, of course, the architecture of enactments it gives birth to is as varied as it is unpredictable. The idea, which Frame shares with Buddhism or with Nietzsche (who, incidentally, owes an intellectual debt to Buddhism), that most of the human existence is characterized by the "will to power," i.e. by the drive to take full possession of one's chosen place of being, is rather unflattering for her fellow human beings. In another sense, the author's conception of our (in-)humanity as being made up of an accretion of egotistic habits that can be unlearned certainly explains why, in her oeuvre, a liberation from totalizing structures demands an encounter with the negative of place, of identity, of vision, of sound, of fullness, of shape, of well-worn mind-routes and, as we saw in the last chapter, with the negation of negation. Often, it takes no less than a rebellion of the supposedly harnessed reality to disorient a protagonist's dualistic bearings or to jam an artist's incarcerating mechanisms; and this, in part, accounts for the extreme physicality encoded in a fiction replete with moments of thumping or bashing – indeed with the promise of a cut finger. Still pondering the centrality of 'unframed' or 'ego-less' modes of being, each of the nine chapters that constitute this work aims at countering the oft-recurring claim that Frame's oeuvre is studded with traces of a 'beyond' which no character can ever approach because 'one cannot explore beyond'. By this definition, each of the questing selves that clutters the author's haunting universe is condemned to failure beforehand, as it were, while concomitantly the Framean text itself is deemed to be bleak, defeatist, even nihilistic. Therefore, it is of the utmost significance that a Buddhist navigation of Frame's texts should lead one to the conclusion that this unharnessed world which human beings are often unable to apprehend and embrace has always been right under their nose so that, between 'this' world of limited perceptions and 'that' world of the beyond, the boundary is as thick or as thin as the walls of a self-made conceptual prison. Indeed, whenever the aspect of the intellect that filters perceptions into mutually excluding categories fails to function, or is willingly jettisoned by a protagonist, s/he finds a place of subjective arrival in, and sees, this supposedly unknowable 'beyond'. Thus, possibly against the grain of mainstream criticism, this study argues that Janet Frame constantly seeks ways through which the infinite and the Other can be approached, though not corrupted, by the perceiving self, and that she found in the Buddhist epistemology a pathway towards grasping such alterity. ; Bien que l'écrivain Néo-Zélandais Janet Frame (1924-2004) ait vécu à une époque d'insatisfaction grandissante à l'encontre des modèles culturels purement occidentaux (c.-à-d. européens), son œuvre n'a jusqu'à ce jour jamais été examinée du point de vue de sa proximité aux épistémologies orientales, et au bouddhisme en particulier. Alors qu'il est possible d'argumenter une comparaison entre un auteur et un système de pensée (celle d'Heidegger par exemple) sans que les liens ne soient avérés d'un point de vue factuel, dans le cas qui nous intéresse, l'(auto)biographie de l'auteur, sa fiction et ses lettres, ainsi que les cercles de bouddhistes ou de sympathisants bouddhistes dans lesquels elle évolua à une certaine époque, attestent du fait qu'un contact direct entre Janet Frame et le bouddhisme eut lieu. Il est par conséquent certain que, tout comme W.B. Yeats, C.G. Jung, Heidegger, et d'autres encore, l'une des personnalités les plus marquantes du 20ième siècle a été attirée par l'Orient. La pertinence de ce travail pour les études framéennes réside donc dans son angle d'approche politisé mais plus encore dans l'éclairage novateur qu'il porte sur ces segments entiers de l'œuvre de Janet Frame qui tendent à demeurer résolument mystérieux, entre autres des passages se focalisant sur l'existence d'un monde « non-dual », « non-harnaché » par les catégories partiales de la pensée empirique, ou encore sur l'adoption soudaine par un protagoniste d'un « soi » au-delà de l'égo, sur la re-sensibilisation fracassante des consciences distraites à leur réalité physique dans ce monde profane. De manière générale, et ce malgré l'apparente profusion de thématiques, mon souci est de montrer que ces passages obscurs, de même que nombre d'autres moments clés des narrations, tous convergent en une déconstruction systématique de la pensée empirique et de son siège en la conscience discriminante, les deux notions formant d'excellents points d'entrée vers virtuellement tous les textes produits par Frame. Au travers d'une cartographie consciencieuse de l'impact des habitudes de pensée discriminatoire sur la place de l'être dans le monde et sur sa perception de celui-ci, ce travail clarifie, ou plutôt reconstruit, l'architecture narrative des textes étudiés, particulièrement les romans, à l'écart de l'avis soutenu dans certains cercles littéraires qu'ils sont dédales aléatoires d'impasses et de tournants où le jeu narratologique est valorisé en soi. Pour donner un exemple de la manière dont une étude de Janet Frame par la pensée bouddhiste facilite la navigation des romans complexes de l'auteur, l'idée dans le bouddhisme que l'artiste est un arc pour les flèches de la création et en est la cible également est un point de départ utile pour l'analyse de la séminale « Jan Godfrey » (une des nouvelles les plus connues de Frame) dans laquelle un personnage-auteur apeuré autorise finalement sa créature de mots à prendre le contrôle absolu de la position de parole. A contrario, la propension de Thora Pattern dans The Edge of the Alphabet à capturer sa création dans des cages de mots académiques bien nettes (comme elle les appelle) évoque, image sur image, un infernal paysage intérieur de confinement qui se traduit en une régression infinie de cadres encadrés, puisque l'attitude de Thora suit une trajectoire semblable à celle de certaines de ses créatures de mots et du Dieu chrétien lui-même, chacun dans sa propre sphère d'être et d'influence. Ceci n'est pas tout car, au dernier moment, et ce malgré la tendance des critiques à diminuer leurs rôle dans la narration, les personnages de Thora se rebellent contre leur créateur, et ils réussissent à enrayer ses mécanismes d'incarcération créative si bien que, à la fin du roman, elle cesse de pouvoir exister à distance du « non-soi ». La dialectique de dés-incarcération, en vertu de laquelle une conscience discriminante lutte contre les multiples manifestations de cet envahissant autre qu'est le monde non-dual, imprègne typiquement le corpus framéen quoique, bien entendu, l'architecture ainsi engendrée est aussi variée qu'imprévisible. L'idée de Frame, qu'elle partage avec le bouddhisme et avec Nietzsche (qui, soit dit en passant, a une dette intellectuelle envers le bouddhisme), selon laquelle l'existence humaine se caractérise par un désir de pouvoir, par une volonté d'assumer l'entière possession d'une place d'être soigneusement choisie, est peu flatteuse. D'un autre côté, la conception qu'a l'auteur que notre (in-)humanité est faite d'une accrétion d'habitudes égotiques qui peuvent être désapprises explique certainement pourquoi, dans son œuvre, une libération des structures totalisantes demande une rencontre avec le négatif du lieu d'être, de l'identité, de la vision, du son, de la plénitude, de la forme, de toutes les routes usées de la pensée et, enfin, de la négation de la négation. Souvent, donc, il ne faut pas moins qu'une rébellion de la réalité supposée enchaînée (par l'esprit empirique) pour confondre l'orientation dualiste d'un protagoniste ou pour enrayer les mécanismes d'incarcération d'un artiste, et ceci explique en partie la physicalité extrême qui est encodée dans une fiction repue de raclées et autres corrections, et même d'une promesse d'un doigt coupé. Toujours en considérant la centralité des modes d'êtres « déharnachés » au-delà de l'ego, chacun des neuf chapitres qui constituent ce travail tentera de contrer l'assertion bien répandue dans la critique que l'œuvre de Frame est saturée de signes d'un monde supérieur qu'aucun protagoniste ne peut jamais approcher car « on ne peut explorer au-delà ». Selon cette définition, les êtres en quête d'un meilleur et qui peuplent l'univers étrange de l'auteur sont condamnés, pour ainsi dire, par avance à l'échec pendant que, de manière concomitante, le texte framéen est lui targué de sombre, de défaitiste et même de nihiliste. Par conséquent, il est plus que significatif qu'une navigation bouddhiste des textes de Frame conduise à la conclusion que ce monde non harnaché par la pensée cartésienne que l'homme peut si difficilement appréhender est, en fait, juste sous son nez, si bien qu'entre ce monde-ci des perceptions limitées et le monde au-delà, la frontière est aussi fine, ou épaisse, que les murs d'une prison conceptuelle. En effet, dès que l'aspect de l'intellect qui filtre les perceptions en autant de catégories exclusives oublie de fonctionner, ou est sciemment rejeté par un protagoniste, il ou elle trouve enfin un authentique lieu d'être et il ou elle voit ce soi-disant inconnaissable au-delà. Donc, possiblement à contre courant de la critique dominante, cette étude argumente que Janet Frame cherche inlassablement comment l'infini et l'autre peuvent être appréhendés, mais non corrompus, et qu'elle a trouvé, au travers de l'épistémologie bouddhiste, un chemin vers cette altérité.

AMÉRICA LATINAEl PRI vuelve a la presidencia de México con Enrique Peña Nieto.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-presidential-election-20120702,0,5393371.story http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/americas/pena-nieto-savors-long-plotted-victory-in-mexico.html?ref=world&gwh=AA58886768A66355260F30D047AF6A99 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/nao-ha-chance-de-anulacao-das-eleicoes-presidencias-no-mexico-5384952#ixzz1zcGCiu17 http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2012/07/mexicos-election http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/_portada/noticias/5E9D56DD-0D51-45E7-AADE-0A8ABEEB3208.htm?id={5E9D56DD-0D51-45E7-AADE-0A8ABEEB3208} http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/02/12528602-partys-notorious-past-weak-mandate-challenge-mexicos-president-elect?lite http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/07/03/au-mexique-la-gauche-demande-un-recompte-des-votes_1728685_3222.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/02/actualidad/1341250723_436046.htmlLópez Obrador pone en jaque la elección presidencial mexicana.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18698641 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341340019_401060.html http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/lopez-obrador-pede-recontagem-total-de-votos-no-mexico-5381581#ixzz1zcFMj32sEl PAN de Calderón cae al tercer puesto tras 12 años de desgaste.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-election-pan-20120703,0,1621169.story http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/02/actualidad/1341195522_704496.html Mercosur suspende a Paraguay y da la bienvenida a Venezuela. Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18636201 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/_portada/noticias/A0555D75-B676-4DB6-B0E2-034FA03ECDF0.htm?id={A0555D75-B676-4DB6-B0E2-034FA03ECDF0} http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/brasil-quer-compensar-uruguai-com-mais-comercio-investimentos-5384635#ixzz1zcFRX2p7 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cumbre-presidencial-del-mercosur-en-argentina_11983133-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1486828-la-mision-de-la-oea-llego-a-paraguay-y-se-reune-con-franco#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/paraguay-se-salva-de-sanciones-econmicas_11985161-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/29/world/americas/venezuela-globovision/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8Mueren 3 por cólera en Cuba; hay mil enfermos.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48055091/ns/health-cold_and_flu/#.T_OaZVLMqw4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857050.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18696660 http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/07/02/2879071/anti-malaria-products-from-cuba.html"El País" de Madrid publica: "La coca de la discordia en Bolivia".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/02/actualidad/1341228824_712639.html Quito y Bogotá se unen contra el narcotráfico.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/3E3FD035-A69A-408C-BBA3-EE5B7E58D570.htm?id={3E3FD035-A69A-408C-BBA3-EE5B7E58D570}Máximo tribunal venezolano suspendió embargo de US$ 5,6: a Globovisión.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/tribunal-venezolano-suspendio-embargo-a-globovision_11996526-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18636210Comienza el duelo Chávez-Capriles por la presidencia de Venezuela.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1486823-con-actos-masivos-capriles-y-chavez-lanzaron-sus-campanas#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/inicio-formal-de-campaa-en-venezuela_11990765-4Detenida médica de presidencia venezolana por 'filtrar' secretos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/detenida-mdica-de-presidencia-venezolana-acusada-de-revelar-secretos_11993441-4Ex jefe de seguridad de Uribe se entrega a la DEA.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18696654 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857074.htmlRio de Janeiro es inscrita por la Unesco como Patrimonio del mundo.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/rio-de-janeiro-es-inscrita-por-la-unesco-como-patrimonio-del-mundo_11988502-4Dos muertos tras choques de manifestantes con la policía en Perú.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18700522Estudiantes guatemaltecos protestan por reformas educativas.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18684358Argentina entrega documentos a primeros transexuales legales.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/argentina-entrega-documentos-primeiros-transexuais-legais-5374544Colombia: evacuan a miles de personas por la erupción de un volcán.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1486718-colombia-evacuan-a-miles-de-personas-por-la-erupcion-de-un-volcan#comentarESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁDiversos medios hacen referencia a noticias relacionadas a las elecciones presidenciales en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/03/content_15545324.htm http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/ http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2012/07/obamacare-and-supreme-court http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/85726088-F1B4-48D4-B942-9103C9522F09.htm?id={85726088-F1B4-48D4-B942-9103C9522F09}Holder acusa a republicanos de usar 'Rápido.' contra Obama.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857036.htmlEstados Unidos lanza una advertencia a Irán al acumular fuerzas en el Golfo Pérsico.Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/07/03/2879423/us-signals-iran-sends-new-forces.htmlhttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/04/content_15547292.htmhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48054863/ns/world_news-the_new_york_times/#.T_Oav1LMqw4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341305605_192447.htmlv http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/middleeast/us-adds-forces-in-persian-gulf-a-signal-to-iran.html?ref=worldTormenta deja unos 10 muertos y millones de hogares sin luz en Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/violenta-tormenta-elctrica-azot-zona-metropolitana-de-washington-dc_11985661-4http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/30/estados_unidos/1341079018_347081.htmlEstados Unidos continúa dividido por la reforma en la salud.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/blogs/lafora/#453517.aspObama planea disminuir arsenal nuclear de los Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/obama-planeja-diminuir-arsenal-nuclear-dos-eua-diz-agencia-5380539#ixzz1zcGHTsNH EUROPADiversos medios hacen referencia a la crisis económica europea.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2012/06/euro-crisis-0 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/europe/european-central-bank-head-draghi-has-new-powers.html?ref=world&gwh=E9C7679B98EBDFF8D48BA058886FAA7F http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/excomisaria-de-ue-dice-que-cuando-creamos-el-euro-no-fuimos-tan-lejos-como-debamos_11990767-4Europa rompe nuevo récord de desempleo en mayo.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/europa-rompe-nuevo-rcord-de-desempleo-en-mayo_11993107-4En plena crisis, una buena para España: bajó un 2% el desempleo.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1487316-en-plena-crisis-una-buena-para-espana-bajo-un-2-el-desempleo#comentarEl Gobierno francés anuncia que va a hacer ajustes pero "sin austeridad".Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/europe/france-faces-stiff-budget-cuts-to-meet-european-deficit-target.html?ref=world&gwh=E9C7679B98EBDFF8D48BA058886FAA7F http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341330662_544416.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18693089Francia permitirá a las parejas homosexuales casarse y adoptar hijos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1487355-francia-permitira-a-las-parejas-homosexuales-casarse-y-adoptar-hijos#comentarAllanan domicilio y oficina de Sarkozy por caso Bettencourt.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/04/content_15546682.htm http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/policiais-revistam-casa-escritorio-de-sarkozy-em-paris-5378688#ixzz1zcIoh71v http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857090.html http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/07/03/british-security-officials-on-alert-for-olympic-terror-threats/?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/allanan-domicilio-y-oficina-de-sarkozy-por-caso-bettencourt_11994142-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/03/world/europe/france-sarkozy-home-raid/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/world/europe/sarkozy-home-searched-in-financing-inquiry.html?ref=world&gwh=1C7B3820665B0E249B46FAA4DB28A5A2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18693321Las claves del 'caso Bettencourt'.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341332097_177723.htmlEstremece a Italia el desempleo récord entre los jóvenes.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1487230-estremece-a-italia-el-desempleo-record-entre-los-jovenes#comentarGran Bretaña: crece el escándalo por la manipulación de las tasas de interés.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-0703-barclays-chairman-20120703,0,56277.storyhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1487629-gran-bretana-crece-el-escandalo-por-la-manipulacion-de-las-tasas-de-interesLos socios de Merkel amenazan con romper la coalición.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341329340_652452.htmlMasiva deserción de militares sirios hacia Turquía.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-turkey-violence-20120702,0,4042312.storyhttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/1591A7B8-981A-4DEA-B48F-B353B0DFDC70.htm?id={1591A7B8-981A-4DEA-B48F-B353B0DFDC70} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/02/actualidad/1341258291_336427.htmlCrece tensión en frontera de Siria con Turquía.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/01/world/meast/turkey-syria-tensions/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18685250Seguridad de Londres se prepara para los desafíos de las Olimpiadas.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/03/12542710-in-the-line-of-fire-uk-confirms-6-london-olympic-missile-defense-sites?liteLondres plantea cerrar sus fronteras a países de la Unión Europea en crisis.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/world/europe/ukraine-parliament-adopts-russian-language-bill.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341343253_304469.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857130.htmlKosovo da un paso más hacia su plena soberanía.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/kosovo-da-un-paso-ms-hacia-su-plena-soberana_11991241-4Nombrado por el Papa Benedicto XVI: Obispo alemán es el nuevo "guardián de la fe" católica.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1487317-gran-revuelo-en-el-vaticano-por-un-nombramiento-del-papa#comentarhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/europe/german-to-run-vaticans-doctrinal-office.html?ref=world&gwh=9CAC23E2297A8233EF96EBF54A40EB73Continúa el juicio a Karadzic.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/28/world/europe/netherlands-karadzic-genocide/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9La mayoría gobernante en Rumania lanzó la ofensiva contra el presidente.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/07/03/la-majorite-au-pouvoir-en-roumanie-lance-l-offensive-contre-le-president_1728683_3214.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEIrán impulsa proyecto para bloquear el Estrecho de Ormuz. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/04/content_15546716.htm http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/2A00B7EF-519C-4CE6-8636-927757B975B3.htm?id={2A00B7EF-519C-4CE6-8636-927757B975B3}Irán pone a prueba el alcance de sus misiles.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/01/world/meast/iran-missiles/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/07/03/l-iran-simule-l-attaque-d-une-base-etrangere_1728239_3218.html http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/03/12549143-iran-claims-it-successfully-test-fired-missile-that-could-reach-israel?liteContinúa la violencia indiscriminada en Siria.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/organizacao-denuncia-27-centros-de-tortura-na-siria-5376416#ixzz1zcJRAjqe http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/world/middleeast/human-rights-watch-report-accuses-syria-of-torture.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341297680_971863.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857066.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/04/content_15546718.htm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341293716_001401.htmlUna ONG denuncia la existencia de 27 centros de tortura en Siria.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/03/12536841-rights-group-syrias-20-ways-to-torture-prove-its-crimes-against-humanity?lite http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857203.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/03/world/meast/syria-torture-report/index.html?hpt=wo_c1Estados Unidos presenta proyecto de resolución sobre Siria ante la ONU. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/resolucin-sobre-siria-ante-la-onu_11995845-4Myanmar libera a prisioneros políticos.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/03/world/asia/myanmar-prisoner-release/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Al menos 40muertos deja un atentado con carro bomba en Irak.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/03/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/desbloquearn-suministros-de-otn-en-frontera-pakistn-afganistn_11995562-4http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48054903/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.T_OauVLMqw4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/857041.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341309844_129123.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/world/middleeast/scores-killed-in-iraq-by-truck-bombs-explosives-and-gunfire.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18685506Se estrechan los lazos comerciales entre China y Japón.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/04/content_15546583.htmCrisis política en Japón: 50 legisladores desertaron del gobernante Partido Democrático. Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/asia/japanese-prime-minister-faces-setback-on-tax-increase.html?ref=world&gwh=F5C249080DBF46F1DD0FA02627D196EF http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/D0582F22-5C03-4A2D-A6E9-DB529CA2857A.htm?id={D0582F22-5C03-4A2D-A6E9-DB529CA2857A} http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2012/07/03/le-japon-rejette-la-creation-d-un-sanctuaire-pour-les-baleines_1728451_3244.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/02/world/asia/japan-politics/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Las protestas detienen la construcción de una fábrica de aleación de cobre en China. Para más información: http://behindthewall.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/03/12540935-protesters-defy-stun-grenades-to-halt-construction-of-16-billion-factory-in-china?lite http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341329873_004877.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/world/asia/china-2-neighbors-cautioned-over-a-sea-dispute.html?ref=world&gwh=E9C7679B98EBDFF8D48BA058886FAA7F http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/world/asia/chinese-city-suspends-factory-construction-following-protests.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18684895Pakistán permite abastecer de nuevo a la OTAN en Afganistán.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/03/world/asia/us-pakistan-border-routes/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/world/asia/pakistan-opens-afghan-routes-to-nato-after-us-apology.html?_r=1&ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2012/07/03/le-pakistan-rouvre-la-route-de-ravitaillement-de-l-otan-vers-l-afghanistan_1728651_3216.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18691691Terremoto sacude a Nueva Zelanda.Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/04/content_15546820.htmÁFRICALos islamistas radicales destrozan parte de una mezquita del siglo XV en Malí.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18696159http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/01/world/africa/mali-shrine-attack/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/07/03/mali-pour-les-integristes-venerer-un-saint-c-est-porter-atteinte-a-l-unicite-de-dieu_1728525_3212.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/infographie/2012/07/02/nord-du-mali-affrontements-entre-rebelles_1728178_3212.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/02/actualidad/1341237050_582934.htmlAl menos 16 muertos en ataques contra iglesias cristianas en Somalia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/al-menos-16-muertos-en-ataques-contra-iglesias-cristianas-en-somalia_11988501-4"El Universal" presenta mapa interactivo de la "primavera árabe".Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/graficos/graficosanimados12/EU-primavera-arabe/ubicacion.htmlMohamed Morsi, de la cárcel a la presidencia de Egipto.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/mohamed-morsi-de-la-carcel-a-la-presidencia-de-egipto_11997223-4Ataques en Iglesias en Kenia dejan al menos 17 muertos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/02/content_15541827.htmLa Corte Penal Internacional cede ante los milicianos libios.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/03/actualidad/1341305811_415320.htmlOTRAS"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21557823

Pierwszy globalny konflikt międzynarodowy w XX wieku doprowadził do rozbioru Turcji. Nowy układ sił usankcjonowany został wprowadzeniem systemu mandatowego będącego w rzeczywistości jedynie zawoalowaną formą kolonialnego charakteru zaboru arabskiej części tego państwa. Porozumienia między Wielką Brytanią i Francją dotyczące podziału stref wpływów na tym obszarze powierzało pieczę nad Mezopotamią władzom w Londynie. Umowa otwierała drogę do powstania na tym terytorium odrębnego państwa. Powołana przez Wielką Brytanię do życia monarchia iracka o powierzchni o 1/3 większej od obszaru dzisiejszej Polski była całkowicie sztucznym tworem politycznym, niewydzielonym tradycją historyczną konglomeratem etniczno–wyznaniowym, stanowiącym poza okręgami północnymi wykrojony z świata arabskiego fragment mający jedynie czytelną, opartą w przybliżeniu na kryterium narodowościowym granicę na wschodzie. Protektorzy i polityczni budowniczowie tego quasi–państwa, desygnując na tron króla Fajsala, ustanawiając powolne rządy i sterując procesem legislacyjnym, zapewnili tu sobie niemal nieograniczone wpływy . Nadzorowali politykę zagraniczną i obronną Iraku, a przede wszystkim tutejsze złoża ropy naftowej. Zmagania zbrojne II wojny światowej wykazały, jak bardzo ważne dla odniesienia sukcesu militarnego było zapewnienie nieograniczonego dostępu do źródeł tego surowca. Międzynarodowa ranga Iraku wyraźnie wzrosła. Zawiadywanie znajdującymi się na jego terytorium zasobami naturalnymi nabrało teraz dodatkowo zupełnie nowego, nie w pełni docenianego dotąd pozaekonomicznego wymiaru. Stały się one bowiem elementem strategicznym. Równie istotne zaczęło być samo położenie geopolityczne tego kraju. Oba te faktory, łącząc się w jedną całość, czyniły Irak niezwykle ważnym państwem bliskowschodnim. Posiadanie dominujących w nim wpływów pozwalało kształtować nie tylko rozmiary produkcji ropy ale przez długie lata ze względu na istniejącą infrastrukturę także cały prowadzony za pośrednictwem rurociągów transfer naftowy do arabskich portów Zatoki Perskiej i Morza Śródziemnego. W konsekwencji Irak pozostawał w ścisłym spektrum zainteresowania światowych mocarstw, a za takie uchodzić będą tu: Wielka Brytania, Stany Zjednoczone, Związek Radziecki oraz przez wzgląd na silne wpływy w świecie arabskim także Francja. Rezultaty agresywnej polityki tych potęg wobec Iraku, całkowicie determinujące sytuację i stan stosunków międzynarodowych w skali makroregionalnej a pośrednio globalnej, z różnych względów nie zostały jednak dotąd opracowane. Podstawowym celem badawczym pracy było zatem ustalenie wpływu, jaki wywierała w analizowanym okresie polityka mocarstw na sytuację wewnętrzną i zewnętrzną Iraku, a także ukazanie konsekwencji zajmowanego wobec tego państwa stanowiska dla stanu istniejących stosunków w obszarze Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu oraz globalnych relacji międzynarodowych. ; The analysis of the material confirms a wide range of political actions lead by Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union towards Iraq. The main reasons for such a state of affairs were Iraq's geopolitical location, and rich and easy to develop Iraqi oil fields. It was also the infrastructure enabling transit of home stock to Mediterranean ports and, in prospect, sending oil of Saudi, Kuwaian and Irani origin forward. As a result, in the time of post-war monarchy (1945 – 1958) Iraq was completely deprived of any influence on forming its own internal situation and international position. In the first case, the existence of such a situation was clearly expressed by the court's dependence on Great Britain and personal relationships between the king's family and the members of the government, and local political establishment. A similar evidence of inability to make independent decisions was Iraqi political parties financed by British and American groups of interest. They also manipulated, through the Iraqi offices, the work of both local legislatures and, at the same time, they helped each succeeding Baghdad cabinet in every respect. An equally obvious proof of Iraqi government dependence was their consultations on home affairs with representatives of Downing Street and the White House, as well as British forces stationing in Iraq and American military presence. Much the same should be judged from the fact that the basic branches of economy were under control of companies representing former mandatories and the treaties signed at that time. The external supervision reached even the political underground, which was kept under surveilance and secretely supported by the Soviet Union. Iraq was made a centre of British influence in the region, and was given a crucial role in all preparations to accomplish projects serving to restore British influence in the Middle East, which also shows Iraq's independence in the sphere of political relations. Equally visible symptom of this phenomenon was dubious attitude of Iraqi government during Sues Crisis. It included providing with weapon and fuel for planes taking off British airports to shell Egypt, protection for oil instalation and oil pipelines, planning Syria neutralization in the case it took any offensive actions against Israel – clearly contrasting to attitude of other Arabian countries. We can give the same explanation to Iraqi membership in Baghdad Pact strictly connected with the rest of British plans to get back the domination in the Middle East. The strong influence of western powers, especially Great Britain, on Iraqi government contributed significantly to support of political tension in the Middle East. Returning attempts to accomplish the Fertile Crescent unification under rule of probritish Hashimids favouring monopolization of oil transit towards Mediterranean coast destabilized the situation in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan making even Kuwait an object of potential expansion. These attempts also met a firm counteraction of remaining powers and authorities in Kuwait and Riyadh, which were unfavorable to british-iraqi aspirations. A seroius consequence of subjecting Iraq to strong external pressure, apart from ruinous results for stabilisation, was its destructive influence on the process of political integration of the Arabian world. It efficiently hampered introduction of existing unification ideas, which lay in the interest of each power. It is also worth to pay attention to the consequences of Iraqi membership in Baghdad Pact. Through the influence of western powers it became one of the bases of antirussian military pact by breaking the existing east Arabian neutrality and making it a new front of the Cold War confrontation. The changes in external situation and international Iraq position brought about by the revolution of July 14, 1958, were not only the effect of the Soviet Union's actions. Each power applied a completely different policy towards Iraq. The division lines of existing rivalry for this country were drawn not only along the standing bipolar confrontation border between east and west but first of all within the sphere of this last pole. Great Britain and the United States cooperation was limited to a very small range of issues. Political activity of American administration during presidencies of H. Truman and D. D. Eisenhower in relation to Iraq was directed towards changing the face of things in that country and replacing British interests by American ones. It proved totally inefficient. By destroying the existing balance it contributed significantly to loss of American influence, and, unable fill the empty space, it only prepared the political ground for Soviet penetration in Iraq. The Cremlin supported Arabian aspirations favouring independence. As a result, the western powers were deprived of their previous possibilities to influence this country. The revolution raised Iraqi independence on a new quality status. During the first decade of the republican government (1958 – 1967) the world powers retained their significant influence on Iraq. They interfered into the country's affairs in two ways: through economic relations and through oppositional groups. Both forms of the pressure used turned out to be very effective and forced the local government to take into consideration interests of Great Britain and the Soviet Union when making any decisions important for the country. The strength of this reaction was reflected in both trade deals, and mass riots and demonstrations started by Kurds. As a result not only the country's international position but its internal affairs as well were defined by the policy of the world powers towards Iraq. Pains of Iraqi leaders aimed at weakening the relations which cramped the country's independence were stopped by their deaths. A.K. Kasim was murdered whereas S. A. Arif died in a mysterious plane crash, which shows the complexity of this problem. The main reason which let the world powers influence strongly the Republic of Iraq during the years of 1958 – 1967 were the huge debts of this country in the face of the eastern block, whereas its income – due to the way in which the concession treaties based on proportional share in oil sale were written – came from the western oil consortiums and depended on the level of production. It gave both sides unlimited possibilities of political manipulations. It was only the nationalization of the Iraq's biggest company– Iraq Petroleum Company - on July 1, 1972, and of some of the other oil giants – Mosul Petroleum Company, Standard Oil of New Jersey, Mobil Oil, Gulbekian and a significant part of Royal Dutch shares during the next year – together with steep crude oil price boost and introduction of embargo on its deliveries to western countries by Arabian countries that granted a unique opportunity for the then Iraqi regime to limit radically foreign influence for more than a quarter of a century. Резюме Анализ подтвердил широкий спектр политический действий, предпринимавшихся Великобританией, Соединенными Штатами и Советским Союзом в отношении Ирака. Главной причиной такой ситуации стало геополитическое положение Ирака, богатые, не представляющие трудностей при добыче нефтяные месторождения и инфраструктура, позволяющая транспортировать сырье к портам Средиземного моря, а в перспективе – пересылать нефть из Ирана, Кувейта и Саудовской Аравии. Итак, в период послевоенной монархии (1945–1958) Ирак был полностью лишен возможности оказывать влияние как на ситуацию внутри страны, так и на международное положение. В первом случае это выражалось в зависимости дворцовых кругов от Великобритании и личных связях королевской семьи и членов правительства Ирака c английским политическим истеблишментом. О невозможности самостоятельного принятия решений свидетельствует также финансирование английскими и американскими деловыми кругами иракских парламентских партий, манипуляция с их помощью деятельностью обеих законодательных палат и оказание всесторонней поддержки со стороны западных держав очередным иракским правительствам. Очевидным симптомом зависимости иракских властей были консультации с представителями Великобритании и США относительно внутриполитических проблем, размещение на своей территории английских вооруженных сил и присутствие постоянной американской военной миссии. Подобным же образом нужно, по всей видимости, расценивать и тот факт, что основная отрасль экономики оставалась под контролем компаний, представляющих интересы бывших мандатариев, а также относящееся к тому же времени заключение международных договоров. Внешний контроль простирался даже на политическое подполье, контролируемое и тайно финансируемое Советским Союзом. Значимым для подчиненного положения в сфере международных отношений было выделение Ираку роли центра английского воздействия в регионе и подготовки разнообразных проектов, имеющих целью восстановление влияния этой державы на Ближнем Востоке. Заметным симптомом названного явления стала неоднозначная позиция иракского правительства во время Суэцкого кризиса: снабжение оружием и топливом вылетающих с местных аэродромов для бомбардировки Египта британских самолетов, защита установок и нефтепроводов, планы нейтрализации Сирии в случае, если она вступит в войну против Израиля – все это ярко контрастировало с позицией остальных арабских государств. Подобным образом объясняется и проблема иракского участия в Багдадском Пакте, тесно связанная с британскими намерениями вернуть себе господство на Ближнем Востоке. Сильное влияние западных держав, особенно Великобритании, на иракское правительство способствовало поддержанию политической напряженности в ближневосточном регионе. Постоянные попытки осуществить объединение "Благодатного Полумесяца" под властью пробританской династии Хашимидов, содействовали монополизации транзита нефти к средиземноморскому побережью, дестабилизировали ситуацию в Сирии, Ливане и Иордании, превращая даже Кувейт в объект потенциальной экспансии. Одновременно попытки эти сталкивались с решительным противоборством остальных мировых держав, каирских и риядских властей, не приветствовавших британо-иракские планы. Серьезным последствием того, что Ирак подвергался сильному внешнему давлению, кроме пагубных для региональной стабилизации результатов, было сильное деструктивное влияние на процесс политической интеграции арабского мира. Оно успешно тормозило распространение объединительных концепций, что, как следует подчеркнуть, было выгодно каждой из держав. Необходимо обратить внимание и на последствия иракского участия в Багдадском Пакте: силами западных стран Ирак стал одной из опор антисоветского военного соглашения, нарушив существовавшую до сих пор нейтральность арабского востока и превратив его в новый фронт холодной войны. Перемены во внутренней ситуации и международном положении Ирака, пришедшие с революцией 14 июля 1958 года, не были результатом только лишь эффективных действий Советского Союза, что следует отметить со всей решительностью. Каждая держава осуществляла особую политику в отношении этого ближневосточного государства. Линии раздела влияния проходили не только вдоль существовавшей тогда биполярной конфронтации Восток – Запад, но, прежде всего, внутри самого последнего полюса. Великобритания и Соединенные Штаты сотрудничали только в очень ограниченной сфере вопросов. Дипломатическая деятельность американской администрации президентов Г. Трумэна и Д.Д. Эйзенхауэра по отношению к Ираку, ориентированная на осуществление "смены караула" в этой стране и замещение британских интересов своими собственными, оказалась совершенно безрезультатной. Нарушая установившееся равновесие, она в значительной степени способствовала потере британцами влияния, но, не сумев заполнить образовавшуюся пустоту, лишь приготовила политическую почву для советского проникновения в Ирак. Кремль в нужный момент поддержал стремление арабов к независимости, в результате чего западные державы оказались лишены прежних способов воздействия. Революция вывела иракскую суверенность на качественно новый уровень. В первой декаде республиканского правления (1958–1967) мировые державы продолжали оказывать значительное влияние на ситуацию в стране. Вмешательство во внутренние дела осуществлялось двумя способами: через использование экономических связей и оппозиционных группировок. Обе формы воздействия были весьма эффективны, заставляя местные власти при принятии важных для страны решений учитывать интересы Советского Союза или той же Великобритании. Силу этого воздействия отражали то торговые договора, то массовые беспорядки и демонстрации или курдские восстания. В результате не только международное положение Ирака, но и отношения внутри страны определялись позицией мировых держав. Старания иракских лидеров, направленные на ограничение связывающих самостоятельность страны факторов, обрывались с их смертью: А.К. Касем был убит, а А.С. Ариф погиб в авиакатастрофе, произошедшей при загадочных обстоятельствах, что, по сути, отражает уровень сложности проблемы. Основной причиной, позволяющей мировым державам оказывать сильное влияние на Иракскую Республику в 1958–1967 гг. были огромные задолженности государства восточному блоку, а полученные доходы, из-за формулировок концессионных договоров, опиравшихся на процентное участие в продаже нефти, шли от западных монополий и зависели от размера добычи. Это давало обеим сторонам неограниченные возможности политических манипуляций. Лишь национализация 1 июня 1972 года самого крупного на территории Ирака предприятия Иракской Нефтяной Компании, а через год и других видных представителей отрасли: Мосульской Нефтяной Компании, Standard Oil of New Jersy, Mobil Oil, Gulbelkian и значительной части капитала Royal Dutch при одновременном резком повышении цен на сырье и введении арабскими странами эмбарго на поставки в западные страны предоставило тогдашнему иракскому режиму исключительный шанс, чтобы радикально ограничить внешнее воздействие на более чем четверть века. ; Piotr Kwiatkiewicz

AMÉRICA LATINA Elecciones presidenciales en Argentina: Cristina Fernández tendrá su segundo mandato.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45006572/ns/world_news-americas/#.TqfhIHKwA91http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/24/actualidad/1319476231_118058.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74879.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/reeleccin-de-cristina-fernndez-como-presidenta-de-argentina_10621346-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74895.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/23/world/americas/argentina-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8ONU pidió, por vigésimo año consecutivo, el fin del embargo a Cuba.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/onu-pidi-por-vigsimo-ao-consecutivo-el-fin-del-embargo-a-cuba_10637826-4El huracán Rina amenaza la costa mexicana.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/americas/hurricane-rina-threatens-yucatan-peninsula.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15443540 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45042360/ns/weather/#.TqfgrnKwA91 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/26/actualidad/1319612424_809172.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/rina-a-punto-de-convertirse-en-huracn-de-categora-3_10638405-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/americas/tropical-weather/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Evo promulga ley en favor de los indígenas y anuncia fin del conflicto.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/24/actualidad/1319474529_733232.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/evo-promulga-ley-en-favor-de-indgenas-y-pone-fin-al-conflicto-en-bolivia_10630564-4 Jorge Castañeda: "México ya era priista antes del PRI"".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319570806_219365.htmlCentroamérica vive la peor crisis de los últimos 20 años.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/pobreza-en-centroamrica_10610449-4 Chile denunció apoyo de movimientos argentinos a estudiantes.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417401-chile-el-gobierno-denuncio-apoyo-de-movimientos-argentinos-a-estudiantes#comentarColombia pasa del fervor al temor por el libre comercio con Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319525054_990300.htmlJóvenes haitianos ven un futuro en el ejército.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/americas/president-michel-martelly-seeks-to-re-create-haitis-army.html?ref=worldRepublica Dominicana: culpan a la Policía Nacional de varias muertes.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/americas/amnesty-international-criticizes-dominican-police-for-deaths.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15440408La visita al mausoleo de Néstor Kirchner tras un año de su muerte.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/mausoleo-de-nestor-kirchner-tras-un-ano-de-su-muerte_10639527-4Juramento del primer ministro jamaiquino.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45009079/ns/world_news-americas/#.TqfhKHKwA91Ataque rebelde deja 10 soldados muertos en Colombia.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45002063/ns/world_news-americas/#.TqfhLnKwA91Investigación a vicepresidente pone a prueba al Gobierno de Humala.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/investigacin-a-vicepresidente-pone-a-prueba-al-gobierno-de-humala_10629664-4 Cuba estudia a sus ancianos por aumento de la vejez en ese país.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/aumento-de-la-vejez-en-cuba_10640964-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁObama lanza medidas para ayudar a familias al borde del desahucio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-lanza-nuevas-medidas-para-ayudar-a-familias-al-borde-del-desahucio_10630244-4 Estados Unidos obtiene progresos en los diálogos con Corea del Norte aunque todavía no existe acuerdo alguno.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45031122/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/#.TqfhPHKwA91http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/27/world/asia/leon-panetta-lands-in-south-korea-for-talks.html?ref=worldEn la capital de Estados Unidos protestan profesionistas, estudiantes y jubilados.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74884.html Estados Unidos mantiene una red de informantes secretos en los carteles mexicanos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319566118_990164.htmlWashington acelera sus planes para contener a Irán tras su salida de Irak.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/lexington/2011/10/leaving-iraq http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319568226_244550.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/iraq/complete/la-fg-clinton-libya-iraq-iran-20111024,0,4437784.storyEstados Unidos y Siria llamaron a consultas a sus embajadores.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/estados-unidos-retir-a-su-embajador-de-siria_10625725-4Estados Unidos desmantela la última de las bombas nucleares de la Guerra Fría.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/bomba-atmica-de-estados-unidos_10632764-4Clinton mantiene estrecho diálogo con Pakistán.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/21/world/asia/pakistan-clinton-trip/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Obama, a la reconquista de los latinos.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74883.html130 detenidos en protesta del movimiento 'Occupy' en Chicago.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/cerca-de-130-detenidos-tras-una-protesta-del-movimiento-occupy-en-chicago_10623724-4EUROPATerremoto sacude a Turquía dejando decenas de muertos y cientos de desaparecidos.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/europe/death-toll-in-turkey-quake-rises-as-rescuers-race-to-find-trapped-survivors.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/europe/turkey-quake/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45041798/ns/world_news-europe/#.TqffUHKwA90 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/26/actualidad/1319613006_518795.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417457-turquia#comentar http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15457897 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74900.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/vctimas-del-terremoto-de-turqua_10625624-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-turkey-quake-20111025,0,7206785.storyLa Unión Europea concentrará la ayuda al desarrollo en la democracia y los derechos humanos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/21/actualidad/1319204902_636885.htmlEuropa está en vilo: peligra el acuerdo. Intentan salvar el euro, pero hay diferencias.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15449149 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417809-europa-esta-en-vilo-peligra-el-acuerdo#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/posicion-de-alemania-en-la-crisis-de-la-zona-euro_10639264-4 http://money.cnn.com/2011/10/25/news/international/europe_crisis_talks/index.htm?hpt=hp_t2&hpt=wo_c2 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39435196/ns/business-world_business/#.TqffW3KwA90 http://www.lemonde.fr/crise-financiere/article/2011/10/26/l-europe-se-dechire-sur-le-role-de-la-bce-dans-la-crise_1593978_1581613.html#ens_id=1268560 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/europe/europe-faces-new-hurdles-in-debt-crisis.html?ref=world http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/europe/europes-leaders-testy-as-summit-nears.html?ref=world http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-euro-deal-20111025,0,594471.storyBerlusconi acorralado desde todos lados.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15457900 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417808-berlusconi-acorralado-desde-todos-lados#comentar http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417917-otra-drastica-medida-de-berlusconi-acordo-aumentar-la-edad-de-jubilacion-en-italia#comentarLa Unión Europa analiza dos métodos no excluyentes para el rescate de Grecia.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417387-la-ue-analiza-dos-metodos-no-excluyentes-para-el-rescate-de-grecia#comentar http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-greece-austerity-20111021,0,3903568.storyZapatero y Sarkozy acuerdan permanente información ante fin de ETA.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/zapatero-y-sarkozy-acuerda-canal-permanente-de-informacin-ante-el-fin-de-eta_10623764-4Cameron enfrenta la mayor rebelión tory sobre la UE.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45018019/ns/business-stocks_and_economy/#.TqfhT3KwA91http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417576-cameron-enfrenta-la-mayor-rebelion-tory-sobre-la-ue#comentar http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/world/europe/uk-eu-referendum/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9Confiado, Rajoy ya se prepara para su llegada a la Moncloa.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417113-confiado-rajoy-ya-se-prepara-para-su-llegada-a-la-moncloa#comentarAntes de la cumbre, Alemania da luz verde a la ampliación del fondo de rescate.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417921-merkel-llamo-a-resolver-las-imperfecciones-del-euro-ahora-o-nunca#comentarVotantes suizos prefieren alejarse de la derecha.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/23/world/europe/switzerland-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9El depuesto rey de Rumania advierte a los políticos contra la demagogia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319557569_454773.htmlASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTETailandia sigue siendo azotada por las inundaciones.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15459227 http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/portfolio/2011/10/26/bangkok-submergee-l-approvisionnement-devient-difficile_1593871_3216.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45006107/ns/weather/#.TqfhTHKwA91 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319553348_473230.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/asia/flood-waters-in-bangkok-shut-domestic-airport.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/asia/thailand-flood/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Amnistía acusa al régimen sirio de torturas en los hospitales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/middleeast/syria.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319533294_069689.htmlGobierno de Yemen llama al cese del fuego.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/meast/yemen-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74898.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/middleeast/yemen-fighting-intensifies-as-cease-fire-is-called.html?ref=worldFallece Sultan bin Abdulaziz, príncipe heredero del trono de Arabia Saudita.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/22/world/meast/saudi-arabia-prince-dead/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/22/actualidad/1319265519_668463.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/fallece-prncipe-heredero-de-arabia-saudita_10614945-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15451009Virus ataca a computadoras del Parlamento japonés.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/asia/virus-infects-computers-in-japans-parliament.html?ref=worldTanque de gasolina utilizado como bomba en Afganistán mata al menos 14 personas.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15455778 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghan-karzai-comment-20111025,0,7387181.story http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2011/10/26/world/asia/AP-AS-Afghanistan.html?ref=worldFuerzas de la OTAN capturan a 200 militantes en Afganistán. Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45011114/ns/world_news-south_and_central_asia/#.TqfhUnKwA90Temblor sacude nuevamente a la prefectura nipona de Fukushima.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45038345/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/#.TqfhOnKwA91China toma medidas contra la fuga de capitales.Para más información: http://behindthewall.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/10/25/8476025-china-cracks-down-on-economic-leaksAFRICAMarruecos responsabiliza a Argelia del secuestro de los cooperantes.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45006979/ns/world_news-africa/#.TqfhAXKwA91 http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319553200_614005.htmlTúnez: islamistas moderados ganaron las primeras elecciones de la "primavera árabe".Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15453579 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/onu-felicit-a-tnez-por-primeras-elecciones-libres-tras-dictadura_10627064-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-tunisia-nahda-20111026,0,2154740.story http://www.lemonde.fr/tunisie/article/2011/10/26/tunisie-la-strategie-attrape-tout-d-ennahda-a-paye_1593947_1466522.html#ens_id=1585247 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/10/tunisias-election http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-tunisia-election-20111024,0,7449219.story http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417545-amplio-triunfo-en-tunez-de-los-islamistas-moderados#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319572196_921197.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/world/africa/tunisia-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/africa/tunisia-liberals-see-a-vote-for-change-not-just-for-islamists.html?ref=world http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45038538/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.Tqfg63KwA91La nueva Libia nace marcada por el desgobierno y los excesos de los rebeldes.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15459473 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319567586_456515.htmlGadafi ha sido enterrado en un lugar secreto del desierto.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-libya-kadafi-burial-20111026,0,6381129.story http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74897.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45027029/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.Tqfg4XKwA91 http://www.lemonde.fr/libye/article/2011/10/26/la-famille-de-kadhafi-envisage-de-porter-plainte-contre-l-otan_1593936_1496980.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/africa/qaddafi-son-and-former-defense-aide-buried-in-secret-place.html?ref=worldhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319526089_910770.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/africa/libya-main/index.html?hpt=wo_c2La ONU pide una investigación sobre la muerte de Gadafi.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/panetta-says-ties-with-libya-depend-on-allies.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/21/actualidad/1319190066_096919.htmlUn comando armado secuestra a tres cooperantes en Somalia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319557545_291784.htmlAtaque en Kenia deja al menos 1 muerto y 20 heridos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15459960 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/world/africa/kenya-nightclub-attack/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45019406/ns/world_news-africa/#.Tqfg-HKwA91Uganda revive sus oleadas anti homosexuales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/africa/anti-gay-bill-is-revived-in-uganda.html?ref=worldLos caudillos africanos se eternizan.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/26/actualidad/1319610694_185410.htmlOTRAS NOTICIASSegún la ONU el mundo tendrá 7.000 millones de personas a final de mes,.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-15459643 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/numero-de-personas-de-la-poblacion-mundial_10639484-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2011/10/26/7-milliards-d-humains-en-2011-et-15-milliards-en-2100_1594137_3244.htmlWikiLeaks cerca de su colapso financiero.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417546-wikileaks-cerca-de-su-colapso-financiero#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/24/actualidad/1319452128_617753.html"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21533461