Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Balbatti-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 437 ha in Balbatti-3 microwatershed in Jewargi taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 751 mm, of which about 538 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 75 mm during the rest of the year. 99 per cent area is covered by soils and 1 per cent is by Habitation and waterbody. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 3 Land Use Classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 83 per cent of the soils are deep to very deep (100->150 cm) and 16 per cent are very shallow to shallow (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 16 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in 137 ha (31%) in organic carbon.  Major area of 73 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in iron and 22 per cent deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum 363 (83) - Guava - 363 (83) Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - - Jamun - 363 (83) Soybean 363 (83) - Musambi 363 (83) - Bengalgram 363 (83) 68 (16) Lime 363 (83) - Sunflower 363 (83) - Cashew - - Cotton 363 (83) - Custard apple 363 (83) - Sugarcane - - Amla 363 (83) - Mango - - Tamarind - 363 (83) Sapota - 363 (83) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Balbatti-3 micro-watershed (Dummadri sub-watershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 16046' – 16048' North latitudes and 76034' – 76036' East longitudes, covering an area of about 437.16 ha, bounded by Balbatti, Vadagera, Sumbada, Shivapura and Hangalga (K) villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Balbatti 3 Microwatershed (Dummadri subwatershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 61.9 to 38.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 66.7 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 76.2 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward castes (OBC) of all sample farmers.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent.  About 50 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 50 per cent of the sample farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system of all sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all of sample households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The total land cultivated on dry land condition among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 59.5 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 31 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 38206 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets value is around Rs. 8270 per household, about 20 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer (50 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 7500 per household; about 20.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 892.3 grams (2082.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 30 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 32636 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 1958 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.680 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.293762 per year for the total area of 437.16 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grains production is around Rs. 15325/ ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in cotton (Rs. 21581) followed by red gram (Rs. 19148), and paddy (Rs. 5245).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 9959/ ha/year of paddy.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs. 61447) followed by cotton (Rs. 51622) and paddy (Rs. 33325). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (56.6 %) followed by cotton (39.7 %) and paddy (3.7 %).  In Balbatti 3 micro-watershed, major soils are soil of Balbatti (BBT) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 48.95 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (16.8 %) and redgram (83.2 %), Novinihala (NHA) soil series having shallow soil depth cover around 54.0 % of area, the crops are cotton (60.4 %) and red gram (39.6 %). Yedrami (YDM) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 34.18 % of areas, crops are cotton.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.35129 /ha in YDM soil (with BCR of 1.98) and Rs. 20615/ha in BBT soil (with BCR of 1.92).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 27848/ha in NHA soil (with BCR of 2.08) and Rs.26102/ha in BBT soil (with BCR of 1.96).  In paddy the cost of cultivation is Rs. 38578/ha in YDM soil (with BCR of 1.39).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (42.2 to 18.1 %), red gram (10.1 %) and paddy (66.0 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Balbatti-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 714 ha in Balbatti- 4 microwatershed in Jewargi taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 751 mm of which about 538 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 75 mm during the rest of the year. 98 per cent area is covered by soils and 2 per cent is by Habitation and waterbody. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Use Classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  90 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 9 per cent is not suitable.  About 82 per cent of the soils are deep to very deep (100->150 cm), about less than one per cent is moderately shallow(50-75 cm) and 16 per cent are very shallow to shallow (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 16 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in 6 ha (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 12 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 6 per cent area.  About 86 per cent area is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in iron and 12 per cent deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 571 (80) 19 (3) Guava - 519 (73) Maize - 7 (1) Jackfruit - - Red gram - 591 (83) Jamun - 583 (82) Soybean 507 (71) 84 (12) Musambi 571 (80) 12 (2) Bengalgram 578 (81) 63 (9) Lime 571 (80) 12 (2) Sunflower 571 (80) 12 (2) Cashew - - Cotton 571 (80) 19 (3) Custard apple 571 (80) 19 (3) Sugarcane - - Amla 571 (80) 19 (3) Mango - - Tamarind - 584 (82) Sapota - 519 (73) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that are edible, economical and produce lot of biomass which helps im restoring the ecological balance and mitigate the climate change phenomenon. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Balbatti 4 Microwatershed (Dummadri sub-watershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 16046' – 16048' North latitudes and 76032' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 714.49 ha, bounded by Balbatti, Vadagera, Sumbada, and Hangalga (K) villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Balbatti-4 Microwatershed (Dummadri subwatershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 62.0 to 38.0 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 64.0 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 78.0 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) of all sample farmers.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent.  About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Only 30.0 per cent of sample farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 10.0 per cent of households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.2 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and semi-medium farmers. The dry land account for 98.7 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 36.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 54.0 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 22852 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 206583 per household, about 30.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 53888 per household; about 50.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 849.1 grams (2033.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.48156 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1797. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 995 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 6999398 per year for the total area of 714.49 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 19675/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in cotton (Rs. 30989) followed by red gram (Rs. 21364) and paddy (Rs. 6667).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3779/ ha/year is paddy.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.59185) followed by cotton (Rs.52852) and paddy (Rs 33058). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (42.0 %) followed by cotton (38.9 %) and paddy (19.1 %).  In Balbatti 4 micro-watershed, major soils are soil of Balbatti (BBT) series is having deep soil depth cover around 31.75 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Marguti (MGT) is having very shallow soil depth cover around 3.93 % of area; the crops grown are cotton (100 %). Novinihala 3 (NHA) series is having shallow soil depth cover 16.84 % of area, the crops grown are red gram (100 %) and Yedrami (YDM) series is having deep soil depth cover 40.89 % of area, the crops grown are cotton (14.6 %), paddy (21.8 %) and red gram (63.6 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.44136 /ha in YDM soil (with BCR of 2.38) and Rs 32414/ha in MGT soil (with BCR of 2.26).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs 36880/ha in NHA soil (with BCR of 1.83) and Rs.21756/ha in BBT soil (with BCR of 1.65).  In paddy the cost cultivation in YDM soil is Rs.45635/ha (with BCR of 1.16).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (28.7 to 22.9 %), redgram (26.4 to 7.8 %) and paddy (66.3 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 552 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 48 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 41 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 8 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 6 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m), 23 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 69 per cent very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 12 per cent area is slightly eroded and about 86 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Entire area is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Entire area is low in available phosphorus.  Major area of about 91 per cent has high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about 6 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 80 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 18 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in major area of about 88 per cent and sufficient in 10 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 266 (48) 271 (49%) Guava - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun 379 (69%) Groundnut - 27 (5%) Musambi 252(46%) 255 (46%) Sunflower 252 (46%) 255 (46%) Lime 252(46%) 255 (46%) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 266 (48) 271 (49) Drumstick - 507 (92%) Amla 536 (97%) Mulberry - 536 (97%) Tamarind 379 (69%) Mango - 127 (23%) Marigold 536 (97%) Sapota - - Chrysanthemum 536 (97%) Pomegranate 508 (92%) Jasmine 29 (5%) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri-4 micro-watershed is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 75055' – 75057' East longitudes, covering an area of about 552.30 and bounded by Kavalura, and Gudigeri villages in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 daysWe used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54 to 46 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 47 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent.  Around 50 % of farmers have taken yeshaswini health cards.  Majority of farm households (75 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 83 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 583 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 10.7 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 17 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decision making is not found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.2 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 52 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 24 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 7874 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets values is around 1.01 lakhs, about 17 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The highest livestock population of bullocks are 16.7 per cent for cultivation of land.  The average per capita food consumption is around 665 grams (1692 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 100 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 40366 per household. About 50 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 763 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 8516 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 4233959 per year for the total area of 552.3 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 9515/ ha/year Per ha food production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs 10859 /ha) followed by bengal gram (Rs 9404), green gram (Rs 8824/ha) and bajra (Rs 964).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 673/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs 726 /ha) followed by bengal gram (Rs 576 /ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bajra (Rs 66123) followed by bengal gram (Rs 56627), green gram (Rs 40362), sunflower (Rs 21197) and sorghum (Rs 11071). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (32 %) followed by green gram (24 %), sorghum (18 %), bengal gram (15 %) and bajra (5.4 %).  In Gudigeri-4 micro watershed, major soils are Kavalur (KVR) series are having deep soil deep cover around 25 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing green gram (17 %), sunflower (49 %), sorghum (26 %) and bengal gram (8 %). Bardur (BDR) and Kadagathu (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 35 per cent and 22 per cent of area, respectively, major crops grown are bengal gram (25 %), green gram (50 %), sunflower (25 %) and bajra. 3  The total cost of cultivation in study area for bengal gram ranges between Rs. 23449/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.16) and Rs. 17274/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 2.23).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 18426/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 1.92) and Rs. 12619/ha in BDR soil (With BCR of 1.23).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 16642/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.32) and Rs. 10307/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 1.08).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in KVR soil is Rs. 6751/ha (with BCR of 1.08) and Bajra the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs. 13452/ha (with BCR of 1.21). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (2.9 to 12.7 %), green gram (7.2 to 21.2), sorghum (80.4 %) and sunflower (52.4 to 38.4). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bandehalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatersheds. The present study covers an area of 699 ha in Bandehalli-1 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils, 5 per cent by habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 2 per cent soils are very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 27 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 14 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) and about 32 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 18 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 5 per cent low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 14 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron are sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in a maximum area of 95 per cent and deficient in <1 per cent area.  Major area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc and a small area of 1 per cent is sufficient in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Bandehalli-1 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 152 (22) 239 (34) Sapota - 97 (14) Maize - 341 (49) Guava - 97 (14) Red gram - 392 (56) Pomegranate - 392 (56) Bajra - 439 (63) Jackfruit - 97 (14) Ground nut - 97 (14) Jamun - 152 (22) Sunflower 152 (22) 240 (34) Musambi 47 (7) 392 (56) Cotton 152 (22) 142 (20) Lime 47 (7) 392 (56) Bengalgram 152 (22) 142 (20) Cashew - - Chilli - 391 (56) Custard apple 213 (31) 178 (26) Tomato - 97 (14) Amla - 391 (56) Drumstick - 392 (56) Tamarind - 152 (22) Mulberry - 97 (14) Marigold - 391 (56) Mango - 81 (12) Chrysanthemum - 391 (56) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bandehalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 35' 50.699" and 160 34' 16.29" and East longitude 770 23' 33.721'' and 770 20' 56.308" covering an area of about 698.41 ha coming under Baddepalli, Ajalapura and Vankasambara villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bandehalli-1 micro watersheds of Bandehalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample 35 farmers were sampled in Bandehalli-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 2 (5.71%) were marginal, 22 (62.86%) were small and 6 (17.14 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (56.21%) men and 67 (43.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.2, marginal farmers were 4, small farmers were 4.6 and semi medium farmers were 4.7.  Majority of the respondents (33.33%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 37.91 per cent illiterates, 51.62 per cent pre university education and 5.88 per cent attained graduation.  About, 74.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 20.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 43.79 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 65.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.43 per cent possess TV, 57.14 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 34.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.42, women available in the micro watershed was 1.48, hired labour (men) available was 10.45 and hired labour (women) available was 15.19.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (44.81 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Cotton and Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account and 17.14 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 57.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 6.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 133.33 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Cotton and Maize was Rs.28262.23, 49721.93, 31232.35 and17376.12 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.70, 1: 0.70, 1: 1.10 and 1: 1.70 respectively.  Further, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 76591.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 48848.57 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 126 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 37.14 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1400.00 for land development and Rs. 400.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 34.29 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 37.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (34.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 51.43 per cent of the households and 48.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 42.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 88.57 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 11.43 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (45.71%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), inadequate extension services (65.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (85.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Wankasambar-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 408 ha in Wankasambar-1 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 87 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by rock lands and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm), 27 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 18 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and about 31 per cent soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 12 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 52 per cent loamy soils and 23 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area of about 87 per cent has non-gravelly.  About 15 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 31 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 27 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) and about 14 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 28 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 1.0 ppm) in about 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Entire area has soils that are sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Wankasambar-1 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 252 (62) Sapota - 40 (10) Maize - 118 (29) Guava - 40 (10) Red gram - 174 (43) Pomegranate - 174 (43) Bajra - 298 (73) Jackfruit - 23 (6) Ground nut - 135 (33) Jamun - 100 (24) Sunflower - 157 (39) Musambi - 174 (43) Cotton 31 (8) 222 (54) Lime - 174 (43) Bengalgram 31 (8) 221 (54) Cashew - - Chilli - 269 (66) Custard apple - 252 (62) Tomato - 135 (33) Amla - 252 (62) Drumstick - 174 (43) Tamarind - 100 (24) Mulberry - 23 (60) Marigold - 269 (66) Mango - 23 (6) Chrysanthemum - 269 (66) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Wankasambar-1 is located at North latitude 160 38' 15.368" and 160 36' 24.117" and East longitude 770 23' 18.585'' and 770 21' 27.725" covering an area of about 407.81 ha coming under Vankasambara, Sambara and VadavataVillages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Wankasambar-1 micro watersheds of Turk Madhawar sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Wankasambar-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (14.71%) were marginal, 19 (55.88%) were small, 3 (8.82 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 78 (54.55%) men and 65 (45.45 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (37.06%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.76 per cent illiterates, 53.86 per cent pre university education and 4.20 per cent attained graduation.  About, 79.41 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.82 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 57.34 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 17.65 percent possess thatched house and 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.76 per cent possess TV, 38.24 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.06 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.59 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 35.29 per cent possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess Sprayer, 76.47 per cent possess Weeder, 8.82 per cent possess Chaff Cutter and 2.94 per cent possess JCB/Hitachi.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 8.82 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.38, women available in the micro watershed was 1.22, hired labour (men) available was 7.41 and hired labour (women) available was 12.41.  Further, 85.29 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. 2  In the study area, about 2.80 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 495.00 kms for about 3.75 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 92.88 per cent (39.84 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 7.12 per cent area is irrigated land.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Paddy, Maize and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.29 percent possessed bank account and 73.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 47.06 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 12.50 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Paddy, Maize and Groundnut was Rs.22085.73, 32319.65, 27386.33, 12694.39 and 39182.72 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.50 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 101457.35 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57680.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 60 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 79.41 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7941.18 for land development and Rs. 12029.41 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 34.29 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 41.18 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 44.12 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (38.24%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.35 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.29 per cent of the households and 11.76 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 76.47 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 67.65 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.12%), pulses (94.12%) and oilseeds (47.06%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.35%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (79.41%), inadequacy of irrigation water (79.41%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71%), inadequate extension services (58.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (64.71 %) and less rainfall (2.94 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kavalur East-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 461 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils and one per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 2 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 76 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 58 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 42 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 58 per cent area is slight eroded (e1) and 42 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Entire area has strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  Entire area is non saline (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  About 45 per cent area is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 3 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 11 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 352 (76) 108 (23) Pomegranate - 360 (78) Maize - - Guava - - Bajra - - Jackfruit - - Groundnut - - Jamun - 359 (78) Sunflower 352 (76) 8 (2) Musambi 352 (76) 8 (2) Cotton 359 (78) 100 (22) Lime 352 (76) 8 (2) Red gram 359 (78) Cashew - - Bengalgram 359 (78) 100 (22) Custard apple 359 (78) 100 (22) Chilli - - Amla - 459 (99) Tomato - - Tamarind - 360 (62) Drumstick - 360 (78) Marigold - 459 (99) Mulberry 101 (22) Chrysanthemum - 459 (99) Mango - - Jasmine - 100 (22) Sapota - - Crossandra 336 (73) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 2 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kavalur East-4 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15016' – 15019' North latitudes and 75058' – 76001' East longitudes, covering an area of about 435.01 ha, bounded by Kavalura, Alavandi and Thalakalla villages with length of growing period (LGP) 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kavalur East-4 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 48.5 to 51.5 per cent to the total sample population. Majority of male population in large farmers (75.0 %) and female population (61.5%) in medium farmers.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 66.7 per cent to the total sample population. About 100 per cent of younger comes under small farmer of size group.  Literacy population is around 90.9 per cent of sample households. The highest in semi medium farmers (92.3%) of size groups.  Social groups belong to other backward caste is around 12.5 per cent. Around 50.0 per cent of other backward caste in semi medium farmers.  Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking about 62.5per cent of sample farm households.  About 25.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 50 per cent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system was among 62.5 per cent of households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50 per cent.  Around 12.1 per cent of households co-operated to in institutional participation among them majority of participating households are medium farmers. 2  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 25.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 75.0 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 6.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and small farmers. The dry land account for 48.7 % and fallow land is 51.3 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation is around 22.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation is around 53.1 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 59290 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 53578 per household; about 37.5 per cent of sample farmers are having weeder.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1951.2 kilo calories against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 2250 kilo calories. Around 100 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 39196 per household: All sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1233. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 4843/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs. 10808) followed by bengalgram (Rs. 8566), sorghum (Rs. 3504), greengram (Rs. 1922) and maize is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1387/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs.1976) and sorghum (Rs. 798).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengalgram (Rs.36558) followed by sunflower (Rs. 31203), sorghum (Rs.19501), greengram (Rs. 16300) and maize (Rs. 15092). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is bengal gram (44 %) followed by greengram (26.3 %) sorghum (20.7 %), sunflower (4.9 %) and maize (4.0 %).  Kavalur East-4 Micro-watershed, major soils are soil Ravanaki (RNK) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 21.64 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengalgram. Bardur (BDR) soil series are having verydeep soil depth cover around 56.09 per cent of areas, crops are bengalgram, sorghum, sunflower, maize and green gram.  The data on cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bengal gram range between Rs. 15018/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.47) and Rs. 12792/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.29).  In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.9171/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.22).  In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs 14169/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.10).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs.17002 /ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.65) and sorghum cultivation is Rs 10678/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.47).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (41 to 63 %), green gram (61.8 %), maize (78.3 %), sorghum (66.4 %) and sunflower (13.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Arsinakeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 551 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 59 per cent is covered by soils, 40 per cent by rock outcrops and 150 cm).  About 5 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 32 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 22 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 12 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 55 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping and gently sloping (1-5% slope) lands and about 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands.  An area of about 42 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 17 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 22 per cent soils are strongly acid to slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5), 20 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 17 per cent soil are slightly to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 58 per cent area.  Entire area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 25 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in available iron content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26(5) 183(33) Sapota - 49(9) Maize - 204(37) Pomegranate - 103(19) Bajra 28(5) 176(32) Guava - 49(9) Groundnut 28(5) 216(39) Jackfruit - 49(9) Sunflower 26(5) 56(10) Jamun - 103(19) Cotton 26(5) 183(33) Musambi 26(5) 77(14) Red gram - 82(15) Lime 26(5) 77(14) Bengalgram 49(9) 141(26) Cashew - 49(9) Chilli - 155(28) Custard apple 54(10) 245(44) Tomato - 155(28) Amla 28(5) 271(49) Brinjal 28(5) 185(34) Tamarind - 73(13) Onion 28(5) 154(28) Marigold - 209(38) Bhendi 28(5) 185(34) Chrysanthemum - 209(38) Drumstick - 150(27) Jasmine - 155(28) Mulberry - 140(25) Crossandra - 186 (34) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Arsinakeri is located at North latitude 150 31' 10.287" and 150 29' 24.684" and East longitude 760 18' 34.591'' and 760 16' 46.36" covering an area of about 551.11 ha coming under Arishinakeri, Methagalla and Hasagala Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Arsinakeri micro watersheds of Ganganal subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 38 total respondents, 5 (13.16 %) were marginal, 7 (18.42%)were small, 17 (44.74 %) were Semi medium and 7 (18.42 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 139 (55.16%) men and 113 (44.84 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (46.83%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 35.32 per cent of illiterates, 30.16 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.13 per cent middle school education, and 9.52 per cent high school education, 5.95 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.40 per cent of them had Diploma, 0.79 per cent attained graduation .  About, 76.32 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 23.68 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 48.81 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 36.84 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 10.53 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 81.58 per cent possess TV, 47.37 per cent possess mixer grinder, 89.47 per cent possess mobile phones and 39.47 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 26.32 per cent of the households possess plough, and 23.68 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 36.84 per cent possess local cow and 15.79 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 45.17 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 55.25.  Further, 92.1 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was adequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 47.37 per cent (66.90 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 51.36 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 20.00 live bore wells and 20.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 52.63 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Paddy, Groundnut and Navane and cropping intensity was recorded as 87.29 per cent.  Out of the sample households 21.05 percent possessed bank account and 21.05 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 21.05 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Paddy, Groundnut and Navane was Rs.31823.79, 52245.03, 64134.61, 46869.07 and 12940.73 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.60, 1: 0.80, 1: 0.80, 1: 1.03 and 1:2.30 respectively.  Further, 55.26 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 42.11 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 68750.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 52368.42 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 123 horticulture trees and 157 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2210.53 for land development, Rs. 842.11 for creation of irrigation facility, Rs.1710.53 for adoption of improved crop production activities, Rs.447.37 for adoption of improved livestock breeds.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 39.47 per cent, for irrigation facility was 13.16 per cent, for improved crop production was 34.21 per cent and for improved livestock adoption was 13.2 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 100.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 18.42 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 113.16 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (39.47%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 36.84 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 89.47 per cent of the households and 10.53 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 26.32 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 39.47 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (86.84%), pulses (60.53%) and oilseeds (52.63%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (39.47%) wild animal menace on farm field (73.68%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.63%), inadequacy of irrigation water (2.63%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (44.74%), high rate of interest on credit (44.74%), low price for the agricultural commodities (31.58%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (42.11%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (47.37%), Less rainfall (55.26%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (7.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Paspol-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 522 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 508 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 14 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 13 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 13 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 38 per cent area loamy and 47 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 69 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 0.75%) in 4.5 ppm) in available iron and 17 per cent is deficient (<4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 144(28) 298(57) Guava - 130(25) Maize 16(3) 427(82) Sapota - 130(25) Bajra 16(3) 427(82) Pomegranate - 288(55) Groundnut - 204(39) Musambi 127(24) 160(31) Sunflower 98(19) 189(36) Lime 127(24) 160(30) Redgram - 288(55) Amla 16(3) 427(82) Bengal gram 158(30) 285(55) Cashew - 16(3) Cotton 98(19) 344(66) Jackfruit - 130(25) Chilli - 443(85) Jamun - 158(30) Tomato 16(3) 396(76) Custard apple 287(55) 155(30) Brinjal 48(9) 394(76) Tamarind - 158(30) Onion 46(9) 298(57) Mulberry - 204(39) Bhendi 77(15) 366(70) Marigold - 443(85) Drumstick - 288(55) Chrysanthemum - 443(85) Mango - 2(<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Paspol-1 is located at North latitude 160 47' 31.324" and 160 45' 26.562" and East longitude 770 18' 25.677'' and 770 16' 42.31" covering an area of about 522.02 ha coming under Pasapoola, Arakera. K and Gabapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Paspol-1 micro watersheds of Gopalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Paspol-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (38.89%) were marginal, 11 (30.56%) were small, 3 (8.33 %) were semi medium, 3 (8.33 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (55.08%) men and 84 (44.92%) were women. The average population of landless was 4.2, marginal farmers were 4.9, small farmers were 5.5, semi medium farmers 6.7 and medium farmers were 5.7.  Majority of the respondents (41.71%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 57.75 per cent illiterates, 34.77 per cent pre university education and 4.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 94.44 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 67.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 22.22 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 72.22 per cent possess TV, 11.11 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.67 per cent possess mobile phones and 19.44 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 50.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 25.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 36.11 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.78 per cent possess local cow and 11.11 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.88, women available in the micro watershed was 1.38, hired labour (men) available was 15.13 and hired labour (women) available was 12.25.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 3.21 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2400.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 70.53 per cent (36.83 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 29.47 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 16.67 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.11 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.67 percent possessed bank account and 52.78 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 91.67 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 20.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 65.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.30292.60, 56128.76, 44689.05, 54769.64 and 42769.64 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.30 and 1:1.90 respectively.  Further, 44.44 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 121635.56 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 67850.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 29 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1277.78 for land development and Rs. 6944.44 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.63 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 91.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (44.44%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.33 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 77.78 per cent of the households and 22.22 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.67 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (102.78%), pulses (97.22%) and oilseeds (30.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (72.22%) wild animal menace on farm field (77.78%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (47.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (86.11%), high rate of interest on credit (86.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (83.33%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.56%), inadequate extension services (58.33%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(77.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Thanagunda-Rs Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 825 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 666 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 74 ha by rock outcrops and about 79 ha by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 81 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 42 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 18 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 20 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 4 per cent soils are medium (101-150 mm/m) and 34 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%), 32 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 44 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of 337kg/ha) and 80 percent is medium (145- 337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 13 percent is high (>20ppm), 11 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 56 percent area is low (4.5ppm) in an area of 80 per cent and 1 per cent is deficient (<4.5ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 333(40) 165(20) Guava - 150(18) Maize 150(18) 348(42) Sapota - 150(18) Bajra 150(18) 348(42) Pomegranate - 344(42) Groundnut 11(1) 138(17) Musambi 194(24) 150(18) Sunflower 194(24) 149(18) Lime 194(24) 150(18) Redgram - 497(60) Amla 150(18) 194(24) Bengal gram 194(24) - Cashew - 103(12) Cotton 194(24) 138(17) Jackfruit - 150(18) Chilli 150(18) 194(24) Jamun - 194(24) Tomato 150(18) - Custard apple 309(37) 35(4) Brinjal 150(18) - Tamarind - 194(24) Onion 150(18) - Mulberry - 150(18) Bhendi 150(18) 194(24) Marigold 150(18) 194(24) Drumstick - 344(42) Chrysanthemum 150(18) 194(24) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Thanagunda Rs is located at North latitude 160 48' 47.81" and 160 47' 9.546" and East longitude 770 5' 45.378'' and 770 3' 22.977" covering an area of about 824.88 ha coming under Tanagundhi, Thumakura and Kanchagarahalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 respondents, 7 (20.59%) were marginal, 14 (41.18%) were small and 7 (20.59%) were semi medium, 1 (2.94%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 114 (63.69%) men and 65 (36.31%) were women. Majority of the respondents (41.90%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 40.22 per cent illiterates and only 4.47 per cent attained graduation.  About, 73.53 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.57 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.82 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 73.53 per cent possess TV, 58.82 per cent possess mixer grinder and 102.94 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough and only 14.71 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.88 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, women available in the micro watershed was 1.53, hired labour (men) available was 9.38 and hired labour (women) available was 7.91.  Further, 14.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 2.23 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2720.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (40.65 ha), 85.67 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 12.33 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The sample households possessed 76.47 per cent bank account and 38.24 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 38.24 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 53.85 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 38.46 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.29628.77, 33083.33, 60299.77, 40188.22 and 40549.18 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.04, 1: 0.60, 1: 0.70 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 70561.76 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57885.29 comes from agriculture.  The total number of horticultural trees grown (both field and backyard) by the sampled households were coconut (2) and Mango (4) trees in the fields, and forest species have grown 49 neem trees, 12 tamarind trees, 1 banyan trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1597.06 for land development, Rs. 88.24 for creation of irrigation facility, Rs.2470.59 for adoption of improved crop production and Rs.235.29 adoption of improved livestock management.  Source of funds raised from own sources for land development was 38.24 per cent, for irrigation facility was 2.94 per cent, for improved crop production was 32.35 per cent and for improved livestock adoption was 11.8 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.35 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.94 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 44.12 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (41.18 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.35 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 32.35 per cent of the households and 64.71 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 26.47 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.12 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 5.88 per cent do not possess PDS card.  Cereals (58.82%), pulses (50.00%), oilseeds (26.47%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.88%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.41%), high rate of interest on credit (85.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (55.88%), inadequate extension services (85.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.41%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bandehalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 374 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 255 ha (68%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 13 ha (3%) by rock outcrops and about 106 ha (28%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 68 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 50 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 5 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 13 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 13 percent soils are loamy and 55 per cent is clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 57 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed is medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 13 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 52 percent is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 17 per cent soils are nearly level (0-1% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 52 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and about 17 per cent are slightly (e1) eroded lands in the microwatershed.  An area of 17 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 29 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 23 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) and about 13 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of about 6 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 17 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 51 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 5 per cent, about 16 per cent is medium (10-20 ppm) and about 47 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  An area of about 34 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 87(23) 167(45) Guava - 19(5) Maize 19(5) 235(63) Sapota - 19(5) Bajra 19(5) 235(63) Pomegranate - 156(42) Groundnut <1(<1) 68(18) Musambi 68(18) 88(24) Sunflower 68(18) 88(24) Lime 68(18) 88(24) Redgram - 205(54) Amla 19(5 ) 117(32) Bengal gram 68(18) 69(18) Cashew - <1(<1) Cotton 68(18) 88(23) Jackfruit - 19(5) Chilli 19(5) 186(50) Jamun - 68(18) Tomato 19(5) 49(13) Custard apple 69(18) 137(37) Brinjal 19(5) 49(13) Tamarind - 68(18) Onion 19(5) 49(13) Mulberry - 19(5 ) Bhendi 19(5) 186(50) Marigold 19(5) 186(50) Drumstick - 87(23) Chrysanthemum 19(5) 186(50) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bandehalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 48' 8.724" and 160 45' 57.693" and East longitude 770 9' 9.823'' and 770 7' 44.873" covering an area of about 373.51 ha coming under Yadhagiri. K, Dastharabadha and Yadhagiri. B Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bandehalli-1 micro watersheds of Yadgir subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 15 (44.12 %) were marginal, 9 (26.47%)were small, 4 (11.76 %) were Semi medium and 3 (8.82 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 81 (52.94%) men and 72 (47.06 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.48%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 32.03 per cent illiterates, 65.37 per cent pre university education and 8.50 per cent attained graduation.  About, 73.53 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 26.47 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 41.83 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.24 per cent possess TV, 17.65 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.06 per cent possess mobile phones and 14.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess plough and 2.94 per cent possess tractor.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.82 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.45, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 7.9 and hired labour (women) available was 6.58.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.15 per cent (38.41 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.85 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 26.47 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.39239.68, 74637.92, 36133.08, 123998.55 and 36729.33 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.40, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.80, 1: 1.01 and 1:0.94 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 136726.47 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 69755.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 37 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 88.24 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 91.18 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (58.82%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 64.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.06 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (79.41%) and oilseeds (5.88%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (97.06%) wild animal menace on farm field (11.76%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.24%), inadequacy of irrigation water (2.94%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (44.12%), high rate of interest on credit (17.65%), low price for the agricultural commodities (47.06%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (35.29%), inadequate extension services (20.59%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (52.94%) and Less rainfall (2.94%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ajalapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 879 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 849 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 3 ha by rock outcrops and 27 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 849 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 35 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 -150 cm), 54 per cent has moderately deep (75-100 cm),3 per cent has moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 5 per cent has shallow (25-50 cm).  About 21 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 74 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 18 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 46 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 5 per cent area very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content, medium (0.5-0.75%) in 58 per cent area and low (57 kg/ha) in 48 per cent area in the microwatershed.  An area 7 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha), low (4.5 ppm) in 92 per cent area and deficient in 5 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 298(34) 435(50) Guava - 473(54) Maize 426(48) 307(35) Sapota - 473(54) Bajra 473(54) 260(30) Pomegranate - 549(62) Groundnut 251(29) 244(28) Musambi 76(9) 473(74) Sunflower 76(9) 473(74) Lime 76(9) 473(74) Redgram - 711(81) Amla 473(54) 98(11) Bengal gram 76(9) - Cashew - 311(35) Cotton 76(9) 222(25) Jackfruit - 473(54) Chilli 426(48) 145(17) Jamun - 76(9) Tomato 426(48) 69(8) Custard apple 386(44) 185(21) Brinjal 426(48) 69(8) Tamarind - 76(9) Onion 426(48) 69(8) Mulberry - 473(54) Bhendi 426(48) 145(17) Marigold 426(48) 145(17) Drumstick - 549(62) Chrysanthemum 426(48) 145(17) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ajalapur is located at North latitude 160 35' 32.429" and 160 34' 6.358" and East longitude 770 25' 50.352'' and 770 23' 32.178" covering an area of about 883.98 ha coming under Ajaalapura Village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ajalapur micro watersheds of Ajalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Ajalapur micro-watershed among households surveyed 8 (22.86%) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small, 10 (28.57 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 64 (53.78%) men and 55 (46.22 %) were women. The average population of landless farmers was 2.4, marginal farmers were 2.8, small farmers were 3.6, semi medium farmers were 4.1 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (45.38%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 51.26 per cent illiterates, 42.85 per cent pre university education and 1.68 per cent attained graduation.  About, 94.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 30.25 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 42.86 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 54.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 68.57 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough and 2.86 per cent possess bullock cart.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.17, women available in the micro watershed was 1.11, hired labour (men) available was 12 and hired labour (women) available was 12.17.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 85.75 per cent (48.27 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 12.58 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore was the major source of irrigation for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Red gram and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 95.73 per cent.  Out of the sample households 82.86 percent possessed bank account and 82.86 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 82.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Red gram and Groundnut was Rs.20521.55, 25442.33, 127259.34, 20521.55 and 26803.78 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.10, 1: 1.80, 1: 0.45, 1: 2.10 and 1:0.92 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 81942.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 63200.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 100 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1085.71 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 20.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 65.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (77.14%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 80.00 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (88.57%), pulses (80.00%) and oilseeds (8.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (28.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (31.43%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (17.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.00%), Less rainfall (45.71%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (40.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 725 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 84 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 1 per cent by quarry, about 15 per cent rock outcrop and others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 10 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 27 per cent are sandy soils, 18 per cent soils are loamy and 40 per cent are clayey soils at the surface.  About 72 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) soils.  An area of about 80 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) and 5 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 71 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 13 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 79 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 6 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 12 (2) 258 (38) Guava - 138 (20) Maize 12 (2) 258 (38) Sapota - 138 (20) Bajra 12 (2) 258 (38) Pomegranate - 152 (22) Groundnut - 179 (26) Musambi - 152 (22) Sunflower - 152 (22) Lime - 152 (22) Redgram - 165 (24) Amla 12 (2) 231 (34) Bengal gram - 14 (2) Cashew - 12 (2) Cotton - 220 (32) Jackfruit - 138 (20) Chilli 12 (2) 245 (36) Jamun - - Tomato 12 (2) 231 (34) Custard apple 12 (2) 245 (36) Brinjal 12 (2) 231 (34) Tamarind - - Onion 12 (2) 231 (34) Mulberry - 138 (20) Bhendi 12 (2) 245 (36) Marigold 12 (2) 245 (36) Drumstick - 138 (20) Chrysanthemum 12 (2) 245 (36) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 10 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir-2 is located at North latitude 160 55' 12.82" and 160 57' 2.63" and East longitude 770 10' 16.89'' and 770 12' 22.38" covering an area of about 681.09 ha coming under Ramathirtha, Alur. B and Bheemanahalli villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir-2 micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 13 (37.14%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 94 (58.39%) men and 66 (40.99 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 3.4, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (43.48%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 47.83 per cent illiterates, 0.62 percent were functional literates, 48.45 per cent pre university education and 4.35 per cent attained graduation.  About, 65.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 42.24 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 65.71 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.14 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 25.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 8.03 and hired labour (women) available was 7.43  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 1.86 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2040.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (48.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.13 per cent.  Out of the sample households 82.86 percent possessed bank account and 40.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 45.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 6.25 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 43.75 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 12.50 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Jowar was Rs.19867.45 and 17752.28 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30 and 1: 2.00 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 57361.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 36361.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 12 horticulture trees and 66 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1800.00 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 45.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 28.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 45.71 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (48.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (88.57 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (88.57 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bhimanahalli-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 631 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 587 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 29 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 15 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 587 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 8 per cent of area is very shallow (150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 54 per cent loamy soils and 27 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 70 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 7 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 6 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 11 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in 27 per cent and low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil.  About 63 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium content and 30 per cent of area is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 85 per cent and deficient in an area of 8 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 44 (7) 338 (54) Guava - 44 (7) Maize 44 (7) 338 (54) Sapota - 44 (7) Bajra 44 (7) 338 (54) Pomegranate - 97 (15) Groundnut - 79 (27) Musambi - 97 (15) Sunflower - 97 (15) Lime - 97 (15) Redgram - 347 (53) Amla 97 (15) 35 (6) Bengal gram - 53 (28) Cashew - - Cotton - 97 (15) Jackfruit - 44 (7) Chilli 44 (7) 88 (14) Jamun - - Tomato 44 (7) 35 (6) Custard apple - 132 (21) Brinjal 44 (7) 35 (6) Tamarind - - Onion 44 (7) 35 (6) Mulberry - 44 (7) Bhendi 44 (7) 88 (14) Marigold 44 (7) 88 (14) Drumstick - 44 (7) Chrysanthemum 44 (7) 88 (14) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bhimanahalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 56' 41.915" and 160 55' 40.013" and East longitude 770 13' 33.442'' and 770 11' 54.278" covering an area of about 251.41 ha coming unde Motahalli and Khanapur Hosalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bhimanahalli-1 micro watersheds of Motanahalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 7 (20.00 %) were marginal, 14 (40.00%) were small and 12 (34.29 %) were Semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 77 (58.78%) men and 54 (41.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (44.27%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 31.30 per cent illiterates, 62.59 per cent pre university education and 8.40 per cent attained graduation.  About, 68.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 48.85 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 65.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 34.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 14.33 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.55.  Further, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (55.71 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 0.00 per cent area is irrigated land.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Maizeand cropping intensity was recorded as 99.99 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 62.86 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 40.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 21.74 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 91.30 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Maize was Rs.32334.05, 19534.56 and 20220.29 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.40, 1: 1.60 and 1: 1.80 respectively.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 96394.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 56365.71 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 23 horticulture trees and 93 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 71.43 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1114.29 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 28.57 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 88.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 25.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (28.57%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 0.00 per cent of farmers practicing summer ploughing as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 68.57 per cent of the households and 31.43 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 57.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (37.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.43%) wild animal menace on farm field (91.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (91.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (94.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (94.29%), high rate of interest on credit (94.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (94.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (94.29%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (94.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kakalawar-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 549 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 535 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 15 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 15 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 15 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 56 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 11 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 90 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 33 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 15 per cent area is very low (0.75%) and 3 per cent of area is medium (0.5- 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil in the microwatershed.  About 8 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 89 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in an area of 5 per cent.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 379 (69) Guava - - Maize - 379 (69) Sapota - - Bajra - 379 (69) Pomegranate - 296 (54) Groundnut - 83 (15) Musambi - 296 (54) Sunflower - 296 (54) Lime - 296 (54) Redgram - 296 (54) Amla - 83 (15) Bengal gram - 296 (54) Cashew - - Cotton - 296 (54) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 379 (69) Jamun - - Tomato - 83 (15) Custard apple - 379 (69) Brinjal - 83 (15) Tamarind - - Onion - 83 (15) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 379 (69) Marigold - 379 (69) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 379 (69) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kakalawar-2 is located at North latitude 160 54' 18.63" and 160 52' 49.076" and East longitude 770 23' 23.834'' and 770 21' 45.908" covering an area of about 403.63 ha coming unde Kakalawara and Gurumitkal villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kakalawar-2 micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 total respondents, 18 (50.00 %) were marginal, 5 (13.89%) were small, 7 (19.44 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.78 %) were medium and 1 (2.78 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 119 (72.12%) men and 46 (27.88 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (47.88%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.24 per cent illiterates,48.49 per cent pre university education and 16.36 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.89 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.33 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 65.45 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 33.33 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 66.67 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 69.44 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.22 per cent possess mobile phones and 66.67 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 55.56 per cent of the households possess plough, 16.67 per cent possess tractor, 38.89 per cent possess bullock cart and 47.22 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 47.22 per cent possess local cow and 33.33 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 12.62 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.47.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 79.24 per cent (42.94 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 20.76 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 16.67 per cent of the households.  Out of the sample households 91.67 percent possessed bank account and 69.44 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 44.44 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 45.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 65.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (90.48%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 68.18 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 13.64 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Paddy was Rs.118908.53 and 148814.96, with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.82 and 1: 0.50, respectively.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 148402.78 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 78916.67 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 74 horticulture trees and 30 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 18472.22 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned 91.67 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (88.89%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 88.89 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 86.11 per cent of the households and 63.89 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 58.33 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.44%), pulses (11.11%) and oilseeds (5.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.89%) wild animal menace on farm field (86.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.89%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.89%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (86.11%), high rate of interest on credit (88.89%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.89%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (2.78%), inadequate extension services (83.33%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (11.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Warakanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 601 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 519 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 57 ha by rock outcrops and 34 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 6 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 11 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 53 per cent area in loamy and 22 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 84 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 62 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 9 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 39 per cent area.  Entire area in the microwatershed is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 45 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 40 per cent is low (20 ppm) in 74 per cent.  About 60 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 15 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 139(23) 326(54) Guava - 56(9) Maize 48(8) 417(69) Sapota - 57(9) Bajra 48(8) 417(69) Pomegranate - 148(25) Groundnut - 133(22) Musambi 91(15) 57(9) Sunflower 91(15) 57(9) Lime 91(15) 57(9) Redgram - 148(25) Amla 64(11) 400(67) Bengal gram 91(15) 374(62) Cashew - 56(9) Cotton 91(15) 373(62) Jackfruit - 57(9) Chilli - 465(77) Jamun - 91(15) Tomato 48(8) 409(68) Custard apple 148(25) 317(53) Brinjal 56(9) 408(68) Tamarind - 91(15) Onion 111(18) 346(57) Mulberry - 57(9) Bhendi 27(5) 437(73) Marigold - 465(77) Drumstick - 148(25) Chrysanthemum - 465(77) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Warakanahalli is located at North latitude 160 45' 53.967" and 160 44' 0.81" and East longitude 770 12' 14.918'' and 770 10' 13.801" covering an area of about 610.05 ha coming unde Varkanahalli, Kuyyalura, Yadhagiri. B and Mundragi villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Warakanahalli micro watersheds of Haligeri subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Warakanahalli micro-watershed among households surveyed 16 (44.44%) were marginal, 9 (25.00%) were small, 6 (16.67 %) were semi medium and 4 (11.11 %) were medium farmers. 1 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (62.42%) men and 62 (37.58 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 4.3, small farmers were 4.6, semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 5.  Majority of the respondents (46.67%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 46.67 per cent illiterates, 51.51 per cent pre university education and 6.06 per cent attained graduation.  About, 86.11 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.56 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.42 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 63.89 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.11 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 55.56 per cent possess TV, 22.22 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.22 per cent possess mobile phones and 25.00 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 27.78 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 13.89 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.11 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 25.00 per cent possess local cow and 11.11 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, women available in the micro watershed was 1.23, hired labour (men) available was 7.71 and hired labour (women) available was 12.4.  Further, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 77.98 per cent (51.47 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 22.02 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 7.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 19.44 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Paddy, Green gram, Groundnut and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 86.11 percent possessed bank account and 25.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 83.33 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 33.33 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 100.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Paddy, Green gram, Groundnut and Cotton was Rs.53740.93, 87333.51, 25946.85, 56592.53 and 42850.08 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 0.80, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.30 and 1:2.20 respectively.  Further, 27.78 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 19.44 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 162731.94 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 97322.22 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 4 horticulture trees and 25 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 5.56 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2402.78 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 16.67 per cent depends on own funds and 5.56 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 77.78 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 27.78 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 52.78 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (80.56%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.44 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 77.78 per cent of the households and 16.67 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 88.89 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. 72.22 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.22 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.22%), pulses (91.67%) and oilseeds (61.11%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.89%) wild animal menace on farm field (66.67%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (80.56%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.56%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.67%), high rate of interest on credit (86.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.89%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.56%), inadequate extension services (33.33%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (77.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project