Suchergebnisse

Editorial: The quality in the teaching and learning processes has to have as a corollary a significant contribution to society, being possible with a quality education, the same that is sought in institutions with the application of minimum standards to respond to social demand of solutions. This search for quality has led us as a Faculty and as a University to have obtained the accreditation between the National Accreditation Council (CNA) of Colombia and the licensing before the National Superintendency of Higher Education (SUNEDU) respectively, and in that order of commitment we can say that this should be made tangible with society through research projects that seek the direct benefit of the area where we have impact, not without dedicating ourselves to the study of legal science in its various aspects. One of the problems that are shaking not only the politics but also the legal institutions is corruption, which brings multiple problems but also is deeply rooted not only in government enclaves but also has permeated society. This long-standing phenomenon has had a favorable scenario for the expansion of the governments of recent years, in which politics. Corruption has been combined, on the one hand corrupt businessmen and on the other, parties with goals to seize power at any cost. The institutions at the beginning did not have an immediate response, given the magnitude and complexity of the phenomenon, however the response was not long in coming and we have seen how one-to-one has been investigated and the precautionary measures ordered to ensure the success of the results of investigations and processes; in the meantime, political leaders, businessmen, characters linked to families have been subject to preventive detention that had not been applied to a certain class of characters and authorities, which were dictated, and the general population saw these measures with good eyes, after of a long time in which this type of measures for this type of characters was not present. However, these measures have their limitations, which should be observed according to the law and not the surveys. In this opportunity we are dealing with multiple problems of a civil nature, civil criminal, labor, guardianship, contributions of our teaching community. And also this time we are accompanied by Chilean professors Juan Antonio Barraza Barrella and Ricardo Andrés Loyola, from the University of Tarapacá and Adolfo Ibáñez, respectively, who complete the payroll with current themes. Our contribution to the discussion of the topics that our collaborators have believed pertinent is available to the academic community. Renzo Yufra PeraltaDirector ; Editorial: La calidad en los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje tiene que tener como corolario un aporte significativo a la sociedad, siendo ello posible con una educación de calidad, la misma que se procura en las instituciones con la aplicación de estándares mínimos para responder a la demanda social de soluciones. Esta búsqueda de calidad nos ha llevado como Facultad y como Universidad a que hayamos obtenido la acreditación entre el Consejo nacional de Acreditación (CNA) de Colombia y el licenciamiento ante la Superintendencia Nacional de Educación Superior (SUNEDU) respectivamente, y en ese orden de compromiso podemos decir que éste deberá hacerse tangible con la sociedad a través de proyectos de investigación que procuren el beneficio directo de la zona donde tenemos impacto, no sin dedicarnos al estudio de la ciencia jurídica en sus diversas vertientes. Uno de los problemas que están remeciendo no sólo la política sino además las instituciones jurídicas es la corrupción, la que trae consigo múltiples problemas también pero que también se encuentra enraizada profundamente no solo en los enclaves gubernamentales sino que además ha permeado la sociedad. Este fenómeno de larga data ha tenido un escenario propicio para su expansión los gobiernos de los últimos años, en que política. Corrupción se ha conjuncionado, por un lado empresarios corruptos y por otra, partidos con objetivos de hacerse el poder a como dé lugar. Las instituciones al inicio no tuvieron una respuesta inmediata, dada la magnitud y complejidad del fenómeno, sin embargo la respuesta no se ha hecho esperar y hemos visto como uno a uno se ha ido investigando y se ha ordenado las medidas cautelares para asegurara el éxito de los resultados de las investigaciones y los procesos; en se ínterin, líderes políticos, empresarios, personajes ligados a familias han sido objeto de la prisión preventiva que noes había aplicado a determinada clase de personajes y autoridades, las cuales fueron dictadas, y la población en general vio con buenos ojos estas medidas, después de un largo tiempo en que no se presenciaba este tipo de medidas para este tipo de personajes. Sin embargo, estas medidas tienen sus limitaciones, las cuales deberían ser observadas a tenor del Derecho y no de las encuestas. En esta oportunidad estamos abordando múltiples problemas de naturaleza civil, procesal civil penal, laboral, tutelar, aportes de nuestra comunidad docente. Y También en esta oportunidad nos acompañan los profesores chilenos Juan Antonio Barraza Barrella y Ricardo Andrés Loyola, de la Universidad de Tarapacá y Adolfo Ibáñez respectivamente, que completan la nómina con temática actual. Queda a disposición de la comunidad académica nuestro aporte para la discusión de los temas que nuestros colaboradores han creído pertinentes. Renzo Yufra PeraltaDirector

Mexico's official history does not properly address the Drug Wars and its effect on the nation as well as the U.S. – Mexico border region, including criminal spillover between the two countries especially since 1911. Drawing from evidence gathered at Mexico's National Archives – specifically declassified documents from Mexico's secret police files – contemporary news accounts from Tijuana, Mexico City, and California, as well as court cases and long ignored political biographies, I trace the historical origins of the Drug Wars in Northern Mexico extending into Mexico City; a history of drugs, dissidence, and violence. In my view, the problem of drugs in Mexico must be examined in Three Phases, two of which – Phase One and Two – I take up in the volume. The First Phase is from 1911-1945. The Second Phase is from 1945-1985. The Third Phase, since 1985, covers the rise of what I refer to as turf wars between competing drug trafficking organizations for the control of specific corridors vital for the production and distribution of drugs into the United States.The First Phase goes back to the year 1911 when General and later Governor Esteban Cantú arrived to defend the Northern Territory of Baja California against incursions from Southern California by the Flores Magón brothers during the start of the Mexican Revolution. This was also a period where the role of vice tourism in Tijuana and Mexicali profited from the Prohibition Era in the United States (1920-1933) set the foundations for a drug trafficking model– developed for Baja Norte by Governor Cantú. This cross-border smuggling model was later refined in Baja under General and then Governor Abelardo L. Rodríguez (1921-1930), who then took the model to Mexico when he joined President Ortiz as a Secretary of Defense (1932) and Economy (1932) before he became Interim President of Mexico (1932-1934). The model has held to this day.The Second Phase encompasses Mexico's official start on the War on Drugs from 1945 to 1985 and coincides not surprisingly with the start of the Cold War in the late 1940s. In this Second Phase I analyze the consolidation and metamorphoses of Drug Trafficking Organizations in Mexico's War on Drugs up to 1960. Thus, I explore the connection between East-Coast based Mafia and its incursion and eventual control of the drug trade and organized crime in the West Coast as well as eventually the transborder region. I also analyze the early eradication campaigns carried out by Mexican authorities first on their Baja regional level and subsequently at the national level. I also examine links between "Bugsy" Siegel and his alleged control of the drug trade in Southern California, which stretched easily to Tijuana. This volume also investigates the War on Drugs and a "hidden dirty-war" against dissidence and peasants in rural Mexico, a span that ranged from 1965 to 1985. Under the pretext of eradicating drug production by narcocultivadores or narcogrowers, Mexican authorities also launched an offensive against dissident groups interested in readdressing the land issue in rural Mexico, effectively eradicating dissidence, but not drugs. The search for the source of drugs soon involved the CIA-Contra-Drug Trafficking connection from the Mexican perspective. By the early 1980s, The Mexican journalist Manuel Buendía had begun to explore the link between the CIA-Contra-Drug Trafficking Conenction from the Mexican perspective, and he hypothesized that it needed the complicity of corrupt Mexican and law enforcement officials. In addition to his, Buendía also uncovered the participation of other state actors, such as the Mexico Secret Police (DFS) and the CIA. Buendía was murdered in 1984. The drug issues came together in the 1985 abduction in Guadalajara and torture-murder of DEA Agent Enrique "Kiki" Camarena. To unwind this complicated issue, I analyze the official and unofficial versions about this major transnational crisis. The Third Phase in my analysis begins, then, with the grisly murder of "Kiki" by Drug Warriors, which threw down the gauntlet to the United States. The Mexican Government came under great pressure to take drastic action to help U.S. agents that had flocked to Mexico to find the killers. In this volume I only offer a brief sketch of issues that need full research of this Third Phase since 1985. My on-going investigations call for a follow-up volume to cover the complex rise of full-scale "turf wars" between drug lords, and between the drug lords and the military/police. This research will lead us into President Calderón's so-called "War on Drug Lords," which in reality had already gotten underway. In the Epilogue of this volume, I articulate questions that address both the recent and drug history of the region. The analysis I raise presents a deep historical analysis of Mexico up to 1985. It also provides a starting point for future scholarship to be placed in its proper historical context, thus utilizing my historical scholarship as developed in this work as a launching point in order to place Mexico's long-standing major problem: Public Order and Safety, the disorder of which threatens the very being of what is called the "Mexican Nation System of Government."

El presente artículo describe los resultados obtenidos al desarrollar un estudio, cuyo propósito fue conocer el comportamiento ético que debe presentar el personal a cargo de la gestión universitaria en la educación superior, específicamente en el proceso de compras del Recinto de Guápiles de la Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR). El objetivo principal de este estudio fue determinar cuál es el comportamiento idóneo y deseado a nivel legal e institucional del funcionario universitario a cargo de dicho proceso. Asimismo, se pretende enumerar los beneficios que conlleva el comportamiento ético para la gestión administrativa en el marco de la educación superior. Para responder a los objetivos de este estudio, la investigación se llevó a cabo mediante el diseño descriptivo y bajo el enfoque metodológico cualitativo. Se percibe como descriptivo porque se define un lugar y un tema específico para realizar la observación, evaluación y el análisis de dicho comportamiento por parte del personal a cargo del proceso de compras. Igualmente, se clasificó bajo el enfoque metodológico cualitativo, porque este estudio permitió describir y analizar diferentes temáticas que envuelve el quehacer de la unidad administrativa, así como de los datos obtenidos. Por su parte, la información fue recopilada a través de datos primarios y secundarios, los datos primarios fueron recolectados por medio del instrumento de la entrevista, la cual fue auto-dirigida y con preguntas semi-cerradas enfocadas en el tema de estudio. La información secundaria fue obtenida a través de la recopilación de documentos existentes, navegación en Internet y otras fuentes documentales relacionadas al tema. Como principales resultados, se obtuvo que el comportamiento ético del personal a cargo del proceso de compras en el Recinto de Guápiles es indispensable por el tipo de información que se maneja en dicho proceso, que la formación de los colaborares que lleven a cabo estas tareas deben poseer bases fuertes en principios éticos y la moral, ya que dicho comportamiento dependerá de qué principios y valores posee en su formación individual. Por lo tanto, estos comportamientos deben ir acordes con lo establecido en la Ley General de Administración Pública, así como en los diferentes comunicados y decretos, de entidades como ministerios u oficinas gubernamentales que definen los procesos de compra para las entidades públicas de este país. Además, las personas involucradas en el proceso de compras cuentan con una herramienta para agilizar sus funciones, tal es el caso de las Tecnologías de la Comunicación y la Información (TIC), que permiten que estos colaboradores realicen sus tareas de una manera amigable pero a su vez con mayor libertad, lo que viene a repercutir en el manejo de la información que estos pueden darle a los datos. ; This article describes the results obtained after developing a study with the purpose of getting to know the ethical behavior the personnel in charge of the university management in higher education should have, specifically in the purchasing process at the Guápiles branch of the University of Costa Rica (UCR). The main objective of this study was to determine the ideal and desired behavior at the legal an institutional level the university worker responsible of that process should have. Also, it aims at enumerating the benefits of the ethical behavior of the administrative management in higher education. To comply with the objectives of this study, the investigation was developed through a descriptive design and under the qualitative methodological focus. It is considered descriptive because a place and a specific topic is defined to perform the observation, assessment and analysis of such behavior on behalf of the personnel responsible of the purchasing process. It was also classified under the qualitative methodological focus because this study facilitated the description and analysis of different topics involved in the performance of the administrative unit, as well as the data obtained. The information was collected through primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected through interviews which were auto-addressed and with semi-closed questions focused in the topic of study. Secondary information was obtained through the collection of existing documents, Internet navigation and other documentary sources related to the topic. Main results reveal that ethical behavior of the purchasing personnel at the Guápiles branch is indispensable because of the type of information handled as part of this process. The formation of the people who cooperate in performing these tasks should have strong ethical and moral principles. This behavior will depend on the principles and values every individual has. In this context, such behaviors should be in accordance with what is established in the General Law of Public Administration, as well as in the different communications and decrees of ministries or government offices which define purchasing processes for the public entities of this country. Also, people involved in the purchasing process have a tool to expedite their functions, like Information and Communication Technology (ICT) which allow personnel to do their job in a friendly manner and with more freedom which could affect the way in which the data is handled. ; Facultad de Informática

Human history is replete with examples of countries founded on slavery, which believed that the exploitation of slaves was not immoral. Rather, that slaves were simply inferior to others and deserve their circumstances. Modern slavery – bearing similar but not identical hallmarks of past practices – has taken on new lingo, such as human trafficking, which in fact is the trading of people over boundaries for the purpose of enslavement. Slavery and society have been, and continue to be, walking side by side. Wylie and McRedmond's (eds) work, Human Trafficking in Europe: Character, Causes and Consequences is a modern slavery encyclopedia consisting of 13 chapters and although not formally divided into parts, three distinctive thematic sections are clearly visible. Firstly, the authors provide a general section that introduces human trafficking in Europe, develop adequate definitions and explain some wider characteristics, causes and consequences of the phenomenon. Secondly, the work reveals that modern slavery is ever-present; visible in developed and developing countries alike. The works that comprise this part are based on the authors' own countries and produce vivid depictions of human trafficking, its etiology, and its victims quite literally in their own neighborhoods. Finally, the latter parts of the work are dedicated to international and European policies aimed at the suppression and prevention of human trafficking. In short, this book provides a wide readership, even those unacquainted to the phenomena, sufficient information about its dynamics and central characteristics. It commences with a thematic introduction by Wylie and McRedmond's which adequately sets the tone for the subsequent sections by defining the scope and subject of inquiry and weighing in to the discussion on questions of legality and legitimacy while determining key causes. The introduction is logically followed by Munck's contribution which argues that human trafficking is best understood as a more modern way to use antiquated methods and explains root causes that are relevant to our own times. Drawing parallels between past slavery to more modern forms, both are characterized by relatively low costs for purchasing slaves, high profits for traffickers, a short time relation between the slave and trafficker, a large number of potential slaves and a general irrelevance of ethnic differences. Arocha changes the pace of the book by theorizing on slavery through a distinctly (neo)Marxist vantage; a lens that views slavery as a consequence of pre-capitalist societies and suggests economic development as a solution. This is a particularly important chapter since it readies readers for understanding the exploitation of certain segments of society, points further elaborated in the subsequent chapter by Divitti who explores the most vulnerable, children who historically and more contemporarily have been treated as merchandise. Davitti analyses child trafficking from Afghanistan to the United Kingdom and links such actions to international military interventions, the new restrictive migration politics and with global economic development. The following six subsequent chapters' review human trafficking in different countries, each of which serves as a case study. Some are countries of origin while others are countries of destination. Specifically, these chapters offer detailed information about the characteristics, phenomenology, the implementation of international and European legal instruments, state policies for its prevention and suppression, and for reducing of the demand of human trafficking. Wisniewski, Poole, Deighan, Ward and Wylie, Papendreou and Moritz, and Nanu, explore the situations in Poland, Albania, Russia, Ukraine, Ireland, Greece, Cyprus, Germany and Moldova respectively. Following the more empirical central parts of this work, Jobe presents a post-script of trafficking victims after being saved. Through the experiences of 23 trafficked women with the British official authorities, the Jobe traces the victims' psychology vis-a-vis the denial of help, long asylum processes and restrictive immigration policies (in the UK). The Palermo Protocol connects human trafficking with transnational organized criminality and attempts to widely define the phenomenon. However, the definition remains unaccepted as mainstream. With this in mind, McRedmond further elaborates the roles played by organized criminals in modern slavery and works to refine the understandings of the interaction between clandestine traffickers, victims and international approaches to combating the former. Such theorizing also requires empirical testing, a task accepted by Farka who assesses the human trafficking of Albanian children to Greece, and of Albania's legislation and the international law implemented in its codes. This edited volume is dedicated to comprehending human trafficking and acts as a source of knowledge regarding slavery. Comprehensively written, it commences from a global perspective and then turns to focusing on regional and national levels. The work does not omit discussion of the victims and places their needs and rights at the core of the human rights based approach to trafficking advanced throughout the pages of the text. Only through learning from their lives and forced sacrifices can the international community truly understand the entire, deranged process, help victims, prevent new victims and try 'to put modern slavery out of business' once and for all.

Since gaining independence from the British Empire in 1964, Malta has had a very restrictive voting policy. Voter enfranchisement is based on three pillars: citizenship, residence and age. The only exceptions to this rule, introduced in 2004 as a result of EU accession, are the electoral rights granted to EU citizens at local and European Parliament elections. Prior to this, British citizens resident in Malta had already been granted Local Council electoral rights in 1993, when Local Council elections started being held. This latter 'exception' can be attributed to the strong ties between the two countries due to the historical colonial relationship, and by the mere fact that the British expat community is the largest foreign group in Malta. Voting is deeply entrenched in Maltese political culture. An indication of this lies in the consistently high voter turnout at national elections – 96 per cent in 2003 and 93 per cent in 2008. This is the highest for non-mandatory elections worldwide, often superseding even countries where voting is mandatory. The political scientist William Hirzy attributes this high voter turnout to the intense competition between the two main political parties, and the results are always very close; the national elections in 2008 were the closest, won by a mere 1,600 votes. Indeed, elections are preceded by aggressive campaigns, fraught with a confrontational style of electioneering. Loyalties to the two main political parties are 'strong, stable and rooted in social and family backgrounds.' This signifies, and is a result of, what the European studies scholar Michelle Cini has described as the 'extremely high stakes at general elections.' Interestingly, in spite of the fact that Malta uses a version of the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system which allows voters to cross party lists when selecting their candidates, in practice voters tend to vote per party. This shows the paramount importance of party allegiance for the Maltese. With such a deeply pervasive political culture, it is positively. The electoral rights of foreigners, in general, have not been a major topic of discussion in Maltese politics and society. Indeed, the question of enfranchising foreigners is rarely critically addressed by Maltese politicians, major institutions or Maltese society. Alternatives to the present system are hardly ever mentioned, except in some cases by 'Alternattiva Demokratika', the Green Party, a very small party which has only had limited success in a few Local Council elections. Even EU citizens, who have been enfranchised in Local Council and European Parliament elections since 2004, did not managed to stir a significant debate when they encountered difficulties in accessing their electoral rights. This demonstrates the inflexibility towards new alternatives and the reluctance to consider foreign voters on an equal par with Maltese voters. The paucity of debates in this field is interrupted, albeit on a minor scale, by two issues: the question of in-country voting together with the public expense of subsidising flights for eligible voters abroad, and the incident when around 19,000 EU resident citizens (constituting the vast majority) were struck off the Electoral Register in the 2009 EP elections. The first issue is a long-standing debate on the current and exclusive policy of in-country voting. This is a discussion which flares up around each election and is specifically prompted by the practice of the last two decades of offering subsidised flights to Maltese citizens resident in Malta but temporarily abroad. This practice is almost perceived as an entitlement or a right by many who feel that it ensures their access to the right to vote. It is, however, a costly practice when one takes into consideration the increasing number of Maltese people abroad and the newfound difficulty of proving that the minimum residence requirement has been met since Malta acceded to the EU and the Schengen area. In addition, one could also argue that the residency requirement is out-dated in the context of EU membership since it clashes with freedom of movement which is one of the fundamental pillars of the EU. The second issue which has arisen over the last years has to do with EU resident citizens' access to electoral rights in Malta. This had to do with the implementation of EU law and apparently procedural issues. EU resident citizens complain of discriminatory practices, that they were struck off the Electoral Register, and were therefore unable to vote in European Parliament elections. This issue has been championed by the Green Party, the smallest and 'youngest' party which has never managed to elect representatives in Parliament. The fact that this issue, and other issues regarding foreigners in Malta, are championed by the Green Party, and not generally by the main parties, is significant in itself and is to no small degree motivated by a vested interest in bringing about change to the traditional political culture. ; Research for the EUDO Citizenship Observatory Country Reports has been jointly supported, at various times, by the European Commission grant agreements JLS/2007/IP/CA/009 EUCITAC and HOME/2010/EIFX/CA/1774 ACIT, by the European Parliament and by the British Academy Research Project CITMODES (both projects co-directed by the EUI and the University of Edinburgh). The financial support from these projects is gratefully acknowledged. ; peer-reviewed

La lógica del mercado y al cambio de modelo de desarrollo en América Latina, en el intento de poder competir a nivel mundial, ha agudizado las disparidades y el deterioro ambiental. La presión que ejercen las grandes empresas y ciertos grupos con poder, el enquistamiento de una estructura administrativa que puja por mantener esquemas tradicionales ya perimidos y la falta de planificación impiden atender uno de los problemas claves que plantea la economía en el territorio, el de la concentración y los desequilibrios territoriales. Surge entonces el Ordenamiento Territorial como alternativa válida para atenuar estos procesos y dar respuesta a la sociedad. El caso que se presenta pone en el tapete muchos de estos temas que hoy preocupan y puede servir como experiencia transferible y aplicable a otras realidades que buscan consolidar un desarrollo local sustentable. El ante-proyecto de Ley de Ordenamiento Territorial y Usos del Suelo para la provincia de Mendoza, República Argentina, es un instrumento elaborado en el año 2006 por el sector académico-científico que desde una visión interdisciplinaria incorpora fundamentos técnicos y aportes de los actores sociales involucrados. La metodología aplicada permite consensuar por la sociedad en su conjunto los principios que sustentan la Ley, determinar la aplicación de ciertos instrumentos para efectivizar acciones en el territorio y definir una forma innovadora de hacer política, gestionar y planificar el uso del suelo. La propuesta considera al Ordenamiento Territorial como una política de Estado que debe propiciar condiciones de gobernabilidad. Sus principios y normas priorizan la equidad y el bienestar general por encima de los intereses particulares así como también el respeto de los valores y costumbres de la sociedad. Surge de un proceso participativo y sus principios y fines responden a los problemas actuales. Incorpora una serie de instrumentos debidamente jerarquizados conforme a las competencias jurisdiccionales y existencia de distintas escalas geográficas, como también, instrumentos jurídicos y prácticas administrativas innovadoras que permiten la resolución de conflictos territoriales. Identifica además recursos financieros para implementarla y prioriza el fortalecimiento de los mecanismos de control para un funcionamiento más ágil y eficaz de la gestión pública. Sin embargo existen riesgos vinculados a la voluntad política y el poder económico que pueden impedir que esta utopía se transforme en realidad. Solo la participación social es la que puede lograr vencer los intereses en juego y conseguir la aprobación de la Ley. Si esto se consigue se habrá dado un paso muy importante a ser imitado, sin lugar a dudas, en otros lugares de Argentina y América Latina. ; The logic of the market and the changing pattern of development in Latin americas, in an attempt to be able to compete globally, has exacerbated the disparities and environmental degradation. The pressure exerted by large companies and certain groups with power, enquistamiento of an administrative structure that bid to maintain traditional patterns and perimidos and lack of planning impede meet one of the key problems posed by the economy in the territory, the concentration and territorial imbalances. Surge then land use planning as a valid alternative to mitigate these processes and respond to society. The case shown in the table puts many of these issues that concern today and experience can serve as transferable and applicable to other realities that are seeking to consolidate a sustainable local development. The face-Bill spatial planning and land use for the province of Mendoza, Argentina, is an instrument developed in 2006 by academics-from a scientific vision that incorporates interdisciplinary technical foundations and contributions from social actors involved. The methodology allows consensus by society as a whole the principles underpinning the Act, determine the application of certain instruments to effectuate actions in the territory and define an innovative way of doing politics, manage and plan the land use. The proposal considers the spatial planning as a state policy that should promote conditions of governability. Its principles and norms prioritize equity and the general welfare over individual interests as well as respect for the values and mores of society. Surge of a participatory process and its principles and purposes respond to current problems. It incorporates a range of instruments properly classified under the jurisdiction and existence of different geographical scales, as well as legal instruments and innovative management practices that allow the resolution of territorial conflicts. Identifies further financial resources to implement and prioritizes strengthening control mechanisms for a more agile and efficient governance. But there are risks associated with the political and economic power that can prevent this utopia is transformed into reality. Only social participation is what can be done to overcome the interests involved and get the approval of Law. If this is achieved will be given a very important step to be followed, no doubt, elsewhere in Argentina and Latin americas. ; Fil: Gudiño, María Elina. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Instituto de Investigación y Formación para el Ordenamiento Territorial

El modelo de Estado Social de Derecho se adopta bajo el marco de la Constitución de 1991 y es asumido como una concepción jurídica que busca la garantía de los derechos, privilegiando aquellos relacionados con la protección a la vida y los bienes de los ciudadanos. Es por esto que surge la necesidad de garantizar el derecho a la seguridad, término que ha variado con el correr de los tiempos y el desarrollo de las sociedades humanas, especialmente, como consecuencia del conflicto armado. En este orden de ideas, el Estado, al tener como eje principal la protección de la vida propende por un orden público democrático que, elimine todo tipo de amenazas a la población y garantice la protección de los derechos y las libertades de los ciudadanos. Es así que el Estado colombiano frente a los retos que implica el cambio en las formas de violencia y de los actores que las llevan a cabo, y teniendo en cuenta la dicotomía existente entre conflicto armado interno y la urgencia de desarrollar una política pública de seguridad ciudadana con enfoques en seguridad en orden público, se ha dotado de herramientas para cumplir, total o parcialmente, con su función de buscar mecanismos de protección ante la violencia social en procura de garantizar el goce de los derechos de los ciudadanos. Ahora bien, para hacer efectivo el cumplimiento de los derechos de los ciudadanos se acogió y adaptó la concepción de seguridad ciudadana; que constituye una de las dimensiones de seguridad humana que, en términos de Charles-Phillipe David (2008), se define de la siguiente manera: 8 Análisis de la política de seguridad ciudadana y su aporte como herramienta para garantizar derechos a los ciudadanos mediante los planes de desarrollo 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez La seguridad humana se distingue esencialmente [de la seguridad estatal o clásica] por el hecho de que tiene por objeto la protección del individuo y no la protección del Estado, y por el hecho de que las amenazas provienen al mismo tiempo del exterior y del interior de los Estados (p. 62) Por otra parte, el concepto de seguridad ciudadana se orienta a preservar la tranquilidad individual y colectiva de la sociedad ante peligros que pudieran afectarla, garantizando el ejercicio de los derechos y libertades de los ciudadanos, es preciso señalar entonces que, la seguridad ciudadana no solo constituye la lucha contra el crimen, sino que además propende por la creación de un ambiente propicio y adecuado para la convivencia pacífica de las personas, es decir, procura la consolidación de procesos que mejoren las relaciones entre la comunidad y las instituciones encargadas oficialmente de brindar seguridad. De tal forma, dada la amplitud y complejidad de un tema como la seguridad ciudadana, se requiere para su regulación del diseño e implementación de políticas públicas, concepto que para fines de este documento, se adoptó del autor Roth (2017) quien las concibe como: (…) un conjunto de medios y acciones que son tratados, por lo menos parcialmente, por una institución u organización gubernamental con la finalidad de orientar el comportamiento de actores individuales o colectivos para modificar una situación percibida como insatisfactoria o problemática‖. ( p.27) El anterior concepto permite esclarecer el fenómeno de la política pública, tal y como lo señala el autor, haciendo referencia a toda acción que desarrolle el Estado para alcanzar los fines u objetivos ante situaciones consideradas como problemáticas o insatisfactorias, a fin de armonizar y/o afrontar falencias. Esto indica que el Estado, una vez vislumbrada la necesidad de proteger al individuo y el libre ejercicio de sus derechos y libertades, a partir de la garantía de la 9 Análisis de la política de seguridad ciudadana y su aporte como herramienta para garantizar derechos a los ciudadanos mediante los planes de desarrollo 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez seguridad de los ciudadanos, acoge las políticas públicas en materia de seguridad ciudadana como mecanismo para el cumplimiento de su fin. No obstante, la seguridad ciudadana, entendida bajo la perspectiva de Carranza (1995), involucra un concepto verdaderamente amplio y completo, que: Concibe la seguridad de los habitantes, no solamente como la tranquilidad de no ser víctima de hechos delictivos sino, también, de vivir en un Estado constitucional de derecho y de participar de los beneficios del desarrollo en materia de salud, educación, vivienda, y todos los ámbitos del carácter social (p. 21). En términos generales, el Estado ha enfrentado retos a través de la implementación de normatividad e imposición de la fuerza pública, e instituciones encargadas de la seguridad a través de la delegación de funciones, aspecto que se contempló desde la Constitución de 1991 en el artículo 314, que facultó a los alcaldes llevar a cabo el ejercicio de la seguridad, por ser considerados como la primera autoridad de policía. Posteriormente, con la Ley No 62, 1993 se determinó que, tanto alcaldes como gobernadores, junto con la Policía Nacional, deberían diseñar y desarrollar planes integrales de seguridad para las entidades territoriales, conocidos estos como Planes Integrales de Convivencia y Seguridad Ciudadana (PISCC), que resultan de un proceso interinstitucional para el fortalecimiento de la garantía de la seguridad ciudadana. En tiempos más recientes, con la Ley No 1801, 2016 que establece el Código Nacional de Policía, se reglamenta en su artículo 5, capítulo II la convivencia, entendida como ―la interacción pacífica, respetuosa y armónica entre las personas, con los bienes y con el ambiente, en el marco del ordenamiento jurídico‖. 10 Análisis de la política de seguridad ciudadana y su aporte como herramienta para garantizar derechos a los ciudadanos mediante los planes de desarrollo 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez Sin embargo, a pesar de que el Estado colombiano, es un Estado Social de Derecho, que goza de amplia normatividad e institucionalidad, aún se evidencia y de manera cotidiana en los medios de comunicación masiva, una alteración en el goce de los derechos de los ciudadanos en materia de seguridad ciudadana, contrarrestando o menoscabando lo estipulado tanto en la ley, como en las políticas públicas que han sido diseñadas para tal fin. Lo anteriormente expuesto lleva a formular la siguiente pregunta: ¿Cómo en su calidad de políticas públicas, los planes de desarrollo del período 2012-2018, han incidido y contribuido a garantizar el derecho a la seguridad ciudadana? El fundamento de la problemática radica en la necesidad que el Estado busque mecanismos para el cumplimiento de los fines que democráticamente le fueron impuestos, pues el fortalecimiento del orden social, no solo se consolida con la eliminación de factores que puedan desequilibrar a la comunidad, sino con los mecanismos que se impartan para tratarla. Sin embargo, como una posible respuesta a la pregunta planteada se observa que, si bien es cierto, las políticas públicas generan un impacto directo en el bienestar de la sociedad, con el transcurrir de los años y con los índices que se reflejan en los medios de comunicación no se evidencian avances significativos en materia de seguridad ciudadana, respecto a las políticas públicas implementadas para el manejo de la seguridad ciudadana, persistiendo falencias en el sistema. Por tanto, no se ven reflejados en la población, avances significativos en el tema de seguridad ciudadana, en relación al ámbito social, es decir, en el libre goce de los derechos y libertades, por ello, los planes de desarrollo como política pública que regulan el ámbito de la 11 Análisis de la política de seguridad ciudadana y su aporte como herramienta para garantizar derechos a los ciudadanos mediante los planes de desarrollo 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez seguridad se han limitado y no han incidido de manera tal, que den una respuesta positiva frente a la seguridad ciudadana. Ahora bien, para dar respuesta a la pregunta planteada, se tiene como objetivo general i. Estudiar las políticas públicas entre los periodos 2002 a 2018, en materia de seguridad ciudadana, e identificar las líneas de acción y su continuidad en el tiempo. Así mismo, se contemplan como objetivos específicos ii. Conceptualizar las políticas públicas e identificar sus fases y contextualizar la seguridad ciudadana, y también iii. Identificar las herramientas para llevar a cabo el cumplimiento de las políticas, respecto a la seguridad ciudadana. Una vez analizado lo anterior, se tendrá un diagnóstico para esclarecer qué aporte o influencia han tenido los planes de desarrollo, como políticas públicas, en la garantía de los derechos de los ciudadanos, en materia de seguridad ciudadana. De modo tal, que una vez esté recopilada la totalidad de la información y el contenido, respecto al tema objeto de análisis, se podrá dar respuesta a la pregunta formulada. De manera que, para la construcción de una respuesta sólida a la pregunta planteada en este documento, fue necesario concebirla haciendo uso del método cualitativo, dado que se aborda un fenómeno con sus principales problemáticas, y cuyo propósito es la descripción del objeto que se estudia distinguiendo sus características. Igualmente se acudió al método histórico lógico que permite ver el progreso, desarrollo y evolución de las instituciones y normas jurídicas precisando transformaciones de un fenómeno socio jurídico. Por último, la respuesta se halla con apoyo de la dimensión jurídica, teniendo en cuenta que corresponde a la línea del derecho que como conjunto de preceptos conforman un sistema estructurado, con coherencia, y cuya finalidad 12 Análisis de la política de seguridad ciudadana y su aporte como herramienta para garantizar derechos a los ciudadanos mediante los planes de desarrollo 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez radica en encausar y organizar las relaciones sociales con técnicas de control y mediación, regulando y coordinando la coexistencia de la continuidad de la sociedad. Para concluir, gracias al empleo de las metodologías anteriormente señaladas, se puede establecer cuál es el aporte de las políticas públicas, desde su formulación e implementación a una política en materia de seguridad ciudadana, y cómo se ha podido garantizar. ; The model of the Social State of Law is adopted under the framework of the 1991 Constitution and is assumed as a legal concept that seeks the guarantee of rights, privileging those related to the protection of life and property of citizens. That is why the need arises to guarantee the right to security, a term that has varied over time and the development of human societies, especially as a result of the armed conflict. In this order of ideas, the State, having as its main axis the protection of life, tends for a democratic public order that eliminates all kinds of threats to the population and guarantees the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens. In this way, the Colombian State faces the challenges implied by the change in the forms of violence and the actors that carry them out, and taking into account the existing dichotomy between internal armed conflict and the urgency of developing a public security policy citizen with security approaches in public order, has provided tools to fully or partially comply with its function of seeking mechanisms of protection against social violence in order to guarantee the enjoyment of the rights of citizens. However, in order to enforce the fulfillment of the rights of citizens, the conception of citizen security was accepted and adapted; which constitutes one of the dimensions of human security that, in terms of Charles-Phillipe David (2008), is defined as follows: 8 Analysis of citizen security policy and its contribution as a tool to guarantee rights to citizens through the development plans 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez Human security is distinguished essentially [from state or classical security] by the fact that it is aimed at the protection of the individual and not the protection of the State, and by the fact that the threats come simultaneously from outside and inside of the States (p. 62) On the other hand, the concept of citizen security is aimed at preserving the individual and collective tranquility of society against dangers that could affect it, guaranteeing the exercise of the rights and freedoms of citizens, it is necessary to point out that, citizen security not only It constitutes the fight against crime, but also promotes the creation of a favorable and adequate environment for the peaceful coexistence of people, that is, it seeks to consolidate processes that improve relations between the community and the institutions officially responsible for providing security. Thus, given the breadth and complexity of an issue such as citizen security, it is required for its regulation of the design and implementation of public policies, a concept that was adopted by the author Roth (2017) for the purposes of this document, who conceives them as : (.) a set of means and actions that are treated, at least partially, by a government institution or organization in order to guide the behavior of individual or collective actors to modify a situation perceived as unsatisfactory or problematic problem. (p.27) The previous concept allows to clarify the phenomenon of public policy, as indicated by the author, referring to any action that the State develops to achieve the ends or objectives in situations considered as problematic or unsatisfactory, in order to harmonize and / or face shortcomings. This indicates that the State, once envisioned the need to protect the individual and the free exercise of their rights and freedoms, from the guarantee of the 9 Analysis of citizen security policy and its contribution as a tool to guarantee rights to citizens through the development plans 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez citizen security, welcomes public policies on citizen security as a mechanism for the fulfillment of its purpose. However, citizen security, understood from the perspective of Carranza (1995), involves a truly broad and complete concept, which: conceives the safety of the inhabitants, not only as the peace of mind of not being a victim of criminal acts but, also, to live in a constitutional state of law and to participate in the benefits of development in health, education, housing, and all areas of social character (p. 21). In general terms, the State has faced challenges through the implementation of regulations and enforcement of the public force, and institutions responsible for security through the delegation of functions, an aspect that was contemplated since the 1991 Constitution in article 314 , which empowered the mayors to carry out the exercise of security, for being considered the first police authority. Subsequently, with Law No. 62, 1993, it was determined that both mayors and governors, together with the National Police, should design and develop comprehensive security plans for territorial entities, known as Integral Plans for Coexistence and Citizen Security (PISCC) , which result from an inter-institutional process to strengthen the guarantee of citizen security. In more recent times, with Law No. 1801, 2016 that establishes the National Police Code, coexistence is regulated in article 5, chapter II, understood as ―the peaceful, respectful and harmonious interaction between people, with property and with the environment, within the framework of the legal system‖. 10 Analysis of citizen security policy and its contribution as a tool to guarantee rights to citizens through the development plans 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez However, despite the fact that the Colombian State is a Social State of Law, which enjoys broad regulations and institutions, it is still evident and on a daily basis in the mass media, an alteration in the enjoyment of the rights of the citizens in matters of citizen security, counteracting or undermining what is stipulated both in the law and in the public policies that have been designed for this purpose. The foregoing leads us to ask the following question: How, in your quality as public policies, have the development plans for the 2012-2018 period influenced and contributed to guaranteeing the right to citizen security? The basis of the problem lies in the need for the State to seek mechanisms for the fulfillment of the ends that were democratically imposed, since the strengthening of the social order is not only consolidated with the elimination of factors that can unbalance the community, but with the mechanisms taught to treat it. However, as a possible answer to the question posed, it is observed that, although it is true, public policies generate a direct impact on the well-being of society, with the passing of the years and with the indexes that are reflected in the media of communication there are no significant advances in citizen security, regarding the public policies implemented for the management of citizen security, persisting flaws in the system. Therefore, significant advances in the issue of citizen security are not reflected in the population, in relation to the social field, that is, in the free enjoyment of rights and freedoms, therefore, development plans as a public policy that regulate the scope of the 11 Analysis of citizen security policy and its contribution as a tool to guarantee rights to citizens through the development plans 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez security have been limited and have not affected in such a way that they give a positive response to citizen security. However, in order to answer the question posed, it has as a general objective i. Study public policies between 2002 and 2018, in terms of citizen security, and identify the lines of action and their continuity over time. Likewise, they are contemplated as specific objectives ii. Conceptualize public policies and identify their phases and contextualize citizen security, and also iii. Identify the tools to carry out the compliance of the policies, regarding citizen security. Once analyzed the above, there will be a diagnosis to clarify what contribution or influence the development plans have had, such as public policies, in guaranteeing the rights of citizens, in terms of citizen security. Thus, once all the information and content have been compiled, regarding the subject under analysis, the question asked can be answered. So, for the construction of a solid answer to the question posed in this document, it was necessary to conceive it using the qualitative method, given that a phenomenon with its main problems is addressed, and whose purpose is the description of the object being studied distinguishing its characteristics. Likewise, the logical historical method that allows to see the progress, development and evolution of the institutions and legal norms was required, requiring transformations of a socio-legal phenomenon. Finally, the answer is supported by the legal dimension, taking into account that it corresponds to the line of law that, as a set of precepts, forms a structured system, with coherence, and whose purpose 12 Analysis of citizen security policy and its contribution as a tool to guarantee rights to citizens through the development plans 2002-2018. Bertha Lucía Moreno Martínez It lies in prosecuting and organizing social relations with control and mediation techniques, regulating and coordinating the coexistence of the continuity of society. To conclude, thanks to the use of the aforementioned methodologies, it is possible to establish what the contribution of public policies is, from its formulation and implementation to a citizen security policy, and how it has been guaranteed. ; CRAI-USTA Bogotá ; orcid:0000-0003-3147-7488 ; https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=gNTDKPYAAAAJ&hl=es ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001562809 ; http://unidadinvestigacion.usta.edu.co

Il presente lavoro si prefigge la finalità di analizzare taluni aspetti legati al diritto reale di abitazione, con speciale riferimento al divieto di cessione del predetto diritto previsto dall'articolo 1024 del codice civile. Tale problematica, inoltre, è strettamente connessa anche ad altri aspetti pratici, quali l'ipotecabilità e l'espropriabilità del predetto diritto reale. In particolare è apparso opportuno approfondire preliminarmente taluni profili di carattere generale riguardanti il diritto di abitazione, nei limiti in cui essi fossero funzionali alla ricostruzione che si è tentato di proporre. A tal fine, sono stati affrontati alcuni aspetti, quali la natura giuridica e i presupposti soggettivi ed oggettivi, in quanto ritenuti propedeutici al prosieguo della trattazione. In particolare l'esclusione del diritto d' abitazione dal novero dei diritti ipotecabili ha sollevato diverse questioni in dottrina e in giurisprudenza. L'inattitudine del predetto diritto ad essere oggetto d'iscrizione ipotecaria deve essere necessariamente valutato alla luce della propria disciplina. Il diritto d'abitazione consente al titolare di abitare una casa "limitatamente ai bisogni suoi e della sua famiglia" (art. 1022 cod. civ.). Il rapporto che si instaura a seguito della costituzione del diritto è fondato sull'intuitus personae, sia sotto il profilo del contenuto del diritto che sotto il profilo del rapporto dell'habitator con il proprietario dell'immobile. La limitazione dell'esercizio del diritto al soddisfacimento dei bisogni del suo titolare, infatti, da una parte implica che il suo trasferimento ad un terzo potrebbe mutarne il contenuto, con eventuale nocumento per il proprietario; dall'altra implica che qualora la casa risulti di estensione maggiore rispetto alle esigenze dell'habitator, il proprietario potrà goderne per la parte eccedente: il titolare del diritto reale d'abitazione non avrebbe infatti titolo ad opporsi alle ingerenze del proprietario, nei limiti in cui quest'ultimo non molesti il libero godimento dell'altra parte dell'abitazione. Anche sotto questo secondo profilo emerge la personalità del rapporto, essendo rilevante per il proprietario la persona del titolare del diritto, con il quale potrebbe anche trovarsi dover convivere. Tali motivazioni costituiscono la ratio alla base del divieto di cessione e di locazione del diritto in esame, ex art. 1024 cod. civ. Tale divieto costituisce a sua volta il fondamento dell'esclusione del diritto d'abitazione (e d'uso) dall'elenco dei diritti ipotecabili ex art. 2810 cod. civ. La realizzazione della causa di garanzia, infatti, implica che la situazione sostanziale dedotta quale oggetto dell'ipoteca sia alienabile, non potendo immaginarsi una vendita forzata del diritto ove di questo non possa normalmente disporne il titolare. Probabilmente a ciò è legata anche la precisazione posta dall'art. 2810 n. 1) cod. civ., per cui sono ipotecabili gli immobili "che sono in commercio". L'ammissibilità dell'iscrizione ipotecaria sul diritto d'abitazione postula il riconoscimento della sua trasferibilità: è dunque necessaria un'analisi della portata del divieto di cessione di tale diritto posto dall'art. 1024 cod. civ. Come accennato, infatti, tale divieto è posto al fine di tutelare la posizione del proprietario dell'immobile, e dunque a presidio di interessi di natura privatistica: la regola sarebbe quindi applicabile ove non sia diversamente disposto dal titolo costitutivo, mentre con l'accordo di proprietario ed habitator potrebbe prevedersi una più o meno libera cedibilità, grazie al consenso della parte che la disciplina codicistica mira a tutelare. In merito è stato obiettato che il divieto di cessione non solo sia disposto a tutela della posizione del nudo proprietario, ma faccia parte del contenuto stesso del diritto, in quanto al variare del titolare sono destinate a variare anche le esigenze in base alle quali il contenuto di detto diritto è parametrato. In tale ottica, la possibilità che esso circoli, seppure con il consenso del nudo proprietario, porterebbe a rendere variabile la portata stessa del diritto, con conseguente violazione del principio di tipicità e del numerus clausus dei diritti reali, in quanto risulterebbero alterati gli aspetti caratterizzanti della disciplina tipica dell'istituto. Qualora si ritenessero accoglibili siffatte osservazioni, dovrebbe conseguentemente ritenersi che il divieto di cui all'art. 1024 cod. civ. sia inderogabile anche con il consenso del nudo proprietario contro interessato. Il principio della tipicità e del numerus clausus dei diritti reali, infatti, è posto a tutela di interessi di carattere generale, ed ha dunque valenza pubblicistica. Tale principio, come noto, risponde all'esigenza di consentire ai terzi di essere preventivamente a conoscenza dell'esistenza di pesi o vincoli opponibili erga omnes, con conseguente tutela del commercio giuridico; persegue inoltre l'utilità socio-economica di salvaguardare, per quanto possibile, la libertà, l'assolutezza e la pienezza della proprietà fondiaria, ed assurge dunque a principio di rilevanza costituzionale. Altro fondamento del divieto è stato, inoltre, riscontrato in via indiretta nel disposto di cui all'art. 1372 c. 3 cod. civ., per cui è inibita alle parti la stipulazione di contratti ad effetti reali oltre i casi previsti dalla legge. Inoltre, i fautori dell'inderogabilità del divieto ritengono che non sia applicabile al diritto d'abitazione la disciplina che consente il trasferimento dell'usufrutto per un certo tempo o per tutta la sua durata, se non vietato dal titolo costitutivo (art. 980 cod. civ.), mancando in tal caso la compatibilità tra discipline richiesta dall'art. 1026 cod. civ. Nell'usufrutto, infatti, la tutela del nudo proprietario deriva dal fatto che la durata massima del diritto gravante sull'immobile di sua titolarità è ancorata alla durata dell'originario usufrutto su esso costituito. Conseguentemente la cessione del diritto non rischierebbe di produrre una limitazione ulteriore al pieno estendersi delle facoltà proprietarie. Diversamente, in ipotesi di cessione del diritto d'abitazione, la mutevolezza dei bisogni del titolare e della sua famiglia non consente di riprodurre in via pattizia una limitazione del diritto di proprietà che risulti indifferente per il nudo proprietario: la coincidenza dei bisogni del cedente e della sua famiglia con quelli del cessionario e della sua famiglia, infatti, rappresenterebbe un dato verificabile solo a posteriori. La difficoltà di conciliare il patto in deroga al divieto di cessione del diritto d'abitazione con il principio di tipicità dei diritti reali ha condotto parte della dottrina a giustificarne l'ammissibilità ritenendo che esso trasformerebbe il diritto d'abitazione in un altro diritto reale (con conseguente mancata creazione di un diritto reale atipico). In tale ottica, in sede interpretativa potrebbe ritenersi che, con la stipulazione del patto di libera trasferibilità, le parti abbiano inteso in realtà costituire un diritto d'usufrutto, ovvero stipulare un contratto di comodato o di locazione, o che comunque tale diverso diritto esse avrebbero inteso costituire qualora fossero state a conoscenza della nullità del patto (arg. ex art. 1424 cod. civ.). Diversa dall'ipotesi del preventivo patto di cedibilità è quella del trasferimento del diritto con contestuale costituzione in atto di nudo proprietario ed habitator. In tal caso, infatti, il trasferimento potrebbe ottenersi attraverso una rinuncia abdicativa ( la quale deve avere forma scritta art.1350 n.5 e deve essere trascritta ai sensi dell'articolo 2643 n.5) da parte dell'habitator al proprio diritto, con conseguente espansione della nuda proprietà in proprietà piena in virtù del principio di elasticità del dominio. Alla luce di tali premesse, può osservarsi quanto segue. L' intrasferibilità di un diritto reale viene ad incidere anche sulla valutazione del legislatore in ordine all' ipotecabilità del medesimo. La non assoggettabilità ad ipoteca non è conseguenza necessaria dell'inalienabilità, e in diversi casi, pur essendo prevista l'intrasferibilità del diritto, non si esclude che il diritto stesso possa essere ipotecato. Tuttavia, qualora l'intrasferibilità sia connessa, come nel caso dell'abitazione alla natura del diritto, e dunque all'esigenza di preservarne l'identità, che sarebbe invece compromessa dalla circolazione del diritto, le medesime ragioni che valgono ad escluderne l'alienabilità assumono valore determinante anche al fine di escluderne l'assoggettabilità ad ipoteca. E' pacifico l'orientamento secondo il quale il diritto di abitazione, come quello d'uso e il diritto di servitù, non può essere oggetto di ipoteca in quanto non è ricompreso nell'elencazione dell'articolo 2810 del codice civile. L'ipotecabilità di tale diritto non è prevista nemmeno da leggi speciali. Pertanto deve ritenersi che il diritto di abitazione sia inidoneo ad essere oggetto d'ipoteca anche a causa del suo carattere inalienabile. Nel secondo capitolo è stato affrontato il diritto di abitazione spettante al coniuge superstite. La norma di riferimento, l'articolo 540 comma secondo, si trova, com'è noto, nella parte del libro II dedicato ai diritti spettanti ai legittimari e alla loro tutela, e la sua ratio - secondo la Corte Costituzionale (sentenza n. 310 del 26 maggio 1989) va ricercata nella tutela di interessi non patrimoniali quali la conservazione della memoria del coniuge scomparso, il mantenimento del tenore di vita, delle relazioni sociali e degli status symbols goduti durante il matrimonio. La natura giuridica dei diritti ex articolo 540 comma secondo non solo riveste notevole interesse teorico al fine di testare la "messa a punto" degli ingranaggi del complesso meccanismo successorio, ma costituisce un imprescindibile punto di partenza per affrontare - e provare a risolvere - tutte le implicazioni di carattere pratico ed operativo che si presentano all'operatore del diritto. Il diritto di abitazione si "attiva" solo in presenza di determinati presupposti: 1) viene, innanzitutto, in rilievo un PRESUPPOSTO SOGGETTIVO Deve infatti esistere un CONIUGE SUPERSTITE al momento dell'apertura della successione. Il presupposto soggettivo è rispettato anche se il coniuge superstite sia SEPARATO CONSENSUALMENTE o SENZA ADDEBITO? L'articolo 585 c.c. attribuisce al coniuge separato consensualmente o senza addebito gli stessi diritti successori spettanti al coniuge non separato, per cui dovremmo - sulla base di un'applicazione letterale e rigorosa della norma - affermare che ad esso spetti anche il diritto di abitare la casa familiare. Senonchè, in tal caso, risulta "imbarazzante" parlare di abitazione adibita a "residenza familiare" e la norma non avrebbe ragione di essere applicata, venuta meno la sua ratio così come individuata dalla corte costituzionale. 2) viene, poi, in rilievo, quale PRESUPPOSTO OGGETTIVO indispensabile per l'operatività della disciplina in oggetto, l'esistenza di una CASA ADIBITA A RESIDENZA FAMILIARE DI PROPRIETÀ DEL DEFUNTO O COMUNE. Coerentemenente dovrebbe anche sostenerne la sua TRASCRIVIBILITA' A ciò, tuttavia, si oppongono ragioni di ordine pratico: per l'esecuzione della formalità è necessario uno dei titoli previsti dall'articolo 2648 c.c. che, evidentemente, mancano ogniqualvolta si apra una successione legittima. ; The present work aims the purpose of analyzing certain aspects related to the real right of residence, with special reference to the prohibition of the sale of that right under article 1024 of the Civil Code. This issue is also closely related to other practical aspects, such as ipotecabilità and espropriabilità predicted real right. In particular appeared to be investigated preliminarily certain profiles of general questions about the right to housing, to the extent that they were functional reconstruction attempted to propose. To this end, they dealt with some aspects, such as the legal nature and assumptions subjective and objective, as it was considered preparatory to the continuation of the discussion. In particular, the exclusion of the right of 'house from the list of rights ipotecabili raised several issues in doctrine and in jurisprudence. The inadequacy of that law to be the subject of mortgage registration have to be assessed in the light of their own discipline. The right of residence permit the holder to live in a house, "limited to his needs and his family" (Art. 1022 cod. Civ.). The relationship that develops as a result of the establishment of the right is founded sull'intuitus personae, both in terms of the content of the law and in terms of the relationship dell'habitator with the property owner. The limitation of the right to meet the needs of its owner, in fact, on the one hand implies that his transfer to a third party could changing its content, with possible harm to the owner; the other implies that if the house appears wider than the needs dell'habitator, the owner will enjoy it for the excess: the holder of the real right of residence would not in fact entitled to oppose the interference of the owner, to the extent where this does not harassing the free enjoyment of the other part of the house. Also in this second profile emerges the personality of the report, being relevant to the owner the person of the right holder, with which it could also be having to live. These reasons are the rationale for the prohibition of the sale and lease of the right in question, pursuant to art. 1024 cod. civ. This prohibition is in turn the basis for exclusion of the right of residence (and use) the list of rights ipotecabili art. 2810 cod. civ. The realization of the cause of guarantee, in fact, implies that the situation substantially deducted as an object of the mortgage is alienable, unable to imagine a forced sale of the right of where this can not freely dispose of the holder. Probably this is also linked to the specification laid down by. 2810 n. 1) cod. civ., why are ipotecabili properties "that are on the market." The eligibility enrollment mortgage on the right of residence demands acknowledgment of its portability, so it is necessary to analyze the scope of the prohibition of the sale of such right place art. 1024 cod. civ. As mentioned, in fact, such a ban is placed in order to protect the position of the property owner, and therefore in defense of the interests of private nature: the rule would be applicable where it is otherwise entitled constitutive, while with the agreement owner and habitator could be foreseen a more or less free transferability, thanks to permission from the legal provision is intended to protect. About it has been argued that the prohibition of the sale not only is willing to protect the position of the bare owner, but is part of the content of the law, because the variation of the holder are intended to vary the demands under which the content of that law is equated. In this context, the possibility that it circles, albeit with the consent of the bare owner, would make variable the scope of the right, resulting in violation of the principle of typicality and the quantitative ceiling of the real rights, as would be altered the characteristic features typical of the discipline of the institute. If you consider it acceptable in such observations should therefore be concluded that the prohibition in Article. 1024 cod. civ. is unavoidable even with the consent of the bare owner against concerned. The principle of typicality and the quantitative ceiling of real rights, in fact, is designed to protect the interests of a general nature, and therefore value journalism. This principle, as is known, meets the need to enable third parties to be previously aware of the existence of weights or constraints opposable erga omnes, resulting in protection of the legal trade; also pursues the socio-economic utility to preserve, as far as possible, the freedom, the absoluteness and fullness of landed property, and then rises to the principle of constitutional significance. Another basis for the prohibition was also found indirectly in the provision of art. 1372 c. 3 cod. civ., it is inhibited to the parties entering into contracts with real effects beyond the cases provided by law. Moreover, proponents of the ban dell'inderogabilità believe that it is not applicable to the right of residence discipline that allows the transfer of the usufruct for a time or for its entire duration, if not prohibited by the title of incorporation (art. 980 cod . Civ.), lacking in this case the compatibility between disciplines required by art. 1026 cod. civ. Nell'usufrutto, in fact, the protection of the bare owner comes from the fact that the maximum duration of the right levied on the property in its ownership is anchored to the duration of the original usufruct of it consists. Consequently, the transfer of the right might not produce a further limitation to the full extend of the proprietary right. Otherwise, in the event of transfer of the right to housing, the changing needs of the owner and his family can not play on a covenantal a limitation of the right to property that is indifferent to the bare owner: the coincidence of the needs of the transferor and of his family with the assignee and his family, in fact, represent a verifiable data only in retrospect. The difficulty of reconciling the pact in derogation from the prohibition of the sale of the right of residence to the principle of typicality of property rights has led some commentators to justify their eligibility believing that it would transform the right of residence in another real right ( resulting in failure to create a real right atypical). In this context, in the interpretative could be considered that, with the signing of the pact of free transferability, the parties intended to actually be a right to use, or enter into a contract of loan or lease, or that such a different law they would be understood if they had been aware of the invalidity of the covenant (arg. art. 1424 cod. civ.). Different from the hypothesis of the budget pact transferability is that of the transfer of the right with simultaneous constitution in place of bare owner and habitator. In this case, the transfer could be obtained through a waiver abdicativa (which must be in writing and must be transcribed art.1350 n.5 under Article 2643 # 5) by dell'habitator his right, resulting in expansion of the bare property in full ownership by virtue of the principle of elasticity domain. In light of the foregoing, it can be observed the following. The 'non-transferability of a real right is to affect also the assessment of the legislature in order to' ipotecabilità thereof. The not being subject to mortgage is not necessary consequence inalienability, and in several cases, even though there is the non-transferability of the right, it is possible that the law itself may be mortgaged. However, where the non-transferability is connected, as in the case of the dwelling to the nature of the right, and therefore the need to preserve the identity, which would be affected by the movement of the right, the same reasons as apply to exclude the alienability take decisive value also in order to exclude the liability to mortgage. And 'peaceful orientation according to which the right to housing, such as the right of use and easement, can not be the subject of mortgage as there is included in listing of Article 2810 of the Civil Code. The ipotecabilità of this right is not provided even by special laws. Therefore, it must be held that the right to housing is unfit to be the subject of mortgage also because of its inalienable character. In the second chapter was addressed the right to housing payable to the surviving spouse. The reference standard, Article 540 paragraph two, is, as is well known, in part II of the book devoted to the rights due to the heirs and their protection, and its ratio - according to the Constitutional Court (judgment no. 310 of 26 May 1989) to be found in the protection of non-pecuniary interests such as the conservation of the memory of deceased spouse, maintaining the standard of living, social relations and status symbols enjoyed during the marriage. The legal nature of the rights under Article 540 paragraph two not only of considerable theoretical interest in order to test the "fine tuning" of the gears of the complex mechanism of inheritance, but is an essential starting point to address - and try to solve - all practical and operational implications that are presented to the operator's right. The right to housing is "active" only under certain conditions: 1) is, first, raised a ASSUMPTION SUBJECTIVE Must in fact exist a SURVIVING SPOUSE upon opening of the succession. The subjective condition is fulfilled even if the surviving spouse is a separate agreement or WITHOUT CHARGE? Article 585 of the Civil Code attaches to the separated spouse or consensually without charge the same inheritance rights pertaining to the spouse not separated, so we should - based on a literal application of the standard and rigorous - say that it is also entitled the right to inhabit the family home. Except that, in this case, is "embarrassing" to speak of dwelling used as a "family home" and the norm would have no reason to apply, failed its ratio as identified by the Constitutional Court. 2) is, then, in relief, which ASSUMPTION OBJECTIVE indispensable for the operation of the discipline in question, the existence of a HOUSE USED AS A FAMILY RESIDENCE OR COMMON PROPERTY OF THE DECEASED. Coerentemenente should also sustain its TRASCRIVIBILITA ' To this, however, oppose practical reasons: for the execution of the formalities you need one of the securities provided for in Article 2648 cc who obviously lacking whenever you open a legitimate succession. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Persona, impresa e lavoro: dal diritto interno a quello internazionale (XXVII ciclo)

If Bossier City Republican Councilor Vince Maggio
has any ambitions beyond his current political perch, he has an opportunity to
enhance those by putting the brakes on the runaway train of a Manchac
Consulting no-bid contract renewal to run city engineering and other services.

The politics
and legal
dubiousness of granting Manchac yet another shot at an uncompetitively-sought
deal for this service are well-known. Even though the contract doesn't expire
for four-and-half-months, the existing language – technically the original contract
with a half-dozen amendments to be extended by another – mandates renewal
within the week or else it can't add on an extra $26,000 monthly for additional
unspecified duties, hence the rush.

Of the many legal questions hanging over this
approach, all but a question about whether the contract's limitations violate
the city charter's empowerment of the mayor to hire and fire a permanent city
engineer, could
be resolved by formally withdrawing from a renewal and issuing a request-for-qualifications
within the next couple of months. If no action is taken, the contract automatically
renews next month at the current $169,000 per month level, although the city
would have to follow ordinance – which it never has done regarding the Manchac
contract thereby violating its own law – in (dubiously) declaring this service subject
to a single source provider for that to be legal.

In the city's multiple violations of city
procedures, ordinances, and charter that have typified the Manchac saga, Assistant
City Attorney Richard Ray broached a new defense trying to explain away all of
this and thereby legitimizing the idea that the city solicits just one entity,
grooves it a contract, and continually adds to it and extends without any
competition. At the Jan.
2 City Council meeting, Ray suggested that R.S. 38:2318.1 hamstrung
the city in its ability to bid professional services due to a "recent" change
in the law. He claimed that the state "does not allow bidding of professional services
by professional engineers," in that cost factors were disallowed in the letting
of such contracts.

Such an opinion at best was a misunderstanding.
The "change"
in 2021 actually hardly altered the substance of the statute, which had been in
effect since 2006 as the bill's
author noted, calling the amendment "technical" clarifying that not just
design services were subject to it. And since its original enactment, there has
been plenty of competitive bidding at the behest of local governments across
Louisiana, including after the amending bill came into effect.

For example, in 2011 Central
bid out and changed contractors who performed not just engineering services but
almost every city service through a competitive process. Alexandria routinely launches
competitive processes for engineering work. Each and many others do so without
violating the statute because they issue RFQs,
which gather information about the qualifications, capabilities, and experience
of interested parties before inviting them to submit detailed proposals. Then
they select what they consider the best and negotiate a contract with price. "Competitive
bidding" does not have to be on price basis, but upon judgment of the
suitability of a contractor to fulfill adequately or better the needs of the city

Ray did admit that the city could "research" the
issue and said his advice solely applied to requests for proposals, but at no
point did he surrender that a competitive RFQ was an option, sticking with the
misleading line that competition was not permitted. Regardless, nothing in
state law prevents Bossier City from competitive bidding through an RFQ for this
contract nor mandating that it must award through a no-bid, single source
process. At worst, any suggestion otherwise attempts to provide political cover
to handing over a sweetheart deal to a politically-preferred vendor.

If that pricing prohibition even applies in this case.
Ray alleged that statute covered public-private partnerships, even though there
is no other statute nor attorney general opinion that connects that issue to
R.S. 38:2318.1, which itself mentions P3 arrangements only in the context of
the state's Department of Transportation and Development. As no party Councilor
Jeff Darby
– a longtime critic of Manchac's preferred position – and Republican Chris Smith
noted, services under the Manchac contract went well beyond engineering
services and correctly questioned Ray's view.

Along with Republican Councilor Brian Hammons,
when the matter came to a vote they opposed moving it to a final reading scheduled
for this week. But the graybeards, who other than Darby had three times
previously approved extensions – councilors Democrat Bubba Williams
and Republicans David Montgomery
and Jeff Free
– held to form, joined by Maggio to pass it.Prudence dictates that the Council decline any contract
renewal now, have the city give notice that it won't renew it, and then send
out an RFQ to have a contractor in place by Jun. 1. (Besides, of course, the
many legal doubts swirling over the process and contract's validity that argue
for a reconceptualization – a course which the same councilors in the majority
plus Darby were all too eager to pursue when it came to them abrogating
their duty under the Charter to schedule a citizen referendum on term
limits.) It well could be Manchac, who in a response can point out it has a
track record of performance (whether it's all that great is another matter, as
Hammons often has questioned Manchac's penchant for frequent underestimation
and considerably of project costs) with the very tasks demanded. Solicitation
through an RFQ may do nothing to stop insider politics from prevailing, but at
least it creates a stream of public records that citizens can scrutinize to see
whether councilors really did make the best choice for further negotiation.

Maggio is the key here, being the only member of
the majority not to have dealt with the issue before and not wedded to Manchac,
for whatever reason, as are Free, Montgomery, and Williams. There's no rational
reason for him, or any other councilor, to capitulate to an arrangement that
disserves the citizenry by failing to assure it has the best arrangement
possible in appropriate services rendered at an appropriate price. And citizens
can't rely on Republican Mayor Tommy Chandler to back them up, because even
though he could veto a measure passed 4-3 and unlikely have that overridden,
despite almost three years ago complaining about how the previous Council
renewed the deal on the cusp of his assuming office, as most recently he has made
approving noises about the uncompetitive process.

So, it's on Maggio. He either can gain citizens'
confidence that indeed he wishes to spend wisely their money by abandoning the
graybeards, or he can work against citizen interests by joining the
good-old-boys network that puts special interests ahead of the public interest.
Either way, it's a vote that will be remembered next year at this time, in the
middle of city election campaigning.

A survey of official reactions from 11 Global South states outside the Middle East/North Africa region — Brazil, Mexico, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam — reveals a consensus on condemnation of Hamas' attacks. But their statements differ on who's to blame, what's the solution, and what to do next. Most of the states selected in this survey are among the Global South's key middle powers. Four smaller or less influential states — Bangladesh, Kenya, Malaysia, and Singapore — also included.In Latin America, Brazil said it "condemns the series of bombings and ground attacks carried out today in Israel from the Gaza Strip (and) expresses condolences to the families of the victims and expresses its solidarity with the people of Israel.""There is no justification for resorting to violence, especially against civilians," the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs wrote in a statement. "The Brazilian Government urges all parties to exercise maximum restraint in order to avoid escalating the situation."Brazil also "reiterates its commitment to the two-state solution...within mutually agreed and internationally recognized borders" and "reaffirms that the mere management of the conflict does not constitute a viable alternative for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian issue, and the resumption of peace negotiations is urgent."Brazilian President Luiz Inacio "Lula" Da Silva also expressed his "rejection of terrorism in any of its forms" and called for a two-state solution. Brazil, as the United Nations Security Council president for October, called a closed emergency session of the Council this weekend. The meeting failed to agree on a statement.Mexico's foreign ministry "condemns the attacks suffered by the people of Israel (and) calls for an end to this inappropriate violence...to avoid an escalation that (will cause) greater...suffering to the civilian population."The Mexican statement also argued that it is "essential to resume the process of direct and good faith negotiations between both parties...within the framework of the two-state solution...within mutually agreed upon and internationally recognized secure borders in accordance with (United Nations resolutions)."Turning to Africa, Kenya's Ministry of Foreign and Diaspora Affairs "condemns, in the strongest terms possible, the unprovoked attack by Hamas militants" and called on both sides to "exercise restraint and seek a negotiated agreement" to the conflict.Nigeria, for its part, said it is "deeply concerned" at the "outbreak of hostilities between Israel and Hamas" and "calls for de-escalation and ceasefire" and a "peaceful resolution of the conflict through dialogue."South Africa called for an "immediate cessation of violence, restraint and peace." "The new conflagration has arisen from...illegal occupation of Palestine land, desecration of Al Aqsa mosque & Christian holy sites and ongoing oppression of the Palestinian people," the South African foreign ministry said in a statement on Saturday, calling for a return to the "1967 internationally recognized borders with East Jerusalem as capital" and also mentioning "the right of return."Looking at Asia, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi was quoted as saying he is "deeply shocked by the news of terrorist attacks in Israel, adding that he and his government "stand in solidarity with Israel." The Indian foreign ministry had not issued a press release on the crisis at the time of writing.Bangladesh's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that it "denounces the ongoing armed conflict between Israel and Palestine and deplores the resultant loss of innocent civilian lives (and) calls for an immediate ceasefire.""Living under the Israeli occupation and forced settlements in Palestinian territory will not bring peace," the statement continued, adding that Bangladesh "supports a two-state solution, Palestine and Israel, living side by side as independent states free of occupation following UN Resolutions No. 242 and 338."Indonesia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs said it "is deeply concerned with the escalation of conflict between Palestine and Israel.""Indonesia urges the immediate end of violence," the statement said. "The root of the conflict, namely the occupation of the Palestinian territories by Israel, must be resolved, in accordance with the parameters agreed upon by the UN."Vietnam said it is "profoundly concerned" and called "on relevant parties to exercise restraint" and "refrain from taking actions that complicate the situation." Hanoi added that it calls on "relevant parties" to "soon resume negotiations to resolve disagreements through peaceful means, on the basis of international law and the relevant resolutions of the UN Security Council."Meanwhile, Singapore stated that it "strongly condemns the rocket and terror attacks from Gaza on Israel, which have resulted in deaths and injuries of many innocent civilians.""We call for an immediate end to the violence and urge all sides to do their utmost to protect the safety and security of civilians," said a spokesperson for Singapore's foreign ministry.Malaysia said it "is deeply concerned over the loss of so many lives due to the latest escalation of clashes in and around the Gaza Strip. At this critical time...parties must exercise utmost restraint and de-escalate.""The root cause must be acknowledged," the statement continued. "The Palestinians have been subjected to the prolonged illegal occupation, blockade and sufferings, the desecration of Al-Aqsa, as well as the politics of dispossession at the hands of Israel as the occupier.""There should be no...flagrant hypocrisy in dealing with any regime that practices apartheid and blatantly violates...international law," Malaysia's foreign ministry added. "Palestinians have the legal right to live in a state of peace within its own recognised borders based on pre-1967 borders, with East Jerusalem as its capital."While each of these 11 states has, as one could expect, condemned the horrific attack by Hamas, their statements reveal different leanings on Israel. India (though an official foreign ministry statement is still not out) currently seems closest to the Israeli and American position, by invoking terrorism with no mention of de-escalation, the two-state solution, or key UN resolutions on Palestine. Singapore too invokes terrorism. Kenya mentions terrorism indirectly, but calls the Hamas attack "unprovoked." Though the official Brazilian statement does not mention the T word, Lula's comments clearly label the Hamas attacks as terrorism.The seven other states have not characterized the attack as terrorism. Nigeria however avoids criticizing Israel and couches its calls to peace in general terms. Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Africa criticize Israel and specifically cite the Israeli occupation as the root cause. Brazil, Mexico and Vietnam stay focused on restraint, the two-state solution and UN resolutions or relevant international law. If we were to project these reactions on a spectrum of the degree of alignment to U.S. and Israeli positions on the crisis (admittedly a challenging task due to the complexity of the issues involved and the early stage of the responses), India and Kenya seem to be at the end closest to the U.S. and Israel. They are followed by Singapore and Nigeria. Brazil, Mexico, and Vietnam appear to be next.At the other end of this spectrum, and thus relatively the least aligned with Israeli and U.S. positions, lie Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Africa. If the violence in the Middle East escalates much more, as seems likely, expect the diplomatic action to move to the United Nations. We will then know much more about where Global South states stand on the matter.

The next moves have been played in the Bossier City
term limits drama, but don't change the dynamics that put reformers in the
driver's seat.

Last
week, Republican Atty. Gen. Jeff
Landry's office replied to a City Council resolution of Aug.
15 seeking a legal opinion of the status of a petition certified Jul. 10 by
the parish registrar of voters. The city, relying both on its city attorney
Charles Jacobs and an outside opinion written by a lawyer who had worked with
the city previously but who has no particular expertise in this area of law, questioned
whether the petition followed state law and the charter.

The AG's office declined to assess that, stating
that it represents registrars of voters and therefore could not involve itself.
Whereupon GOP Mayor Tommy Chandler placed back on the Council's Aug.
29 agenda an item passed over two weeks earlier: calling an election to have
the electorate consider the petition's lifetime three-term limit, past and
future, on elected officials.

But that also will share space with a resolution
proposed by no party Councilor Jeff Darby
– who along with Republicans David Montgomery,
Jeff Free,
Vince
Maggio, and Democrat Bubba Williams
previously had voted
down an attempt by Chandler to put tardily on the Aug. 1 agenda the other method
to amend the charter by petition, by a Council vote within 30 days of petition
certification – to call for a charter review commission. That would launch a
months-long process that could add some form of term limits to the charter
after voter approval, along with any other items the commission backs.

This signals, at the very least, the Council
majority resisting term limits feels sufficiently threatened by the petition to
feel it operates from a position of weakness. If the petition language
successfully passed voter muster, four of those five would be out of a job come
2025. Proposing this alternative attempts to negotiate a settlement short of
this outcome.

The likely deal behind closed doors is for petition
backers, both on the Council and within the public, to abandon the effort to put
the petition on the ballot in exchange for the commission recommending limits –
even though limits backers Chandler and Republican Councilors Chris Smith and
Brian Hammons could appoint only four of the nine commission members, short of
the needed majority to make recommendations. Thus, the Council majority would
pledge to appoint members in support of limits, but only if these apply starting
with the 2025 term, or perhaps with the commission unlikely to have everything
ready prior to 2025 elections the item could be a retroactive lifetime limit,
but starting with the 2029 term, buying time for the graybeards, who by then all
will have hit ages to draw Social Security full retirement benefits, to stay one
more term if they win reelection.

That being the case, Smith, Hammons, and citizen
backers should approve of Darby's measure – and also Chandler's, because they
hold all the cards. The charter's
language on the matter is unyielding:

Where the petition contains a request that the
ordinance be submitted to a vote of the people, if not passed without veto by
the City Council, the City Council shall either pass without veto the ordinance
without alteration within thirty (30) days after attachment of the certificate
of the registrar of voters to the petition; or forthwith after the registrar of
voters has attached his/her certificate to the petition, the City Council shall
call an election to be held within ninety (90) days thereafter.

A certified petition was received Jul. 10 and
stands before the Council. Since it didn't pass into amendment an ordinance
prior to Aug. 9, the Council now must resolve by Nov. 7 to have a referendum on
the petition language – setting up a Mar.
23, 2024 election during presidential preference primaries, or if passed by
the Sep. 19 regular Council meeting it could make the Nov.
18 statewide general election runoff ballot – to comply with the charter. The
charter doesn't make exceptions for petitions believed to have legal infirmities;
it addresses only certified petitions. Failure to pass that resolution by Nov.
7 violates the Charter and opens the city to litigation. It has no option not
to do this unless it deliberately chooses to violate the law.

Jacobs, perhaps delivering a message on behalf of
the Council majority, repeatedly has said litigation will ensure if the election
is approved, along the lines of years down the road a disqualified councilor
under the petition language will sue to get on the ballot. Well, guess what?
That litigation will come sooner if the Council doesn't put that language on
the ballot.

And if Jacobs, et. al. worry about potential
future legal challenges to a petition that voters put into the Charter, the
commission could take care of that by addressing term limits. Of course, what
term limits backers should do is load up recommendations popular with voters – ordinarily
term limits themselves in any form undoubtedly will pass any citizen vote – but
anathema to the Council graybeards, such as ethics
reform that curtails the chance to make a fortune off of taxpayers as has Montgomery
– and dare the Council majority commission representatives, who will have a 5-4
majority, to vote these down to leave only watered down term limits that would
amend stronger limits voted in previously, and if that happens then lobby the electorate
to deep six the commission's recommendations at the polls. Better, they could get
a tradeoff of weaker term limits (at least for a few years) in exchange for a
whole bunch of structural reforms making Bossier City government far more
prudent, less insider, and more transparent and accountable to the people.

Even if the Council majority wants to play hardball
and votes down the resolution calling the election, this doesn't forestall
litigation and the very act puts them on the record not only opposing term
limits but also acting illegally. Neither would look good for attempted
reelection bids, if eligible, in 2025.

The combination of Smith and Hammons must bring up
and second the agenda item calling the election – which temporally follows the
Darby commission item on the agenda – and put the Council majority on the
record, if not on the hook. They and other term limits backers shouldn't let
blandishments by a power-hungry, untrustworthy Council majority tempt them to throw
away a winning hand that could pay off far beyond the issue at hand.

Key words: patent term extension, supplementary protection, supplementary protectioncertificate, drug patents, patent legislation reform The article is mainly aimed at distinguishingtwo mechanism: patent term extension which used to be applied inUkraine before the patent reform, and supplementary protection certificates whichwere introduced to national legislation in 2020.Patent term extension in the way it was provided in the Ukrainian Patent Law is arather simple mechanism that didn't require much regulations. It used to provide additionalperiod of patent monopolies which was equal to the period which elapsed betweenthe date on which the patent application was filed and the date of the marketingauthorisation, not more than 5 years. Since there were no limitation on the type ofpatent (basic patent) or requirement of the first marketing authorization, this regimeprovided an opportunity to extend not only basic patent term, but also all secondarypatents related to one drug. This created a situation when duration of patent monopolyfor one drug exceeded 35 years.Provided that national pharmaceutical industry is oriented on manufacturing ofgeneric drugs, supplementary protection certificates are more appropriate forUkraine. Firstly, this is due to the limitation of effective patent life to 15 years whichis more feasible considering the national context. Another positive thing about SPCsis some uncertainty in relation to definition of the subject matter and scope of SPCprotection. That means that the country can have some freedom in determining theways of its interpretation. However, it should be noted that such indeterminacy is agrey zone. Thus, it is necessary to consider how the country can benefit from the supplementaryprotection regimen. Since the pharmaceutical sphere is very sensitive,the SPC issues have direct effect on public health and access to treatment. So, the articlejustifies the general idea that implementation of new legislation provisions shallbe aligned with both ensuring pharmaceutical innovations and guaranteeing that thepublic health needs are still a priority. Therefore, considering the long-term negativeeffect of the patent term extension regimen, the new SPC approach should be as balancedas possible. ; Ключові слова: продовження строку дії патенту, додаткова охорона, сертифікатдодаткової охорони, винаходи у сфері фармації, реформа патентного законодавства Стаття присвячена дослідженню питань додаткової охорони винаходів у контекстіреформи національного патентного законодавства України. Проаналізовано недолікиправового регулювання режиму продовження строку дії патенту на винахід до при-йняття Закону України «Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів Українищодо реформи патентного законодавства», а також висвітлено основні відмінності кон-цепції додаткової охорони. Детально проаналізовано мету та завдання додаткової охо-рони в контексті врахування національних інтересів і стану розвитку національноїфармацевтичної галузі. Обґрунтовано більшу гнучкість та адаптивність механізмудодаткової охорони, розкрито можливі опції інтерпретації статті 271 Закону України«Про охорону прав на винаходи та корисні моделі» в частині визначення об'єкта йобсягу додаткової охорони. Посилання Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України щодо реформи патентного законодавства : Закон України від 21.07.2020 р. № 816-IX. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/816-20#Text. Про охорону прав на винаходи і корисні моделі : Закон України від 15.12.1993 р. № 3687-XII. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3687-12/ed20200816#Text. Про затвердження Інструкції про порядок продовження строку дії патенту на винахід, об'єктом якого є засіб, використання якого потребує дозволу компетентного органу : наказ Міністерства освіти і науки України від 13.05.2002 № 298. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0453-02#Text. Угода про асоціацію між Україною, з однієї сторони, та Європейським Союзом, Європейським співтовариством з атомної енергії і їхніми державами-членами, з іншої сторони. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/984_011#Text. Штефан А. Деякі проблеми застосування Угоди про асоціацію як джерела авторського права України. Теорія і практика інтелектуальної власності. 2019. № 1. С. 5−16. Капіца Ю. Сертифікат додаткової охорони лікарських засобів ЄС та продовження строку чинності патенту на винахід в Україні. Теорія і практика інтелектуальної власності. 2016. № 5. С.49–56. Андрощук Г. О. Проблеми патентування винаходів у фармацевтичній галузі: економіко-правовий аспект (Частина І) / Г. О. Андрощук, Л. І. Работягова. Наука, технології, інновації. 2018. № 4. С. 58−67. Peter Yourkin. Making the Market: How the American Pharmaceutical Industry Transformed itself During the 1940s / Peter Yourkin., 2008. Работягова Л. І. Продовження строку дії патенту на винахід: міжнародно-правовий аспект регулювання / Работягова Л. І., Андрощук Г. О. Питання інтелектуальної власності : збірник наукових праць. 2018. Вип. 15. С. 89−108. Council Regulation (EEC) No 1768/92 of 18 June 1992 concerning the creation of a supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products/ OJ L 182, 02.07.1992. P. 1–5. Regulation (EC) No 469/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 May 2009 concerning the supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products (Codified version)/ OJ L 152, 16.6.2009, p. 1–10. Scuffi M. Latest case law concerning supplementary protection certificates / Massimo Scuffi. // Official Journal EPO. 2015. С. 105–119. Літвінова О. В. Інтелектуальні ресурси як фактор інноваційного розвитку фармації / О. В. Літвінова, О. В. Посилкіна. Управління, економіка та забезпечення якості в фармації. 2014. № 6. С. 52−59. =========================== 1. Pro vnesennia zmin do deiakykh zakonodavchykh aktiv Ukrainy shchodo reformy patentnoho zakonodavstva : Zakon Ukrainy vid 21.07.2020 r. № 816-IX. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/816-20#Text. 2. Pro okhoronu prav na vynakhody i korysni modeli : Zakon Ukrainy vid 15.12.1993 r. № 3687-XII. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3687-12/ed20200816#Text. 3. Pro zatverdzhennia Instruktsii pro poriadok prodovzhennia stroku dii patentu na vynakhid, ob'iektom yakoho ye zasib, vykorystannia yakoho potrebuie dozvolu kompetentnoho orhanu : nakaz Ministerstva osvity i nauky Ukrainy vid 13.05.2002 № 298. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0453-02#Text. 4. Uhoda pro asotsiatsiiu mizh Ukraïnoiu, z odniieï storony, ta Yevropey̆skym Soiuzom, Yevropey̆skym spivtovarystvom z atomnoï enerhiï i ïkhnimy derzhavamy-chlenamy, z inshoï storony. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/984_011#Text. 5. Shtefan A. Deiaki problemy zastosuvannia Uhody pro asotsiatsiiu yak dzherela avtorskoho prava Ukrainy. Teoriia i praktyka intelektualnoi vlasnosti. 2019. № 1. S. 5−16. 6. Kapitsa Yu. Sertyfikat dodatkovoi okhorony likarskykh zasobiv YeS ta prodovzhennia stroku chynnosti patentu na vynakhid v Ukraini. Teoriia i praktyka intelektualnoi vlasnosti. 2016. № 5. S.49–56. 7. Androshchuk H. O. Problemy patentuvannia vynakhodiv u farmatsevtychnii haluzi: ekonomiko-pravovyi aspekt (Chastyna I) / H. O. Androshchuk, L. I. Rabotiahova. Nauka, tekhnolohii, innovatsii. 2018. № 4. S. 58−67. 8. Peter Yourkin. Making the Market: How the American Pharmaceutical Industry Transformed itself During the 1940s / Peter Yourkin., 2008. 9. Rabotiahova L. I. Prodovzhennia stroku dii patentu na vynakhid: mizhnarodno-pravovyi aspekt rehuliuvannia / Rabotiahova L. I., Androshchuk H. O. Pytannia intelektualnoi vlasnosti : zbirnyk naukovykh prats. 2018. Vyp. 15. S. 89−108. 10. Council Regulation (EEC) No 1768/92 of 18 June 1992 concerning the creation of a supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products/ OJ L 182, 02.07.1992. P. 1–5. 11. Regulation (EC) No 469/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 May 2009 concerning the supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products (Codified version)/ OJ L 152, 16.6.2009, p. 1–10. 12. Scuffi M. Latest case law concerning supplementary protection certificates / Massimo Scuffi. // Official Journal EPO. 2015. S. 105–119. 13. Litvinova O. V. Intelektualni resursy yak faktor innovatsiinoho rozvytku farmatsii / O. V. Litvinova, O. V. Posylkina. Upravlinnia, ekonomika ta zabezpechennia yakosti v farmatsii. 2014. № 6. S. 52−59.

Key words: patent term extension, supplementary protection, supplementary protectioncertificate, drug patents, patent legislation reform The article is mainly aimed at distinguishingtwo mechanism: patent term extension which used to be applied inUkraine before the patent reform, and supplementary protection certificates whichwere introduced to national legislation in 2020.Patent term extension in the way it was provided in the Ukrainian Patent Law is arather simple mechanism that didn't require much regulations. It used to provide additionalperiod of patent monopolies which was equal to the period which elapsed betweenthe date on which the patent application was filed and the date of the marketingauthorisation, not more than 5 years. Since there were no limitation on the type ofpatent (basic patent) or requirement of the first marketing authorization, this regimeprovided an opportunity to extend not only basic patent term, but also all secondarypatents related to one drug. This created a situation when duration of patent monopolyfor one drug exceeded 35 years.Provided that national pharmaceutical industry is oriented on manufacturing ofgeneric drugs, supplementary protection certificates are more appropriate forUkraine. Firstly, this is due to the limitation of effective patent life to 15 years whichis more feasible considering the national context. Another positive thing about SPCsis some uncertainty in relation to definition of the subject matter and scope of SPCprotection. That means that the country can have some freedom in determining theways of its interpretation. However, it should be noted that such indeterminacy is agrey zone. Thus, it is necessary to consider how the country can benefit from the supplementaryprotection regimen. Since the pharmaceutical sphere is very sensitive,the SPC issues have direct effect on public health and access to treatment. So, the articlejustifies the general idea that implementation of new legislation provisions shallbe aligned with both ensuring pharmaceutical innovations and guaranteeing that thepublic health needs are still a priority. Therefore, considering the long-term negativeeffect of the patent term extension regimen, the new SPC approach should be as balancedas possible. ; Ключові слова: продовження строку дії патенту, додаткова охорона, сертифікатдодаткової охорони, винаходи у сфері фармації, реформа патентного законодавства Стаття присвячена дослідженню питань додаткової охорони винаходів у контекстіреформи національного патентного законодавства України. Проаналізовано недолікиправового регулювання режиму продовження строку дії патенту на винахід до при-йняття Закону України «Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів Українищодо реформи патентного законодавства», а також висвітлено основні відмінності кон-цепції додаткової охорони. Детально проаналізовано мету та завдання додаткової охо-рони в контексті врахування національних інтересів і стану розвитку національноїфармацевтичної галузі. Обґрунтовано більшу гнучкість та адаптивність механізмудодаткової охорони, розкрито можливі опції інтерпретації статті 271 Закону України«Про охорону прав на винаходи та корисні моделі» в частині визначення об'єкта йобсягу додаткової охорони. Посилання Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України щодо реформи патентного законодавства : Закон України від 21.07.2020 р. № 816-IX. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/816-20#Text. Про охорону прав на винаходи і корисні моделі : Закон України від 15.12.1993 р. № 3687-XII. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3687-12/ed20200816#Text. Про затвердження Інструкції про порядок продовження строку дії патенту на винахід, об'єктом якого є засіб, використання якого потребує дозволу компетентного органу : наказ Міністерства освіти і науки України від 13.05.2002 № 298. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0453-02#Text. Угода про асоціацію між Україною, з однієї сторони, та Європейським Союзом, Європейським співтовариством з атомної енергії і їхніми державами-членами, з іншої сторони. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/984_011#Text. Штефан А. Деякі проблеми застосування Угоди про асоціацію як джерела авторського права України. Теорія і практика інтелектуальної власності. 2019. № 1. С. 5−16. Капіца Ю. Сертифікат додаткової охорони лікарських засобів ЄС та продовження строку чинності патенту на винахід в Україні. Теорія і практика інтелектуальної власності. 2016. № 5. С.49–56. Андрощук Г. О. Проблеми патентування винаходів у фармацевтичній галузі: економіко-правовий аспект (Частина І) / Г. О. Андрощук, Л. І. Работягова. Наука, технології, інновації. 2018. № 4. С. 58−67. Peter Yourkin. Making the Market: How the American Pharmaceutical Industry Transformed itself During the 1940s / Peter Yourkin., 2008. Работягова Л. І. Продовження строку дії патенту на винахід: міжнародно-правовий аспект регулювання / Работягова Л. І., Андрощук Г. О. Питання інтелектуальної власності : збірник наукових праць. 2018. Вип. 15. С. 89−108. Council Regulation (EEC) No 1768/92 of 18 June 1992 concerning the creation of a supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products/ OJ L 182, 02.07.1992. P. 1–5. Regulation (EC) No 469/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 May 2009 concerning the supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products (Codified version)/ OJ L 152, 16.6.2009, p. 1–10. Scuffi M. Latest case law concerning supplementary protection certificates / Massimo Scuffi. // Official Journal EPO. 2015. С. 105–119. Літвінова О. В. Інтелектуальні ресурси як фактор інноваційного розвитку фармації / О. В. Літвінова, О. В. Посилкіна. Управління, економіка та забезпечення якості в фармації. 2014. № 6. С. 52−59. =========================== 1. Pro vnesennia zmin do deiakykh zakonodavchykh aktiv Ukrainy shchodo reformy patentnoho zakonodavstva : Zakon Ukrainy vid 21.07.2020 r. № 816-IX. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/816-20#Text. 2. Pro okhoronu prav na vynakhody i korysni modeli : Zakon Ukrainy vid 15.12.1993 r. № 3687-XII. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3687-12/ed20200816#Text. 3. Pro zatverdzhennia Instruktsii pro poriadok prodovzhennia stroku dii patentu na vynakhid, ob'iektom yakoho ye zasib, vykorystannia yakoho potrebuie dozvolu kompetentnoho orhanu : nakaz Ministerstva osvity i nauky Ukrainy vid 13.05.2002 № 298. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0453-02#Text. 4. Uhoda pro asotsiatsiiu mizh Ukraïnoiu, z odniieï storony, ta Yevropey̆skym Soiuzom, Yevropey̆skym spivtovarystvom z atomnoï enerhiï i ïkhnimy derzhavamy-chlenamy, z inshoï storony. URL : https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/984_011#Text. 5. Shtefan A. Deiaki problemy zastosuvannia Uhody pro asotsiatsiiu yak dzherela avtorskoho prava Ukrainy. Teoriia i praktyka intelektualnoi vlasnosti. 2019. № 1. S. 5−16. 6. Kapitsa Yu. Sertyfikat dodatkovoi okhorony likarskykh zasobiv YeS ta prodovzhennia stroku chynnosti patentu na vynakhid v Ukraini. Teoriia i praktyka intelektualnoi vlasnosti. 2016. № 5. S.49–56. 7. Androshchuk H. O. Problemy patentuvannia vynakhodiv u farmatsevtychnii haluzi: ekonomiko-pravovyi aspekt (Chastyna I) / H. O. Androshchuk, L. I. Rabotiahova. Nauka, tekhnolohii, innovatsii. 2018. № 4. S. 58−67. 8. Peter Yourkin. Making the Market: How the American Pharmaceutical Industry Transformed itself During the 1940s / Peter Yourkin., 2008. 9. Rabotiahova L. I. Prodovzhennia stroku dii patentu na vynakhid: mizhnarodno-pravovyi aspekt rehuliuvannia / Rabotiahova L. I., Androshchuk H. O. Pytannia intelektualnoi vlasnosti : zbirnyk naukovykh prats. 2018. Vyp. 15. S. 89−108. 10. Council Regulation (EEC) No 1768/92 of 18 June 1992 concerning the creation of a supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products/ OJ L 182, 02.07.1992. P. 1–5. 11. Regulation (EC) No 469/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 May 2009 concerning the supplementary protection certificate for medicinal products (Codified version)/ OJ L 152, 16.6.2009, p. 1–10. 12. Scuffi M. Latest case law concerning supplementary protection certificates / Massimo Scuffi. // Official Journal EPO. 2015. S. 105–119. 13. Litvinova O. V. Intelektualni resursy yak faktor innovatsiinoho rozvytku farmatsii / O. V. Litvinova, O. V. Posylkina. Upravlinnia, ekonomika ta zabezpechennia yakosti v farmatsii. 2014. № 6. S. 52−59.

One of the distinguishing features of man as a biological individual who is able to comprehend meaningfully the reality surrounding him and manage his actions is consciousness. Depending on the scientific-theoretical approaches or applied needs, it is customary to apply a certain differentiation of definitions of the concept of consciousness, for example, everyday or political, individual or mass, the consciousness of school or student youth, and other. One of its varieties, perhaps the most important at the present stage of development of society and statehood, is the legal consciousness of man. The problem of the formation and functioning of the human sense of justice is one of the most popular and constantly developed in a number of scientific fields.The purpose of the work is to study the state of scientific knowledge of the legal consciousness and legal culture of student, future pharmacists in the context of legal education in the university.Materials and methods. According to a specific goal, the research was based on the analysis of international and national legislation, the database of scientific research developments of the National Library of Ukraine V.I. Vernadsky, the study of author's scientific works and professional publications on the formation of consciousness, legal consciousness and legal culture of youth, in particular, student.Methods of research - bibliographic, linguistic, comparative analysis, content-legal analysis.Results. The basic link of society is a person, as a biological individual, to which such mental entities as mind, consciousness and will are inherent. These qualities enable it to critically perceive the surrounding being, to realize and determine its place in the society, to program its perspective and direct its actions according to a specific goal. A specific form of consciousness is legal consciousness (legal awareness) - the system of reflecting the legal reality in views, theories, concepts, feelings, people's ideas about law, its place and role in ensuring the freedom of the individual and other universal values. The level of assimilation by members of society of legal values (legal norms and principles, skills of lawful behavior, respect for law, etc.), the degree of mastering them and their practical implementation is a legal culture. It is an integral part of the general culture of both the society as a whole and its member, demonstrating the level of rightness and legal activity of society.Conclusions. During the research it was proved that the formation and improvement of the legal consciousness and legal culture is required by student youth, as the main bearer of the intellectual and physical potential of the nation. The issues of formation of legal consciousness and legal culture of students acquires special significance; these categories of youth should be formed not only by professionals of high qualification, but also by highly moral, highly cultured and law-conscious citizens - the real elite of a civilized, democratic society declared by the Constitution of Ukraine. ; Одной из отличительных черт человека как биологического индивида, способного осмысленно познавать окружающую его действительность и управлять своими действиями, поступками, является сознание. В зависимости от научно-теоретических подходов или прикладных нужд принято дифференцировать определение понятия «сознание»: бытовое или политическое, индивидуальное или массовое, сознание школьной или студенческой молодежи и тому подобное. Одним из его разновидностей, возможно, наиболее важным на современном этапе развития общества и государственности, является правовое сознание человека. Проблема формирования и функционирования правосознания человека – одна из самых популярных и постоянно разрабатываемых в ряде научных областей.Цель работы – исследование состояния научной изученности правового сознания и правовой культуры студентов – будущих провизоров, в контексте правового образования в условиях университета.Материалы и методы. В соответствии с определенной целью исследование базировалось на анализе международного и национального законодательства, базы данных научно-исследовательских разработок Национальной библиотеки Украины имени В. И. Вернадского, изучении авторских научных работ и профессиональных публикаций по вопросам формирования сознания, правового сознания и правовой культуры молодежи, в частности, студенческой. Методы исследования – библиографический, лингвистический, сравнительный, содержательно-правовой анализ.Результаты. Базовым звеном общества является человек как биологический индивид, которому присущи психические образования: ум, сознание и воля. Названные качества обеспечивают ему возможность критически воспринимать окружающее бытие, осознавать и определять свое место в социуме, программировать перспективу и направлять свои действия согласно определенной цели. Специфической формой сознания является правовое сознание (правосознание) – система отражения правовой действительности во взглядах, теориях, концепциях, чувствах, представлениях людей о праве, его месте и роли в обеспечении свободы личности и других общечеловеческих ценностей. Уровень усвоения членами общества правовых ценностей (правовых норм и принципов, навыков правомерного поведения, уважения к праву и так далее), степень овладения ими и практическое внедрение в жизнь – это правовая культура. Она является составной частью общей культуры как общества в целом, так и его члена, демонстрирующего уровень правосознания и правовой активности общества.Выводы. В ходе исследования доказано, что студенческая молодежь как главный носитель интеллектуального и физического потенциала нации нуждается в формировании и совершенствовании правового сознания и правовой культуры. Вопросы формирования правового сознания и правовой культуры студентов приобретают особое значение, эта категория молодежи должна быть сформирована не только как профессионалы высокой квалификации, а, что не менее важно, высоконравственными, высококультурными и правосознательными гражданами – действительной элитой цивилизованного, демократического общества, задекларированного Конституцией Украины. ; Однією з визначальних рис людини як біологічного індивіда, який здатний осмислено пізнавати навколишню дійсність та управляти своїми діями, поступками, є свідомість. Залежно від науково-теоретичних підходів чи прикладних потреб заведено диференціювати визначення поняття «свідомість»: побутова або політична, індивідуальна або масова, свідомість шкільної чи студентської молоді тощо. Одним з її різновидів, можливо, найважливішим на сучасному етапі розвитку суспільства та державності, є правова свідомість людини. Проблема формування та функціонування правосвідомості людини є однією з популярних і постійно розроблюваних у низці наукових галузей.Мета роботи – вивчення стану наукового дослідження правової свідомості та правової культури студентів – майбутніх провізорів, у контексті правової освіти в умовах університету.Матеріали та методи. Відповідно до визначеної мети, дослідження базувалось на аналізі міжнародного та національного законодавства, бази даних науково-дослідних розробок Національної бібліотеки України імені В. І. Вернадського, вивченні авторських наукових робіт і фахових публікацій із питань формування свідомості людини, правової свідомості та правової культури молоді, зокрема студентської. Методи дослідження – бібліографічний, лінгвістичний, порівняльний, змістовно-правовий аналіз.Результати. Базовою ланкою суспільства є людина як біологічний індивід, якому притаманні такі психічні утворення, як розум, свідомість і воля. Ці якості забезпечують можливість критично сприймати навколишнє буття, усвідомлювати та визначати своє місце в соціумі, програмувати свою перспективу та скеровувати свої дії згідно з визначеною метою. Специфічною формою свідомості є правова свідомість (правосвідомість) - система відбиття правової дійсності в поглядах, теоріях, концепціях, почуттях, уявленнях людей про право, його місце та роль щодо забезпечення свободи особи та інших загальнолюдських цінностей. Рівень засвоєння членами суспільства правових цінностей (правових норм і принципів, навичок правомірної поведінки, поваги до права тощо), ступінь оволодіння ними та практичного впровадження в життя – це правова культура, що є складовою загальної культури як суспільства загалом, так і його окремого члена, який демонструє рівень правосвідомості та правової активності суспільства.Висновки. Під час дослідження доведено, що формування, вдосконалення правової свідомості та правової культури потребує студентська молодь як головний носій інтелектуального та фізичного потенціалу нації. Питання формування правової свідомості та правової культури студентів набуває особливого значення, ця категорія молоді має бути сформована не тільки професіоналами високої кваліфікації, а, що не менш важливо, високоморальними, висококультурними та правосвідомими громадянами – дійсною елітою цивілізованого, демократичного суспільства, що проголошено Конституцією України.

With the formation and stabilization of the Ukrainian economy become crucial importance issues of quality and competitiveness of domestic products. In Ukraine produced and supplied to the realization of a significant number of sausage products which can cause in certain conditions the risk to the consumer (poor-quality materials, violations of sanitary regulations during production, realization, etc).This applies to of sausage products produced on entities of small businesses and individual enterprises, which lacks a system of self-monitoring safety according to requirements of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points.The domestic legislatures have repeatedly tried to introduce criminal liability for substandard products production and only in 2013 in The Supreme Council of Ukrainewas consider the draft law "On responsibility for producing low-quality products". It provides greater responsibility to producers for quality products appropriate amendments in 13 laws of Ukraine, the Law "On withdrawal from circulation, processing, recycling, destruction, or further use of low-quality and dangerous products", "On veterinary medicine ", etc [4].September 20, 2016 came into force the Law of Ukraine "On basic principles and requirements for safety and food quality", according to which responsibility fully entrusted to producer. Therefore, it should be noted that one reason for the production and realization of low-quality of sausage products there is imperfect veterinary and sanitary control in production and realization.In addition, the low providing meat products to population of Ukraine has led to a deficiency of animal protein (33%), which is a serious basis for the development of scientifically based ways and control of safety and quality not only raw materials, but also technology production of meat products [5].According to the Committee for Protection of Consumer Rights: In Ukraine 80% food products are falsified. The most common is to replace the food due to substitutes with another species and lower quality. Such fake often occurs in the production of sausages.Objective: to study the quality and safety of sausage products that came to realization on agricultural markets of Odessa, Ukraine.Material and methods. Research conducted at the Department of veterinary and sanitary expertise Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Odessa State Agrarian University, and in government laboratories veterinary and sanitary expertise in agricultural markets Odessa.Samples of sausages were taken with doctors state laboratories of veterinary-sanitary expertise that control the quality of animal products for trade facilities. Studies conducted in the laboratory of veterinary-sanitary examination of the Odessa State Agrarian University according to State Standard 4436: 2005; State Standard 4435: 2005; State Standard 4427: 2005.Results and discussion. For research were taken three types of sausages: boiled, half smoked and summer sausage, which passed veterinary and sanitary control official doctors, in compliance with existing "Rules of veterinary inspection before slaughter animals and veterinary and sanitary expertise of meat and meat products" (paragraph 17) and were recognized high-quality by the applicable regulations.The samples examined in the laboratory of veterinary and sanitary expertise OSAU and Odesa regional state veterinary laboratory in accordance with the applicable "Mandatory minimum list of research row materials, products of plant and animal origin, etc".Research of sausages conducted by external examination of all parties of sausages, 10% sausage baguettes without cuts and 1% - with cuts. Visual inspection identified: general appearance, odor, presence of fat flows ("lanterns") and other defects.In the context of baguette identified color minced meat and bacon, minced meat texture, presence of gray spots and foreign matter. The smell quickly identified by breakage baguette. Frankfurters and wieners examined by warming up in the water.High-quality sausage products conform the following requirements: shell clean, dry, no spots, no damage, tight to the forcemeat. Color baguettes on cuts are homogeneous, complies the assortment. Mincemeat without gray spots, evenly mixed with bacon, white with transparent hue (the first class of sausages may be 10% with yellow shade, second - 15%). Sausages have flavor with spices and smoking, pleasant taste, without other smells, well cooked.The overall qualitative assessment of sausage products installed after tasting by a commission of a 9-point scale with the main indicators: appearance, color, texture, smell and taste.Conducted research it was found that all samples of sausages were good quality by organoleptic characteristics. Organoleptic evaluation of boiled sausages conducted according to State Standard 4436: 2005. Thus the sausage "Lyubytelska" is fully conform to high grade, small straight baguettes length 45 cm, with one transverse ligation in the middle. The look forcemeat on the cut in all samples had a light pink color, was equally milled, without cavities and gray spots, containing pieces of bacon a white color, sides size till 6 mm.Summer sausages organoleptic evaluation was conducted in accordance with State Standard 4427: 2005. So, after evaluation the sausage "Moskovskaya" conform to the high grade of sausages, with a pleasant, moderately salty and slightly spicy flavor, aroma with spices and smoked, without foreign taste and odor. Baguettes were straight, length 27 cm, with transverse ligations in the middle. The view forcemeat on the cut without gray spots and cavities, equally mixed, with pieces of bacon no larger than 6 mm.Sausage "Lyubytelska" after organoleptic research referred to the first class and had a nice flavor with aroma of spices and smoked. Baguettes straight, length 40 cm, with four transverse ligations at an equal distance. Mincemeat without gray spots, contains no cavities, evenly mixed with pieces of bacon no larger than 8 mm.Sausage "Cervelat" referred to higher grade, pleasant taste (slightly spicy and salty taste, without foreign smell), with a pronounced flavor of spices and smoked. Baguettes are straight, length of 20 to 40 cm, with three transverse ligations at the upper end of long loaf. Mincemeat on the cut looks equally mixed, with no gray spots and cavities, contains pieces of pork no larger than 3 mm.Sausages which by appearance and organoleptic evaluation had admitted high-quality - in the laboratory investigated also by tasting.During the tasting evaluation found that the quality of sausages, which are realized in agricultural markets, had a tasting score range from 7.8±0.1 to 8.6±0.2, which is relatively high valuation.Regarding specific quality, the lowest evaluation was tasting the sausage the second grade "Chayna" for all indicators from 7.8±0.2 to 7.9±0.2. Low tasting evaluation of these indicators is due, most likely, failure with veterinary and sanitary requirements for the realization of sausages on agricultural markets. The highest quality sausages were rated "Lyubytelska " with a total score of 8.6±0.2 points, "Cracivska" - 8.5±0.2 and "Moskovskaya " - 8.5±0.2.Conclusions and prospects. Summarizing the results of research by organoleptic estimate of sausages that were made at agricultural markets to the realization, revealed that all examined sausages were good-quality. For 9-point scale, the quality varied in the range of 7.8 to 8.6 points, corresponding to the current requirements.In the future, will present materials on microbiological and chemical-toxicological studies. ; Наведено результати органолептичних досліджень і дегустаційної оцінки ковбасних виробів, які реалізуються в умовах агропродовольчих ринків м. Одеси. За органолептичними показниками ковбаси відповідали чинним вимогам, а дегустаційна оцінка коливалася від 7,8 до 8,9 балів за дев'ятибальною шкалою.