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Purpose. The article is devoted to the cultural aspect of texts using in European culture. The paper found out methodological basis of correctly interpreting the term "practice" in the philosophical and sociological discourses. In the first case the concept reveals human nature; appealing to the field of ethics and intersubjective interactions. In sociological approach the term practice is contrasted to institutional life. It seems to be an organic; vital relevance of actions for contrast to the mechanically regulated community life. Methodology. The paper considered the typology of human intellectual conditions according to Kant's divided into pure and practical reason. The last one directs action-willed individual efforts so as to meet the universal relevance and ethical coherence. Gottlieb Fichte interpreted practice reason as the way to combine intellectual intentions and material conditions of human being. G. W. F. Hegel enriched the concept with terms of "objectification" and "alienation" of labour. Karl Marx formulated the main features of activity approach to the human nature exploring. In sociological discourse the term practice is opposed to mechanically done actions (according to institutional normativity). Given the philosophical and sociological methodological contexts the reading is studied as activity that aimed emotional and volitional contact with sense. Originality. The paper analysed the genealogy of reading practices. There were selected two types of text perception – rapid "masculine" and prudent "women's" reading. Women salon environment of the XVIII-th century capitalistic Europe was the main condition for the forming of literary-aware public. The authors analysed the process of reading of the text-as-satisfaction and text-as-pleasure (R. Barthes). The work presents the overview of classical studies of sociocultural field: Thorstein Veblen; Vladimir Toporov; Rolan Barthes and contemporary researchers such as T. Markova (2013); A. Smahtinova (2015); B. Jack (2013); D. G. Scott (2015); R. A. Fullerton (2016). Conclusions. The practice of thoughtful reading connects the subject with culture; makes a man coeval to any historical era. Using the text; a person faces the cultural meanings without any institutional mediation; thus forming self-identity.

This paper analyzes the forms of self-management of the body, understood as the production of body and symbolic frontiers that women sex workers hold in relation with their clients, discussing the notion of "selling the body" as a scientific and political argument used to justify the government of women's bodies. Through a reflexive ethnographic approach that privileges native discourse, we will specially attend to the creation of notions such as working tool, the provision of sexual services and the selection of clients as precise ways of regulating the involvement of the self and intimacy in the exchanges of sex for money. This implies shedding light on the process of learning how to deal daily with relationships in the world of prostitution, understanding that management of body boundaries, borders, familiarities and hierarchies is an integral part of monetary relations in the contemporary world. In this sense, we will seek to make a contribution to the fruitful relationship between body and sexualities studies and sociology and economic anthropology. ; El presente trabajo se propone analizar las formas de autogestión corporal, entendidas como producción de demarcaciones corporales y simbólicas, que sostienen las mujeres trabajadoras sexuales en relación a sus clientes, problematizando la noción de "venta del cuerpo" como argumento científico y político para justificar el gobierno del cuerpo de las mujeres. Es así que, a través de un enfoque etnográfico con reflexividad, que privilegia el discurso de las protagonistas, prestaremos especial atención a la creación de las nociones de herramienta de trabajo, prestación de servicios sexuales y selección de los clientes como maneras precisas de regular las formas de involucramiento del yo y la intimidad en el intercambio de sexo por dinero. Esto implica echar luz sobre los procesos de aprendizaje sobre cómo lidiar cotidianamente con las relaciones del mundo de la prostitución, entendiendo que la autogestión corporal de demarcaciones, fronteras, familiaridades y jerarquías es parte constitutiva de las relaciones monetarias en el mundo contemporáneo. En este sentido, buscaremos hacer una contribución a la relación fructífera entre estudios del cuerpo y de las sexualidades y la sociología y antropología económicas.

Background: Smallholders have begun to take advantage of a growing pool of investment in climate change mitigation. Meanwhile, early movers in this area are working to develop innovative models that will allow projects to be nancially sustainable and scalable while bene ting local actors. This study focuses on two of these projects in East Africa, managed by Vi Agroforestry in Kenya and ECOTRUST in Uganda. They engaged in a participatory action research process to identify ways that local actors could take on expanded roles within the projects. Results: Results are presented as case studies which include project context, roles of local project actors, actions selected, and the outcomes of the actions on the key actors targeted. The actions focused on building the capacities of community-based intermediaries, facilitating partnerships with local government and local non-governmental organizations, and supporting a more active role played by women. Key ndings from this process were that com- munity-based intermediaries can play a leading role in land management trainings; local government involvement is critical to project success; local non-governmental organizations and businesses can play central roles in training and providing market incentives to farmers to implement sustainable practices; and women's roles in projects can grow if project bene ts are aligned with their needs and trainings are made more accessible. Conclusions: These cases demonstrate that there is substantial scope for the responsibilities within agricultural carbon projects, and by extension climate-smart agriculture initiatives more broadly, to be institutionalized at the local level. However, regardless of the institutional setup, due to carbon market factors beyond the control of these projects, the nancial case for smallholder projects that rely solely on nancing from carbon credits remains chal- lenging to these projects and others like them. As programmatic and policy-led approaches grow from these project models, it may be easier to nd ways to integrate carbon nancing with support for climate change adaptation, rural development, and ecosystem services provision. With these new models, the ability to institutionalize management and implementation capacity at the local level will remain critically important.

El presente trabajo se propone analizar las formas de autogestión corporal, entendidas como producción de demarcaciones corporales y simbólicas, que sostienen las mujeres trabajadoras sexuales en relación a sus clientes, problematizando la noción de "venta del cuerpo" como argumento científico y político para justificar el gobierno del cuerpo de las mujeres. Es así que, a través de un enfoque etnográfico con reflexividad, que privilegia el discurso de las protagonistas, prestaremos especial atención a la creación de las nociones de herramienta de trabajo, prestación de servicios sexuales y selección de los clientes como maneras precisas de regular las formas de involucramiento del yo y la intimidad en el intercambio de sexo por dinero. Esto implica echar luz sobre los procesos de aprendizaje sobre cómo lidiar cotidianamente con las relaciones del mundo de la prostitución, entendiendo que la autogestión corporal de demarcaciones, fronteras, familiaridades y jerarquías es parte constitutiva de las relaciones monetarias en el mundo contemporáneo. En este sentido, buscaremos hacer una contribución a la relación fructífera entre estudios del cuerpo y de las sexualidades y la sociología y antropología económicas. ; This paper analyzes the forms of self-management of the body, understood as the production of body and symbolic frontiers that women sex workers hold in relation with their clients, discussing the notion of "selling the body" as a scientific and political argument used to justify the government of women's bodies. Through a reflexive ethnographic approach that privileges native discourse, we will specially attend to the creation of notions such as working tool, the provision of sexual services and the selection of clients as precise ways of regulating the involvement of the self and intimacy in the exchanges of sex for money. This implies shedding light on the process of learning how to deal daily with relationships in the world of prostitution, understanding that management of body boundaries, borders, familiarities and hierarchies is an integral part of monetary relations in the contemporary world. In this sense, we will seek to make a contribution to the fruitful relationship between body and sexualities studies and sociology and economic anthropology.

AbstractThis article investigates the factors that drive governments to pay attention to gender equality issues and place them upon executive agendas. In line with studies of the dynamics of issue attention, which demonstrate the importance of investigating variability in the attention policy makers give to issue demands across policy domains, this article argues that policy issues related to gender equality are multidimensional and patterns in executive attention vary across the different types of gender issues. Multidimensionality of gender equality issues reflects different dynamics in agenda‐setting as different issues invoke contrasting constellations of political representation, institutional friction and veto points. To investigate this variation, this article proposes a twofold distinction between class‐based and status‐based gender equality issues and assesses the validity of three sets of explanations for when gender issues succeed in reaching executive agendas: women in politics, party ideology and economic performance. Drawing on governmental attention datasets from the Comparative Agendas Project, a systematic comparative quantitative analysis of the determinants of gender equality issue attention in five Western European countries is conducted. The main findings confirm that the mechanisms through which different types of gender equality issues gain executive attention differ according to the kind of the gender equality demand. Costly class‐based gender equality issues are more likely to receive executive attention when the economy is performing well, when there is a strong presence of Social Democrats and when there is a high proportion of female MPs. In contrast, economic performance, party politics and women's parliamentary presence do not seem to exert any impact on status‐based issues. Instead, critical actors in the government seem to be the strongest driver for attention over this second type of gender equality issue. This study contributes a gendered dimension to the policy agendas scholarship, adding theoretical and empirical depth to the understanding of how non‐core issues secure their place on full governmental agendas. By focusing on how to secure governmental attention for gender equality issues, the article makes a major contribution to understanding the initial genesis of gender equality policies.

Indigenous women make up 3% of the Australian women's population but 35% of women in prison. They experience higher rates of mental health disorders, cognitive impairment, violence, homelessness and return to prison than their non-Indigenous counterparts. While programs aiming to divert vulnerable people from the criminal justice system have been introduced by the NSW Government in recent years, the numbers of Indigenous women in prison have continued to rise. Yet there is a dearth of research and evaluations that specifically consider the barriers to diversion for Indigenous women. This thesis examines the apparent dichotomy between the NSW Government's funding and evaluation of diversionary programs, and the steady increase in Indigenous women imprisoned. I develop a methodological framework drawing on critical Indigenous feminist theory, and engage with the ethics and challenges incumbent on me as a non-Indigenous researcher in this field. A triangulation of policy analysis, qualitative interviews and case studies is employed, with specific focus on three formally evaluated diversionary programs in operation between 2003 and 2015 which were potentially accessible by Indigenous women: an Indigenous circle sentencing court; a custodial program for women with a dual diagnosis; and a post-release program specifically designed for Indigenous women. Findings are considered in the light of critical literature on evaluation and diversion and key themes are extracted. The very premise of diversion for many Indigenous women is problematised. Evaluation of diversionary programs emerges as characterised for Indigenous women by limited deficit-focused measurement, paternalistic management and the ongoing marginalisation of their experiences and views. The success of diversionary programs appears primarily calculated by available statistics and narrow notions of performance accountability and risk management, which rarely reflect the distinct challenges facing Indigenous women. Despite these limitations, evaluation also presents possibilities for inserting the counter-narratives and agency of Indigenous women into policy processes that have systemically disadvantaged them. The role of evaluation in diversionary policy and programming is reconceptualised for Indigenous women. An alternative approach to evaluation is proposed that could provide more meaningful measures of impact and wellbeing, and better inform policy in this area.

Table of Contents Acknowledgements v Transliteration vii Introduction 1 An Overview of Qur'anic Exegetical Activity in Indonesia 4 A Biographical Sketch of Muhammad Quraish Shihab 7 Constructions of Quraish Shihab's Authority 15 An Overview of Previous Studies 17 Theoretical Framework 19 Research Methods and Structure 27 Chapter 1 30 Quraish Shihab's Hermeneutical Approach to the Qur'an 30 Privileging the Qur'anic Text 31 Guidance-oriented Interpretation 35 A Quest for Meaning 41 The Fixed Text and the Changing Reality 45 The Qur'an and the Challenge of History 52 The Qur'an and Scientific Findings 55 Western Hermeneutics 57 Conclusion 63 Chapter 2 65 In the Footsteps of a New Scholasticism 65 Construction of Religious Authority 66 New Directions of Islamic Legal Thought in Modern Indonesia 69 A New Scholasticism and al-Azhar 73 In the Footsteps of the New Scholasticism 82 a. Maṣlaḥa 83 b. Taisīr 84 Legal Reasoning based on the Principles of Qur'anic Exegesis 86 a. Bank Interest 86 b. Adultery Punishment 90 c. The Ruling of Silk and Gold for Men 91 Advocating Ikhtilāf as a Mercy 92 a. The Moon-sighting Controversy 94 b. Finding Mercy in Ikhtilāf 97 Crossing School Boundaries 99 Muslim Women's Veiling, Between Religion and Custom 100 Conclusion 107 Chapter 3 108 Interpreting the Qur'an in the Context of the Indonesian Nation-state 108 Religion, Indonesian Nation-State and National Common Good 110 Islamizing the Common Good 122 Nation-state in the light of the Qur'an 125 Delegated Sovereignty 132 Seedlings of 'Islamic' Democracy 138 Defending the National Common Good 142 Formal Implementation of Sharīʿa 145 Conclusion 148 Chapter 4 150 Staging Qur'an-based Religious Virtues 150 Media Revolution and a New Sense of the Public Sphere 151 Marketing Piety in the New Public Sphere 154 Branding Religious Intellectualism 160 The Making of Religious Intellectualism 165 Projecting the Good of Moderate Islam 168 Public Intellectual of the Qur'an 175 Opening New Horizons for Religious Civility 178 Conclusion 183 Chapter 5 185 ...

This article aims to compare the changes in the institutional work of male and female care in three hospitals in the Castilian area during the Old Regime to the transit to Contemporary Age. Case studies are the hospital of San Hermenegildo and the hospital of the Five Wounds, both located in Sevilla capital. These hospitals will be compared with the hospital of Saint Bartholomew of Lima in the Viceroyalty of Perú. In the transition of the modernity to the contemporary Age, the political and institutional support that received the development and study of the medicine in the Spanish monarchy, transformed the care into the hospitals that produced, even, the supplanting of the ancient nurse feminine work, exercised in the women's hospitals, for medical instructors in medicine. ; Este artículo tiene el propósito de comparar los cambios producidos en el trabajo institucional del cuidado masculino y femenino en tres hospitales en el ámbito castellano en el periodo del Antiguo Régimen al tránsito a la contemporaneidad. Los casos de estudio son el hospital de San Hermenegildo y el hospital de las Cinco Llagas, ambos ubicados en Sevilla. Estos hospitales se compararan con el hospital de San Bartolomé de la Ciudad de los Reyes en el Virreinato del Perú. En la transición de la modernidad a la contemporaneidad, el apoyo político e institucional que recibió el desarrollo y estudio de la medicina en la monarquía española produjo cambios en la gestión del cuidado hospitalario al punto de la suplantación del trabajo asistencial femenino, ejercido en los hospitales de mujeres, por practicantes en medicina. ; Este artigo tem como objetivo comparar as mudanças no trabalho institucional do cuidado masculino e feminino em três hospitais no domínio castelhano no período do Antigo Regime à contemporaneidade. Os estudos são o hospital de San Hermenegildo e o hospital das Cinco Feridas, ambos localizados em Sevilha. Esses hospitais são comparados com o hospital de San Bartolomé de la Ciudad de los Reyes no Vice-Reino do Peru. Na ...

A major unemployment and welfare benefit reform took place in Germany in 2005. One objective of this reform was to more strongly encourage an adult worker model of the family, with an emphasis on activating the formerly inactive. Our hypothesis is, however, that assignments to activation programmes, such as training or workfare, will in practice still tend to replicate patterns for the division of labour in the household that couples have become accustomed to. The views of case workers in employment offices and those of benefit recipients themselves about the division of labour in the household may influence the allocation process to labour market programmes. We classify couples based on each partner's cumulative income across the ten years prior to benefit receipt. We compare women's programme entries between former male breadwinner households, dual earner households, no-earner households, and female breadwinner households. We analyse large-scale administrative data, applying eventhistory analysis. Our findings are that in western Germany, assignments to activation programmes do indeed replicate couples' prior division of labour in the household. In eastern Germany, by contrast, women in former male breadwinner households are actually allocated to several programmes at higher rates than women in households without a clear former division of labour. ; Ein Ziel der Hartz IV Reformen im Jahr 2005 war eine stärkere Aktivierung von Personen, die bisher nicht am Arbeitsmarkt beteiligt waren. Bei Paarhaushalten wird somit ein 'adult worker' Modell angestrebt, bei dem beide Partner erwerbstätig sind und zum Haushaltseinkommen beitragen. Eine wichtige Hypothese unserer Studie ist jedoch, dass Vermittlungen in Programme der aktiven Arbeitsmarktpolitik, wie beispielsweise Trainingsmaßnahmen oder Arbeitsgelegenheiten, in der Praxis weiterhin die Arbeitsteilung im Haushalt replizieren, an die sich Paare gewöhnt haben. Die Ansichten von Sachbearbeitern in den Jobcentern sowie der ALG II Empfänger selbst hinsichtlich der Arbeitsteilung im Haushalt können den Prozess der Vermittlung in Programme der aktiven Arbeitsmarktpolitik beeinflussen. Wir bilden verschiedene Haushaltsklassifikationen basierend auf dem kumulativen Einkommen beider Partner während der zehn Jahre vor Beginn der Zeit als erwerbslose Leistungsbezieher. Wir vergleichen die Eintrittsraten in Programme der aktiven Arbeitsmarktpolitik zwischen Frauen in Haushalten mit einem vormaligen männlichen Hauptverdiener, in vormaligen Doppelverdienerhaushalten, in Haushalten ohne vormaligen Hauptverdiener, sowie in vormaligen weiblichen Hauptverdienerhaushalten. Unsere Analysen beruhen auf administrativen Daten, und wir wenden Methoden der Ereignisanalyse an. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Vermittlungen in Maßnahmen der aktiven Arbeitsmarktpolitik in Westdeutschland tatsächlich die vormalige Arbeitsteilung im Haushalt replizieren. In Ostdeutschland werden Frauen in vormaligen männlichen Hauptverdiener Haushalten dagegen in einige Maßnahmen sogar vermehrt vermittelt verglichen mit Frauen aus Haushalten ohne vormals klare Arbeitsteilung.

En este artículo nos proponemos analizar y comparar los modelos de mujer elaborados durante las Dictaduras de Franco en España y de Pinochet en Chile. Para hacer este análisis hemos utilizado dos revistas femeninas orgánicas a estos gobiernos: y, revista para la mujer editada por la Sección Femenina y Amiga, de la secretaría Nacional de la Mujer. A través de ellas, por una parte, buscamos explorar la definición del papel de las mujeres y los límites simbólicos y materiales que se establecieron entre el espacio público y el privado, y por otro, enfatizar en la permeabilidad de estos límites, los que fueron traspasados por las mujeres tanto al integrarse al mundo laboral como a los estudios. El análisis de estas publicaciones nos ha permitido establecer similitudes discursivas que derivarían tanto del ideario hispanista influyente en ambos regimenes como del discurso patriarcal, y también nos revela que el discurso oficial sobre las mujeres, pensado como "modelo ideal", tuvo fisuras al entrar en conflicto con prácticas asociadas al modelo de "mujer moderna", ; This article proposes to analyze and compare the women models that were developed during the Dictatorships of Franco in Spain and Pinochet in Chile. To do this analysis, we have used two women's magazines published by those governments: y, magazine far woman, of the Feminine Section and Amiga of the National Agency for Woman, Through these magazines, for one side, we seek to explore the definition of the women role and the symbolic and material limits between the public and private spaces, and for the other, we want to emphasize on the permeability of the public and private boundaries, that were transgressed for women, both in the integration to the work market and the studies. The analysis of this two magazines allow us to establish discursive similarities, result from the influence of Hispanist ideology in both regimes, and also it reveals that the official speech as "ideal model" was having fissures when it entered in conflict with practices associated with the model of "modem woman".

Abstract Background Tuberculosis remains a major public health problem in India with the country accounting for 1 in 5 of all TB cases reported globally. An advocacy, communication and social mobilisation project for Tuberculosis control was implemented and evaluated in Odisha state of India. The purpose of the study was to identify the impact of project interventions including the use of 'Interface NGOs' and involvement of community groups such as women's self-help groups, local government bodies, village health sanitation committees, and general health staff in promoting TB control efforts. Methods The study utilized a rapid assessment and response (RAR) methodology. The approach combined both qualitative field work approaches, including semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with empirical data collection and desk research. Results Results revealed that a combination of factors including the involvement of Interface NGOs, coupled with increased training and engagement of front line health workers and community groups, and dissemination of community based resources, contributed to improved awareness and knowledge about TB in the targeted districts. Project activities also contributed towards improving health worker and community effectiveness to raise the TB agenda, and improved TB literacy and treatment adherence. Engagement of successfully treated patients also assisted in reducing community stigma and discrimination. Conclusion The expanded use of advocacy, communication and social mobilisation activities in TB control has resulted in a number of benefits. These include bridging pre-existing gaps between the health system and the community through support and coordination of general health services stakeholders, NGOs and the community. The strategic use of 'tailored messages' to address specific TB problems in low performing areas also led to more positive behavioural outcomes and improved efficiencies in service delivery. Implications for future studies are that a comprehensive and well planned range of ACSM activities can enhance TB knowledge, attitudes and behaviours while also mobilising specific community groups to build community efficacy to combat TB. The use of rapid assessments combined with other complementary evaluation approaches can be effective when reviewing the impact of TB advocacy, communication and social mobilisation activities.

Defence date: 13 December 2011 ; Examining Board: Professor Mark Franklin (EUI, Supervisor) Professor Joni Lovenduski (University of London, External Co-Supervisor) Professor Mona Lena Krook (Washington University in St. Louis) Professor Fabrizio Bernardi (EUI) ; First made available online 3 April 2019 ; Most of the studies on political underrepresentation have tried to explain the factors that account for the underrepresentation of some groups in political power. The present research project focuses on the link between descriptive and symbolic representation and seeks to understand what consequences a more proportional political environment produces on the attitudes of both underrepresented and overrepresented groups towards the political system. Women remain among the least politically represented groups and therefore this project focuses on and analyses them in various political positions. Two dimensions of the relationship between citizens and politics are analysed: the level of political engagement and the evaluation of the political system. While there is a clear gender gap in the former, the same does not apply to the latter. This dissertation reaches three important achievements. The first one is to develop the first theoretical framework of the potential causal mechanisms that are likely to operate behind the impact that female politicians have on both women and men. The second is to show that men can indeed be positively influenced but mainly to clarify that the way they evaluate the political system is nearly the only way they are affected – their level of political engagement does not change. The third achievement is to show that, while most scholarship has been focusing on the topic political involvement, the presence of female politicians seems to be more connected to the way women evaluate the political system. This means that the 'role model effect' is not the main mechanism at work here. Instead, the idea that the presence of women is necessary to represent women's interests and the fact that they are seen as bringing something new into the political world appear more influential factors. Altogether the signs of the impact of the presence of female politicians are modest.

Background The continued poor sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa highlight the difficulties in reforming policies and laws, and implementing effective programmes. This paper uses one international and two national case studies to reflect on the challenges, dilemmas and strategies used in operationalising sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) in different African contexts. Methods The international case study focuses on the progress made by African countries in implementing the African Union's Maputo Plan of Action (for the Operationalisation of the Continental Policy Framework for Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights) and the experiences of state and non-state stakeholders in this process. The case was developed from an evaluation report of the progress made by nine African countries in implementing the Plan of Action, qualitative interviews exploring stakeholders' experiences and perceptions of the operationalisation of the plan (carried out as part of the evaluation) in Botswana and Nigeria, and authors' reflections. The first national case study explores the processes involved in influencing Ghana's Domestic Violence Act passed in 2007; developed from a review of scientific papers and organisational publications on the processes involved in influencing the Act, qualitative interview data and authors' reflections. The second national case study examines the experiences with introducing the 2006 Sexual Offences Act in Kenya, and it is developed from organisational publications on the processes of enacting the Act and a review of media reports on the debates and passing of the Act. Results Based on the three cases, we argue that prohibitive laws and governments' reluctance to institute and implement comprehensive rights approaches to SRH, lack of political leadership and commitment to funding SRHR policies and programmes, and dominant negative cultural framing of women's issues present the major obstacles to operationalising SRH rights. Analysis of successes points to the strategies for tackling these challenges, which include forming and working through strategic coalitions, employing strategic framing of SRHR issues to counter opposition and gain support, collaborating with government, and employing strategic opportunism. Conclusion The strategies identified show future pathways through which challenges to the realisation of SRHR in Africa can be tackled.

Le document que nous présentons a été amendé selon les corrections préconisées par le jury. ; Over the Golden Age the witch, the saint and the enlightened take us back to different cultural religious and political portrayals. But being called a witch, a saint or an enlightened is also the results of trials in favour or against women. Their powers depended on the consideration society and the Church granted them in their dealing with the supernatural. The characteristics which are used to define the different types may change according to the various jurisdictions. The way women were considered good or evil during the trials determined their day to day behaviour and their interactions with others. The object of this thesis is to make a comparative analysis between those three illustrations based on case studies. Its aim is to determine the criteria which made a feminine behaviour be judged negatively or positively according to the people involved in the trials: legal authorities, witnesses and the defendants. Thus the first part of the study endeavours to highlight the official characteristics that predetermined and acknowledged each feminine type. In the second part the argument based on the women's trials under study will open the debate on the so called conclusive points that conditioned the criteria for each type. Throughout this part we will pay close attention to the way women connected to the supernatural were perceived in their location and social environment. The thoughts emerging from this second part will then allow us to extend the fields of research onto the comparison between the various speakers taking part in the trials. We need to find out whether significant points can be observed regarding what made a woman guilty or revered. ; Au Siècle d'Or, la sorcière, la sainte et l'illuminée renvoient à des représentations culturelles, religieuses et politiques différentes. Mais les qualificatifs de sorcière, sainte ou illuminée sont aussi le résultat de procès pour ou contre des femmes dont la nature des ...

Inge Henningsen and Lis Højgaard: The Leaking Pipeline: Snapshots of gendered processes of in- and exclusions in the academic world.

Debates on the reasons for the well documented low participation of women in scientific research tend to follow two lines of argument: one that maintains that the low percentage of women in research is a result of few women in recruitment positions and that this will change as more women enter these positions, and one that maintains that a closer look at the statistics does not support this optimism because women's percentage in recruitment positions is not increasing as the pool of potential female researchers increases, or to put it metaphorically, "the pipeline is leaking women all along" (Alper 1993). This article investigates the mechanisms perpetuating the low participation of women in academic sciences, inspired by Alper's methaphor. It begins by describing the Danish educational system and structure of science education including gender ratios in the various disciplines. Second it identifies and describes a Danish verion of 'the leaky pipeline' from analyses of the ratios of women in science from high school through tenured positions. Finally it illustrates the cultural mechanisms at play in this process, based on the results of three studies. The first two analyze the educational cultures in physics and chemistry, and the third illustrates the gendering mechanisms at work in the institutional culture of medicine. The analysis shows that there is no single cause of the problem and no single point along the career path where women are excluded. Rather more women than men are excluded at all steps on the academic ladder. The problem is no longer manifest exclusion, but rather the working of subtle mechanisms, unintended consequences and the stubborn ingenuity of the symbolic order of gender. The 'leaks' are the result of the intersection and interaction of individually mediated negotiations of cultural prescriptions of gendered subjectivity and identities, organizational understandings and procedures embedded in specific university cultures, traditional of different science disciplines, and the systemic logic and political rationale of the education and research system.