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The government's intervention in wage policies started during the Old Order era with the enactment of Act Number 33 of 1947 on Accidents. During the New Order era the government expanded its intervention in wage policies by taking into effect Government Regulation Number 8 of 1981 on Wage Protection. Subsequently, during the Reformation era the government imposed further limitations to the administration of rules Private Law in matters of wage. As an impact of the socialisering process undertaken from period to period, the government has established various laws on wages intended to provide legal protection to workers. In other words, throughout those periods there has been a significant progress in terms of legal protection to workers in matters of wages. Campur tangan pemerintah di bidang pengupahan diawali pada era Orde Lama, yakni pada saat diundangkannya Undang-Undang Nomor 33 Tahun 1947 tentang Kecelakaan. Di era Orde Baru, peran pemerintah di bidang pengupahan semakin besar yaitu dengan ditetapkannya Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 8 Tahun 1981 tentang Perlindungan Upah. Selanjutnya, di era reformasi pemerintah semakin membatasi ketentuan-ketentuan yang bersifat Hukum Privat di bidang pengupahan. Akibat socialisering process ialah di setiap periodisasi pemerintah telah menetapkan berbagai peraturan perundang-undangan di bidang pengupahan yang bertujuan untuk memberikan perlindungan hukum bagi pekerja/buruh. Dengan kata lain, di setiap periodisasi tersebut telah terjadi upaya peningkatan perlindungan hukum bagi pekerja/ buruh di bidang pengupahan.

Dieser Beitrag zeigt am Beispiel der Klagewelle von Mitarbeiterinnen gegen die Biedronka- Supermärkte 2004 bis 2007 auf, wie sich eine marginalisierte Gruppe von Arbeitnehmerinnen Gehör verschafft hat, obwohl die politischen, rechtlichen und diskursiven Gelegenheitsstrukturen dafür ungünstig erschienen. Die Ergebnisse des Forschungsprojekts machen deutlich, dass mehrere Bedingungen für strategische Prozessführung in diesem Fall zusammentrafen: entschlossene Klägerinnen, kla re Fälle, eine für die Klägerinnen kostenlose, gute juristische Vertretung so wie ein sehr breites Medienecho, das die eklatanten Arbeitsrechtsverletzungen erfolgreich skandalisierte. Die Klägerinnen kämpften für ihre praktischen Gender-Interessen, also um Interessen, die sich aus der bestehenden geschlechtsspezifi schen Arbeitsteilung ergeben und die etablierte Vorstellungen von Geschlecht kaum infrage stellen. Umfassendere politische Gelegenheitsstrukturen lassen sich allerdings nicht durch eine einmalige Kla gewelle ver ändern, und so blieben die politischen Konsequenzen eher gering. ; Mobilizing for practical gender interests: the case of Biedronka in Poland Based on the example of a wave of litigation against the Biedronka supermarkets between 2004 and 2007, this article addresses the question of how marginalized female employees made themselves heard although po- litical, legal and discursive opportunity struc- tures seemed to be unfavourable. The analysis demonstrates that several pre- conditions for strategic litigation were met in this case, like determined claimants, clear-cut cases, excellent legal representation which was free of charge for the claimants and a very broad media coverage which successfully scandalized the glaring violations of employment laws. The claimants successfully fought for their practical gender interests, i.e. interests evolving out of the present gender- specific division of labour, which did not challenge established ideas of gender. However, more comprehensive political opportunity structures cannot be changed by a single wave of litigation, and that is why the political consequences were modest.

Transsexualism regulation has pointed the need to rethink the concepts of sex and gender. This is even more true for transsexualism regulation in non-specific legal instruments where gender is a key element. This article analyses Spanish legislation in the field of transsexuality, and reveals both the positive innovations achieved lately as well as shortcomings and contradictions of the legislation. It also shows multiple paradoxes and challenges that transsexualism brings to Spanish laws where gender is relevant. The theoretical background of the analysis is rooted in poststructural feminism, and more specifically, in the postfeminist ideas of Judith Butler. ; La regulación normativa de la transexualidad ha puesto de manifiesto la necesidad de replantearse los conceptos de sexo y género. Esto se hace más patente cuando se trata de conjugar la transexualidad con normas no específicas en las que el género es un elemento clave. Este artículo acomete un análisis de la legislación española respecto de la transexualidad, mostrando tanto los avances logrados en los últimos años como las debilidades y contradicciones de esta regulación. También pone de relieve las múltiples paradojas y retos que la cuestión de la transexualidad hace aflorar en la normativa legal española en la que interviene el género. Las coordenadas teóricas desde las que se aborda el análisis hunden sus raíces en el feminismo postestructuralista y, más concretamente, en los planteamientos postfeministas de Judith Butler.

La regulación normativa de la transexualidad ha puesto de manifiesto la necesidad de replantearse los conceptos de sexo y género. Esto se hace más patente cuando se trata de conjugar la transexualidad con normas no específicas en las que el género es un elemento clave. Este artículo acomete un análisis de la legislación española respecto de la transexualidad, mostrando tanto los avances logrados en los últimos años como las debilidades y contradicciones de esta regulación. También pone de relieve las múltiples paradojas y retos que la cuestión de la transexualidad hace aflorar en la normativa legal española en la que interviene el género. Las coordenadas teóricas desde las que se aborda el análisis hunden sus raíces en el feminismo postestructuralista y, más concretamente, en los planteamientos postfeministas de Judith Butler. ; Transsexualism regulation has pointed the need to rethink the concepts of sex and gender. This is even more true for transsexualism regulation in non-specific legal instruments where gender is a key element. This article analyses Spanish legislation in the field of transsexuality, and reveals both the positive innovations achieved lately as well as shortcomings and contradictions of the legislation. It also shows multiple paradoxes and challenges that transsexualism brings to Spanish laws where gender is relevant. The theoretical background of the analysis is rooted in poststructural feminism, and more specifically, in the postfeminist ideas of Judith Butler.

A discussion regarding the complex relationship that exists between the concepts of efficiency and justice goes a long way back and raises several relevant arguments. One of them, and it must be rejected in advance, is that justice is in the realm of public law, while efficiency in that of private law. Is it unacceptable that the balance between public and private law leads to the belief of a divided legal system; one system, one set of laws, one legal system. Legislators and judges are responsible for determining a balance and no theory can postulate that the balance will always be found with a simple cut between public and private law to distinguish when the criterion should be justice or when it should be efficiency. It is reductionist to confine the discussion to single goals of efficiency and justice, when human dignity and human rights should also be considered when one is discussing law. Moreover, a discussion limited to only the concepts of justice and efficiency, relies on a belief that the terms are mutually exclusive. Posner has said that the economic analysis of law has limits and philosophy of law plays an extremely important role in this discourse, which must be interdisciplinary. There can be no goal other than the realization of human rights and there can be no justice if not shared by all of mankind.

El presente estudio es parte del trabajo que ha ganado un accésit del I Premio Internacional Joaquín Ruiz Giménez de la Fundación Gregorio Peces-Barba ; El presente trabajo tiene como objeto de estudio la medida legal que establece cuotas electorales para cada sexo en las candidaturas electorales. Se analizan los argumentos que se refieren a la supuesta vulneración de los derechos fundamentales de sufragio pasivo, activo, de libertad ideológica/de expresión y de asociación. La investigación ha tenido en cuenta especialmente la Sentencia 49/2003, de 10 de febrero, de la Corte Constitucional italiana y la Sentencia 12/2008, de 29 de enero, del Tribunal Constitucional español, ambas sobre la constitucionalidad de ciertas medidas legales que establecieron cuotas electorales en los respectivos países ; This work is concerned with the legislation that establishes a gender-based quota system on the electoral lists. The arguments that refer to a supposed violation of active and passive's fundamental right of suffrage and freedom of ideology/expression and association were analyzed. This study was based mainly according to the decision 49/2003, given on the 10th of February by the Italian Constitutional Court and decision 12/2008, given on the 29th of January by the Spanish Constitutional Tribunal. Both decisions are related to the constitutionality of certain laws that have established electoral gender-based quotas in these countries ; Publicado

Статья посвящена изменениям, произошедшим в постсоветский период в нормативном правовом регулировании архивного дела в РФ. Перемены в законодательстве отразили реалии современного социально-политического и экономического устройства российского общества и значительно повлияли на структуру отрасли, практику ее деятельности, взаимоотношения с организациями и гражданами. Проблемы правоприменительной практики рассмотрены на разных уровнях управления на уровне Федерального архивного агентства, на уровне органа управления архивным делом субъекта РФ, на муниципальном уровне. В качестве объекта исследования взят Ханты-Мансийский автономный округ Югра. В работе сделаны конкретные выводы о проблемах нормативного правового регулирования и направлениях его совершенствования. ; The clause is devoted to the changes which have occurred during the post Soviet period in normative legal regulation of archival business in the Russian Federation. Changes in the legislation have reflected realities of the modern sociopolitical and economic device of the Russian society and have considerably affected structure of branch, practice of its activity, mutual relation with the organizations and citizens. Problems of use of laws are considered at different levels of management at a level of Federal archival agency, at a level of controls by archival business of the subject of the Russian Federation, at a municipal level. Khanty-Mansiysk autonomous region Yugra is haven as an object of research. The concrete conclusions about problems of normative legal regulation and directions of its perfection are done in this work.

International conventions and domestic adoption laws in Euro-American nations regulate the construction of adoptive families through a series of legal fictions. The most significant of these is the principle of the legal clean break, which cancels a child's ties to pre-adoptive kin and incorporates him or her into the adoptive family (and adoptive nation) "as if" s/he were the family's (the nation's) "own." Drawing on research with transnationally adopted adults and their families in Sweden and the United States, and on memoirs and films produced by adopted adults who have reunited with (officially nonexistent) kin, I focus on the productivity of this space of erasure, where biology is both cancelled and discovered anew as a site of surface (dis)connection, and continuity is produced over time in a series of returns. This work has implications for our understanding of what Foucault (1997) describes as "the biological-type caesura" in the production of "what appears to be a biological domain" in the adoptive nations to which adoptive children are sent and those to which they return. At the same time it suggests some of the ways that familiar cultural forms (the nation, the family, the Swedish, and so forth) are reconfigured by the presence of a child (and later an adult) whose quality as "almost the same, but not quite" confounds any sense of what a biological family (or native land) might naturally be.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-84). ; Voluntary or induced termination of pregnancy (TOP) is a common reproductive health phenomenon worldwide, whether legal or illegal (WHO, 2004; Schenker and Cain, 1999). Although some countries, including South Africa, have liberalized TOP laws to allow legal and safe provision of abortion, many barriers continue to impede successful rollout of services. Key among these are the following: * recruiting and retaining staff to provide such services, * incorporating TOP observation and training into medical training curricula, preventing burnout, * addressing negative attitudes and stigma of health providers, * diminishing professional discrimination and harassment, and * offering more TOP training modules, counselling workshops, and values clarification workshops over a spread of geographic areas (Adamo, 2003). Identifying future health professionals who may be interested in training and eventually providing TOP care has thus been prioritized by the South African Department of Health. Examining the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and intentions of medical students in training could make an important contribution to policy initiatives with respect to abortion provision. The current study measured these parameters among medical students in one of the eight medical training institutions in South Africa. With the liberalization of TOP legislation in South Africa, future health professionals' attitudes and intentions towards abortion services is a critical determinant to equity, access, and availability of women's reproductive care and to the successful implementation of TOP law.

Between 1976 and 1991, central Beirut, repository of centuries of historic structures, was substantially destroyed by civil war. In 1994, a private company known by its French acronym Solidère was created by government decree and given the task of reconstructing the center of Beirut. Despite political problems, the Solidère project brought the hope of social recovery through economic renewal; yet progress should not come at the cost of memory.How can Beirut, destroyed, be a site of both recovery and erasure? Even though traditional legal and political discourses acknowledge that cultural heritage holds a powerful position in reconstruction, there are few tools for capturing its functions. Using heuristics originally employed in archeology and art history, this article addresses psychological aspects of reconstruction by discussing contemporary Lebanese art. If culture is defined not only as what people do buthow they make sense of what they have done, the enormity of the political problems of post–civil war reconstruction become clear. National governments hoping to consolidate authority would do well to consider how best to approach public places resonant with emotionally charged memories.Policymakers should consider the complex benefits of negative heritage in drafting laws that will enable its protection. Legal reform carried out with the goal of balanced heritage policies that accommodate negative heritage is key for postconflict urban spaces. By acknowledging the weight of the past, such policies would also bolster confidence in the emergent government and the political process.

Illegal logging in the tropical forests of Papua New Guinea is one of the greatest threats to the forests and indigenous people of this island nation. Increasing pressure from the commercial logging industry, legislation that restrains customary ownership, and an unclear legal basis for this ownership subjects the indigenous people of Papua New Guinea to unscrupulous, unsustainable, and illegal logging practices. As a region central to the preservation of global ecological and cultural diversity, the devastating consequences of illegal logging in Papua New Guinea have become nationally and internationally significant. Customary ownership of the forests by the indigenous clans of Papua New Guinea is one of the best mechanisms for indigenous peoples to curtail these illegal activities. Because indigenous peoples are the most dependent upon and familiar with forest resources, they have the most incentive to protect them. Indigenous Papua New Guineans can claim constitutional customary ownership over ninety-seven percent of the forested land in their country. Their claim is further strengthened by international law, which calls for empowerment of indigenous peoples and recognition of their customary laws. The indigenous peoples of Papua New Guinea, however, cannot use their customary law to the fullest extent possible in protecting their forests until the Forestry Act of 1991 is revised and customary ownership is given a clear, legal basis through further development in the land courts.

The Russian Far East's ("RFE") most abundant natural resource is its vast, relatively unbroken tracts of boreal forest. Wildfires are the largest cause of deforestation in the RFE. Rampant fires in the RFE threaten biodiversity and wildlife habitat, destroy timber reserves, and create pollution and greenhouse gases. Experts estimate that between eighty to ninety percent of these fires are human-caused. However, Russian forestry laws fail to provide the type of legal framework necessary to adequately address these preventable fires. Forest management legislation mandating more comprehensive and cooperative fire prevention could prevent disastrous forest fires in the RFE. U.S. fire management policies provide a model that Russia should follow to implement coordinated fire prevention programs in the RFE. Fire management policies in the United States incorporate the so-called "cooperative federalism" approach—coordinating local and federal resources to both prevent and suppress human-caused fires. International sustainable forestry guidelines also recommend this approach. The FOREST Project, a non-govemmental organization currently implementing cooperative fire prevention programs in the RFE, demonstrates how a coordinated approach to fire management can work. Russia should incorporate this cooperative approach to fire management into its new Forest Code. Although various extra-legal factors could impede the success of even the most well thought-out fire management policies, a legally-mandated, coordinated fire prevention program represents Russia's best hopes for gaining control of the wildfires raging in the RFE.

All recycling in India is undertaken by (and via) the informal sector. This sector includes waste-pickers, small middlemen, transporters, larger middlemen and Anally, reprocessors. These self-employed people play a very important role in urban waste management as they provide a service which the urban municipalities cannot provide given their current institutional framework. Although the sector of informal waste managers is critical to solid waste-handling in India, the sector is unable to optimise its work due to lack of social legitimacy or legal rights over waste-processing, which makes it vulnerable to intimidation. Additionally, due to lack of awareness and specific skills, as well as very poor working conditions and poor access to basic facilities, this sector has so far been unable to make its recycling efficient and profitable. With certain changes in the policies relating to recycling and ownership of waste, there can be a synergetic relationship between the recycling sector, the existing relevant laws, and waste-handling in India that can significantly improve the efficiency of the sector and enhance financial returns to the waste-pickers and reprocessors. Such policy changes as provision of legal rights over solid waste to waste-pickers and organisation of waste-pickers into cooperative groups, can further the interests of these marginalised groups and maximise their profits, in addition to substantially improving solid waste management in the city.

Despite an extensive history of censorship and political speech suppression, Malaysia's Vision 2020 goal of becoming a fully developed nation requires the nation to facilitate an open exchange of ideas and information. The government seeks to create a center for broadcasting, filmmaking, and the development of multimedia products. While Malaysia has begun to abandon some of its censorship practices, the remaining restrictions on its citizens' speech and press freedoms threaten to hamstring the country's efforts to become a fully developed nation by 2020. This Note discusses Malaysia's beginning as a British colony, identifying the religious, racial, and class distinctions now used to justify the nation's censorship policies and laws. This Note then examines the current social and economic pressures forcing Malaysia to re-examine its economic focus and its system of censorship. The Note will critically examine Malaysia's plans to create the Multimedia Super Corridor and to become a center for broadcasting and filmmaking, citing the legal and policy changes adopted to facilitate these projects. Finally, after concluding that Malaysia's proposed modifications of its censorship policy will not allow the nation to completely achieve its Vision 2020, this Note suggests additional legal and policy alternatives. These proposals would enable Malaysia to more easily achieve its goal of developing the entertainment and information industries as a means of becoming a fully developed nation.-

The question of why judges are concerned with justifying or defending their decisions from the followers of Derrida?, is posed in this Article both generally, as a matter of legal interpretation, and specifically, within the context of the issue(s) presented in the examined cases. By examining the concerns articulated by the judges in these cases and then referring back to the writings of Derrida, this Article describes the likely outcome if Derrida's views of (legal) interpretation are in fact applied in judicial opinion-making. In Parts II and III, this Article introduces the reader to important concepts in Derridean deconstruction. These concepts include notions of "privileging," "iterability," and the "free" play of text. Derrida's work is presented generally and is examined in light of his writings concerning law, justice, and authority. In Part IV, this Article demonstrates the protean nature of law by an examination of contract law. Part V examines the relationship of statutory law and common law as a doubling of the difficulties of applying law uniformly and coherently. As this Article demonstrates, the intent of the legislative body in enacting law is thwarted by individual judges' reading and writing of the law in the conjugation of caselaw. Finally, this Article demonstrates that the inherent difficulties in interpreting and applying laws lie in the relationship between the ultimate arbiter of law and the text of the law itself.