In sprachlichen Beiträgen zur Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts tauchen immer wieder Formulierungen auf, in denen ein "bescheidenes Haus" oder eine "einfache Architektur" gefordert werden. Reduktion bildet eine Kategorie der Moderne, und es stellt sich die Frage, ob Reduktion nicht sogar ein Schlüssel für das Verständnis der Architektur in der Moderne ist. Eine Antwort auf diese Frage zielt in der vorliegenden Arbeit darauf, dass sich am Leitbild der Reduktion die Spaltung zwischen einer dominanten Rationalität, einem aufklärerischen Geist, einer wachsenden Bedeutung von Technik und den Naturwissenschaften als einem Kennzeichen der Moderne, und einem zunehmend verdrängten und dann doch wieder kompensierten Bedürfnis nach dem "Geistigen" festmacht. Das Streben nach Reduktion in der modernen Architektur könnte daher so etwas wie eine Versöhnungsgeste sein. Mittels Reduktion sollen dialektische Spannungen in der Moderne, soll das menschliche Vermögen der Aufklärung und Rationalität mit dem menschlichen Bedürfnis nach Religiosität und Spiritualität überbrückt werden. Um den Umfang der Arbeit nicht zu sprengen, wird exemplarisch die Bauaufgabe des Kirchenbaus in einer kurzen Phase der Nachkriegszeit in Deutschland betrachtet, da sich hier unterschiedliche Dimensionen des formulierten Anspruchs aufzeigen lassen. Der Kirchenbau wurde vor allem deshalb gewählt, weil die Kirchen und die Kirchenbauten in dieser Phase als Leitinstitutionen bzw. Leitbauten für ein sich konstituierendes Deutschland wirksam waren. Denn Reduktion stand weniger in Relation zur materiellen und ökonomischen Not. Noch stärker wurde nämlich eine geistige Not beklagt, aus der sich weitere Dimensionen der Reduktion betrachten lassen. Insbesondere sind die ethischen und ästhetischen Dimensionen interessant, da, wie auch in den Jahrzehnten zuvor, eine asymmetrische Verlagerung der Argumentation zugunsten ethischer Erklärungen zu attestieren ist. Waren es Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts allerdings starke soziale Motivationen und Intentionen, für die Reduktion ins Feld geführt wurde, gab es durch die Nähe zu religiösen Inhalten und einer Dominanz der Kirche für eine kurze Phase nach dem Krieg eine moralische Argumentationslinie, mit der die jeweilige architektonische Arbeit untermauert wurde. Daraus läßt sich Reduktion für diese Zeitspanne als Reaktion und Legitimation verstehen. Durch die moralische Dimension der Reduktion, - die Katharsis, Reinigung, Demut und Bescheidenheit - konnte die Situation überwunden werden und zugleich wurde damit eine Antwort auf Schuldfragen gegeben. Diese Erklärungsmuster waren die naheliegende und einzige Chance, um überhaupt aus der geistigen Misere herauszukommen und eine Berechtigung zu schaffen, mit der ein Neubeginn möglich werden konnte. Obendrein konnte es als Reaktion auf Pathos und Verlogenheit des Nationalsozialismus interpretiert werden. Diese originär religiöse Legitimationsebene für einen geistigen Neuanfang wurde auch von Architekten übernommen und auf die Architektur übertragen. Reduktion legitimierte den Einsatz von Architektur, ohne vertiefend eine retrospektive Verantwortung der Architekten zu thematisieren, die stattdessen mit einer prospektiven Verantwortung überblendet wurde. In diese Sichtweise fügte sich mit den Werten der Reduktion (Einfachheit, Nüchternheit, Sachlichkeit, .) ein umfassendes Leitbild für die Menschen und die Umweltgestaltung, das eine adäquate Perspektive bieten konnte. In dieser kurzen Zeitspanne, die sich auf den Zeitraum von 1945 bis ungefähr 1950 zuweisen läßt, ergab sich folglich eine allgemeingültige Frage: Wie lassen sich in einer Phase der Neuorientierung die formulierten Werte in eine architektonische Praxis überführen? Von daher versteht sich diese Arbeit neben ihrem architekturhistorischen Schwerpunkt auch als der Versuch, einer grundsätzlichen architekturtheoretischen Fragestellung nachzugehen. Mit der spezifischen Betrachtung des Kirchenbaus verbindet sich eine architekturhistorische Einordnung der Beiträge für die Entwicklungen im Kirchenbau des 20. Jahrhunderts. Denn die aufgeführten Beiträge gaben Impulse für zwei wesentliche Aspekte der jüngeren Kirchenbaugeschichte, die in dieser Form bislang kaum Beachtung fanden und damit eine historische Lücke füllen. Zum einen fügen sich die Beiträge in die liturgischen Erneuerungsansätze beider Konfessionen in der Moderne ein und eröffnen dadurch eine etwas andersartige Sichtweise auf die Entwicklungen im Kirchenbauten in den nachfolgenden Dekaden. Zum anderen geben sie Antworten auf die stete Frage, wodurch ein Kirchenbau in der Moderne seine notwendige Sakralität erhält. Beide Aspekte werden durch die grundsätzliche Frage verbunden, wie die Menschen einer sich neu konstituierenden Gesellschaft, gegen die durch Säkularisierung gekennzeichneten Moderne, wieder von der christlichen Religiosität erfasst werden können und die Lebenswelt wieder von ihr durchdrungen werden kann. ; Frequently, in the theoretical contributions to C20th architecture, phrases recur which seek a modest house or a simple architecture. Reduction constitutes one category of modernity and begs the question whether reduction is, in fact, a key to the understanding of modern architecture. The paper to hand aims to providing an answer to this question, that within the model of reduction the divide is demonstrated between a dominant rationality, a progressive intellect and mind, a growing significance of technology and science as a characteristic feature of the modern age, and an increasingly repressed yet conversely compensated desire for the spiritual. Striving towards reduction in modern architecture, could in fact be understood as a gesture of atonement. By means of reduction the dialectic tensions in the modern age, the human capacity resulting from enlightenment and rationality should be reconciled with the human desire for religiousness and spirituality. In order not to overload the scope of this work, an exemplary phase of post-war church architecture in Germany will be considered, because it is here that the various aspects of defined standards are demonstrated. Above all church architecture was chosen because churches and ecclesiastical architecture during this period were effectively model institutions, that is to say, model buildings for a Germany that was reconstituting itself. Reduction had less of a relationship to material or economic want. More important was the bemoaned spiritual want, which allowed further aspects of reduction to be addressed. In particular, the ethical and aesthetic dimensions are of interest, because, similar to previous decades, an asymmetrical shift of argumentation in favour of ethical explanation is established. Although at the beginning of the C20th strong social motivations and intentions existed for reduction to become topical, there was a moral line of argument resulting from the proximity to religious content and a dominance of the church for a short phase after the war, with which the prevailing architectural works were underpinned. Consequently, reduction during this period of time, may be understood as reaction and legitimation. Through the moral dimension of reduction - catharsis, purification, humility, modesty - the situation could be surmounted and simultaneously deliver answers to the question of guilt. These patterns of explanation were the obvious and only chance to extract oneself from a spiritual misery and to create a justification within which a new beginning would be made possible. Furthermore, it could be interpreted as a reaction to the pathos and hypocrisy of National Socialism. The original, religious plane of identification for a spiritual new beginning was adopted by architects and transposed to architecture. Reduction legitimizes the use of architecture, without intensively selecting as a central theme a retrospective responsibility of architects, which instead became superimposed with a prospective responsibility. From this viewpoint, a comprehensive model for mankind and the shaping of the environment marries itself to the values of reduction (simplicity, sobriety, objectivity.), anticipating a befitting prospect. In this short time span, between 1945 and circa 1950, a universal question therefore arose: in a phase of reorientation, how do the heretofore defined values allow themselves to be transferred into architectural practice. Apart from the emphasis on architectural history this work may also be understood as an attempt to investigate a fundamental issue of architectural theory. Associated with the specific reflection on ecclesiastical architecture, is the historical architectural classification of contributions to the development of church architecture in the C20th. Because the cited contributions gave the impetus for two fundamental aspects of the more recent history of church architecture which hitherto, in this form, had scarcely received recognition, thereby filling an historical void. On the one hand the contributions become adapted to the initial stages of the liturgical revival of both denominations in the modern age and thereby reveal a somewhat different perspective on the development of ecclesiastical architecture in the subsequent decades. On the other hand, answers are provided to the eternal question of how modern church architecture obtains its essential sacredness. Both aspects become associated with each other through the fundamental question of how humankind, in a newly established society against a modernity characterized by secularization, could be enthused again by christian religiousness and how to imbue daily life with religious values.
This study was undertaken as an attempt to evaluate and possibly correct some recent interpretations of Christ's person and work. Much of theology today has left the impression that Christianity is just another agency of good will to fight against social, political and eco nomic injustice in the world. Accordingly, the motive behind much of contemporary theological discussions has been to challenge the church to join in what is often called the "humanization" of man. It is our position that Christology occupies the pivotal position in any facet of Christian theology. In fact, it performs normative functions for the rest of theology. Consequently Christian theology hinges on the proper understanding of Christology. We maintain that an inadequate appreciation of Christ's person and work is at the root of the theological defections which we mentioned above. There are perhaps two major misconceptions in the Christology of today. One body of teaching assumes that a "Christ-Principle" is present in all religions, and therefore it is not necessary to verbalize the New Testament gospel in all situations. The second is a secularized version of theology which interprets Christ as "the man for others," "the New Humanity" and "the Liberator." Is there a Scriptural solution to the problems raised thus far? Are the propositions articulated in the New Testament sufficient for a thorough understanding and appreciation of God's concern for His creation? What are the implications of the Christ-event for our present day existence as individuals and as Church? These questions should find their answers in our study of the Cosmic Christ as revealed in Paul's letter to the Colossians. This study has two focal points. The first is to establish the historical context of the research. For this purpose we will center attention on the Christological issues in contemporary theological thinking as well as in some recent official church pronouncements. These analyses will indicate that a growing indifference to taking the incarnation of Jesus Christ seriously is the greatest danger in theology today. A detailed exposition of all the pertinent statements is not within the scope of the present study. For the sake of convenience in the second chapter we will present the Christological viewpoints of some selected theologians. With a view to understanding the influence of these approaches to Christology in the life of the church we will examine the teachings of the World Council of Churches and the Roman Catholic Church since the Second Vatican Council. The second point on which this study will focus is to propose a Scriptural solution by which the issues raised thus far may be evaluated and corrected. For that purpose, we will provide an analysis and a synthesis of the great Christology of Paul's letter to the Colossians. We will deal specifically and only with Colossians since it contains a "description in verses few but almost intolerably weighty of Christ and of his position in relation to the universe and the church." In the third chapter we will deal with the historical setting of the epistle to Colossians and analyze the key Christological statements in the letter. By way of procedure we will deal with the apostle's background in Judaism and also try to understand the nature of the Colossian heresy. Then we will proceed to conduct an exposition of Paul's description of Christ as Lord of all creation and head of the church. In the chapter on a synthesis of Colossians 1:15-20 we will indicate that Christ is the source, the means of existence, and the goal of everything that has been created. We will also attempt to show that the church has a unique place in all of creation, and that, therefore, it is not just another agency busy with spreading a secular kind of good will. In the church the great mystery of God's eternal plan of salvation is revealed as the gospel is proclaimed and the forgiveness of sins is received. These two focal points of our study, it is hoped, will merge into one in the fifth chapter, where we will test the conclusions of the second chapter against those of the third and fourth chapters. For that purpose we will briefly discuss some current ideologies such as secularization, humanization, the theology of liberation and indigenization which govern much of contemporary theological thinking. Then we will work toward a positive statement of the identity of Jesus Christ and his work of redemption. We will also analyze the biblical concept of the kingdom of God because that is the umbrella concept with which much of contemporary theology and ideology work. With these ideas as background, we have then developed the theme of the cosmic Christ. This study is conducted on the conviction that it will help in a small way to combat also the present-day teaching of universalism which plagues particularly the so-called "Third World Theology." The task of the theologian is to narrate the mighty acts of God in Christ. Jesus Christ is the means by which God chose to reconcile the world unto Himself. It was through his cross and resurrection that God conquered sin and its consequences once and for all. It is our position that the New Testament does not describe Jesus as the bringer of a new humanism. Rather, in the sacred writings we meet the pre-existant Son of God who became flesh to redeem humanity from eternal damnation. This redemption is appropriated to the individual in baptism by faith. He must always remember that it is God who saves man. We will note that there are few clean choices left in theology today. The very foundation of Christian theology is being destroyed as the person and work of Jesus Christ are vehemently attacked by way of distortion and misrepresentation. We contend that the formulation of wrong Christologies which we shall attempt to evaluate and correct in this study is the result of an incorrect understanding of sin, salvation and the church. The present study does not deal with the Christological view points of "process theology," "black theology" or "the theology of hope." These items merit separate studies in and of themselves. Furthermore, recent interpretations of sin and of salvation may be explored as in dependent areas of research. Much work needs to be done on the specific question of the relationship between philosophy and theology as these apply to Christology. Attention must be given also to the difficult task of setting some Scripture-based criteria for comparing different religions of the world. It is hoped that such studies will in some small way help to solve the present day confusion of God's revelation and His unique act of redemption in Christ.
In sieben Beiträgen ( 1. Beckert, Jens u. Wolfgang Vortkamp: Westlicher Universalismus? 2. Schworck, Andreas: Anmerkungen zum schwierigen Begriff "Fundamentalismus"; 3. Schmolke, Oliver: Transmoderne und Pragmatismus; 4. Hafez, Kai: Das Islambild in der deutschen Öffentlichkeit; 5. Böhm, Andrea: Protestantischer Fundamentalismus in den USA; 6. Ther, Philipp: Ende des katholischen Sonderweges in Polen; 7. Brauch, Julia: Zur Situation der israelischen Rechten) wird unter weltweiter Perspektive eine Auseinandersetzung mit Erscheinungsformen und Begrifflichkeit des Fundamentalismus gesucht. Ausgehend von den universalistischen Ansprüchen des westlichen Gesellschaftsmodells wird der Begriff des Fundamentalismus analysiert und die Herausforderung des Fundamentalismus an die Moderne dargestellt. Zusätzlich zur Problematik des islamischen Fundamentalismus wird auch auf Erscheinungen des protestantischen Fundamentalismus in den USA und des katholischen Fundamentalismus in Polen sowie auf die fundamentalistische Rechte in Israel eingegangen. (FUB-Hng)
The instrumental use of Muslim women's experiences as a symbol and justification for Western countries interventions is not a new business and was not employed for the first time in the post September 11th "war on terror" campaigns. Indeed, the production of stereotypes of Muslim women in political platforms can be tracked back to different colonial enterprises. Clearly, as Lughod (2002) has highlighted, the consistent resort to a cultural framing through the equation women/religion/suffering has always been a tool to hide political and economic interests and consequently to bury more complex political and historical developments. In the academic sphere, debates on Muslim women also widened. However, as Lila Abu-Lughod (2002) contended, the efforts were almost put solely on denouncing the great violent and oppressive contexts where those women were living under the barbaric violations perpetrated to them by Islamist movements. Otherwise, if a scholar tried to problematize the cultural framing of Muslim women's questions, she (or he) would very likely be accused of cultural relativism (Lughod, 2002). Therefore, a sole and unproblematic focus on the suffering of Muslim women is not only futile, but also contributes to reify the old Orientalist perceptions on Islam and Muslim women, and to provide intellectual foundations for Western imperialist wars. The objective of this article, on the contrary, is to raise another set of questions, which I believe to be more urgent. These questions aim at both unpacking Muslim women as a discursive category, and understanding the major challenges their experiences impose on secular feminist conceptions of agency. I contend that addressing these questions is more urgent for different reasons. Firstly, I argue vigorously that apart from the obsessive and somehow blind criticism that religion is inherently patriarchal and consequently oppressive to women, scholarship especially from within feminist theory remained oblivious to a more systematic and self-reflexive engagement with religion and Muslim women. In addition, I argue that surprisingly, even in a period of post-Orientalist deconstruction, which supposedly would have already dismissed those essentialist and repressive accounts of Muslim women and Islam, subtle but very important remnants can still be found on the so called "corrective" postcolonial feminist scholarship on Muslim women. Indeed, there is a plurality of work on Muslim women in the social sciences. However, they are scattered and apparently separated by their own agendas and claims, with very few attempts at dialogue or debate. Hence, a systematic account of this diversity has been missing, one which could provide an up to date appraisal of the state of scholarship and activism on Muslim women, and build a firm foundation for advancing knowledge both of the subject itself and on interdisciplinary efforts like the one I advance here. Therefore, while doing a systematic and critical literature review, oriented specifically by an interdisciplinary approach, I expect this article to fill part of this gap and raise crucial questions in order to build knowledge of the intersection between Muslim women's studies and feminist theory. It is here where more research is certainly needed in order to reduce the gulf that exists between both areas. The introduction of this article outlines briefly the ways through which Muslim women have been approached as a discursive category, constructing stereotypes of Muslim women in political platforms, as well as on the academic stage. Politically, the production of stereotypes can be tracked back to different colonial enterprises and more recently to the interventions by Western countries that comprised the "war on terror" campaign. On the academic stage, these stereotypes were reproduced in the sole efforts to denounce the great violent and oppressive contexts where those women are living, as previously mentioned. The first section is concerned with the exclusion of religion and more specifically of Muslim women's experiences from history and feminist knowledge production, including IR feminist studies. I acknowledge that the ontological and epistemological openness in feminist and gender studies in international relations and other areas ensured the recognition of the existence of differences and of multiple "layers" of identities which affect sexed bodies in distinct ways. These were crucial to challenge Eurocentric narratives as the only legitimate source of knowledge production. However, I put forward in this section that despite a greater plurality in feminist studies, there is still a silence from feminist theorists regarding religious women's experiences, and hence, the importance of religion to women (Salem, 2013). Using the work of Phyllis Mack (2003) I argue that one of the reasons for this gap resides in the metanarrative of secularization, which is the basis of secular feminist scholarship. Within this analytical framework, I analyse how the conceptions of agency and emancipation underlying the different strands of secular feminism are limiting to the different voices and experiences of Muslim women. The second section addresses the challenges Islamic feminism imposes to feminist notions of agency. As religion is seen as inherently patriarchal and oppressive to women, Islamic feminism or any other effort to pursue gender equality from within an Islamic framework would be taken as contradictory or incompatible. By locating the struggle within a religious framework, and at the same time claiming for the existence of what seems to be the untouchable foundations of Islam, Islamic feminists are cast away from secular feminisms. I argue that those experiences of activists and scholars make serious challenges to the notions of agency based on rationality and secularity as the only pillars whereby women can struggle for and reach gender equality. As a result, Islamic feminism(s)'s experiences also help to unsettle and complicate some binaries which feminist theory has been contributing to reify, such as secular/spiritual; reason/obscurantism; science/religion; freedom/oppression; modern/backward. In the third section, the article discusses some of the piety women's movements anchored on Saba Mahmood's work on pietistic agency, firstly in order to highlight the inability of most feminist scholarship in capturing the diversity of Muslim women's voices; second to denounce the perilous nature of encapsulating women's agency solely within "the entelechy of liberatory politics". These movements advance very different agendas and orientations from the Islamic feminist ones. Those agendas are precisely what denounce the subtle but very important remnants of Orientalist assumptions, particularly its adherence to secular-liberal values, and the teleological conceptions of modernity (Lakhani, 2008). I conclude the article arguing that rather than neglecting the important achievements feminism promoted in the lives of women in different parts of the world, the main intention of this work was to provincialize (to borrow the expression from Chakrabarty) the secular and liberal accounts of agency, feminism, empowerment, freedom and so on, locating them in the historical, political and cultural context that produced the desires that animate them.
Метою цієї статті є висвітлення процесу зародження та розвитку проєктів одеських істориків кінця ХІХ – початку ХХ ст., що з різних причин так і не були реалізовані. Зроблено висновок, що на прикладі історії одеських проєктів випливає, що історія таких видань майже завжди відображає особливості загального доробку вчених, дозволяє глибше зануритися в особливості інтелектуального механізму, демонструє взаємозв'язок соціальних, політичних, економічних, наукових, психоемоційних чинників, показує переваги та недоліки колективних проєктів, розширяє наше уявлення про бібліометричні показники на просопографічному та особистісному рівнях. ; Целью этой статьи является реконструкция ряда научно-издательских проектов одесских историков конца XIX – начала ХХ вв., которые в полной мере так и не были завершены. Комплексно проблема в историографии не рассматривалась, хотя в нескольких публикациях упомянуто об отдельных аспектах. Нами использована широкая база источников, прежде всего, нарративных, то есть имеющиеся тексты историков. Вспомогательными были для нас актовые, эпистолярные, газетные источники. Часть из этих источников является архивными. Один из первых известных нам совместных издательских проектов двух одесских ученых приходится на начальный период существования Новороссийского университета. Профессоры кафедры канонического права А. С. Павлова и 81 истории И. А. Линниченко длительное время лелеял планы издания актовых источников средневековой истории Западной Украины. В зародыше остался проект профессора кафедры истории русского права А. Я. Шпакова «История секуляризации церковного имущества в Новгороде при Иване ІІІ». На стадии готовности находился проект издания иллюстрированного атласа по истории средневекового и византийского искусства профессора кафедры теории и истории искусств историко-филологического факультета. А. А. Павловского. Углубление процесса институционализации исторических исследований вызвало коллективные проекты, которые способствовали идентификации научных школ, закреплению традиций одесской историографии. В 1911–1914 гг. группа профессоров работала над изданием большого сборника научных трудов в честь юбилея Ф. И. Успенского. Сборник должен был быть издан как двадцать первый том периодического издания Историко-филологического общества при Новороссийском университете. В начале 1910-х годов профессора работали над проектом издания большого труда по истории Новороссийского университета к пятидесятилетию заведения. Фактически издательским архивом этого проекта является часть архивного личного фонда А. П. Доброклонского, который хранится под номером 157 в Государственном архиве Одесской области. Здесь представлены ценные автобиографии и биографии ряда профессоров, статистические сводки. Однако, все эти дела свидетельствуют, что проект вряд ли успел продвинуться дальше чем подготовительная стадия. Помешала война, революции. Бывали случаи, когда творческое наследие умерших историков все же благодаря их родственникам и коллегам становилась достоянием потомков. Так были изданы труды П. К. Бруна, П. А. Юрченко, С. И. Иловайского. Итак, причина нереализованности ряда творческих издательских проектов одесских историков в конце XIX – начале ХХ вв. заключалась в разных плоскостях. Иногда это отражало особенности жизненного ритма историков, снижение темпов их интеллектуального труда, прежде всего вследствие педагогической загруженности, проблем со здоровьем. Часто говорилось о материальных причинах, которые преследовали историков на всех этапах вплоть до сегодняшнего дня. Специфическим обстоятельством была ограниченность тогдашних историков относительно механизмов дистанционного труда, их ментальная неготовность к реализации совместных проектов на расстоянии друг от друга. В общем, во-первых, история нереализованных издательских проектов почти всегда отражает особенности общего наследия ученых, во-вторых, позволяет глубже погрузиться в особенности интеллектуального механизма, в-третьих, демонстрирует взаимосвязь социальных, политических, экономических, научных, психоэмоциональных факторов в-четвертых, показывает преимущества и недостатки коллективных проектов, в-пятых, расширяет наше представление о библиометрических показателях на просопографическом и личностном уровнях. Выявление рукописей, издание наиболее актуальных из них является перспективным направлением дальнейших историографических, книговедческих и библиографических исследований. ; The purpose of this article is to reconstruct a number of scientific publishing projects of Odessa historians of the late 19th – early 20th centuries, which were never fully completed. The problem was not considered comprehensively in historiography, although several publications mention certain aspects. We have used a wide base of sources, primarily narrative, that is, the available texts of historians. Auxiliary were for us act, epistolary, newspaper sources. Some of these sources are archived. One of the first joint publishing projects of two Odesa scientists known to us falls on the initial period of the existence of Novorossiysk University. Professors of the department of canon law O. S. Pavlov and the history of Russian law F. I. Leontovych worked on the preparation of a collection of the most important monuments of Old Russian law. But the project was not implemented due to the move of O.S. Pavlov to Moscow. For a long time, Professor of the Department of Russian History I. A. Lynnychenko cherished plans to publish documentary sources of the medieval history of Western Ukraine. The project of the professor of the Department of History of Russian Law A. Ya. Shpakov "History of the secularization of church property in Novgorod under Ivan III" remained in its infancy. At the best stage of readiness was the project of publishing an illustrated atlas on the history of medieval and Byzantine art by the professor of the Department of Theory and History of Arts of the Faculty of History and Philology. O.A. Pavlovsky. The deepening of the process of institutionalization of historical research caused collective projects that contributed to the identification of scientific schools, consolidation of the traditions of Odesa historiography. In 1911–1914, a group of professors worked on the publication of a large collection of scientific papers in honor of the anniversary of F. I. Uspensky. The collection was to be published as the twenty-first volume of the periodical of the Historical and Philological Society at Novorossiysk University. In the early 1910s, the professors worked on a project to publish a large work on the history of Novorossiysk University for the fiftieth anniversary of the institution. In fact, the publishing archive of this project is a part of O. P. Dobroklonsky, which is stored at number 157 in the State Archives of the Odessa region. Here are presented valuable autobiographies and biographies of a number of professors, statistical summaries. However, all these cases indicate that the project hardly managed to move further than the preparatory stage. War, revolution prevented. There have been cases when the creative heritage of deceased historians, thanks to their relatives and colleagues, became the property of descendants. This is how the works of P. K. Bruna, P. O. Yurchenko, S. I. Ilovaisky. So, the reason for the failure to implement a number of creative publishing projects of Odessa historians in the late XIX – early XX century was in different planes. Sometimes this reflected the peculiarities of the life rhythm of historians, a decrease in the pace of their intellectual work, primarily due to pedagogical workload, health problems. It was often said about the material reasons that haunted historians at all stages of history up to the present day. A specific circumstance was the limitations of the then historians regarding the mechanisms of remote labor, their mental unpreparedness for the implementation of joint projects at a distance from each other. In general, firstly, the history of unrealized publishing projects almost always reflects the features of the common heritage of scientists; secondly, it allows one to dive deeper into the features of the intellectual mechanism; thirdly, it demonstrates the interconnection of social, political, economic, scientific, psycho-emotional factors; and fourthly , shows the advantages and disadvantages of collective projects, fifthly, expands our understanding of bibliometric indicators at the prosopographic and personal levels. Revealing of manuscripts, archaeographic publication of the most relevant of them is a promising direction for further historiographic, bibliological and bibliographic research.
Метою цієї статті є висвітлення процесу зародження та розвитку проєктів одеських істориків кінця ХІХ – початку ХХ ст., що з різних причин так і не були реалізовані. Зроблено висновок, що на прикладі історії одеських проєктів випливає, що історія таких видань майже завжди відображає особливості загального доробку вчених, дозволяє глибше зануритися в особливості інтелектуального механізму, демонструє взаємозв'язок соціальних, політичних, економічних, наукових, психоемоційних чинників, показує переваги та недоліки колективних проєктів, розширяє наше уявлення про бібліометричні показники на просопографічному та особистісному рівнях. ; Целью этой статьи является реконструкция ряда научно-издательских проектов одесских историков конца XIX – начала ХХ вв., которые в полной мере так и не были завершены. Комплексно проблема в историографии не рассматривалась, хотя в нескольких публикациях упомянуто об отдельных аспектах. Нами использована широкая база источников, прежде всего, нарративных, то есть имеющиеся тексты историков. Вспомогательными были для нас актовые, эпистолярные, газетные источники. Часть из этих источников является архивными. Один из первых известных нам совместных издательских проектов двух одесских ученых приходится на начальный период существования Новороссийского университета. Профессоры кафедры канонического права А. С. Павлова и 81 истории И. А. Линниченко длительное время лелеял планы издания актовых источников средневековой истории Западной Украины. В зародыше остался проект профессора кафедры истории русского права А. Я. Шпакова «История секуляризации церковного имущества в Новгороде при Иване ІІІ». На стадии готовности находился проект издания иллюстрированного атласа по истории средневекового и византийского искусства профессора кафедры теории и истории искусств историко-филологического факультета. А. А. Павловского. Углубление процесса институционализации исторических исследований вызвало коллективные проекты, которые способствовали идентификации научных школ, закреплению традиций одесской историографии. В 1911–1914 гг. группа профессоров работала над изданием большого сборника научных трудов в честь юбилея Ф. И. Успенского. Сборник должен был быть издан как двадцать первый том периодического издания Историко-филологического общества при Новороссийском университете. В начале 1910-х годов профессора работали над проектом издания большого труда по истории Новороссийского университета к пятидесятилетию заведения. Фактически издательским архивом этого проекта является часть архивного личного фонда А. П. Доброклонского, который хранится под номером 157 в Государственном архиве Одесской области. Здесь представлены ценные автобиографии и биографии ряда профессоров, статистические сводки. Однако, все эти дела свидетельствуют, что проект вряд ли успел продвинуться дальше чем подготовительная стадия. Помешала война, революции. Бывали случаи, когда творческое наследие умерших историков все же благодаря их родственникам и коллегам становилась достоянием потомков. Так были изданы труды П. К. Бруна, П. А. Юрченко, С. И. Иловайского. Итак, причина нереализованности ряда творческих издательских проектов одесских историков в конце XIX – начале ХХ вв. заключалась в разных плоскостях. Иногда это отражало особенности жизненного ритма историков, снижение темпов их интеллектуального труда, прежде всего вследствие педагогической загруженности, проблем со здоровьем. Часто говорилось о материальных причинах, которые преследовали историков на всех этапах вплоть до сегодняшнего дня. Специфическим обстоятельством была ограниченность тогдашних историков относительно механизмов дистанционного труда, их ментальная неготовность к реализации совместных проектов на расстоянии друг от друга. В общем, во-первых, история нереализованных издательских проектов почти всегда отражает особенности общего наследия ученых, во-вторых, позволяет глубже погрузиться в особенности интеллектуального механизма, в-третьих, демонстрирует взаимосвязь социальных, политических, экономических, научных, психоэмоциональных факторов в-четвертых, показывает преимущества и недостатки коллективных проектов, в-пятых, расширяет наше представление о библиометрических показателях на просопографическом и личностном уровнях. Выявление рукописей, издание наиболее актуальных из них является перспективным направлением дальнейших историографических, книговедческих и библиографических исследований. ; The purpose of this article is to reconstruct a number of scientific publishing projects of Odessa historians of the late 19th – early 20th centuries, which were never fully completed. The problem was not considered comprehensively in historiography, although several publications mention certain aspects. We have used a wide base of sources, primarily narrative, that is, the available texts of historians. Auxiliary were for us act, epistolary, newspaper sources. Some of these sources are archived. One of the first joint publishing projects of two Odesa scientists known to us falls on the initial period of the existence of Novorossiysk University. Professors of the department of canon law O. S. Pavlov and the history of Russian law F. I. Leontovych worked on the preparation of a collection of the most important monuments of Old Russian law. But the project was not implemented due to the move of O.S. Pavlov to Moscow. For a long time, Professor of the Department of Russian History I. A. Lynnychenko cherished plans to publish documentary sources of the medieval history of Western Ukraine. The project of the professor of the Department of History of Russian Law A. Ya. Shpakov "History of the secularization of church property in Novgorod under Ivan III" remained in its infancy. At the best stage of readiness was the project of publishing an illustrated atlas on the history of medieval and Byzantine art by the professor of the Department of Theory and History of Arts of the Faculty of History and Philology. O.A. Pavlovsky. The deepening of the process of institutionalization of historical research caused collective projects that contributed to the identification of scientific schools, consolidation of the traditions of Odesa historiography. In 1911–1914, a group of professors worked on the publication of a large collection of scientific papers in honor of the anniversary of F. I. Uspensky. The collection was to be published as the twenty-first volume of the periodical of the Historical and Philological Society at Novorossiysk University. In the early 1910s, the professors worked on a project to publish a large work on the history of Novorossiysk University for the fiftieth anniversary of the institution. In fact, the publishing archive of this project is a part of O. P. Dobroklonsky, which is stored at number 157 in the State Archives of the Odessa region. Here are presented valuable autobiographies and biographies of a number of professors, statistical summaries. However, all these cases indicate that the project hardly managed to move further than the preparatory stage. War, revolution prevented. There have been cases when the creative heritage of deceased historians, thanks to their relatives and colleagues, became the property of descendants. This is how the works of P. K. Bruna, P. O. Yurchenko, S. I. Ilovaisky. So, the reason for the failure to implement a number of creative publishing projects of Odessa historians in the late XIX – early XX century was in different planes. Sometimes this reflected the peculiarities of the life rhythm of historians, a decrease in the pace of their intellectual work, primarily due to pedagogical workload, health problems. It was often said about the material reasons that haunted historians at all stages of history up to the present day. A specific circumstance was the limitations of the then historians regarding the mechanisms of remote labor, their mental unpreparedness for the implementation of joint projects at a distance from each other. In general, firstly, the history of unrealized publishing projects almost always reflects the features of the common heritage of scientists; secondly, it allows one to dive deeper into the features of the intellectual mechanism; thirdly, it demonstrates the interconnection of social, political, economic, scientific, psycho-emotional factors; and fourthly , shows the advantages and disadvantages of collective projects, fifthly, expands our understanding of bibliometric indicators at the prosopographic and personal levels. Revealing of manuscripts, archaeographic publication of the most relevant of them is a promising direction for further historiographic, bibliological and bibliographic research.
Con la globalización y sus crisis se ha reactivado la polémica identitaria. Ha quedado caduca la categoría occidental de identidad (dominante hasta la Guerra Fría), como era la nación vinculada al Estado. Al no terminar de consolidarse alguna novedosa propuesta sustitutiva, en su lugar se están reformulando y revitalizando otras pretéritas, como la comunitaria religiosa (reinterpretándose los procesos de socialización primaria y su institucionalización). Esta problemática se vuelve más compleja y confusa, ya que aprovechándose de las citadas crisis (incluso acentuándolas) están extendiéndose los patéticos –relativos a pathos [sentimiento compartido condicionante del ethos]- velos posmodernos (v.g. relativismo, corrección política, pensamiento débil). Dichos velos están afectando a todo Occidente, especialmente a un país referencial como es Estados Unidos de América. Téngase en cuenta que la construcción identitaria nacional estadounidense resulta prototípica (pionera para el tránsito al Nuevo Régimen, gracias a la secularización y teología modernas desarrolladas en su seno): se trata de una formulación previa al ideológico debate nacional decimonónico en Europa (modelo liberal-patriótico vs. étnico-cultural), y al fortalecimiento del Estado-nación (con su hiperdesarrollo, extendiéndose por todas las esferas sociales). La construcción identiraria estadounidense (quién es, cómo se es y para qué se es estadounidense) parte de los planteamientos de la Teología moderna o Teología política, que frente a la tradicional, no se ocupa tanto de Dios y del más allá, sino de la religión y la organización del pueblo de Dios en el más acá, o sea, del impacto de la religión en la vida pública (sin el pretendido monopolio estatal). La Teología política es adaptada en las colonias americanas (combinándose el evangelismo mediterráneo católico y el evangelismo protestante nórdico-anglosajón), dando lugar a un modelo pragmático judeocristiano humanista (de corte pactista federal), o sea funcional integrador de gentes de procedencias y tradiciones diversas (gracias a un sistema de plurilealtades religiosas y civiles, respetuoso con la libertad y autonomía religiosa), además de permitir la emergencia de fórmulas de mestizaje autóctonas. Tal modelo resulta además referencial, al posicionar dicho país entre las potencias mundiales (incluso, como adalid de Occidente, según su autopercepción posterior a la II Guerra Mundial). Adviértase de que la incorrecta gestión del problema identitario estadounidense (incluida la inacción), supondría internacionalmente su pérdida de condición hegemónica (así como un vacío de poder, con el consiguiente conflicto en el orden mundial); y domésticamente, dada su alta diversidad comunitaria integrada en su seno (mayor que la de cualquier Estado-nación europeo-continental), se intensificaría el riesgo de entropía (disfunción social hasta el colapso o desorden total) y/o de armagedón (el conflicto final). Para tratar todo lo planteado, además de ofrecer una evolución y evaluación de la materia, se recurre a un estudio interdisciplinario de base teológico-política y científico-social, prestándose especial atención a la expresión autóctona de American covenant theology (teología pactista estadounidense). Dicha expresión, requiere el abordaje de otras cuestiones inherentes, tales como American civil religion (religión civil estadounidense) y American gospel (evangelismo social estadounidense). A su vez, las mismas conducen a otras, como American manifest destiny (destino manifiesto estadounidense) o American self-righteousness (autopercepción estadounidense con sobreestima –conducente a una superioridad moral, de mesianismo–), et al. A la postre, tras el abordaje de las relevantes hierofanías (v.g. toponímia, simbología) y hierocracias (v.g. relaciones Iglesia-Estado, Blue Laws o Derecho dominical), el legado de la patrística (con su hagiografía correspondiente y mesianismo), las acciones de los movimientos religiosos (con sus despertares y sus cruzadas sociales, dinamizándose la opinión pública y dando lugar a revitalizaciones políticas), etc., se espera poder ofrecer también un diagnóstico, y pronóstico acerca de las vulnerabilidades de la matriz idiosincrásica estadounidense, previo al tránsito de la posglobalización. ABSTRACT The identity trouble is coming back with the globalization and its crisis. The Western identity category of nation (linked to the State), that was dominant until the Cold War, it is done. There is not a new replacement proposal, so it is using revivals as religious identity (rethinking social process and its institutions). The identity trouble is becoming more complex and confusing for the crisis; it is taking advantage the pathetic –from pathos- post-modern veils (e.g. relativism, political correctness, weak thought). Such veils are affecting the entire West, especially to relevant countries like the United States of America. The American national identity is a prototypical production (pioneer in the transition to the New Regimen, by a modern secularization and theology. The American formulation is previous to the national identity debate in continental Europe during the 19th century (liberal patriotic model v. ethno-cultural model), and previous to the empowerment of the nation-State (with an overdevelopment beyond the whole social spheres). US identity construction (the vision and mission of an American), it comes from the modern theology or political theology approach: traditional theology is related to God understanding and the eternal life, but political theology is concerned to religious thought and the organization of God´s people in this life, so it is the inquire about the role of religion in public life (without the nation-State monopoly). Political theology is adapted in the American colonies (joining Catholic Mediterranean evangelism and Nordic-Saxon Protestant evangelism), and its result is a kind of pragmatic and humanistic Jewish-Christian model (based in federal covenant issues): it is a functional model to integrate people with diverse origins and traditions, by a pluralistic system of religious and civil loyalties established on religious liberty and autonomy, which allowed the emergence of native mixed formulas. US model is a reference too, because it helped to promote this country as one of the international powers (also, as Western leader after the Second World War, according to its own perception). The mismanagement of American identity problem (including the inaction) it could suppose, in international terms, the end of its hegemonic status (and the possible conflict for that); and in domestic terms, as result of its pluralistic integrated communities system (more than other European nation-State), it is progress the risk of entropy (social dysfunction until the collapse or total disorder) or the Armageddon (final conflict). To explain all these issues, as well as offering an evolution and evaluation of matter, it uses an interdisciplinary study of political-theology and social-scientific basis, with especial attention to own American expressions of covenant theology (American covenant theology). This approach includes issues such American civil religion or American gospel. These issues show others like American manifest destiny, American self-righteousness, etc. This approach permits also the study of the most relevant hierophanies (e.g. place names, signs & symbols) and hierocracies (e.g. Church-State relations, Blue Laws), the heritage of the founding fathers (including hagiographies and its messianic sense), the impact of religious movements (the awakenings and social crusades, and the influence in public opinion and political revivals), etc. By this way, it expects to offer a diagnosis and prognosis about the vulnerabilities of the US idiosyncratic matrix, before to transit to the post-globalization World.
This research is a case study which sought to explore and map the religious identity of a group of thirty primary school student teachers in their third and fourth year of teacher education. The questions arose because of my personal experience of primary school teachers over the last twenty years in schools under religious patronage, where there is a requirement to teach religious education. The study was framed in the social, political and economic landscape of Ireland from 1990 ? 2010, which broadly encompasses the life-span of these students. The country witnessed great socio-economic change: the rise of a vibrant economy and industrial stability; the arrival of immigrants from all over the world; the building boom and the rise of a consumerism not seen in Ireland before. There was a changing political landscape: the election of two female Presidents of Ireland; political stability; and the success of the Northern Ireland Agreement. As well as this secular change, it was a period of religious change, when religious affiliation and attendance at religious services continued to decline. It was also a period which saw the failures of the Catholic Church uncovered and laid out in public. Religious Congregations and Dioceses were investigated by Government Inquiries as the sexual, physical and psychological abuse of children was exposed. The aim of the literature review is to survey identity theory in a number of different ways. It is divided into three sections to investigate identity theory, teacher identity and religious identity. The identity theory is also divided into three sections to review social identity, personal identity and self-concept. The section on teacher identity is concerned with emerging or beginning teacher identity and how teachers begin to negotiate their role as teachers and the concept of professionalism. In both general identity and teacher identity a number of concepts emerge ? identity is seen both as an internal and an external entity: how a person reconciles internally one?s identity and how a person?s identity comes across to the people one encounters. In a similar manner, identity is both personal and social - as much about a person on their own, as it is about them as part of a group. Another common concept is narrative identity is interpreted through the story of a teacher?s life: their experiences and how they learn from them; their mistakes and how they correct them; their aspirations and how they attain them. The religious identity section is divided into two parts ? public religion and religious identity. The public religion looks at secularization theory and the situation of religion in Ireland as might be experienced by student teachers. The section on religious identity looks as how this identity is manifest in the individual, in particular with the concept of spiritual versus religious. This separation of one from the other is increasingly prevalent, which makes for the separation of individual spiritual life from mainstream religious denomination. A final component of the identity section is the chapter on the writings of Karl Rahner. As the primary function of the study is to investigate and map the religious identity of primary school student teachers, Rahner?s writings are used to provide a more comprehensive identity - a thick description. Three elements are explored ? his Theological Anthropology; his Epistemology; and his Pastoral Theology. Rahner?s writing echoes a great deal of what is said here about identity theory, teacher identity theory and obviously religious identity theory, but it gives it a final dimension - he orientation towards God. This orientation is not just in terms of who we are as people, but also how we understand and make meaning of that identity. The literature review and chapter on Rahner are then framed theoretically so as to give a comprehensive basis for creating the interrogative stage and writing the research questions. There are three questions: What characterises the religious identity of a Primary School Student Teacher? How does a Primary School Teacher understand their Religious Identity? How does their religious identity influence their teaching religion in Primary Schools? The first two questions are answered by the thick description - the rich, comprehensive description of the religious identity of the student teachers and how they understand that identity. The third question will be answered by exploring the student teachers? initial experience of teaching and teaching religion. The general research paradigm is social constructivism/ interpretivism; a paradigm which is concerned with the way that individuals interpret their world. Part of this interpretation will include the use of narrative and phenomenology as methods. The principal at the heart of the work is the ?double hermeneutic? - my interpretation of their interpretation. This is a case study of thirty students, bounded geographically, chronologically, and demographically. The case study offers both a unity of purpose, a sufficient depth of study, and an expansive level of description to meet the purposes of the research. All five colleges of Education in the Republic of Ireland were approached; one declined to be involved, one was uncooperative and the remaining three allowed me to interview some of their third-year students. I met with the students in each college as a group and invited them to participate. I also spoke to a number of fourth-year students and eight of these were willing to be interviewed. A semi-structured interview method was used with the thirty students with all considerations of ethics, confidentiality and anonymity duly noted and attended to. The interviews were transcribed by a team of typists. The data generation and collation was undertaken manually. Codes were applied to the interview transcripts and these were gathered in to sets of codes, themes and concepts. The explanation and exposition of the themes and concepts was then completed. This exploration of the data is divided into five sections, along the same lines as the literature review and the research questions: identity theory; teacher identity; religious identity; understanding religious identity; and teaching and religion. The eighth chapter returns to the three research questions. The first two research questions regarding religious identity and the student?s understanding of it encompass the ?thick description? outlined in chapter seven. This description of the three modes of identity is outlined in the literature review and used at the interrogative stage is enriched by Rahner?s anthropology and it provides the basis for four typologies of religious identity which are employed to create an image of the student teachers who were interviewed. The third research question lays out the findings concerning religious identity and teaching religion and takes into consideration the current debate concerning school patronage and management and the religious education background of the student teachers. The final chapter is a summative chapter and as well as outlining some of the limitation of the study, provides the research findings in a summative form along with major recommendations and areas of further research. ; TARA (Trinity?s Access to Research Archive) has a robust takedown policy. Please contact us if you have any concerns: rssadmin@tcd.ie
Issue 15.5 of the Review for Religious, 1956. ; Our New Business , ddress When we were preparing to publish the REVIEW, we arranged to have the College Press, in Topeka, do the printing and distribut-ing. For fifteen years the editors and the College Press have worked together in the closest h.armony. We have literally shared both heart'- 'aches and °joys. The heartaches were',mostly brought about by the difficulties of the war years: for example, as we published each num-ber we wondered how we would get enough paper for printing the next. The jo~,s consiste,d, am6ng other things, in getting the REVIEW out regularly and on time, despite the difficulties, and in the realiza-tion that this new apostolate for religious seemed to be appreciated. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to REVIEW FOR REL~IGIOUS 3115 South Grand Boulevard St. Louis 18, Missouri This is our new business address During all these fifteen years, Mr. 3. W. O,rr, owner of the Col-lege Press, and his assistants, have given the REVIEW the best they had: and that was very good, indeed. But the time has come when we must make new publishing arrangements. The reason for this is purely an "act of God," as far as both the editors and the College Press are concerned. There has been no break in the harmony that has always characterized our collaboration. Fortunately for us, the publishing department of the Queen's Work has agreed to take over the publication of the REVIEW. Be-ginning with the next volume, the REVIEW will be printed and dis-tributed by the Queen's Work. Obviously, the new publishers can-not wait till the last deadline to begin making addresses and keeping records. For this reason, please note the announcement in the c~nter of this page and follow it exactly. The editors are deeply grateful to the College Press for past col-. laboration and to the Queen'~ Work for taking over the burden. 225 I=xclaus!:rat:ion and Seculariza!:ion Joseph F.°Gallen, S.J. I. EXCLAUSTRATION , 1. Definition. Aft indult of exclaustration is the permission to remain temporarily outside one's religious institute apart from obedi-ence, dependence, and vigilance of religious superiors either for a determined period of time or for the duration of the reason for which the indult was granted. The religious requests the indult and is not obliged to use it afterit has been granted. The petition is made throu~gh religious, superiors. Canon law does not demand the con-sent of superiors, but it is the practice of the Holy See to grant no indult to religious without having considered the opinion of superiors nor generally without their consent. It is difficult to obtain an in-dult of exclaustration from the Holy See when superiors are opposed. The Holy See d~cides whether the opposition of superiors is unreas-onable or unjust.1 The petition therefore should be accompanied by the opinion of the superior general, substantiated by pertinent reasons and facts, as to whether the indult should be granted. Local ordin-aries follow the same practice in granting indults of exclaustration to members of diocesan congregations. Exclaustration differs from a me/e absence outside any house of one's institute (c. 606, § 2), es-sentially because in a simple absence the religious remains subject to the obedience and vigilance of superiors. Authors commonly assert that the Holy See does not grant an in-dult of exclaustration to priests unless the petition'is accompanied by the attestation of a local ordinary that he will permit the priest to reside in his diocese during the exclaustration and at least to say Mass. ~ 2. Competent authority forexclaustration and secularization (c. 638). The competent authority is,the same for both exclaus-tration and secularization. In pontifical institutes~ whether orders or congregations', only the Holy See can grant such an indult. Either the Holy See or the local ordinary is competent for members of dio-cesan congregations, but in practice the indult is obtained from the latter. The competent local ordinary is the ordinary of the place where the religious is staying. The ordinary of the mother house is 1. Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, II, 124-25 2. Schaefer, De Religiosis, n. 1536, 5. 226 EXCLAUSTRATION AND SECULA.RIZATION competent only for religious staying within his diocese, not for those staying in. other dioceses.3 The competent ordinary therefore is the ordinary of the domicile or quasi-domicile of the religious, even if the latter is Outside either diocese at the time the indult is granted. A religious has a domicile in the diocese of the house to which he is assigned, a quasi-domicile in a diocese where he has licitly resided for the greater part of a year or has been or.dered to reside for the greater part of a year. The ordinary of the licit actual and real resi-' dence of a religious is also competent as long as such residence con-tinues and'the religious is within his diocese, i. e., of a diocese in which the religious has licitly resided for a week or at-, least for several days, since a place where one is staying is not confined in canon law to a domicile or quasi-domicile,4 An ordinary is probably competent with regard to any diocesan religious who is .actually licitly in his diocese at the moment the indult is granted, even if only momentarily and without any regard to the length of the stay, since this also is at least probably a canonical meaning of the place where one is staying.6 The apostolic delegate, possesses the following faculty for nuns: "To allow nuns in case of sickness or for other just and grave rea- ~sons to live outside the religious house for a time to be fixed at his prudent discretion, on condition, however, that they shal~ always have the association and assistance of their relatives by blood or mar-riage or of some other, respectable~woman, that they shall live at home and elsewhere a religious life free 'from the society of men, becomes virgins consecrated to God, and without prejudice to the prescription of canon 639.''~ 3. Sufficient reasons for exclaustration (c. 639). Since common life and subjection to superiors are highly essential elements of the religious state, serious and exceptional reasons are required for the granting of this indult. Those commonly given are a business un-dertaking, care of personal health, and care or support of one's par-ents when these things cannot be accomplished b~ a simple absence from the institute according to ~; 606, § 2~ Other reasons of equal or greater import will suffice. 4. Effects of an indult of exclaustration (c. 639). The effects 3. Code Comm., July 24, 1939; Bouscaren, Canon Law Di~est. II, 173. 4. CL'cc. 94, §§ 2-3; 162, § 1; 620: 1023, § 3; 1039, § 1: 1097, § 1, ~.2": 1563: 1787, § 1; 2385. 5. Cf. c. 94, §§ 2-3: Regatillo, lnterpretatio et lurisprudentia Codicis luris Canonici, 244-45: Michiels, Principia Generalia de Personis in Ecclesia, 210- 11 : 119: Normae Generales luris Canonici, II, 729-36. 6. Bouscaren, op. cir., I, 184; Vermeersch, Periodica, 12 (1924), 145-46. 227 JosEp~-I F. GRLLEN Reoieto for Religious are always the same, whether the indult is granted by the Holy See or a local ordinary. The latter cannot determine the effects of an indult granted by himself, since these are determined by c. 639. The exclaustrated religious remains a religious and a member of hi~ in-stitute. Therefore, he is free of no obligations and loses no rights except those expressly stated in law. The obligation of the vows continues during exclaustration. The obligation of chastity remains undhanged. Instead of being subject to the superiors of his institute, the exclaustrated religious is now subject, also in virtue of the vow of obedience, to the ordinary of the dibcese in which he is staying. The cession of the admihistration, disposition of the use and usufruct, and will that he had made in religion all remain in effect. Exclaus-tration does not change the norms for acquiring property, and the religious acquires property for the institute and for himself in the same way that he would if he were not exclaustrated. He is given implicit permission by the indult itself to acquire, administer, and use temporal goods insofar as these are necessary for his becoming sustenance and the purpose of the indult, e. g., the support of parents. He is obliged to avoid all superfluous expenses. The institute has no obligation from justice to support an exclaustrated religious but shbuld do so from charity insofar as he is hnable to support himself.7 The exclaustrated religious is held to all other obligations, i. e., the laws of the code on religious, the obligations of the Rule, con-stitutions, customs,, ordinances, and regulations of his institute in-sofar as these are compatible with his present state. He is therefore not held to incompatible obligations, which in general are those that depend on common life, e. g., silence, attendance at common exer-cises, inspection of correspondence. Compatible obligations, to which he is held, are, e. g., mental prayer, private recitation of the office, hearing of Mass, ~requenting the sacrament of penance, recitation of the rosary, examen of conscience, other prayers that can be said pri-vately, fast, and abstinence. He must put off the religious habit but may continue to wear any undergarments that appertain to the habit and the small habit, called the scapular, worn under the clothing by the tertiaries of some religious orders. Exclaustrated priests and clerics wear the dress of the diocesan clergy. For special reasons the local ordinary may permit an exclaustrated religious of a diocesan 7. Cf. Guti~rrez, Commentarlum Pro Religiosis, 36 (1955), 375; Schaefer, op. cit., n. 1535; Goyeneche, De Relioiosis, 196, note 19; Coronata, lnstitutiones luris Canonici, I, 840, note 4; Chdodi-Ciprotti, lus Canot~icura de Personis, n. 286; Berutti, De Religiosis, 327. 228 Seprernber, 1956 EXCLAUSTRATION ,AND SECULARIZATION congegation to wear the habit,s The Holy See, of course, may grant the same permission to a religious of a pontifical or diocesan insti-tute. The Holy See grants this permission when no scandal will ens,ue and provided the superior of the institute approves the request, espe-cially when the reason for the exclaustration is not caused by the re-ligious himself.9 During exclaustration the religious possesses neither active nor passive voice. He retains the merely spiritual privileges of his institute, e. g., indulgences. He follows the calendar and rite of his {nstitute in the recitation of the office and the same rite in saying Mass. He retains the privileged confessional faculties of his institute as also those of blessing objects. Heo is not deprived, of suffrages if he should die during exclaus~ration, since no law of the code divests him of this right acquired by profession.19 5, Return to the institute. Whe~i the definite time for which the indult was granted has expired or the reason for which it was given has ceased, the religious is ~o return without delay to his institute, unless an extension of the indult has been obtained from the'com-petent authority. The religious has the rights, to ret'urn before the expiration of the indult, and the institute is Obliged to receive him back. For just reasons his ,religious superiors may also recall him to the institute before the expiration of the indult. 6. Imposed exclaustration. A new form of exclaustration, not contained in the code, has been introduced in the recent practice of the Holy See. It is usually granted on the petition of superiors, whether the subject consents, .is opposed, or indifferent. The essen-tial characteristic of, this exclaustration is that it is imposed, is of obligation, is a precept of dwelling outside the institute. The rea-son is f.requently the good of the community, i. e., the conduct of the religious is a source of serious harm to the institute. Often the good of the subject also is intended, i. e., for his own good' the re-ligious sbould be e~claustrated. Typically specific cases are those of religious who are notably deficient in observance or obedience, who undermine and mi~chinate against government, and very difficult characters who do not merit dismissal but seriously disturb the p~ace of the community. These cases are stated to be of more frequent occurrence in institutes of women. Such reasons are often accom-panied by physical or mental maladies. The state of the religious in 8. Code Comm., Nov. 12, 1922; Bouscaren, op. cir., I, 326-27. 9. Larraona. Acta et Documenta Congressus lnternationalis 8uperiorissarum Gen-eraliurn, 265. 10. Creusen, Religious Men and Wom, en in the Codb, n. 334. 229 JOSEPH F. (3ALLEN Reolew for Religious imposed exclaustration is the same,as in 'the ordinary or voluntary exclaustration, but he may be placed under the vigilance of the local ordinary or his own religious superiors. The religious is obliged to work for his own support, but in this case the institute has a greater obligation i~n charity to support him insofar as he cannot do so him-self. Imposed exclaustration is not prescribed for any definite period of time, but it is not perpetual. It lasts as ldng as the.reasons and purpose persist in the judgment of the S. Congregation of Religious, and the rehg~ous may return and be receN:ed back into the institute only with the permission of the S. Congregation. A clerical religious in sacr,ed orders wh~ is to be exclaustrated in this manner may be received by a bishop but without any intention of future incardination. In this case the religious is in the same state as that of ordinary exclaustration. He is under the authority of the bishop, also in virtue of the vow of obedience, and he exercises the ministry under the authority of the bishop. Such a clerical religious may not have a bishop who is willing to receive him, but another ecclesiastical authority, e. g., a.religious superior of another institute, is willing to be answerable to the Holy See for at least his priest!y life. The religious is then permitted to say Mass in the religious or pious house under the responsibility of this superior. He remains under the authority~and vigilance of his own religious superiors. If ¯ neither a bishop nor other ecclesiastical authority is had, the Holy See does not ilnpose exclaustration on such a c]'erical religious except in a case of absolute necessity. If it is imposed, the exercise of any order or sacred ministry is fbrbidden; and the religious is under his own superiors with regard to his Christian, clerical, and religious life~n II. S~CULARIZATION 7. Definition and competent autboritO (cc. ,638, 640). Secu-larization is a departure from religion by which a subject is separ-ated completely and perpetually from all membership in his .institute and is freed completely and perpetually of all obligations and loses all rights that h~ve their source in religious profession. By seculari-zation the religious ceases to be a religious. Since secularization dis-penses from all the vows of religious profes~sion, even if solemn, i( is commonly called a dispensation from the vows of religion. The competent authority for an indult of secularization is the same as for exclaustration, as explained in n. 2. ~ 11. Guti~rrez, op. cit., 32 (1953), 336-39~; Larraona, op. cir., "266. 230 September, 1956. EXCLAUSTRATION AND SECULARIZATION 8. Sufficient reasons. Very serious' reasons~are required for secu-larization, and the ecclesiastical authority competent to grant the indult is the judge of their sufficiency. There must be a reason over and above the mere desire to'leave religion. The ir~dult is granted because of the motive of the request, not merely because it is requested. The most common reaso~ is that the religious finds the religious life morally impossible or too difficult, even if this state arises from culp-able causes that he will not correct, The difficulty may have its source °in the vow of chastity, obedience, or poverty, the common life, work, or general life of the institute. A reason insufficient in itself may become sufficient when the mental state of the religious that be will not correct is taken into account, e. g., if his desire to leave makes him useless or a source of harm i:o the institute. Other reasons of equal or greater import will suffice, ~. g., lack of suitability for the work of the institute, ill health, mental depression, necessary support of parent.s, and the case of those who are counselled to leave because otherwise the institute will initiate their dismissal. 9. Petition. The religious himself asks for the indult of seculari-zation, since it is a voluntary leaving of religion. He is to write out or at least sign his request, stating his name in religion and in the world, name of his institute, his present address, age, number of years in religion, of what vows he is professed and for how ,long, what orders he has received, that i~e requests an indult of seculariza-tion, all the reasons, and the date. The institute should retain a copy of this petition. The petition should be forwarded to the competent authority ordinarily through the superior general or at least through a higher superior. All the statements above (n. I) on the necessity of the consent of superiors for exclaustration apply here also. The higher superior should enclose a letter with the petition giving all in-formation pertinent to the case ;~nd his own opinion as to whether the religious should leave, substantiatin~ the latter with all reasons and facts that he may know. 10. Acceptance and refusal of indult. (a) Acceptance. When the indult of secularization is received, it should be communicated to the religious; and he should manifest his acceptance of it. "Any instruc-tions on the manner of acceptance contained in the indult are.to be followed. Otherwise, it is ,sufficient that the religious manifest his acceptance by any external s, ign that expresses acceptance. It is better for the acceptance to" be manifested in writing and before two wit-nesses. The following or a similar statement should be written or typed: "I attest that I today accepted, an .indult of secularization 231 JOSEPH 1~. GALEEN from the Order (Congregation)~ of N." The statement should con-tain mention of the place and date. It is to be signed by the recipient before the two witnesses, who are themselves to sign the acceptance as witnesses. The document is to be preserved in the files of the in-stitute. It would be well also for the higher superi'or, personally or through another, to give the secularized ex-religious a written and signed statement on the stationery of the institute to the effect that he had received and accepted an indult of secularization and .accordingly left religion free of all obligations of the religious life. The place-and date are to be mentioned also on this statement. (b) Acceptance and immediate repentance. An indult of seculari-zation produces all its effects immediately upon its acceptance, even if the former religious repents instantly and before leaving the house.12 (c) Refusal. Secularization, even though voluntarily petitioned, has no effect.until accepted; and the religious may refuse to accept the indult.13 If the institute, whether pontifical or diocesan, has serious reasons against the refusal these are to be proposed to the S. Congregation of Religious, which could oblige the religious to accept the [ndult or declare [hat the indult has its effect without ac-ceptance, thus making it equivalent to a form of dismissal.14 The formalities described above for an acceptance should also be followed for a refusal of the-indult. (d) Later useJof a refused indult. If the religious definitively fused the indult and later wishes to leave, a new indult must be pe-titioned. 'If, all things considered, 'the refusal was only doubtful, hesitant, not definitive, the indult is suspended and may be used later. If it is not accepted nor definitively refused within six months, the matter is to be referred tO the ecclesiastical authority that issued the indult.~ (e) Present practice of the Holt¢ See. Indults of secularization granted by the Holy See, for those who are not priests now contain the sentence: "This decree ceases to have any validity if hot'accepted by" the petitioner within ten days after being informed of the execu-torial decree." If within ten days: (1) the indult is expressly ac- 12. Cf.'Guti~trez, o/9. cir., 32 (1953), 194: Creusen, o/9. cit.,'n. 332, 3; Fan-fani, De lure Religiosocaro, n. 490. 13. S. C. of Religious, Aug. I, 1922; Bouscaren, ol9. dr., I, 326. 14. Ci:. Maroto, Commentari,,m Pro Religiosis, 4 (1923), 106. 15. Cf. Goyeneehe, Quaestiones Canonlcae, II, 126-27; Guti~rrez, o/9. cir., 32 (1953), 194-95: Jombart, Tcaitd de Dcoit Canonique, I, n. 907; Muzzarelli, Tractatus Canonicus de Congregationibas luris Dioecesani, 172: Jone, Cora-raeotarium in Codicem laris Canon.&[, I, 563; de Bonhome, Ret~ue des com-munautds Religieuses, 26 (1954), 47, 232 EXCLAUSTRATION AND SECULARIZATION cepted, it becomes effective immediately; (2) the indult is neither accepted nor definitively refused, it ceases'to have any validity at the end of this period;~ (3) the indult is definitively refused, all validity of the indult ceases on this definitive refusal. A new indult is to be petitioned if the religious repents of his refusal and wishes again to leave, even during the ten-d.ay period. The practice of the'.Holy See is not to grant the indult directly to'the religious but to commit to an intermediary person, e~ g.; the local ordinary, the granting of the indult to the religious. The actual granting of the indult by this intermediary is called the executorial decree. The ten days begin to run from the time the ~eligious is offi-cially notified of the executorial decree, not from the date of notifi-cation of the rescript of the Holy See. The day of notification, is not computed. If the notification is given on August 1, the ten days expire at midnight of August 11-12. This time does not run for any period in which the religious was ignorant of or unable to ex-ercise his right of acceptance and refusal.l~ 11. Effects of an inctult of secularization (c. 640). The effects are always the same, whether the indult is granted by the Holy See or ~a local ordinary~ The latter cannot determine the effects of an indult granted by himself, since these are determined by c. 640. One who has been secularized ceases simply and absolutely to be a r& ligious. He is in the same state as if he had never been a religious and° consequently has none.of the rights or obligations of a religious. Can. 640 specifie~ these effects by stating that he ceases to be a mem-ber of his institute; that he must put off the religious habit, as ex- ,plained in n. 4; that he is freed from all the vows of his religious p~ofession, even if solemn; that he is no longer bound by the con-stitutions nor by any particular law of his former institute nor by the obligation of .reciting the Divine Office in virtue of religious pro-fession; and that he loses a.ll rights and privileges of a religious. A secularized religious cleric in sacred orders is bound by tl~e obligation of clerical celibacy and chastity (c. 132, § I), of reciting tl'ie Divine Office (c. 135), and of wearing becoming ecclesiastical garb (c. 136, § 1). In the celebration of Mass, the recitation of the Divine Office, and the administration and reception of the sacraments, the secular-ized religious follows the rite and calendar of the diocesan clergy and laity, not any special rite or proper calendar of his former in-stitute. A secularized religious ma.y not. be admitted into any re-ligious institute without a dispensation from the Holy See, since he 16. Cf. Guti~rrez, ibid., 186-97; Larraona, op. cir., 266. 233 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious. is now bound by the invalidating impediment of c. 542, I°, of a previous religious profession. If he is again admitted,, he is not obliged to make another postulancy17 but must make another novice-ship, temporary profession, for the full time prescribed by, the, con-stitutions, and perpetual profession. His seniority is determined by the new profession. A dispensation may be requested for'a lessening of a noviceship of more than a year and also of the time of tem-porary profession. The questions specific to clerics in minor and sacred orders (c. 641) and the privations that affect the latter (c. 642) can be found in the ordinary canonical manuals. (a) Return o['tgroperty. The institute has no obligation to re-store to the secularized religious any property that he had given to the institute, e. "g., in the renunciation before solemn profession. However, it is the very common d6ctrine of authors that equity counsels the restoration of a part of such property, at least if it has not been expended,is The renunciation, ceases to have any validity with regard to property that will come to the former religious in the future. A professed of simple vows regains the administration, use, and usufruct of his personal property (cc. 569, § 1; 580, § 3). A few constitutions contain the provision that clothing and personal effects brought to the institute at entrance are to be restored in their current condition to a religious who leaves'or is dismissed after first profession. Such a provision is to be obeyed. The constitutions may contain the contrary provision that hll such objects, except those of sufficiently notable value, are implicitly renounced in favor of the institute at first profession. In the absence of any provision' of the constitutions or custom, the latter doctrine may at least probably be followed. The ihstitute cannot be expected to permit the religious to carry all such objects from house to house or be obliged to retain and store them. The entire capital sum of the dowry, ~but not the interest already derived from it, is to be restored to a.secularized re-ligious woman (c. 551, § 1)i It is forbidden to deduct anything from the dowry for ordinary or extraordinary expenses that the institute had to pay in favor of the religious, e. g., for her support as a postulant or novice, studies, or illne'ss. A secularized r~ligious may not seek compensation for services rendered to the institute at any 17. Cf. c. 640, § 2: Larraona, Commentacium Pro Relioiosis, 16 (1935), 223; done, ot9 clt., 565. 18. Cf. dombart, o19. cir., n. 908; Beste, lntroductio in Codicem, 436; Claeys Bouuaert-Simenon, Manuale duris Canonici, I,, n. 689; Bastien, Directoire Canonique, 440, note 3; Vermeerscfi-Creusen, Epitome luris Canot~ici, I, n. 801. '234 EXCLAUSTRATION AND, ~;ECUL!~RIZATION time from his entrance .(c. 643, § 1). 12. Charitable subsidy for religious wotner~ (c. 643, § 2). The charitable subsidy consists of suitable clothing, personal effects, and a sum of money sufficient to enable a religious woman to return home safely and becomingly and to provid~ her with the means of a re-spectable livelihood for a period of time to be determined by mutual consent or, in the case of disagreement, by the local ordinary. The subsidy need not be prolonged beyond the time required for finding employment suitable to the condition of the former religious. If she is quite old and infirm and without resources, she must agree to enter" into a'suitable institution intended for persons of that condi-tion. The help given by her former institute need never have the~ character of a pension for life.19 Constitutions of religious women most rarely determine whether it is the institute, province, or house that is to furnish the subsidy. The matter.is therefore determined by the 'usage of the particular institute. The subsidy is to be given when the religious was received with-out a dowry or with a dowry insufficient for the purpose2° and cannot p~ovide for herself sufficiently from her own property. In " these circurfistances therefore the institute is obliged to give either the full amount of the subsidy or, in the event that the religious has some property of her own and/or a dov~ry insufficient for the purpose, the added amount necessary to equal the full amount of the subsidy. The ~ubsjdy has to be given to any ~eligious woman who leaves at the end of temporary profession or is then excluded from renew-ing temporary or making j~erpetual profession (c. 643, § 2), who is secularized during temporary or perpetual profession. (c. 643; § 2), or is dismissed during either temporary or perpetual profession (cc. 643, § 2; 647, § 2, 5°; 652, § 3). The code does not mention the subsidy in c. 653, which treats of s.ending a religious back im-mediat. ely and provisionally to secular life, nor in c. 646, which lists the crimes that effect theipso facto dismissal of religious. How-ever, the general canon on the subsidy is 643, § 2, which is evidently closely joined with the firs~ paragraph of the same canon. The latter lists dismisged religious without any restriction. The subsidy should certainly be given in the first case. It seems that it should also be given in the second case. It is not likely that the reli~gious is deprived of the su, bsidy because of the greater culpability of these crimes. The 19. Creusen, op. cir. n. 338; .]'ombart, op. cir., n. 908. 20. S. C. of Religious, Mar. 2, 1924: Bouscaren,.op. cir., I, 300. 235 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious ordinary dismissal of a religious wbman of perpetual vows demands culpable reasons, yet the code certainly commands that the subsidy-be given to all religious women dismissed in the ordinary manner. The canonical obligation of giving the subsidy is confined to religious women. However, an institute of men will practically al-ways have to give a subject in the same circumstances suitable cloth-ing, personal effects, and a sum of money sufficient to enable him to retu, rn home safely and becomingly; and equity and charity may oblige the institute to assist him financially until he secures em-ployment. 21 13. Special exctaustration (exclaustratio qualit~cata) o1: priests. This is, equivalently .a temporary laicization and secularization. Lai-cization deprives the cleric of the licit use of the power of orders, of clerical offices, rights, and privileges, and frees him of all clerical obligations except that of clerical celibacy and chastity attached to sacred orders (c. 213). The effects of secularization have been de-scribed above. In special exclaustration clerical and religious rights and obligations are not removed but'suspended for the time of the indult. This form of exclaustration is new and was introduced in the practice of the Holy See in October, 1953. It is confined to priests and may be granted only by the Holy See. The indult is generally given only on the petition of the subject or at least with his con-sent. It is likewise temporary and is usually granted only for a brief time, e. g., one or two years. Special exclaustration is a tem-porary and provisional remedy and ordinarily presupposes, tempor-ary reasons that will probably cease by its use. Typical cases are those of a serious crisis of faith, of disgust or fear "of the religious and priestly life, serious da,nger of public scandal or of apostasy from the priesthood or from fai.th, some physical infirmities, serious psy-chic disorders caused by the persuasion of a fundamental lack of aptitude for the priestly and religious life, depressive and scrupulous states, obstinate abstention from the celebration of Mass and from the sacraments caused partially, by infirmity and scruples, invincible repugnance to the exercise of the priestly ministry, and a secretly sinful life with consequent psychic depression and the persuasion that the life of chastity is impossible. The Holy See is ac,utely con-scious of the various dangers of this form of exciaustration and pro-ceeds prudently and cautiously in granting the indult and acts only 21. Cf. Woywood-Smith, A Practical Commentary on the Code of Canon Law, I, 323; Coronata, op. cir., 845; Cappello, Summa luris Canonlci, II, n. 630; ¯Regatillo-Zalba, De Statibus Particularibus, n. 254. 236 September, 1956 EXCLAUSTRATION AND SECULARIZATION ¯ after having obtained complete information of the course of life of the petitioner. The priest continues to be a member of his institute, and this constitutes the essential similarity to ordinary exclaustration. The obligation of all the religious 'vows is suspended, but that of clerical celibacy and chastity attached to sacred o~rders remains. All other clerical and religious rights and Obligations are s,uspended, all clerical ministry is forbidden, and the priest is in the state of a lay person with regard to the reception of the sacraments. The indult places him under the special discipline and assistance of the local ordinary and of the institute that he may be charitably guided to upright and be-coming conduct and be aided in overcoming the crisis. He is obliged to put off the external form of the religious habit, as in ordinary exclaustration and secularization, and be ii also forbidden to wear ecclesiastical garb. He retains the merely spi'ritual privileges of his institute but does not have any of the other rights nor active and passive voice. During the time 'of the indult he acquires property for himself and may and should provide his own support. Before leaving religion he is to give the superior a declaration that he will provide his own support during the exclaustr~tion without any ob-ligation on the part of the institute. Cases can occur in which this declaration will not be prescribed, and the institute in charity should support the subject insofar as he cannot do so himself. Superiors may receive the subject back into the institute before the expiration of the indult~ but the clerical privations remain intact. until the Holy See has given its decision. On the expiration of the indult, the priest is obliged to return to his institute and recourse is to be made to the S. Congregation for a decision of the case. Su-periors, however, may use the faculty of c. 606, § 2, and permit him to live outside the institute for a brief time until the S. Congre-gation decides the matter. The indult can also cease on" its revoca-tion by the S. Congregation, either on the petition of the subject or for a serious reason on the initiative of the S. Congregation. The indult likewise ceases on the granting of perpetual laicization, by the penal infliction of such laicization, e. g., in the case of public scandal, or by a petition for secularizatior~ when the priest has found a bishop who is willing to receive him according to the norm of c. 641. All of the above on special exclaustration is a synopsis of Gutiirrez, Commentari~m Pro Religiosis, 36 (1955), 374-79. The matter i~ briefly described also in Sartori, durisprudev.tiae Ecclesiasticae Ele-menta, 3 ed., 60-61. ~ 237 Mo!:her Dolores Sister M. Teresita, S.H.F. The story of the foundress of the Sisters of the Holy Famil'y THE sudden rush of the ambitious gold seekers of 1848 gave Cali-~ | fornia, and San Francisco in particular, a cosmopolitan Char-acter. But abreast with the adventurers came new recruits in the missionary field seeking the finer gold of precious human souls. Ireland supplied a great many zealous young priests who-were ready to sacrifice home and country. They came to minister to the spiritual wants of her children who followed the lure of gold to the far-away shores of the Pacific. Foremost among the early students of All Hallows' Seminar~, in Dublin was John J. Prendergast. Born in Clogh~e, County Tip-perary, Ireland, in 1834; Father Prendergast was ordained for the Archdiocese of San Francisco on June 26, 1859. His great talents and fervent piety marked him out as an extraordinary student. He was offered a place on the faculty of All Hallows. As he was or- .dained for San Francisco, the authorities communicated with Arch- 'bishop Alemany. To make sure of the Archbishop's permission, two priests were offered in place of Father Prendergast. The de-" cision was left to the newly ordained. He refused the honor and set out for the distant country, chiefly known to the gold hunter, the specul~tor, and adventurer. He arrived in San Francisco when it was in the throes of civil, reli~lious~ educational, and social disor-ganization. In the exercise of the sacred ministry, Father Prendergast met the poor, the unfortunate, as well as the newly rich. He frequently walked the streets of the rapidly growing metropolis sprung out of the sand dunes, the city built,on the hills. His priestly heart ached for the many children he found who were totally ignora.nt of the truths of the faith of their forefathers. The sudden growth since the gold rush. of '49 had far outstripped municipal facilities. Mission Dolores was the parish to which Father Prendergast was assigned. It covered two-thirds of the present area of San Fran-cisco. In taking the census, this ardent son of Erin found many of the children of the poor living in frightful conditions. Many, whose mothers were obliged to go out to work for their living, were left alone all day. They were locked in their backyards with a half losf of bread and a bottle of milk to suktain them. Daily, Father 'lSrayed 238 MOTHER ~OLORES for a solution to the problem and begged God to send a suitable person to inaugurate a systematic campaign among the poor and neglected families of his parish. It was in the sun.rsplasbed gardens of historic Mission Dolores that Father Prendergast first met the high s~0irited, vivacious Eliza-beth Armer. Elizabeth had accompanied Mrs. Richard Tobin to arra, nge to have Masses said for departed relatives. She was standing there beside her" dark-eyed foster mother, the morning sun shining on her golden crown of auburn hair. She carned her fifteen years with girlish dignity. The warm, radiant personality manifested in one so young impressed Father Prendergast. Father felt that Elizabeth, though still a young girl, was just the one to begin his work. When he was later transferred to the Cathedral parish, he secured her services as a religion teacher for the children. She also assisted in cariflg for the altars. Eagerly he watched the unfolding of this beautiful flbwer in God's chosen gar-den. Rapidly plans for a much-needed institute developed in his own mind. Elizabeth Armer came to us out ~f Sidney, Australia. Little is known of her ancestry or early childhood. She was born on April 30, 1851. Soon after she arrived on our shores with her family, her mother died. Her father, Robert Amkr, remarried. It was the oft-repeated story of the step-dhild. Richard Tobin, a friend of Robert Ar~mer, coming home from the office one~da~, said, "Mary; I have a surprise for you. I've brought you a new daughter." Mr. Tobin told his wife that she was the child ofhis.old friend Robert Armer and added, with, deep faith, "Mary dear, God will provide." And God did. Elizabeth was enrolled in the classes at Presentation Convent. Here she spent her happy" school days under the supervision and in-struction of the good Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary. That Elizabeth developed such a well-adjusted personality, spite her early misfortune, was due to the sympathetic understand-ing of her new parents. The comforts of their luxuriant home on exclusive Nob Hill did not distract Elizabeth from her love of God and souls. She often met little folks on ,thestreet. She would ,stop them to talk with them. This tall, beautiful girl would ask, "Do you love God? Do you say your prayers? . But we don't know any prayers, Miss," they would answer. "'Come to our house and I will'help 239 " SISTER M. TERESITA Review [or Religious you to learn to love God and to talk to" Him." Soon, Elizabeth had gathered quite a group of children around her to "learn about God." Her foster father remarked that their home was beginning to take on the appearance of a kindergarten. However, Mr. Tobin good naturedly tolerated the invasion. Mrs. Tobin often accompanied Elizabeth on her visits to the homes of the poor. In the institute of which she was destined to be foundress, these early characteristic traits, zeal for sQuls, love for the poor, were to be its distinguishing marks. Alleviation o.f both material, and spiritual poverty, .especially in families, was to be its special work. Soliciting funds from the wealthy to aid the less fortunate was to be the means, of extending help. 'They would seek out the children who needed religious instruction. They would lend a helping hand where needed, to preserve the family. This apostolic social work and social-minded apostolate are the_constant endeavors of her spiritual daughters, today. In spite of her active participation in the lay apostolate, Eliza-beth yearned for a complete dedication of her life to God, Her per-sonal love of the Saviob drew her with such force that Elizabeth thought that God was calling her to be a Carmelite. The future foundress desired to do God's will rather than her own, which led her to consult the archbishop about her vocation. "Elizabeth," replied the saint!y'Archbishop Alemany, "Father Prendergast and I have another work for~ you to ~1o, There are the little ones to be cared for while their mothers are off to work. And who is to instruct the children of our big city in the ways of faith, hope, and love? They must be prepared "for the Sacraments; they must be brought to the knowledge, love, and service of God. There are the poor to be visited in their homes. There are hearts to heal and souls to save in our busy city streets. This, is the work Ggd wants you to do, Elizabeth." To give up the s.ecurity of a life in a long-established and well-ordered religious congregation! To launch out on the rough sea of uncertainty of establishing a new institute! Was this what God was asking?. With firm faith and steady heart, she gave herself with perfect trust into the care of God's representative. This same simple faith, ardent love; and child-like trust mzrked all her dealings with God and men throughout her beautiful but comparatively short life. Trials were. not wanting; for it is only in the crucible of suffer-ing that the pure gold of such a soul is tried. It was necessary that the edifice of the Holy Family institute (the eternal inheritance be- 240 September, 19~6 MOTHER DOLORES queathed by Mother Dolores to her spiritual children) had to rest on the solid foundation of deep humility. God was not long in sending the first trial. Elizabeth was now twenty years of age. The time had come for definite action. At the bidding of her archbishop and Farher Pren-dergast, she left her foster parents' home. With one companion, Miss Collins, she moved into a little rented flat on Pine Street on November 6, 1872. This is Foundation~Day. DaiI~ they went about the duties of caring for the poor, the sick, and the needy: From the outset, the idea of a religious com-munity was in the mind of the founders. They were to devote them-selves generously to the service of God in the children and the poor. Father Prendergast had very definite i~leas of the life and work off. the young institute. To visit the homes of the poor, to bring" relief to the sick, to seek out the neglected children in their families--these are goals in social work that cannot be too much insisted upon. There is danger in our modern projects, providing recreation grounds and community clubs and hikihg expeditions, to neglect the family. 'Father Pren-dergast's idea of assistance covered the whole field of need. "Help-ing others to help themselves," was to be the m6tto of his welfare work. These two energetic young women labored enthusiastically for some months. The good the future institute was to accomplish, in the designs of God, was to be far-reaching. The souls to Obe snatched from Satan were to be 'many. Of course, the devil did not like this. He had his own plan to kill this good work in its infancy. On the other hand, every good work must be tried in the crucible of tribulation: A soul as staunch and courageous as that of Elizabeth Armer must be refined yet more. One morni~ng Miss Collins failed to report for duty. When Miss Armer visited her room, there were visible, On the hands and feet of Miss Collins, the likeness of the wounds of the Savior. Ever straightforward and upright herself, Miss Armer did not doubt her companion's sincerity. The incident created quite a stir. Shortly after, however, on investigation, it was discovered that the wounds were self-inflicted. Miss Collins was dismissed. , The incid'ent is brief in the telling, but who can kno~v the de.ep wound in the soul of the trusting Elizabeth. The scorn that sur-rounded her young institute. The infidelity of one she loved and trusted. 241 SISTER M. TERESITA ~ Review for Religious Another joined Miss Armer for a time. But the work was too hard; the.scorn was too difficult to bear. Friends of Father Prender-gast advised him to give up the idea. One after another had failed. He only replied, "There is one who will never fail, Elizabeth Armer." These were indeed dark days for the young foundress. She never referred to it--this trial was one she bore alone. She leaned on God alor~e for support. She maintained the same zeal for works of charity, the same devotedness to the poor and to the children of the Sunday schools. She did not seek a moment to relax. Her visits to the sick poor continued as before. When she needed a companion, she al-ways knew where to find one in the ever-faithful Mrs. Richard Tobin. Nearly two years had passed since Miss Armer had begun her work in the little rented house on Pine Street. They had been years of struggle and discouragement. True, they had been fruitful of good, but barren as far as a religious community was concerned. Alone, "disappointed in one, abandoned by another," the future Mother Dolores prayed, labored, and trusted in God. Mrs. Tobin remained faithful and Father Prendergast maintained his confidence. Then renewed hope came. On lk-lizabeth's birthday, in 1874, there came a, caller. It had been Ellen O'Connor's third attempt to see Miss Armer. "You are my birthday present!" Elizabeth exclaimed, when Ellen told her that Father Andrew Cullen had sent her. "This morning I asked the" Blessed Mother to send me a present. Have you come to stay? . I hope so," was Ellen's reply. ,And she did. As Sister Teresa, Ellen became the lifelong companion of Mother Dolores and succeeded her as Mother General of the institute. The new enterprise had been marked with the cross, the sign of God'~ special favor. The youthful foundress had proved herself faithful. The work was readyto move fbrward.:. Very soon, other generous young girls came knocking at the door of the little rented convent asking, "May I help too?" The poverty of the flat did not seem to frighten them. The long .hours among the children did not seem to tire them. The night watches with the sick and dying did not make them change their minds. They had cgme to give their all to Christ. He was all in all to them! This was the generous, self-sacrificing spirit that animated those early sisters who were first known as "The Miss Armers." Father Prende~gast called them Sisters of the Holy Family. And that name has been made their own. In rapid succession, four young ladies came to. join Miss Armer 242 September~ 1956" MOTHI~R DOLORES and Miss O'Connor. Winter,was now past for the young institute, and God was blessing it with increase. Archbishop Alemany decided that ,steps should be taken to establish a regular religious congrega-tion. Miss O'Connor was sent to the Dominican Convent in Benecia to make her novitiate. In 1878, she pronounced her .vows as Sisger Teresa of Jesus, in the presence of the Archbishop and the sisters. Now the foundress became .subject and, with her four compan-ions, began her novitiate under the direction of Sister Teresa. They completed their required novitiate in March, 1,880. On the Feast of St. Joseph, faithful guardian of the Holy Family and special pro-tector of the institute, Sister Dolores and the four sisters pronounced their holy vows. The Sisters of the Holy Family were molded into a new congregation in the Church. California's' own; its first, and still its only, native religious institute. Alr~eady, as early as1878, Archbishop Alemany"entrusted a new field of labor, which had long been dear to his heart, to the infant community. They were asked to care for young children throughout the day, whose ~mothers were qbliged to work to support their, little ones. Ever mindful of the sacredness of the integrity of family life, the Archbishop saw in these Day Homes the fulfillment of his early plans. At first the sisters shared their own convent with these needy ones of Christ's flock and cared for them "'with the fender charity of a Christian mother~" In due time, four commodious Day Homes were erected in San Francisco through the industry .of the zealous sisters and the charity of kind benefactors. Abreast with catechetical work, the Day.Hgmes have since spread to San ,Jose, Oakland, and Nevada. From their new mother house on Hayes Street, these~ new, ly pro-fessed religi0us, now augmented by more members, carried on the apostolic work already well begun, They set out on their exalted and laborious mission of pushing back the frontiers of rel.igious ig-noranCe.~ The growing city of San Francisco was their first concern. Soon, pastors of parishes outside of San Francisco were asking for the sisters. They gathered th~ children together after school as well as on Saturday and Sunday rhornings. Sometimes classes were held in an unused store. At Tanforan~ race ,track, they held sessions in the pavillion where the children came to them on foot, on. horse-back, or in wagons. Stories could be multiplied without end, of the men and women, priests and religious, who trace their first desire to hear of Godtto the 243 SISTER M. TERESITA Review for Religious kindly invitation of these seekers of souls. This attraction which her sisters have fo~ children seems to be one of the priceless !e~acies Mother Dolores has bequeathed.to her f~mily. We might cal[ it the special sacramental character of their missionary vocation. These were the specific works of the new institute. However, Mother Dolores.was not slow to respond to emergencies. San Fran-cisco's P[esidio became the port for the sick and wounded soldiers during the Spanish American War. Suddenly the dread typhoid ,plagde broke out in the camps. Her sisters willingly volunteered for active duty as nurses. Mother Dolores herself prepared and provided many of the medic~i1 supplies during the three months in which the disease raged. A grateful city expressed its thanks to the valiant work of the many sisters who foughttthe plague by granting free transportation to all sisters on her street cars and buses, even to this day. The memory of the public service rendered by the sisters in this emergency prompted city officials to call upon them in the greater catastrophe of the 'terrible fire and earthquake of 1906. When the trembling city was licked with flames, the sisters could be found assisting the sick and dying. Their mother house became a hospital for the insane. The now homeless desuits found a tem-porary shelter 'on the main floor of the convent. In return, th~ey have given the mother'.house daily'~Mass ever since. The sisters' im-mediate and efficient, response to the city officials' appeal for help in San dose du.ring the influenza epidemic again manifested their alert-ness to the need for prompt and generous action in public calamities. Tireless in her efforts to save souls, Mother Dolores never spardd herself. The work. of organization and administration of her grgw-ing community was taxing her physical ~trength more than her sisters ~realized. A severe heart attack made it evident that Mother's condition was critical; she was'but.53 years old. Father Prendergast was called to her bedside. On seeing him, Mother simply said, "I am going." "No doubt you would like to see your work more~ per-fectly finished and carry out some 6f your plans before going to Heaven, to our Lord." She answered, "God knows best." So on August 2, 1905, her ardent souF in all its radiant splendor, like a restless flame, leaped from the charred remains of its burned-out temple, to the presence of her Creator, her Divine Lover. Mother Dolores was a product of her age and locale. She im-bibed the spirit of the adventurous gold seekers. By supernaturalizing 244 September, 1956 MOTHER DOLORES that spirit, she became an adventurous soul seeker. : Ever mindful of the necessity of adaptation to changing times, the progressive spirit of the foundress was passed on to her daughters. When modern means of travel proved helpful, they were used. The Sisters of the Holy Family were driving their own cars to distant missions when women drivers were still uncommon. Across the alkali beds of Utah, the deserts of Ne,~ada, or into its high moun-tain peaks they go. They use every means to bring the word of God to the ghost towns so reminiscent of the "Gold Rush." Now they contain only the precious ore of immortal souls. The populous cities witness their zeal in going from school to school during the day, teaching on released time. In the far~flung parishes of the Monterey-Fresno Diocese, they travel within the radius of forty-five miles of their convent home. They gather small groups in one-room schools of tile districts. Soon, a little chapel marks the spot and the Mass comes to another outpost conquered for Christ. Or, in the more populous areas, they assemble large groups, for which ~hey need the belp of a "walkie-talkie" to make themselves heard. Always seeking souls, the sisters will be found with the Mexican~ in Texas, extending the frontiers of faith among the~ Indians in Nevada, the Chinese in Fresno, the colored in our large c~ties, the Hawaiians in Hawaii. The young Americans from every state in the Union, who are pouring into our beautiful California in fabu-lous numbers, are feeling the impact of their religious training. Today, the daughters of Elizabeth Armer are laboring in three archdioceses and six dioceses. They are ~nstr~cting 79,000 public school Children in 225 parishes. Last year there were 1400 belated baptisms and 12,843 first Holy Communions. What a rich harvest of souls! Indeed, the fires of her zeal had inflamed many generous young women. The highways and byways,, the towering moun-t;~ ins and the lowly valleys, know the steady progress of this veri-table conflagration-~conquering one outpost after the other for Christ. The welfare work done among these families cannot be estimated. The Day Homes gave day care to 2,000 regardless of race, colo~, or creed during the past year. The same spirit of faith that SUlSported the pioneer sisters is re-flected in the constitutions of the institute "The special end is to instruct and educate children in the doctrine and practice of the Catholic faith . . ." 245 P. DE LETTER Review "for Religious Wl~en death claimed Mother Dolores on August 2, 1905, there was as yet no foundation outside of San Francisco. Mqnsign6r John J. Prendergast went to his reward on January 19, 1914. Pontifical approval was not requested until many years later, so it was not until-July 8, 1931, that the Holy See issued its decree of praise and approval of the" congregation and its constitutions, thus raising it to the status of a pontifical congregation. Monsignor Pren- ~dergast and Mother Dolores witnessed the crowning of their efforts from heaven when on May 28~ 1945, Pope Plus XII, gave tile definitive approbation, bidding the Congregation to ""continue to the~ end of,time." OnMet:hod in !:he Spiri :ual Life P. De Letter,,S. J. THE most common inconsistency is to desire some end and not to take the means to attain it" (Father de Pdnlevoye, S.J.). This applies particularly, though in no way exclusively, to the spiritual life. It happens, and perhaps it is not rare, that we wish for some certain ideal, desire a particular step forward in spirituality, and neglect to take the means. What is the root of this inconsistency? No doubt some sort of inertia-, of fear of effort. We fight shy of exertion. One takes it easy, and so nothing happens. ~We may not like to confess this sort of laziness. No one, no religious, especially, likes'to acknowledge he is lazy. Perhaps that is why not infrequently an endeavor is made to cover up this ihdecision and lack of action with theoretical difficulties. Perhaps the main difficulty in this re-spect is an objection against method in the spiritual life. For; if one were to follow a method, one would be doing something hbout one's intended objective. THE OBJI~CTION The objection is this: In, the spiritual or supernatural life, 'free-dom must be left to the Holy Spirit, to the initiative and inspiration of grace. It is not we who have to take'the initiative; it is the Spirit that takes the lead. Methods endanger 'the freedom of the Spirit who moves as He pleases; they may stifle the growth of the spiritual life, kill its spontaneity. Perhaps today a little more than formcrly this objection is raised, if not in theory then at any rate in practice; 246 September, 1956 ON METHOD IN THE SPIRITUAL LIFI~ it is acted upon. A number of people who yet try tO lead a spiritual life are inclined to care little for effort, for methodical application to prayer, or to the practice of definite virtues. They like to trust in the inspiration of the m, oment, to" follow the movements of grace rather than to forestall them. Lest this objection may actually turn into a cover for laziness, it is worth considering the issue. We shall do so and first consider method in general and then a concrete ex-ample of it, the Ignatian method. THE ISSUE: METHOD AND COOPERATION WITH (~RACE According to Father'de Guibert's Tl~eolog~ of the Spiritual ~Lit¥, n. 176, the use of method in the spiritual life, in prayer, or in the acquisition or practice of a virtue consists in baying some pre-fixed mode of action, suitable, fo? attaining an end and of application in a series of cases. In mental prayer, for example, it means that one prepares and foresees the subject matter and order of meditation, then starts with a progressive introduction to the subject, follows ,point by point using on'e's memory, understanding, and will--re-flecting, prayer, res, olving and ends with a colloquy. Andther ex-0 ample of use of method is the particular examen applied to the prac~ tice Of a virtue. One foresees what should be,done, how and when, resolves beforehand to pay attention and make the effort, and. tv~ice a day checks the way one went about it, examining success or. ill-success and its cause, resolving again 'to do better in tl4e next. half day. " Now, the problem involved in this use of method is that of our cooperation with grace. How must we conceive this cooperation? Tl~e spiritual life, being supernaturally inspired, actually is a matter of cooperation of our free will with grace, the latter leading, the first following~the lead of grace. It is beyond all doubt that in every; supernatura! activity it is grace that takes the initiative i(just a~ it is the reason of its spiritual fruitfulness and success, but this does not concern our present problem). And so the question is whether the use of method goes against the initiative of grace. Do We by'mak-. ing use of such methods as mentioned abbve take an initiative in the spiritual life that should be left to grace, to the inslAibation of the Holy Spirit? , ANSWER ~ We answer: The rigl~t use of method does not hinder the initia-tive of grace but is only ou'r way of cooperatirig ~with grace. When will the use of method be right? On two conditions: when it is 247 P, DE LETTER Review #:or Religious itself prompted by grace and when in its actual practice one does' not stick too rigidly to fixed details but follows eventual inspira-tions of grace that invite to greater liberty of spirit. 'The use of method can .be, and generally is, an answer to indi-cations that come from .grace. When duty calls to set exercises of prayer~ as when the bell sounds for meditation, or when providential ~ircumstances or genuine inspirations of grace (which are in perfect agreement with duties of obedience) invite to a particular practice of virtue, we may take it that to apply oneself methodically to prayer or to virtuous practice i~ merely to answer the initiative of grace. That is our way of cooperating with grace. There could be nothing but self-delusion in waiting for the promp.tin~s of grace to begin meditation when the hour of prayer is there. Method, used in these, circumstaF~ces,is but a guarantee that we are not wanting to grace but do our' share~ Yet in doing our share, enough freedom of mind must be kept for allowing grace to direct us whenever the Spirit so'chooses. A well-known example of this freedom is given in the directive of the Spiritual Exercises to the effect that in meditation we should stop at the poi,nt in which we find spiritual fruit, without any anxiety of going further, stop as long as we find what satisfies our spiritual need. This freedom and docility to the Spirit forestalls 6vet-rigid fidelity to mechanical rules. When grace clearly, takes the le~d, we follow. When the promptings of grace do not draw us, we on our part do what in us lies to answer the Lord's call expressed in our duty. When we understand the use of method in this manner, then Father de Guibert's practical conclusions in the matter are in no way surprising. He says: To reject all method is unsafe and may amount to the error of quietism; the inspirations of ~grace duly known for. authentic (by the discernment of spirits) may be followed, not how-ever against obedience or clearly known duty; the use-of method, generally speaking, is beneficial, because it is" nothing else" than profit-ing by the experience and wisdom of other people and using the r~eans for the end; methods may and do vary greatly, and freedom must be left in using them, the main point being that one has some method which proves workable; exaggerations however are not ex-cluded, one of which may be undue self-reliance shown in. excessive trust in the efficacy of or~e's method. Such being the case, it may be'well for us religious now and. then to see in which direction the general trend of our spiritual life in- 248 Septemb~er, 1956 ON METHOD IN ,THE SPIRITUAL LIFE clines: are we inclined either to overstress method or to neglect it? The danger of neglect may be the more frequent, because of the ef-fort and monotony involved in methodical action, both of which, may look uninteresting and unappealing. Yet, the other extreme of a too-mechanical fidel~ty is not excluded, nor is it without a danger of turning prayer or virtue into a more or' less fruitless for-mality. IGNATIAN METHOD One of the well-known and much,spread methods in the spiritual life is that of St. Ignatius of Loyola. Perhaps it has been no less maligned than praised. What exactly does Ignatian method consist in? We may characterize it briefly in a feW words: Have an objective in view and take the means to achieve it. Or, more briefly, know what you are after and go for it. What do these two principles mean in practice? How do they respect the initiative that must be left to grace? It is worthwhile to ponder a moment over this simple method~ and see how it enhances rather than hinders the initiative of grace. FIRST PRINCIPLE Its first principle, have a purpose in view, is of the utmost im-portance in spirituality, as in every other field of human activity. In fact, many people oftentimes do not know~ what they are after what they do, say, desire. They do what they do because they have to, or because they feel like doing it, or because they must do something to spend their time and for no reason known to then~ they happened to hit on this particular occupation. Such a manner of living may be little respectful of a man's rational nature; it cer-tainly is not Ignatian at all. St. Ignatius means us to know and to desire .what we intend in prayer or mortification-~or for that mat-ter, in study or manual labor or recreation or social relations. And he wants us to be very definite about our objective. For meditation, he not only begins the exercise with a preparatory prayer in which we ask that our entire activity.during our prayer be directed to God's glory and service; in a, second (or third) preclude he makes us ask for "what we desire," his famous id quod volo, that is, for the par-ticular grace and spiritual fruit which is suggested by and. in con-formity with the subject matter of the meditation. Definiteness of ai~n in prayer is a first Ignatian principle. Does it gb against" the initiative that belongs to grace? On the face of it, it may look as though we ourselves settle beforehand what spiritual fruit or grace we are after; is that not to take the lead and 249 P. DE LETTER Reoieto for Religious to put limits and rules to the activity 6f the Holy Spirit? Is that not a sort of Semi-Pelagianism? The question has more than once been mode :into an accusation, partly perhaps when some hasty or unsym-pathetic reader overlooked what precedes the id quod uolo, namely, to.ask for what I desire. We may point to a threefold answer to this difficulty. First of all, we are directed to ask for the grace we desire; and we may safely take it that this desire and prayer itself is already prompted by grace--is not every salutary act which helps us spiritually to draw nearer to God, and prayer is such an act, a fruit of ~the inspiration of grace? This prayer, moreover, is as it were open to correction; it is' up to God's grace to answer our desire --it is not our effort alone that will carry or enforce it--and to an-swer it in the manner He pleases and knows best. Secondly, the very specification or determination of the grace we ask for is, in principle and generally also in fact, not the result of personal whim or fancy (barring perhaps the exceptional cases of impulsive and weather-cock- like characters who lack or neglect due preparation and fore-' sight) ; it is either provided by external providential indications, as is the case in retreat time or when we use a meditation manual, whether prescribed or advised by a director or even chosen on our own motivated decision, or suggested" by internal inspiration. Of grace. In all these cases, this prayer for a particular grace is but an answer to the initiative of grace. Lastly, this initial desire which to a varying extent inspires the very manner in which we apply our-selves to our prayer does not preclude any new promptings of grace that may and often do arise in the course of the exercise. The above-mentioned Ignatian rule about freedom in stopping at what satisfies the soul clearly entails this. Moreover~ the ~d quod ~olo is often of such a comprehensive nature that it leaves ample and free play to. the manifold and varying inspirations of grace. An example is the prayer made at the beginning of most meditations on the life of our Lord: that we may know Him better, love Him more ardently, and follow Him more closely. This is an ide~il which each particular soul will realize in his or her own p~irticular way--and there are as many various ways nearly as there are particular individuals ~and particular vocations. Futhermor.e, tfiis definiteness in asking for a particular grace is mainly a matter of psychological preparation and should not be misunderstood in the sense of dictating to grace. As in any other human uladertaking, so also in prayer; definiteness of aim makes for definiteness in efforts; and this guarantees definite results, just as vagueness of aim leads to vague and weak efforts~ 250 - September, 1956 ON METHOD IN THE SPIRITUAL LIFE and vague and poor results., Accordingly, it is safe tO say that Ig-natian definiteness of aim in our prayer does not clash with the initiative due to grace, provided 0nly we handle our method with a pure intention and with the necessary freedom of spirit. This free-dom is perhaps less fo be attended to in the beginnings of a life of ¯ prayer or of religious training; beginners generally do well to follow directives closely. But after years of practice, experience should teach one what this freedom means, and how it opposes in no way thorough generosity. So much for the first: principle in the Ignatian method~. SECOND PRINCIPLE The second principle; take the means to the purpose you are after, implies mainly two things. It first means to say that we should make the necessary effort. We should not expect results without taking the means that must produce them. Perhaps it is very l'Juman (or must we say childish?) to rely on ,good luck whilst, neglecting what one should do, to hope: and expect that' things will turn out for the b~st somehow. Children in fact more or less expect"miracles to happen. But is tha.t reasonable and safe? Is it not overlooking one of the very first principles of reason: that every effect demands a sufficient and proportionate cause? Which means, in this case, that spiritual results suppose ~not only grace but also our cooperation. It is rather risky to count on a ~ause that may Well never act; in this particula'r case, to rely on abundant grace which would mal~e up for our lack of. diligence; all the more so, since this very unprepared-hess for cooperation with grace is likely, to preclude that grace--God does not dispense His graces in sheer waste. A.second thing implied in this principle, is that we should make a tolanned effort: go about our business, whether of prayer or of any other virtuous practice~ in an orderly manner and not haphaz'ardly: not in an unenlightened way, groping as it were in the dark; not according to an unmotivated manner of proceeding or according to whim and fancy of the moment. This supp,oses first that we know the means for our purpose as they are laid down in directives and rules or borne out by the experience of others or even' learned and confirmed by personal experience. We must know the rules of the game if we are to play properly. It means therefore that it is not enough, however important it may be in itself, to overcqme inertia and set oneself to one's, task, making the needed exertion. We must apply ourselves in a clear-sighted manner, knowing what we are doing and why. It further means that we follow the known direc- 251 P. DE LETTER rives with perseverance. It has been said that "with many, courage gives way when they are half way of the effort; some are afraid of trying, others are afraid of succeeding"; in fact "things are worth what they cost" (Fat, her de Ponlevoye). Yet this perseverance should not be marred by shortsighted stubbornness.We must never forget in practice the necessary freedom of spirit in following methodidal rules; rather we must be ever ready to obey the inspiration of grace, to learn from circumstances and from experience, with humility and, docility, with sincerity and honesty with ourselves. It ma~ not al-ways be easy in practice to find the proper balance bet,ween perseverant fidelity to rules and freedom of spirit or docility to the Spirit. Only the interior Guidi~ can teach it in practice, and He certainly will if we do not lack sincerity and generosity. When this necessary freedom of spirit is safeguarded, there is no fear that metbodital application to prayer or practice of virtue, according to rules and planned action, will make one too mechanical or kill the spontaneity of life needed also in the spiritual life. Method makes for orderly activity; it excl'udes a happy-go-lucky manner which actually is more a lack of readiness to cooperate with grace than the contrary. Method does not kill spontaneity; it directs it, if only one uses it properly, that is, with t?reedom of spirit and sincerity. Nor does it then in any way hinder the initiative of grace which must be respected also in the course of our prayer or practice of virtue. It is part of the method ever to be docile to what grace may show or demand. And so, if tile use of metho~d in the spiritual life is rightly un-derstood and put into practice, that is, as the very expression of our desire to answer the call of grace, then certainly it will never stand in the way of grace. It will guarantee our cooperation with God's grace and leave no excuse for inertia or lazine.ss. Grace do.es not dis-pense with our effort, it renders our effort possible and fruitful. " 252 NEW BUSINESS ADDRESS Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 3115 South Grand Boulevard St. L~uis 18, Missouri Sisters' Re!:rea!:s--V Thomas Dubay, S.M. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RETREAT MASTER ]F it is possible to assay the general mind of the sisters as expressed in their thousands of answers and observations given in this re-treat study, the present writer would be inclined to point out the subject matter of this article, the retreat master himself, as consti-tuting what they consider the single, most-imporant element covered in the survey. The sisters often cast this general impression into a concrete mold. Observed one sister: There is one order whose technique I prefer over the others and one whose method I like least. Yet the best retreat master I ever had was from the latter! The man makes the 'retreat master, not the method! Time and time again the sisters retur~ in their comments to the retreat master, his message, his methodology, and especially his qual-ities or lack of them. And yet we frankly grant that we approach this most difficult of the subjects treated in the survey with consider-able diffidence. It is difficult because it deals with persons, not mere things, But there is nothing like the truth, anO so we will plunge in. QUALITIES In order to ascertain what qualities the sisters especially looked for in their retreat masters, the following question was placed before 'them : Among the following characteristics of ~a retreat master would you put the number 1 before the one you appreciate most, a 2 before the next in order, etc. to the last: __experience ._._~sense of humor genuine sanctity __theological learning ~kind manner ~practicality Further comment: (spice provided) Unlike their modus aqendi in the other survey questions, the sisters did not here mention man.y new qualities in the blank spaces. Simplicity, humility, and interest in work were noted twice, while the following qualities were mentioned once each: clarity, sweetness and patience, sincerity, .understanding of women, average speaking ability, and intelligence. In order to differentiate as finely as possible the varying degrees of importance, which were attached to the qualities contained, in 253 THOMAS DUBAY . Reuiew for Religious the questionnaire, three points were given to th'e quality eachsister first selected, tWO points to the second, and one point to the third. In parentheses are indicated the number of times each characteristic w'as given first choice. Genuine sanctity . 1481 (414) Practicality . 786 (100) Experience 693 (71) Theological.learning .496 (63) Kindness . 360 (23) Sense of humor . 'i. 225'(10) As can be easily seen, there is really no contest for first 'place. The very fact that gefuine sanctity received more first place votes than all other characteristics put together clearly demo~astrates the fact that sisters want their retreat masters to be men of God before ;Ill else. Practicality is rated as a little more important thar~ experiehce, while knowledge of theology is given the nod over kindness and a sense of humor. The reader may be interested in comparing tile above rating of qualities with the various comments the sisters have made (or will make) in other articles of this series. The correlation 'is significantly high, We are thus rendered all the more certain that our survey has accurately captured their collective mind. We will give typical excerpts of the sisters' further comments according to tee alphabetical order in which the qualities .were listed on the survey form. Experience-- [I select experience] because if he has survived in this type of work, he should be" good.' Father, this is a hard one. They should all be first. A retreat master need not have years of experience in order to conduct a successful retreat: Sometimes those with most experience can be very dry and not at all practical. By ekperience I would understand his dealing with people, not the number of retreats he has conducted. I take by experience You mean with souls and religious life. I also appreciate it when he. makes [sic] a spade a spade and leaves nff loop holes for if's or ,but's. Genuine sanctity-- It has been my conclusion that the best thing any retreat master has to give is his own personal example. The convictions with which he approaches his own spir-itual life necessarily,shdw through his efforts to instruct-.others and in this lies his greatest appeal at least for me. 254. September, 1956 SISTERS' RETREATS--V The personal holiness of the retreat master is by far the most impoltant characteristic. "We thunder what we are" and I think this is particularly true of retreat masters. A priest who says Mass slovenly, and has a worldly manner, etc., can hardly expect his hearers to be "refOrmed" or uplifted in spirit regardless of how perfect his con-ferences may be. A genuine saint might be a very poor retreat master, if he is unable to express himself effectively~ and lacks the theological learning necessary to instruct and guide others to sanctity. Experience and practicality should help a retreat master in making the best use of the short time ;it his disposal to cover the necessary points. Sanctity is most important, however, because without it, the insincerity" would be obvious and detract from the effectiveness of'tl~e speaker. Of all the retreats I have made, three are outstanding and have affected my spiritual life most, as far as I can judge. In each case it was the personal sanctity .of the retreat master that gave these retreats their form and impetus. . A doer of the wo~d as well as preacher carries more weight than any other quality [ know. Sometimes the good effects are lessened by a discovery" that Father preaches but does not live what he advises. The tirlge of pharisaism is usually detrimental. A genuine saintly retreat master by his very presence is a light to the beholder: his example gives inspiration, and a desire to be like him and draws or attracts the at-tention of the listener. His teaching is naturally as be lives: therefore very ac- Ic elpiktaeb tloe fbeye al ltlh oart mthoes tr eotfr ethaetsm m.aster is really doing what he is asking us to do. Sanctity radiates a something that neither intelligence or humor can replace. I've made retreats given by saintly men after which I was ready to sign up with a Foreign Legion or for China if I were asked to .do sd. If a man is genuinely holy, the rest doesn't matter. If God has thrown in a sense of humor, the man's mighty lucky'. Father, many sisters lead deeply spiritual lives and we are not so interested in your learning as such, as we are in knowing that you firmly live and believe your doc-trine. We want you learned but in the end it is your own spiritual life that tells. Many retreat masters fail to stress holiness as intimate union with God. We thirst for the fountains of living water. We want solid doctrine. We want you to fire us' with enthusiasm. We are not bored or critical when you speak. We are intent upon gaining a spiritual lift. Don't apologize for repeating the same material. We are not looking for novelty. If we knew you prayed out all your meditations be-fore Christ in the Blessed Sacrament, we would have great faith in your spoken words. I have watched 4.8 retreat masters come and go, and observed the sisters,, making retreats, heard their reactions, attended conferences when possible and there is one answer: personal sanctity. Kind manner-- One who is kind and understanding in confession--and who asks. if there is any-' thing else on your mind. Sometimes tha't last question is just what one needs! I think if a retreat master has real genuine sanctity and a kind manner, whatever else is lacking God will supply the rest. Please don't close the slide or glee absolution before sister has told her story and received some satisfaction. I am not referring to a scrupulous soul. 255 THOMAS DUBAY "Reoieto for Religio~ PracticalitF-- I like a retreat master who can "talk" to us and be practical in the applications he makes. A clear cut set of ideas is what I always hope to find in a retreat. A retreat master who sets down principles to live our daily lives by and who makes us toe the mark and set out with new determination to seek perfection with God's help d~es a greatest ot: services. Some seem to avoid the practical problems of religious life. They don't get down to the core of the matter, even in discussing the vows. Make them practical! Not the extraordinary, once in a lifetime act of obedience, but the everyday type, the everyday needs of each vow. Occasions of sin, etc. Most Of us cduld actually write a volume on the theory of sanctity. It has been well explained, but maybe we could have more practical hints to help us practice what we .know. Sense of humor-- A good sense of humor in a retreat master makes for a good retreat. The dry kind never appeal to me. A retreat to me, is a joy, not a dry thing'. A sense of humor is O.K., especially on a very hot day to keep you awake, but Sacred Scripture should not be used to make fun. By sense of humor I understand having a proper evaluation of things, ability to see,and enjoy a joke~not necessarily "full of jokes." Theological learning-- The choice of I and 2 is a difficult one for the "Spirit breatheth where He wills." However, in the analysis of problems, judicious decisions to be made. delicate situ-ations to handle and the like the educated theologian has much to offer. A certain confidence is generated. God can ~use a stick to work wonders. I think all of these necessarily link together because theological learning could not be passed over to some of us without sanctity, experience, practicality, and a sense of humor. We can really presume en~ough theological learning in any religious set aside to give retreats to nuns. A real absence of theological learning would be worse than an absence of sanctity--but a lot of learning carries small weight with nuns with-out genuine holiness behind it. In the last analysis it is only holiness as concretized in another person which can inspire. But sanctity lending weight to incomplete or misapplied doctrine can do harm. General comments-- This is difficult to answer because he needs them a11, at least in some degree~ Nuns like humility in a retreat master, but not a "scared" attitude or one of"'you-know- it-all-already--what can I tell you" attitude~ We do not know very much. He should sound convinced. A sister can tell whether a retreat master is giving.a retreat merely because of duty or whether he honestly loves the sisters and wants to help them advance along 256 September, 1956 SISTERS~ RETREATS--V the road to perfection, understanding their problems no matter how small they may be. Fatherly is the characteristic I like best of all. One to whom you can speak with ease, knowing and realizing that he has your interest (souls) at heart. Very difficult to decide--would like to have all in one. , One final word on the qualities of the retreat master. As has been indicated in a p~evious article, sisters, teaching in college lay a heavier emphasis as a gioup on their need for theglogy. The' writer noted the same stress here on the importance of theological learning in the retreat master. Among the var, ious qualities of the retreat master, a knowledge of theology is the only one that received an emphasis that was noticeably different according to the work in which' the sisters en, gag~d, DEFECTS Often enough pointing out deficiencies is little short of,.unpleas-ant, and it so happens that our present task is decidedly such. How-ever, St. Thomas speaks of fraternal correction as a spiritual alms, an act of charity. For that reason and because the sisters so intended their observations in a lovely spi'rit of combined kindness and frank-ness, we move with less hesitation to the business at hand. The question dealing with defects was worded as follows: What characteristic do you dislike most in a retreat master? Please place hum- . bet 1 before the one you dislike most, etc. Further comment : t No suggested defects were offered to the sisters. The writer feels that more objectivity was thus secured for the reason that a defect would have to make a considerable impression on a sister if she was to be able to recall it unaided. It would have had to be real. This "no suggestion" technique gave rise on the other hand to a ~wide'variety of noted failings. These we have tried to reduce to common categories as far as possible, but accuracy forbade too drastic a reduction. Hence, the sizeable list below. After each obs.erved defect, is given the number of tirffes it was mentioned. The figure in parentheses indicates the number of times the failing was listed as "disliked most." Statements under each heading are characteristic ways in which the sisters styled the defect. Reading conferences an~t meditation expos~.s . 176 (83) 257 THOMAS DUBAY Review for Religious Reading the retreat--slave to notes--reading entire conference--r~ading notes in-stead of talking. Lack of interest . 93 (28) Sense of boredom (I'm here because of obedience)-~cold, factual 16resentation-- "job attitude"-~a no interest attitude-~-doing something assigned and no mor~-- listless, sleepy, dull. , Conceit . 81 (35) Desire to make an impression~know-it-all attitude--attracts to himself--better-than- thou attitude-~c0cksureness--aloofness---ccnstant reference to himself-~go-tism. Verbosity . 71 (15) Long and rambling--talks and talks and says nothing--nev.er getting to the point-- endless repetition --- d0esn't keep to the schedule--long windedness. Sarcasm, ridicule .¯ . 68 (31) Making fun of problems of sisters of other communities--rididule of superiors-- sarcastic manner--sarcastic approach. ,Joking manner . . 59 (19) Too many jokes--keeps retreatants in an'uproar-~clowning~trying to be funny --a joker. Impracticality . 57 (12) Examples that don't fit o~ur work-~-prlnciples without examples---out-dated. Severity . : . 56 (13) Hell fire and brimstone gloomy--fills with fear rather than love--harsh---blunt expres,sions--six days of scolding. Confessional defects . 50 (9) Impatient.-not available--fast--harsh-~curt--not helpful~talks too loud--no in-terest in the Confessional--indifference to problems. Delivery defects . 47 (11) Talks too fast--inaudible--shouting, ranting-r--muttering, indistinct too slow in .speech--hilting, hesitating---cannot heat him. Superficiality ' .42 (5) La~k of material to communicate--superficial flippancy--shallow--greats retreat lightly--too many ideas .at one time--lightnes~ of treatment--banality lack of theological basis--ignorance theologically unsound. Emotionalism and dramatic manner . . 40 (8) Oratorical---excessive emotion--flowery langfiage--sentimentalism in choic~ of poems, prayers, etc.--too many gestures--unnecessary play on words. Lack of preparation . .,. . . 40 (15) Unpreparedness---lack of organization--lack of immediate preparation. 258 September, 1956 SISTERS' RETREATS--V Excessive intellectuality .". . . 39 (15) Subjects too deep--explainer of theology too philosophical--theological learning' --bookish conferences--high sounding explanations~ Critical spirit in general .3.4. .(10) Chip on the shoulder---critical spirit--pet grievances---critical toward his own corn: re.unity or supenors-~constant scolding-~criticism of sisters studying for degrees--, Cynical" spirit. Lack of sense of humor .: . . . 34 (10) Too serious--gloomy--never a sense of humor. Critical spir'it toward sisters .3.1. (6) Belit'tling nuns--atti.tude that religious are frustrated-~-' unfriendly toward our com-munity-~ critical toward sisters--lack of respect for religious women--making fun of nuns-~critical of our rule, constitutions, and customs--says he dislikes giving retreats to sisters. Worldliness .~. . .~ . 29 (7) Lack of spiritual depth--too l~lasi--play boy type~lacks ho!iness-~easy going-- selfish. Narration of personal experie,nces . 26 (8) Too much personal reference--talking about what they have done-~-~introducing himself and his beloved relatives --- details of family history. Lack of kindness .,. .25 (5) o Harsh, unkind, especially in the confessional--unapproachable--unsympathetic. - Condescension toward sisters . 21 (4) Acting as though we can't understand him--talking down to women-~condescend-ing toward nuns-~belittles the intelligence of nuns and hence waters, down doctrine --treats sisters as beginners in the spiritual life, ' Negative approach .1.5. (4) Too much sin, no love--stressing the negative--emphasis on God's justice. Lack of understanding .1.4. (1) Doesn't understand human nature--lack of understanding of nuns and their problems. In or, der neither to prolong our list beyond due m~asure nor to deny the sisters' views full recognition, we will treat the remaining de-fects in paragraph form and indicate only the total number of times each failing was mentioned. Defects in examples (lack .of, exag-gerated, too many), 14; narrating faults~and scandalous stories re- ~arding other religious, 12; mannerisms and idiosyncrasies, 12; brev-ity, 12;language defects (crude, coarse, slang, grammatical errors), 11 ; nervous and timid ' (restless, fidgeting), 11 : not looking :at audience, 10; inexperience, 8; apodictic, 8; insincerity (affected sanc- 2:59 THOMAS DUBAY ~ Review /or Religious tity, not practicing what he preaches), 8; lack of originality (espe-cially in illustrations and expressions), 8; too familiar, 8; watering down spiritual life, 7; slovenly at Mass, 6; no theme in the retreat, 5; late for. conferences, 5; too eager to please, 4. Subjects receiving three mentions were vagueness, rigid retreat routine, self-depreciation, effeminacy, and excessi;ce praise of sisters. Those noted twice were curiosity and p~ying, stress on unimportan.t matters, loud speaking in the convent, neglectof the liturgy; and provincialism. A few of the many items mentioned by only one sister were immaturity, use of cliches, preoccupation with a favorite subject, lack of refinement, joking about sacred things, and use of pietistic expressions. We must not fail to note that 208 sisters chose not to answer this question. While we cannot be sure just what their reasons may have been, it seems likely that some sisters simply could not recall any outstanding defects. Others may have thought it unkind or unappreciative to record defects of their retreat masters. These latter we may admire even though we, do not agree with them. Whatever the reasons may be, more sisters abstained from replying to this question than abstained from any other. In other questions thus far treated in this series of "articles, .we have given representative excerpts from the sisters' further comments, but for the present question any attempt to be really representative would far exceed the bounds of one article. We will, therefore, limit ourselves to excerpts characteristic of some of the more-frequently mentioned defects. Reading notes-- [ also do not like for the retreat master to read his conferences. He may wish to refer to notes,, but he should have his material so well at his finger tips that he cari deliver it without reading. Some are far from interesting. It is a real penance to sit through six days of listening and straining while someone drones away from some notebook. The only real dislike is toward the retreat master who rea,ds all his talks. I don't say he can't have notes, etc., but the reading of entire lectures and meditations has simply no effect. I'd rather ten minutes of a straight talk. Lack' of interest-- The worst fault is perhaps an attitude of mere tolerance of this job of giving nuns a retreat. The sooner it's over the better! Sisters look forward to their annual retreat with eager anticipation for months, and most of them really do want to progress in the spiritual life. It is a big dis-appointment when they have to listen to a retreat master who apparently does not care for this type of work. 260 September, 1956 SISTERS" RETREATS--V Conceit-- One who calls attention to himself --- the 'T'--more than necessary in conferences. Shows off his intelligence and forgets retreatants also have some. Sarcasm-- Sarcasm and ridicule of women in general and of riuns in particular. Critical negativism-- If there is any observation I should like to make it is this: whatever you can do to dissuade retreat masters for sisters from flavoring their conferences, meditations, and talks with stories exemplifying the ¢ricities and quirks of sisters--usually these apply to only a relatively few--please do . There is nothing so devas-tating and So harmful, it seems to me, than just, that t~;pe of story. If our youth-~ ful entrants grow cynical, distrustful, perhaps even weak in their vocation, may it not be because of the unwise, imprudent choice of illustrations chosen by retreat masters? True, there are odd sisters, but for every odd one, there are at last eight or more sensible, normal ones. Why select the queer and rarely allude to the truly noble and fine in every sense' of the words? Young people are shocked, and rightly so, at the strange things they sometimes hear. "It may~ be that retreat masters wish to be entertaining, amusing. But at what a cost! Ours is an age in which reverence is fast wanifig. Couldn't it help to a restoration' if retreat masters were occasionally more reverent? Tendency to overemphasize the fact that disagreements and petty jealousies do occur in religious life. We know they do, but there are plenty of sisters who are outstand-ing examples of beautiful si?terly charity as well as communities ,where the spirit of charity is outstanding. Joking manner-- What the sisters need is practical help toward sanctity . . : , but too often the" maste? uses the shell of the pulpit to reflect Father Retreat Master instead of the will of God to his listeners. This is especially true of the "joker" who uses the time for his stories and leaves the sisters with nothing to take with them except mem-ories of his cleverness. Severity.--- Pounding, scolding, and "yelling," though I don~t mind being told the truth,--- but not so loud! Lacl~ of understanding~ Sometimes the retreat master forgets that the sisters have more to do than just say their prayers. He should look into the entire picture and help both'subject and superior. Some retreats the subject gets all the corrections, and then sometimes the superior is all to blame. Why not lead all to God by charity, patience, and a. kind understanding of our difficulties? I think community life is a far happier and "homey-er" state than some retreat masters imply. After 29 years of it, under 16 different superiors, I can say I've never lived in a house where happiness and virtue didn't far outweigh human failings and "blue Mondays."--(I'm a realist, not an optimist!) 261 THOMAS DUBAY We now have the happier task of noting a few of the unsolicited compliments rciany of the sisters paid their retreat masters. To neg-lect these and dwell on defects alone would be to give the reader a badly distorted' picture of the whole situation. As is usu~ally the case in human affairs, all is neither black nor white. Among the favorable observations made, the following are characteristic. Most retreat masters are sincere, earnest, and holy. We can make allowances for lack of absolute perfection. If a retreat master is sincere and works hard I¯can't dislike much in him. I have had none whose characteristics made me.lose the value of retreats. I never really thought about this [defects], for I can truthfully say and I thank God for it, I enjoyed every one of my retreats. I learned something every time, betause I was looking for something. I have never had a dislike for a retreat master. I see in him God's messenger for my soul, who will only do his best to bring me nearer to God. I have observed no serious undesira~01e characteristics. Actually I have liked every retreat and every retreat master in my twenty years in religion. These very minor dislikes are:mentioned only to indicate how trivial are the things we let get between us and the message of the retreat. Heavens! I don't know--I've never stopped to think. I always figure the poor man is doing a job that's hard enough without our being critical; He's out to help us and we ought to help him to help us. I'm told, '~It's easier to criticize a retreat master than to be one." Most retreat masters have the necessary characteristics requisite for such important work--God bless them! And we might add: God bless these'sisters! both those who in fraternal charity pointed out defects and those who in the same charity saw none to, point out. OUR CONTRIBUTORS JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor ~f canon law at Woodstock College, Wood-stock,, Maryland. SISTER M.TERESITA is stationed at the Holy Family. Motherhouse, 890 Hayes Street, San Francisco, California. P. DE LETTER is a member of the faculty of St: Mary's Theological College, Kurseong N. E. Ry., India. THOMAS DUBAY teaches philosophy at the Notre Dame Seminary, 290l S. Carrolhon Ave., New Orleans, Louisiana. 262 ( ues .ions and Answers [The following answers are given" by Father Joseph F. ~allen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock College. Woodstock, Maryland.] I am guiding a young man who is entering our own institute. He casu-ally remarked to me that his family wanted him to sign over his mor3ey to his brothers and sisters before entrafice. By careful questioning I learr~ed that his money amounted to several thousand dollars. Should he sign over th~s money to others before his entrance? A renunciation'is the giving away, the gratuitous, abdication of the ownership of property. An obligation is any act by which own-ership is lessened, rendered less secure, or impeded, e. g., putting up property as security for the debts of others. Can. 568 renders both illicit and invalid any renunciation or obligatmn placed on the prin-cipal of his property by a novice. The canon applies only to the noviceship, but it" is contrary to the spirit of this same law for a renunciation or obligation to be placed on the property of a candi- .date during the postulancy or before entrance becafise of the inten-tion of entering religion. The purpose of c. 568 is to protect the novice's right to. leave religion and to prevent him being, deterred from doing so because he had given away his property. This reason applies equally to the time before the noviceship. Therefore, postu-lants and candidates should in practically every case be dissuaded from any renunciation or obligation. 'The professed of simple vows may give away the income on his property even after first profession. He c6uld later ask the Holy See for permission th give away all or part of the principal of his property, if there should be real need of this; and the solemnly professed will have to give away all his prop-erty at the renunciation effective at solemn profession. Relatives are not often selfless in a case of thi~ nature. It is also at least becoming for those in or approaching the state of perfection, if they are to give away any property, to follow the counsel of perfection, which is not to give to relatives but to give to the poor. A postulant was in danger of death. Could he have been admitted to the profession that is ~ermiffed to novices in danger of death.'? A plenary indulgence in the form of a jubilee is attached to the profession permitted to novices, and this profession also requires ad-mission by a higher superior, the superior of the novitiate house, or the delegate of either. This profession is restricted to novices and" 263 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Revidw [or Religious may not be granted to a postulant. However, canon law does not forbid professed religious, novices, and postulants to make private vows (c. 1307, §' 2). Such vows are most rgrely advisable for them, and should never be made without consulting a confessor who is prudent and sufficiently conversant with the habitual state of soul of. the subject. There would rarely be any reason for opposing a private vow by a postulant in danger of death. Therefore, the postu-lant in danger of death can be instructed that he may, make the vows of the institute completely of his own volition. There is no ad-mission in this case on the part of superiors, and the indulgence is not attached to this profession. The essential effect of the profession granted to novices is .attained, i. e., the greater oblation of oneself to God and the co.nsolation of the postulant. In this case also, the or-dinary formula of profession of the institute "is to be used but with-out any determination of time. The implicit duration of the vows is until the postulant zecovers his health. If he does, the vows cease; and he is in exactly the same state as if he had taken no vows what-soever. Cf. Wernz-Vidal, III,.De Reli~liosis, 258-59, note 71. m32-- Is it canon law or merely our own constitutions that forbid the assign-ment of any but exempla, r¥ religious to the novitiate house? Is it always possible to observe this prohibition? Can. 554, § 3, commands higher superiors to assign only ex-emplary religious to novitiate houses. The evident reason is the in-fluence that the lives of the professed.can exert on the novices. The sense of this law is that religious who are not exemplar.y must not be assigned for habitual residence to the house in which the novitiate is located. The code presumes that ,only the master and his assist-ants will reside in the novitiate itself. In clerical institutes the same prescription of the code extends t6 houses of study. Lay i~astitutes should be directed by the same principle with regard to the houses where the professed of temporary vows reside during studies. Every effort is to be made to observe this law, of the code, but it is quite often impossible in practice to send a refractory religi0us to any house except the novitiate house. The religious' at times has to be removed from contact with externs, and even more frequently he or she simply has to be sent to a very large community. Religious of this type can make life impossible for a smaller community. In cases ¯ of this nature, superiors are to strive tO observe the purpose of the law by preventing such religious from having a harmful influence. on the novices. ' 264 September, 1956 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 33 ¯ Must the nov;t;ate be located at the residence of the superior general or prov~ncla~? Neither canon law nor the practice of the Holy See in approv-ing constitutions demands that the novitiate be located at the resi-dence of the superior general or provincial. Article 88 of the Normae of 1901 contained the self-evident prescription that the novitiate wasoto be located at the place most suitable for the formation of the novices. The supervision of the higher superior can be more readily exercised when he resides at the novitiate, but the same purpose can and should be attained by more frequ.ent visits to the novitiate. --34--- Must we admit to the novlceship one who has been approved in the canonical examination of the local ordlnary~ and ~s it of" obligation that this examlnafi6n be made outside the clolster7 The canonical examination prescribed for institutes of women by can. 552 .is not admission to the noviceship or first temporary or perpetual~profession but a prerequisite for a licit admission. There-fore, a subject, who has been approved in this examination may be dismissed, excluded from further professions, or have her time of postulancy, noviceship, or temporary vows prolonged by the com-petent higher superior: The examination is to take place outside the cloister of both orders and congregations, but .any just or reason-able cause (c. 604, § 1) will suffice for holding the ~examination within the common cloister of congregations, i. e., institutes of simple vows." What is to be done ff in giving Holy Communion at the grille a Host hlls within the papal cloister of nuns? A priest may enter the cloister to pick up the Host, or a nun may pick up the Host with the paten, a clean piece of paper, or'her fingers And either consume it, if she has not already co'mmunicated, or give it to the priest. The place where the Host had fallen is after-wards to be washed by a nun, and the water is to be thrown into the sacrarium. Cf. Fanfani, De Religiosis, 460; J. O'Connell, The . Celebration of Mass, 242; De Amicis, Caerernoniale Parochorum, 181; De Herdt, Sacrae Liturgiae Praxis, II, n. 188. --36-- I asked a priest to say a votive Mass of the Annunciation of the Bless- 265 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for' Religious ed Virgln Mary. He told me he was not allowed to do so. What is the reason for this? Only the Masses for which permission is expressly given may be said as votive Masses of the Divine Persons, the Blessed Virgin, and the angels. This permission is verified when the Mass 'is listed as a votive Mass in the missal ~r when directions are given in the. Mass, usually after thi~ gradual, for saying it as a votive Mass. The votive Masses of the Blessed Mother universally permitted., are the five Masses of Our Lady for Saturdays according to the season, Immacu-late Conception, Seven Dolors, and Immaculate Heart. All the Masses of the Blessed Virgin in the Masses for Certain. Places may be used as votive Masses, except that of the Expectation of the Birth of Our Lord (December 18), but only in places where the festal Mass is permitted. Particular dioceses or religious institutes can also have indults to say some other Masses of the Blessed Virgin as votive Masses. A votive Mass may be said-in honor of any canon-ized saint whose name is inscribed in the Roman Martyrology, in its~approved supplements, or in tlhe calendar approved by the Holy See for any diocese, religious order, or congregation. Votive Masses may also be said for the various necessities contained in the second series of votive Masses of the missal. Cf. 3.O'Connell, "T'he Cele-bration of Mass, 68-73. --37m What is thb meaning of lay brother and la~/sister? When found, different classes of religious in the same instittite are commonly those of clerical religious and lay brothers, teaching brothers and lay brothers, choir nuns or sis~'ers and lay sisters. Lay brothers and lay sisters are sometimes called coadjutor, coadjutrix, auxiliary, and converse religious. The Latin n.ame for their class is conversi(ae). A lay brother or sister is not simply a. lay religious. All religious wo'men are lay religious, Since a lay religious is one not destined for, the priesthood. Lay brothers can be had in ~i male in-stitute in which all, the members are lay religious, e. g., in a congre-gation of teaching brothers, The class of lay brother and lay sister is distinguished ,by the following notes. There are two juridical classe's of members of distinct rights 'and obligations in the institute. The lay brother or sister is destined for domestic, manual, and tem-poral la.bors, while to the other class appertain the priestly ministry, teaching, nursing, and the formation of postulants, novices, and prbfessed. The lay brothers and sisters have no part in the govern-ment of the institute, which is reserved to the other class. Therefore, 266 September, 1956 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS they cannot be voted for or appointed to any office; nor do they have a vote in any chaptbr, general, provincial, or local. In virtue of c. 526, lay sisters have a vote on prolonging the term of the ordinary confessor; but this is.not a matter of government. ~38~- We prolonged the temporary vows of a junior professed for three more years'. May we admit him to perpetual profession before the ex-plratlon of these three added years? By canon law both the postulancy and the noviceship may be prolonged but not longer than six months. This prolongation ma~ be made even if the duration of,the postulancy and noviceship is longer than the six months and the year prescribed by canon law. Some constitutions restrict prolongation, e. g., by forbidding an tension Of more than three months to a prescribed post~lancy of nine months or to a noviceship of two years. Canon law also per-mits a prolongation of temporary vows for' three years but forbids that the whole time of- any case of temporary profession, without an indu.lt from the Holy See, be more than six years. If an institute has five years of temporary vows, they are prol6ngable-only for a year; if six, they may be prolonged only by an indult from the Holy See. Prolongation of any of these probationary states is to be avoided as far as possible by a system of reports to the highe[ superior and the prompt instruction, counseling, and admonishing of the unsatis-factory subject. Prolongation is rarely found to be a satisfactory expedient except in a case such as that of health. A prolongation of any of these probationary states does not have to be made for the frill time permitted by law. Any of them may be prolonged for days, Weeks, months, and the temporary pro-fession for one or two years. ,Whether the prolongation has been made for the full time allowed or any lesser period, the competent higher superior may admit a subject who has proved himself satis- . factory before the expiration of such a period. --39m What ,is the difference between the canonical impediments that' make a noviceship ,invalid and those that render it merely illicit?. An impediment to the noviceship is a circumstance affecting a per.son that would make his novi'ceship either invalid. (diriment im-pediment) or merely illicit (merely prohibiting impediment). All religious' institutes are' obliged by the impediments of can.~ 542. Some 267 QUESTION~AND ANSWERS Review f~r" Religious institutes have additional impediments of their own constitutions. All laws of the code oblige immediately under sin. Their vio-lation is consequently a sin, at least, objectively. The common ef-fect of law is to produce a moral obligation. A law produces no other effect uialess this is certainly stated in the law. For example, ' some laws enact'a canonical penalty, such as an excommunication against a Catholic who attempts marriage before a non-Catholic minister (c. 2319, § 1, 1"). In the present inatter, a law produces only the common effect of a moral obligation when it is a merely prohibiting impediment. To be also a diriment impediment, the law must state certainly, either explicitly or implicitly, that it is an invalidating law. This i~ done explicitly by the phrases that the person is incapable of making a valid noviceship or ~afinot be validly admitted to the noviceship. Implicitly the same effect would be ex-pressed by stating that the circumstance was a diriment impediment or that no noviceship could exist because of the circumstance or by requiring a circumstance for a noviceship or a novice to exist. Invalidating ecclesiastical laws are-concerned only .with juridical acts. These are acts that effect the acquisition, change,~nd loss of rights and ol~ligafions, such as contracts, marriage, and religious pro-fession. It is impossible to invalidate a simple act of disobedience; but marriage, since it produces the rights and obligations of husband and wife, can be invalidated. Let us suppose that a religious pro-fession is invalidly made. The invalidating law does not and can-not annihilate the physical enyity of the act of l~rofession; nor can it annul the moral entity of the act, i. e., that the act was or was not knowingly and thus sinfully made contrary to law. However; the act of profession would otherwise have produced the rights and ob-ligations of the religious state. The' p.recise effect 0f the invalidating law is tO annul these rights and obligations. The one who made the profession is not a religious and h~i's none of the rights and obliga-tions of a religious. The juridical effect of a valid noviceship is to make the subject capable under this" aspect of a valid religious pro-fession; a diriment impediment not dispensed annuls this capability. Inculpable ignorance excuses from the sin but not from the invali-dating effect of a Violation of such laws. Ignorance would excuse even from the invalidity of a particular law when such a law states that ignorance has this effect (c. 16, § 1). None of the invalidating laws on the religious state admit ignorance as an excuse from the invalidating effect. ¯Religious should faithfully observe all the laws of their institute 268 $eptember, 1956 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS and especially of the Church, but the invalidating laws are to be even more carefully studied and most strict~ly observed.Very serious consequences can arise from negligence in this matter, since the in-validating laws on the religious state can quite readily cause a chain of invalidity in the institute; For example, an invalid noviceship makes all subsequent professions invalid, and a house not validly designated as a novitiate house renders all noviceships in that house invalid. These possible cases could be multiplied, and all possible cases appear to have been verified in fact. The care for the observance of. invalidating laws on the religious state rarely falls on subjects or local superiors. It.is the master of novices, higher superiors and' their councilors, and the general and provincial secretary who must take care of the observance of such laws. They should know enough canon law to recognize or at least suspect an invalidating law and they must seek competent advice in any doubtful matter. ~0-- Poverty is a constant, iproblem in our institute. The principal difficul-ties are the use of money.wlthout permission, the very frequent request to use all or part of cjiffs, the obtaining of personal necessities, practlca~ly always of better quality, from seculars, and the obtaining of money from seculars for special purposes, which appear very extraordinary to the other religious. The last two are often solicited, directly or indirectly, by the rel[glous. It is hum[llatlng to realize that this is being done, and es-pecially the last two practices cause difficulties, discontent, and 9radua| loss of observance in quite a few other religious. I am sure that, with the possible exceptlbn of rare and accidental cases, local superiors are cjen~ erous. Are there any law~. that we should add to our constitutions to strengthen the observance of poverty? The principles with regard to such practices and even thespecific practices themselves have often been treated in the REVIEW FOR RE-LIGIOUS. It is a delusion to believe that new or added laws neces-sarily effect a renewed spiritual life. Defective laws,should b~ cor-rected; but the laws of the institute in question, as of so many others that are faced by the same problem, are not defective. The precise difficulty of many religious is that they confine their understanding and practice of poverty to the mere obligation of the vow and .of law. Superiors are to insist on the observance of both the vow\ and the laws on poverty; they are to. remember that it is easier to prevent than to eliminate abuses; and by apt ~nstruction and individual guid-ance they are to strive.to rfiake their subjects realize the purpose of poverty, without which poverty in many cases will be a matter of, 269 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoieu~ for Religious ;'what I~can get away with." The purpose of the religious life is the perfection of divine charity, and the primary purpose of the three vows of religion is to remove the chief obstacles that impede the soul from complete,love of God. The princilSal purpose therefore of tt~e vow of poverty is not mere external observance but a detach-ment from external goods that will lead to an increased love of God. Detachment here is the habitual interior state by which one uses, requests, and desires ma'terial things, not for themselves, but only in-sofar as they are necessary or useful for personal sanctification, prog-ress in that sanctification, and work. Permission is a help to the at-tainment of deta~chment, but no assurance of its acquisition. Per- .mission is highly compatible with attachment to the object permitted. It should be axiomatic that religious pove~rty is efficacious only to the degree that it effects detachment. If a religious iS not striving for detachment, poverty is contributing very little to his religious life. This purpose of povery is not commanded under sin; but a religious is grievously deceived if he does not realize that his sanctification, even after profession, is placed principally in matters of counsel. Religious poverty consequently is real and effective only in the degree that it is increasing love of God, detachment from material' things, and the ~ correlative virtues of trust in divine providence, patience, meekness, humility, and the spirit of mortification. A candidate applied for admission~ who had evidently been conceived before the marr[acje of his parents, but the parents married in the C~hurch before his birth. Is he lecjitlmat~? A legitimate child is one either conceived or born of a valid or a putative marriage (c. 1114). It is therefore not necessary that a Child be both conceived and born of such a ¯marriage, but either con-ception or birth is sufficient. This child was born of a valid mar-riage and is consequently legitimate. ¯ If'will be clearer to put the present question in the form of'a case with fictitious names. Irwin, a Gatholic, attemp÷ed marFiacje with an Episcppalian, before an Episcopalian minister. A daughter, Jane, was born to the couple a year later. The marrlacje was ne~;er ¢onvalidated in the Gathloi¢ Church. 'Irwin has always been certain ofthe invalidity" of his marriacje, but Irma has never had a doub~ about its validity. -Jane has olways been a C~athollc and wishes to enter relicjion. Is she lecjitim~te? 270 " September, 1956 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS A child is legitimate if conceived or born °either from a valid or from a putative marriage. A putative marriage is an invalid mar-riage, but at the time of the celebration at least one of the parties believed'the marriage valid. It is sufficient that a non-Catholic party be the one in good faith. (Cf. Vlaming-Bender, Praelectiones Iuris Matrimonii, 45-46; Woywood-Smith, A Practical Commentary, I, 646.) This good faith required in at least one of the parties means that such a party at the time of the celebration either had no doubt about the validity; or, if there was such a doubt, it was proportion-ately investigated. If such anlnvestigation was neglected, the party was not in good faith. The marriage remains putative until both parties are certain of its invalidity. A child either conceived or both while the marriage is putative is legitimate and remains so forever, even though later both parties become certain of the invalidity. A putative marriage can occur, when the invalidating .cause is el}her a defect of consent or a diriment impediment not dispensed. On January 26, 1949, the Code Commission gave an au.thentic inter-- pretation, whose sense is that a .marriage attempted completely with-out canonical form cannot be puta, tive if at least one of the parties is held to c~nonical form. Canonical form consists in the presence of a competent priest and at least two witnesses. As a Catholic, Irwin was held to canonical form; and his marriage with'Irma before an Episcopalian minister was attempted completely without ~canoniCal form. Therefore, the marriage cannot be putative; and Jane is iilegitimate. --43m Does the impediment of a religious profession effect one ~vho left after profe~slon and later wishes to be readmiffed to the, same institute? This diriment impediment of can. 542, 1 °, reads: "Those who ~ire or were bound by religious profession." The language of the canon is absolute and i.s to be understood absolutely. The impediment )herefore is verified in those who. are now bound or at any time in the past were bound by valid religious vows, sOlemn or simple, per-~ petual or temporary, iri the same or a different institute, whet,her an order or a pontifical or diocesan congregation. The iNpediment does not affect , those who were merely novices or postulants in any re, ligious institute, nor novices who were admitted to profession in dan-ger of death, nor finally anyone who was a member of a society of common life without public vows or of a secular institute. How-ever, m~iny institutes have a merely, prohibitive impediment of their own constitutions with regard to.those whd were novices or pos~u~- 271 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS lants in another, religious institute, which some extend also to those who had been nox;ices or postulants in the same religious institute. The impediment is dispensable. Greater care is to be exercised in this case to secure assurance of a religious vocation. The departure from ,,another institute is, generally speaking, a strong argument against the presence of a religious vocation. The petition should give the circumstances and reasons for the departure, i. e., the name of the 6ther institute, of what vows the candidate was professed, how long, and whether the departure was voluntary or by exclusion at the end of temporary vows, by secularization, or dismissal. The reasons for the departure should be given truthfully arid completely. Should novices be separated from the postulants? Canon law does not command the separatioh of the novices and postulants. Constitutions of lay congregations approved by the Holy See after 1901 are based in great part on the Normae of 1901. Article 64 of these Normae prescribed such a separation when this could be conveniently accomplished. Some institutes have such a prescription in their constitutions, due either to the influence of the Nor.maeor to the fact that these institutes believe separation to be more conducive to the religious formation of both novices and postulants. What does canon law command about the place of postulancy? Can. 540, § 1, commands that the postulancy be made in the novitiate ,house or in another house of the institute where the religious discipline prescribed by the constitutions is faithfully observed. The canon does not forbid the distribution of the postulants in many houses of the institute nor the repeated transfer of a postulant from one house to another. Experience, however, 'more than fully dem-onstrates that it is far more preferable for the postulancy to be made , in the novitiate house. It can be taken as a thorotighly sound and general practical principle that the effect o,f separation from the master of novices or postulants is little instruction 6r formation in the religious li~e. A small number of congregations have wisely pre-scrib, ed that the postulants must spend two complete months in the novitiate house before their entrance into the noviceship when the earlier part of the postulancy has been made outside the novitiate house. 272 (Material for this department should ,be sent to: Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs~ Indiana.) THE MIND OF THE CHURCH IN THE FORMATION OF SISTERS. Se-lectlbns from Addresses Given durln9 the Six Regional Conferences and the First National Meeting of the Sister Formation Conference, 19S4-19SS. Pp. 282. Fordham University Press, New York. 19S6. $3.00 This book is another milestone in the Sister Formation move, menL The inspiration of the movement was the address of Plus XII at the first International Congress of Teaching Sisters in September, 1951. The Holy Father dxhorted the ~ sisters to make all of their schools excellent, to make sure that the education of sister teach-ers corresponds in quality and academic degrees to that demanded by the state, and to adapt themselves to new conditions. "You," he added, "must serve the cause of Jesus Christ and of His Church as the world t~oday requires." The movement was inf~rmally laurlched at the Kansas City NCEA convention in 1952 when a ggoup of sisters was authorized .to survey the current status of sister education in the United States. ,The findings of the survey underscored three major problems of sister education: (!) the. needed time for sisters to complete a bachelor's degree program and state certification requirements beford entering the classroom, (2) the resources (financial and academic) necessary for this adeq
El mitoSiempre que hablemos de secularismo (o secularización) o laicidad, no es posible escribir sobre la cuestión sin hacer referencia a la crítica recurrente que alimenta el debate; a saber, que la neutralidad entre las esferas pública y privada (y particularmente en el caso de la laicidad) tan sólo sería oficial, pero que en la práctica esta neutralidad no sería más que una ficción ya que el Estado privilegiaría la religión históricamente dominante o, como hemos discutido previamente, favorecería los valores morales seculares por sobre los valores religiosos.En referencia a los Estados Unidos, país que reconoce su voluntad secular en la primera enmienda de su Constitución1, Bader (1999: 603) relata la particularidad del secularismo estadounidense "The legal prohibition of the establishment of a national church had little effect on the political, social, and cultural or symbolic power of de facto establish Protestant Christianity" y un poco más lejos (1999: 605): "Strict neutrality reproduces impossible fictions and ignores the patterns of co-operation between church and state created by our history of civic piety and the expanding regulatory role of the welfare state". La separación secular no podría entonces ignorar el desarrollo conjunto de los vínculos históricos tejidos entre la Iglesia y las instituciones públicas. Al mismo tiempo, la cuestión es saber cuál es el límite en el apoyo a la religión mayoritaria o dominante y en qué medida el reconocimiento de esta diferencia no se transforma en discriminatorio hacia las religiones minoritarias. Para Bader, un sistema justo sería el de rechazar las nociones de separación total y de confinamiento al ámbito privado de los argumentos religiosos, ya que esto no haría más que acentuar las diferencias de trato entre las minorías y la religión dominante (visto que ésta se encuentra intrínsecamente incorporada en los valores sociales y en el sistema político y jurídico). La solución, compleja, obligaría a tomar en cuenta las desigualdades entre la religión mayoritaria y las minoritarias y a desarrollar e implementar políticas destinadas a colmatar esas desigualdades estructurales. Pero, en este aspecto, parece claro que ya no estamos hablando de secularismo, y aún menos de laicidad. El reconocimiento de las desigualdades y la acción pública pueden producir un efecto perverso, donde, en lugar de asegurar la igualdad o la neutralidad, la multiplicación de excepciones religiosas conduciría a reposicionar la religión y lo sagrado en el centro de la acción pública. La ventaja de la laicidad constitucional es que tiene el cometido de evitar este rompecabezas identitario.No obstante lo antes expuesto, el poder político a menudo padece las peores dificultades para asegurar los principios de laicidad, siendo presa por momentos de agendas políticas particulares. Por ejemplo, cuando el presidente de la República Francesa Nicolas Sarkozy subraya y reafirma públicamente las raíces cristianas de Francia (de manera similar a lo que acontece en el discurso político en los Estados Unidos), con un trasfondo de debate sobre el Islam y de identidad nacional, ataca abiertamente los principios republicanos y laicos. Independientemente de la concepción de laicidad que se adopte, de neutralidad, de autonomía o de comunidad, ninguna sale ilesa de un tal ataque. La neutralidad del Estado no sería ya por lo tanto asegurada si éste reconoce abiertamente los vínculos indivisibles que unen al país y a la nación con una religión particular (la católica en el caso francés o uruguayo hasta la Constitución de 1918). La obligación de asegurar la autonomía y el libre albedrío individual sufriría si se favorece una concepción del mundo basada en valores cristianos con respecto a otros valores, sean estos religiosos o no. En definitiva, el vínculo comunitario supremo, definido como la pertenencia a la república, se resquebrajaría si se reconoce una lealtad alternativa hacia los valores de la iglesia católica. Asimismo, esto abriría las puertas a todos los particularismos, a todas las religiones y creencias minoritarias basándose en la exigencia (justificada) del tratamiento igualitario (aunque este tratamiento igualitario quedaría lógicamente invalidado de facto por el abandono de la laicidad de Estado al promover abiertamente un vínculo histórico, religioso y cultural, primigenio). Si el principio cardinal sigue siendo el respeto de los valores republicanos para asegurar la igualdad ante la ley, entonces comentarios de esta índole anuncian un retroceso histórico en la construcción republicana -y laica- de un estado como Francia. Otra lectura de este asunto consistiría en reconocer que esta polémica ejemplifica las dificultades inherentes de cohabitación e integración de las sociedades multiculturales.Si consideramos que la laicización fue un proceso que históricamente se llevó adelante en sociedades relativamente homogéneas, la afluencia de nuevas poblaciones sobre una estructura socio-cultural y política ya establecida no podía más que provocar tensiones. Si Francia conoció dos grandes olas de laicización (de combate y de Estado), una en 1880 y una a partir de 1905, podríamos pensar que se encuentra actualmente en una tercera ola de laicización en respuesta a la inmigración masiva africana a partir de los años 60. Esto implica que la laicización, a diferencia del secularismo, obliga al Estado y a las instituciones públicas a realizar un esfuerzo permanente de educación y transmisión de estos valores. El secularismo, si debemos creer lo que dice Kucuradi (1998), al estipular lo que está permitido, mas no lo que está prohibido, está más abierto al pluralismo en la esfera pública.En referencia a esta relación entre Iglesia y Estado, en particular en los Estados seculares donde existe una iglesia oficial o de Estado, principalmente en Europa del norte (donde por ejemplo los obispos son designados por el jede de Estado), Ferrari (2005: 12) presenta una explicación para esta fusión de géneros: "In these countries the autonomy of religious denominations is also increasingly considered a necessary consequence of the principle of collective religious freedom and therefore a limit exists before which the authority of the state has to stop". El Estado reconocería entonces, en estas sociedades seculares, los límites impuestos a su alcance debido a la necesidad de asegurar la libertad de culto y la autonomía de las instituciones religiosas.DiscusiónPor lo antes expuesto, es posible afirmar que ni el secularismo ni la laicidad se imponen como conceptos fácilmente abordables y claramente diferenciados. Lo que es aún más importante es que ambos son blanco de críticas y de crecientes ataques, dogmáticos o racionales, por parte de aquellos que defienden sociedades multiculturales y pluralistas. Esto es aún más evidente en el caso de la laicidad "a la francesa", a menudo percibida (de manera incorrecta a mi entender) como un esfuerzo político de uniformización y sofocamiento de las diferencias culturales. Conviene por lo tanto, en esta última sección, discutir algunas de las críticas dirigidas a estos dos conceptos e incorporar una última noción en un intento de síntesis: el pluralismo.Una crítica importante concierne directamente a la tesis de la secularización y el rol de la religión en las sociedades modernas. Según esta contra-tesis, denominada de transformación "religion has not so much vanished as rather evolved and adapted itself in novel ways to the requirements of post-industrial society" (Dallmayr , 1999:719). El vínculo causal y mecánico entre modernización y secularización no estaría tan fuertemente correlacionado como argumentan los defensores de la tesis de la secularización. Esta idea es ahora defendida por Peter Berger, quien se retractó en parte de su defensa inicial de la tesis de la secularización: "…by the late 70s or early 80, most, but not all sociologist of religion came to agree that the original secularization thesis was untenable in its basic form…today you cannot plausibly maintain that modernity necessarily leads to secularization : it may. And it does in certain parts of the world among certain groups of people, but not necessarily"2El "resurgimiento" de la religión en el plano nacional e internacional parece haber sido producto del fin de la guerra fría, cuando nuevas formas de pertenencia y de autodeterminación eran más que nunca necesarias, aunque no fuese más que para poder diferenciar entre lo propio y lo ajeno, entre lo nacional y lo extranjero, entre nosotros y ellos. Bajo esta perspectiva, el secularismo y las fuerzas laicas sufren los ataques de los movimientos que defienden el regreso de lo religioso al centro del debate público, político y social, mientras que el fenómeno contrario, a saber: la secularización de sociedades religiosas, en particular en el mundo musulmán, no parece imponerse ni como una evidencia ni como un modelo de gestión político ni de integración cultural exitoso. Los resultados de la "Primavera árabe" así lo demuestran, con un movimiento que se inició desde una perspectiva de contestación liberal y terminó con un violento "retour de flamme" reaccionario, identitario, intolerante y antidemocrático. Y es precisamente para evitar estas derivas peligrosas y reaccionarias y garantizar la tolerancia y la libertad de culto que un Estado secular (si no laico) es necesario. Como lo expone An Na´im (2008: 23): "It is precisely because notions of self and the other, as well as the meanings of values and construction of cultural memories, are all open to contestation and reformulation that I emphasize the critical importance of safeguarding the space in which that process can take place. The fact that proponents of the dominant interpretations of the presumed or perceived aspects of cultural or religious identity would represent them as the only authentic or legitimate positions of the culture on a given issue simply emphasizes the importance of ensuring every possibility for dissent and freedom to assert alternative views or practices". De acuerdo a esta visión, si quisiéramos aceptar las diferencias culturales e históricas, entonces sería necesario reflexionar en términos de una sociedad pluralista.En su cambio de opinión, Berger reconoce que la modernidad conduciría finalmente al pluralismo (y no al secularismo), definiendo el pluralismo como: "…the coexistence in the society of different worldviews and value systems under conditions of civic peace and under conditions where people interact with each other"3. Es innegable que esto introduce un cambio radical, ya que la multiplicidad de culturas y religiones puede conducir a opciones no seculares, sino religiosas, como las motivadas por los movimientos fundamentalistas. Vemos entonces que las sociedades pluralistas no cohabitan particularmente bien con el secularismo y peor aún con la laicidad constitucional. Estas fuerzas pueden conducir, si no se encuentran subordinas a un orden normativo común (jurídico y social), a la implosión y a la fragmentación social. Para evitar esto, Bader (2003: 206) delimita una serie de principios destinados a incorporar la religión, de manera práctica y no-conflictiva, ya que, considera el autor, la religión no está en retroceso en las democracias occidentales, a pesar de su defensa de los principios seculares, ni totalmente limitada a la esfera privada.El primer principio es el de prioridad a la democracia, que estipula que los principios constitucionales y la moralidad pública deben primar y excluir todas las prácticas culturales incompatibles con los principios democráticos. El segundo principio, de neutralidad relacional, se inscribe como crítica a la neutralidad estricta y formal, que ignoraría las realidades sociales, legales o económicas. En lo que concierne a la diversidad cultural y religiosa, Bader sostiene que la neutralidad absoluta del Estado no sólo es imposible, sino que también es indeseable. La eliminación de las referencias culturales e ideológicas del debate público no contribuirá a reducir los conflictos y las tensiones religiosas o ideológicas. Sería necesario, en lugar de negar el debate, aceptar, de manera justa, los diferentes particularismos y las diversas dimensiones culturales y religiosas. En relación a esta idea de justicia, Carens (1997: 818) propone que la justicia no reside en el trato igualitario, sino el trato equitativo: "Now being fair does not mean that every cultural claim…will be given equal weight, but rather that each will be given appropriate weight under the circumstances and given a commitment to equal respect for all". Las preguntas fundamentales a hacernos entonces son ¿quién será responsable de realizar esa valoración, de realizar ese ajuste entre lo que es justo y lo que es equitativo? ¿Quién será el encargado de valorar de manera justa lo que es equitativo? ¿Quién asegurará la construcción de ese orden moral y religioso, donde cada cultura y religión tendrá el lugar (¿qué lugar?) que le otorga el derecho (¿qué derecho?)? ¿Cómo prevenir que las fuerzas que se beneficiarán de tal poder de justicia no sucumbirán a la tentación de establecer o favorecer sus propias preferencias, bajo el impulso de una agenda privada o bajo la presión de grupos de interés?El debate no se limita, es cierto, a una visión maniquea que opondría posturas filosóficas u ontológicas diferentes, a una lucha entre de un lado las fuerzas seculares o laicas y del otro las construcciones pluralistas que militarían a favor de la inclusión y reconocimiento de las diversas particularidades culturales y religiosas. Sería incorrecto, y peligroso, pensar que el secularismo o la laicidad no reconocen la existencia de una sociedad plural. Pero, la primer diferencia, en particular en el secularismo, es que el Estado no se otorga el derecho de elegir y determinar los valores y la razón de ser de estos diferentes particularismos, sino que no hace más que asegurar la libertad de culto, sin favorecer una religión sobre otra. Aceptar las diferencias y, aún más importante, categorizar dichas diferencias, implica introducir una parte de arbitrariedad y parcialidad en toda elección. Es el riesgo de introducir una visión sesgada, ya sea por razones históricas, sociológicas, económicas o sencillamente por la ignorancia del otro y su cultura.Para concluir, en todo debate sobre el secularismo, la laicidad o el pluralismo, no debe olvidarse que la tolerancia es una virtud, pero también un límite, ya que reconoce la diferencia y fija los límites de lo que es aceptable (tolerable) y lo que no lo es. Como bien explica Habermas: "…toleration must circumscribe the range of behavior everybody must accept, thereby drawing a line for what cannot be tolerated…And as long as this line is drawn in an authoritarian manner, that is, unilaterally, the stigma of arbitrary exclusion remains inscribed in toleration" , y sobre la relación entre tolerante y tolerado: "the act of tolerance retains an element of an act of mercy or of doing a favor. One party allows the other a certain amount of deviation from normality under one condition: that the tolerated minority does not overstep the threshold of tolerance" (en Thomassen, 2006: 440). El problema de reconocer la diferencia, es que siempre hay uno que reconoce y otro que es reconocido. Al menos la laicidad republicana, a pesar de todas sus críticas, evita ese problema, ya que por principio somos todos iguales antes de ser diferentes. 1- 1era enmienda de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances".2- An Interview with Peter Berger, por Charles T. Mathewes. Disponible en : http://iasc-culture.org/THR/archives/AfterSecularization/8.12PBerger.pdf.3- An Interview with Peter Berger. Pág. 2. *Este artículo fue presentado en la 5° sesión el Seminario Interno de Discusión Teórica 2014, organizado por el Departamento de Estudios Internacionales de la Universidad ORT Uruguay.*Germán Clulow es Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales por la Universidad ORT –Uruguay, Master en Ciencia Política por la Université de Genève – Suiza, y Master en Estudios de Desarrollo por el Instituto de Altos Estudios Internacionales y de Desarrollo (IHEID-The Graduate Institute) Ginebra, Suiza
According to modern scientific and philosophical representations, the world is its creation as development. Because of anthroponoospherization, world development appears as a historical and spiritual development. A measure of progressive development are: 1) the completeness of the implementation of legislative tendency (directions) of development, 2) the superiority of the old to new, 3) the increase of consciousness and spiritual factors of development. In the development of society, the historical-spiritual appear to it: 1) degrees, 2) local ways (civilization) actually happen-ideas-development, which are: 1) initial with the stages of anthroposociogenesis, tribal community of collectors and hunters, the clan community of farmers and herders, 2) agrarian society with the stages of the first civilizations of the copper stone age (Ancient Egyptian, Sumerian-Babylonian, Indo, Aegean, Hatto-Smallasian Early Chinese, Ancient American) iron age from the 1st millennium BC of ancient (Middle East, Antique, Ancient Indian and Ancient Chinese) and medieval (Far Eastern, Indian, Austrian, Central Asian, Iranian-Islamic, Eastern Christian and West Christian local civilizations) and so-called industrial society with preindustrialization XVIІІ-mid. ХVІІ century, industrialization the middle of ХVІІ–ХІХ centuries, industrial first half of Twentieth century and, the middle of XX century, the globalization-information stages of development with the corresponding all of them-events-ideas-development. Stages of development are determined by their main direction. Civilizations can be defined as local socio-culturaland organisms that are inherent in the physiognomic unity of distinctive features. In the process of historical development there is a growth of conscious-spiritual factors of development (socio-cultural paradigm), mainly as the implementation of various socio-cultural projects, which prompts the creation of consciously projected, intellectually creative, idea-creative, spiritually-constructed world as it happens-idea- development. Events are actingknowledged as ideas, and ideas are projected as development. All further history of mankind is the deduction and embodiment of consciously-projected ideas. Socio-cultural projects require the realization, and that's why historical development is somehow dejected, and is carried out as some kind of enthusiasm. Religion - faith in God through the cult, what is the act of consciousness (faith) of world creation (God) through its activation in itself (the cult). The historical-spiritual world-development are as follows: 1) the continuation of the world creation, 2) the belief of realization as a kind of locomotive, because of what 3) religious socio-cultural projects of spiritual world transformation are currently the largest. From the New Times monotheism comes into the secular phase of practicing faith. From the seventeenth century humanity passes to industrial ways of development and to the twentieth century. the world economy is formed, world politics and world spirituality that are from the middle of Twentieth century turn into the globalization-informational period of "the inventive future", when any social and cultural projects can be implemented. There is a world civilization as a cathedral unity of national cultures. In the field of religious, there is not immorality, but newly-religions as a God's gradual faith. Innovation faith occurs as: 1) ecumenization, 2) secularization, and 3) new secular dynastic theologians. A peculiar "spiritual evaporation" of globalization processes is the maturation of the so-called universal religion. There can be no universal religion, only a universal faith can be. Universal religion is not a separate religion, but the unity of all religions of the world as its spiritual transformation. Universal religion arises as 1) activation of the creative forces of man, 2) the locomotive of socio-cultural projects that require the faith realization, 3) as a social and cultural project for the spiritual transformation of the world (God's reign, etc.). The unity of all religions in the world is currently the most expressed in theistic evolutionism, which in modern universal evolutionism receives a scientific and philosophical justification, where a new process-creative-centric image of the world for its transformation arises. Secular gradual faith passes into the development of the world, world-wide – the consciousness of the world as its development, which is achieved by the event-idea-development. The world of faith appears in three hypostases: 1) as the unity of all religions of the world as its spiritual transformation, 2) the world is not religion, but faith, and 3) acts consciousness of the world as its development. Concentration of the meanings of spiritual uplift form the so-called spiritual republics (Zion, Shambhala, mountainous Jerusalem, etc.) as our antisocial spiritual homeland. World-development of historical-spiritual appears as an intelligent world development (World building). ; За сучасними науково-філософськими уявленнями світ – це його творення як розвиток. Через антропоноосферизацію світорозвиток постає як історично-духовний розвій. Мірилом поступального розвою виступають: 1) повнота здійснення законотенденцій (спрямованостей) розвитку; 2) перевершення старого новим; 3) збільшення свідомісно-духовних чинників розвою. В історично-духовному розвитку суспільства постають його ступені та локальні способи (цивілізації), власне подіє-ідеє-розвій, якими є: 1)первісне, з етапами антропосоціогенезу, родової общини збирачів і мисливців, родової общини землеробів і скотарів; 2) аграрне суспільство, з етапами перших цивілізацій: міднокам'яного віку (Давньоєгипетської, Шумеро-Вавилонської, Індської, Егейської, Хетто-Малоазійської Ранньокитайської, Давньоамериканської), залізного віку від І тис. до н.е., давніх (Близькосхідної, Античної, Давньоіндійської і Давньокитайської) та середньовічних (Далекосхідної, Індійської, Австричної, Центральноазіатської, Ірано-Ісламської, Східнохристиянської і Західнохристиянської) локальних цивілізацій і т.з. індустріальне суспільство з передіндустріалізаційним (ХVІІ – сер. ХVІІІ ст.), індустріалізаційним (сер. ХVІІ–ХІХ ст.), індустріальним (п.пол. ХХ ст.) та (від сер. ХХ ст.) глобалізаційно-інформаційним етапами розвою з відповідним їм всім подіє-ідеє-розвоєм. Етапи розвитку визначаються їх головним спрямуванням. Цивілізації можуть бути визначені як локальні соціально-культурні організми, яким притаманна фізіогномічна єдність відміннісних рис. У процесі історичного розвитку відбувається зростання свідомісно-духовних чинників розвою (соціально-культурна парадигма), головним чином – як здійснення різних соціально-культурних проектів, через що постає створення свідомісно-проектованого, розумо-творного, ідеє-творного, одухо-твореного світу як його подіє-ідеє-розвою. Події дієусвідомлюються як ідеї, а ідеї проектуються як розвиток. Уся подальша історія людства репрезентована виведенням і втіленням свідомісно-проектованих ідей. Соціально-культурні проекти вимагають відоздійснення, через що історичний розвиток певним чином орелігійнюється, здійснюється як деяке світовірення. Релігія – віра в Бога через культ, чим є дієусвідомлення (віра) світотворення (Бог) через його активізацію в собі (культ). Світорозвій історично-духовний орелігійнюється як 1) продовжене світотворення, 2) віроздійснення як своєрідний локомотив, через те, що 3) релігійні соціально-культурні проекти духовного світоперетворення наразі є найбільшими. Від новочасся єдинобожжя вступає в секулярну фазу практикування віри. Від ХVІІ ст. людство переходить до індустріальних способів розвитку і до ХХ ст. утворюються світова економіка, світова політика і світова духовність, які від сер. ХХ ст. переходять у глобалізаційно-інформаційну добу "винаходжуваного майбутнього", коли можуть бути здійснені будь-які соціально-культурні проекти. Виникає світова цивілізація як соборна єдність національних культур. У галузі релігійній відбувається не обезрелігійнення, а новорелігійнення як дієбожне поступовір'я. Нововір'я відбувається як 1) екуменізація, 2) секуляризація, 3) нове секулярно-динамістичне богословствування. Своєрідним "духовним випаровуванням" глобалізаційних процесів є визрівання т.з. універсальної релігії. Універсальної релігії бути не може, може бути лише універсальна віра. Універсальна релігія не окрема релігія, а єдність усіх релігій світу як його духовного перетворення. Універсальна віра постає як 1) активізація світотворчих сил людини, 2) локомотив соціально-культурних проектів, що вимагають віроздійснення, 3) як соціально-культурний проект духовного перетворення світу (Царство Боже і т.п.). Єдність усіх релігій світу наразі знаходить найбільше вираження в теїстичному еволюціонізмі, який у сучасному універсал-еволюціонізмі отримує науково-філософське обґрунтування, де виникає новий процесуально-творчоцентричний образ світу для його перетворення. Секулярне поступовір'я переходить у розвитковір'я, світовір'я – дієусвідомлення світу як його розбудови, що досягається подіє-ідеє-розвоєм. Світовір'я постає у трьох іпостасях: 1) як єдність усіх релігій світу як його духовного перетворення, 2) світова не релігія, а віра і 3) дієусвідомлення світу як його розбудови. Зосередження розмислів духовних розбудов утворюють т.з. духовні республіки (Сіон, Шамбхалу, "горній Єрусалим" і т.п.) як нашу асоціальну духовну Батьківщину. Світорозвій історично-духовний постає як дієусвідомлювана світорозбудова (Світобуд).
