Suchergebnisse

My dissertation research is a case study of how the presence of an area protected for wildlife conservation can alter the livelihood options available to nearby rural communities, and an examination of the livelihood strategies that villagers deploy to cope with these conditions. Protected areas have become the primary approach to conserving biodiversity across the planet. While the modern protected areas movement dates back to the nineteenth century, conservation scientists have recently become increasingly concerned with measuring the social as well as ecological effects of land set aside for conservation. The large and growing body of "people and parks" literature examines the costs and benefits of protected areas for local communities. However, the net impact of a protected area is context-specific and is not always clear, and question of how protected areas affect livelihoods and human development remains widely and contentiously debated amongst social and natural scientists. Using a political ecology framework, I explain in this dissertation how the Chobe National Park has influenced rural livelihoods in the northern region of Botswana, a country that is notable for its status as a relatively well-functioning welfare state, and its long history of rural-urban socio-economic linkages. Specifically, I chronicle the agrarian livelihood strategies of smallholder farmers living on the edge of Chobe National Park in northern Botswana--a place where the state has prioritized wildlife conservation but also provides support to residents' livelihoods in a number of ways. In Chobe, agricultural production is becoming increasingly challenging even as the government increases its agricultural subsidies and support to small farmers. I show that it is conservation policy rather than the prioritization of commercial farming that hurts small-scale agriculture and causes some farmers to shift livelihood activities. I also demonstrate how restricted-use rights over wildlife, limited ways to participate in the mandated community wildlife management regimes (called community trusts) and a dearth of realistic revenue-generating wildlife-based opportunities for villagers make wildlife a relatively inaccessible source of livelihood support. Norms regarding wildlife as the property of the state, in conjunction with sources of livelihood support that are easier for households to access - namely remittances from urban kin and state transfers - undermine the creation of effective community-based natural resource management regimes. Throughout my dissertation I emphasize that the Chobe National Park and the Chobe Enclave villages do not exist as bounded insular units of analysis and instead are better understood as nodes in a web of social relations and connections that extend beyond the physical boundaries of the region. This recognition draws directly from insights made by critical geographers that provide a theoretical understanding of place that is extroverted and aware of its links with the wider world. Much of the people and parks research has focused on social and economic outcomes for communities living on the edges (e.g., buffer) of protected areas. However, the economic and social effects of protected areas are not limited to their borders and can affect human dynamics hundreds of miles away. I discuss linkages between rural and urban communities to create a more complete picture of the way in which protected areas can affect human populations, even those living far from park borders. I show that the overall net growth around Chobe NP's edges does not preclude out-migration from certain buffer areas. Human movements towards, away from and within the Chobe National Park buffer zone have altered the demographic composition of rural villages and contributed to a new spatial patterning of people and associated livelihoods.Ultimately, this study looks at how a park affects who lives where, and what the implications of such settlement patterns are for livelihoods, land use, and social relations in a web of interconnected geographical areas. In illustrating these dynamics, this work contributes to a rich body of literature that examines the context-dependent mechanisms through which a protected area can alter socio-economic development and in turn, the ecology and biodiversity of a rural landscape.

Anthropogenic climate change and the mitigation strategies aimed to attenuate it are both issues of great importance for human rights, public health, and socioeconomic equity. To understand these concerns and to better inform policy and strategic action it is critical to explore: 1) the disparities in the costs and benefits of climate shifts; 2) the abilities of different populations to adapt to these shifts; and 3) the social and health equity dimensions of the climate change mitigation strategies imposed. The health and equity implications associated with anthropogenic climate change mitigation are multi-scaled and range from the household level (i.e., in the case of household-level energy efficiency and fuel switching projects); to the regional and community levels (i.e., in the case of communities that benefit and are impacted by California's Global Warming Solutions Act, or AB 32); to the national and international levels where resource transfers from more developed nations to less developed nations are key to reaching climate mitigation goals.Critical to the generation of sound and equitable climate mitigation policy is the manner in which climate change mitigation efforts are measured, monitored and evaluated. In other words, methods and metrics determine what is seen and what is rendered invisible. These measurements act as a partial determinant of the observed outcomes and subsequently, the policy decisions that are guided and bolstered by their results. It is therefore crucial to unpack the methodologies and metrics used to measure and evaluate climate change mitigation strategies in order to understand and predict impacts and benefits, and to assess the equity dimensions of different mitigation measures.Chapter 2 focuses on the environmental health and equity dimensions of both anthropogenic climate change and the California Global Warming Solutions act of 2006 (AB 32) in California. I argue here that anthropogenic climate change is an issue of great importance for human rights, public health, and socioeconomic equity because of its diverse consequences overall as well as its disproportionate impact on vulnerable and socially marginalized populations. It is clear that that anthropogenic climate change will affect industrial and agricultural sectors, as well as transportation, health, and energy infrastructure and these shifts hold significant health and economic consequences for diverse communities throughout California. Without proactive policies to address these equity concerns, climate change will likely reinforce and amplify current as well as future socioeconomic disparities leaving low-income, minority, and politically marginalized groups with fewer economic opportunities and more environmental and health burdens. Chapter 3 explores the rapidly expanding scientific literature that describes black carbon (BC) emissions and their climatic and human health effects. In addition to scientific uncertainties due to differences in atmospheric models and how to sort out regional effects, inconsistencies in definitions, metric and measurement methods, data collection and characterization, system boundaries, and time horizons, have led to confusion about the importance of BC as a climate-forcing and health-damaging agent relative to other climate-altering and health-damaging pollutants. The focus on metrics and measurement issues in Chapter 3 leads into Chapter 4 where I shift my gaze to the carbon-offset market and look at accountability components of the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of cookstove carbon offset projects. While many studies focus on accountability mechanisms between social actors in the carbon-offset arena, there are no studies that have looked at M&E requirements as a source of accountability themselves. I contend that the Gold Standard Foundation (GSF), the primary certifying body of carbon credits on the voluntary market could develop metrics and M&E requirements to discipline evaluators and project developers into more responsible and accountable behavior. This in turn may produce M&E results with a higher standard of veracity to be reported to the certifying institutions and other stakeholders. I identify the existing accountability flaws in the GSF monitoring methodology and make recommendations to improve the M&E requirements. These improvements could further strengthen the authoritativeness of the GSF, make the accountability system more influential, and hopefully lead to more trusted carbon credits, more effective emission reductions, and greater sustainable development gains.

围龙屋是客家人聚族而居的传统建筑,集中分布于广东东北部。它蕴含一套独特的空间构造和象征体系,体现了客家人的社会结构和性别观念。空间作为一项技术,在物质领域和精神领域上划分了两性的界限,并维护着性别关系结构。集体化时期国家对围龙屋进行了全面性改造,女性抓住机会获取村落公共空间的话语权,并在今天成为宗教活动的主导。改革开放之后,经济改革促使当地人搬出围龙屋住进新式楼房,家庭关系也随之改变。 ; 本文以梅州一座围龙屋为研究对象,以客家妇女的日常生活实践为核心主题,通过分析围龙屋聚落的历史脉络、空间构造及其社会意义的转变,探讨空间生产过程中女性个体、国家力量和传统文化观念之间的互动与角力,从而理解中国建国后的社会、政治、经济变迁。国家通过改造围龙屋来达成管制目的,客家女性在国家话语下发挥能动性获取更多的生存空间,同时也受到传统文化观念的约束。今天,国家力量借助市场经济以非正式的方式渗透农村,彻底改变了家庭权力结构,并使传统文化滋生出新的表现形式。 ; The weilong houses serve as the dwelling places for the Hakka people in Northeast Guangdong. Each weilong house contains elaborate spatial arrangements and a symbolic system that embodies the social order and gender relations of the Hakka. Space draws the boundaries between men and women in both the material and spiritual spheres, maintaining the gender structure of the Hakka society. During the collectivization period when the state reorganized the weilong house, women seized the opportunity to gain power for the control of village public space, and later they became religious leaders, even to the present. The economic reforms since 1978 have induced the villagers to leave the weilong house and move into new double-storey buildings, changing the family relations in the household. ; This research is a study of a weilong house in Meizhou, with focus on the daily practices of Hakka women. Taking into account of the history of the weilong house, its spatial structure and the changes in its social meanings, I seek to explore the production and reproduction of space in relation to women, tradition and the state, leading to a deeper understanding of the social-economic and political changes since 1949. The state achieved its rule through the re-arrangement of space, and the Hakka women use their agency to gain more living space under the state discourse, despite being constrained by traditional culture. Today, through market forces, state power has permeated all aspects of village life, transforming the power structure of the family thoroughly and enabling traditional culture to express in new ...

This book follows a new path of describing the Alps from the years 500 to 800. Instead of running through this mountain range from east to west (or reverse) and writing one local history after the other, relevant patterns were captured: patterns of control, borders, communication routes, Christendom, settlement, economy, local methods to establish power and traces of local identity. Comparing theses structures on an interregional level made it possible to establish a new view on the early medieval alpine regions. By the year 500 the inhabitants of this central European mountain range were typically roman-provincial. Some regional differences existed, yet the main factors were quite similar: language, laws, religion (Christendom) and social structures. From the 6th c. on this changed. New political developments made a large part of the alpine provinces turn northwards to the Frankish realms. As a consequence borders were created within the Alps. Many hilltop settlements and strongholds in the valleys were built to guarantee the security both of population and borders. Militia was installed to control these boundaries; they were either recruited from the local population or got especially settled for these means. This change of view made some Roman topoi disappear: the Alps were no longer regarded as hostile and as the walls of Italy. The routes through the Alps changed. One reason for this was the growing number of pilgrims from the British Isles made the passage through Maurienne and over the Mont Cenis more important than the ancient route via Montgenèvre. The central Alps in Curia remained a highly important point to cross the mountains, whereas more eastwards the once important crossing points became mere backroads. Farther east the Avarian-Slavic conquest caused the sources to silence, nevertheless the communication routes remained visible through archaeological findings and place names. A big change for the alpine population was the transformations in settlement patterns, first of all the diminishing importance of Roman cities. Some of them disappeared completely, such as Teurnia, Aguntum and Octodurum. Nevertheless, the wider settlement areas around these former towns always remained important. New centres emerged. Some had roman roots, for example Iuvavum/Salzburg, others were new foundations, like the numerous cloisters from the 8th c. The church played a significant role in this transformation, as a bishop's see or the burial church of a saint constituted a point of attraction for the local population. The antique transalpine and alpine networks of trade underwent some transitions. Goods like olive oil, high quality pottery and sea salt were no longer brought over the Alps. The eastern alpine ore deposits were not exploited on a grand scale anymore. New natural resources became important, for example the salt deposits in the northern Alps. There are some traces of exported products. The vineyards of the Southern Alps produced vine for export to the north-alpine regions and the central alpine soapstone production supplied the population of the whole mountain range with high quality cookware. In addition to this, products like cheese, wool, honey and lumber might have been exported. Alpine agriculture did not change much. Farming was based on subsistence and the surplus was sold locally to travellers or given to the owners of the land. The use of alpine pastures roots in pre-roman times and was practised continually, although the intensity of the pastoralism is difficult to estimate. Local power structures emerged out of late antique roots. In the 8th and beginning of the 9th c. the population of these parts of the Alps still spoke a roman language, were Christian and lived in a very differentiated social structure whose legal habits were based on roman law. Contrary to that, the eastern Alps saw a major cultural shift that resulted in the Slavic reign of Carantania.

Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis Linnaeus 1758) are declining in some areas throughout their Nearctic range (Sauer et al. 2011). This reduction is linked to changes in their habitat caused by human activities. Golden eagles inhabit an extensive range of environments (Watson 1997, Kochert et al. 2002). In the American Continent, the golden eagle's range encompasses Alaska, Canada, the United States and the Northern and Central portions of Mexico. Northern golden eagle populations migrate during winter to southern grounds, crossing international boundaries of Canada, the US and Mexico and therefore, their conservation is of trilateral concern. Golden eagles are protected by domestic laws in the three North American countries where they occur (FWCA 1997, BGEPA 1940, MBTA 1918, Lacey Act 1900, DOF 2002) and although the IUCN list the species as Least Concern, the A. c. canadensis subspecies has been protected by CITES since 1975 (Birdlife International 2012). While intensively studied in the United States, very little is known in Mexico about golden eagle ecology and their populations. As the national bird of Mexico, its conservation has been a priority for the Mexican government since its inclusion in the Endangered Species List in 1994 (SEDESOL 1994). Several threats jeopardize golden eagle populations throughout their range in North America: habitat alteration and fragmentation, electrocution, collisions with vehicles, collision with windmills and wires, poisoning from lead ingestion, drowning, shooting and trapping, and poaching for illegal wildlife trade. Mexican experts believe that a dramatic decline occurred over recent decades and that the remaining pairs have been restricted to remnant suitable habitat patches (SEMARNAP-INE 1999). Long-term survival of golden eagles largely depends on the effectiveness of current conservation efforts of habitat at a landscape level. Successful conservation and management requires accurate information on ecology of the species upon which decisions can be based. This study investigated habitat characteristics of the areas occupied by golden eagles and developed strategies for habitat management and protection to improve golden eagle viability in Chihuahua State. I surveyed a portion of Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion in Mexico to locate golden eagle territories during 2009 and 2010. I located 30 golden eagle nesting territories and found similar composition of cover type, vegetation structure and prey indices between the territory cores and their buffer zones. Distance to most anthropogenic disturbance sources was similar between golden eagle sites and random areas (n=60). Grassland was the most common cover type, occurring in 100% of the nesting territories, and comprising 58% of the territories' area, suggesting a disproportionate use of this cover type compared to its overall availability (25% of the state area). I used landscape attributes such as topographic characteristics and human disturbances to model the probability of occurrence of golden eagles across the landscape. I used logistic regression to model the occurrence of golden eagles at two different landscape scales and selected the best model at a home range scale based on AIC values to develop a predictive map of golden eagle distribution in Chihuahua, Mexico. I found that at a home range scale, golden eagles' occurrence was positively related to open areas and terrain ruggedness and negatively to human settlements, while at a larger scale it was positively related to open areas and negatively related to forested areas. The results confirm that golden eagles are dependent on grasslands and rugged terrain. I developed predictive maps of golden eagle occurrence using a logistic regression and a Mahalanobis distance approach using the variables from the model chosen to compare the performance and output with logistic regression modeling. I analyzed the Mexican National Plan for Golden Eagle Recovery (PACE - guila Real) and proposed a conservation strategy oriented to protect golden eagle populations and their habitat in Chihuahua, Mexico. This strategy integrates ecologic knowledge developed in the first two chapters and incorporates social participation of all stakeholders. The strategy recognizes the potential limitations of conservation implementation programs in Mexico and explores the potential opportunities to protect golden eagles populations and their habitat. ; Ph. D.

This book follows a new path of describing the Alps from the years 500 to 800. Instead of running through this mountain range from east to west (or reverse) and writing one local history after the other, relevant patterns were captured: patterns of control, borders, communication routes, Christendom, settlement, economy, local methods to establish power and traces of local identity. Comparing theses structures on an interregional level made it possible to establish a new view on the early medieval alpine regions. By the year 500 the inhabitants of this central European mountain range were typically roman-provincial. Some regional differences existed, yet the main factors were quite similar: language, laws, religion (Christendom) and social structures. From the 6th c. on this changed. New political developments made a large part of the alpine provinces turn northwards to the Frankish realms. As a consequence borders were created within the Alps. Many hilltop settlements and strongholds in the valleys were built to guarantee the security both of population and borders. Militia was installed to control these boundaries; they were either recruited from the local population or got especially settled for these means. This change of view made some Roman topoi disappear: the Alps were no longer regarded as hostile and as the walls of Italy. The routes through the Alps changed. One reason for this was the growing number of pilgrims from the British Isles made the passage through Maurienne and over the Mont Cenis more important than the ancient route via Montgenèvre. The central Alps in Curia remained a highly important point to cross the mountains, whereas more eastwards the once important crossing points became mere backroads. Farther east the Avarian-Slavic conquest caused the sources to silence, nevertheless the communication routes remained visible through archaeological findings and place names. A big change for the alpine population was the transformations in settlement patterns, first of all the diminishing importance of Roman cities. Some of them disappeared completely, such as Teurnia, Aguntum and Octodurum. Nevertheless, the wider settlement areas around these former towns always remained important. New centres emerged. Some had roman roots, for example Iuvavum/Salzburg, others were new foundations, like the numerous cloisters from the 8th c. The church played a significant role in this transformation, as a bishop's see or the burial church of a saint constituted a point of attraction for the local population. The antique transalpine and alpine networks of trade underwent some transitions. Goods like olive oil, high quality pottery and sea salt were no longer brought over the Alps. The eastern alpine ore deposits were not exploited on a grand scale anymore. New natural resources became important, for example the salt deposits in the northern Alps. There are some traces of exported products. The vineyards of the Southern Alps produced vine for export to the north-alpine regions and the central alpine soapstone production supplied the population of the whole mountain range with high quality cookware. In addition to this, products like cheese, wool, honey and lumber might have been exported. Alpine agriculture did not change much. Farming was based on subsistence and the surplus was sold locally to travellers or given to the owners of the land. The use of alpine pastures roots in pre-roman times and was practised continually, although the intensity of the pastoralism is difficult to estimate. Local power structures emerged out of late antique roots. In the 8th and beginning of the 9th c. the population of these parts of the Alps still spoke a roman language, were Christian and lived in a very differentiated social structure whose legal habits were based on roman law. Contrary to that, the eastern Alps saw a major cultural shift that resulted in the Slavic reign of Carantania.

The western countries often considered as those, which had achieved high cultural level and that are the announcers of liberalism and freedom, have legitimized euthanasia with national law by allowing killing a person for a disease or old age. In Lithuania as in the majority of countries of the Old Continent, the decreasing rate of birth, the obsolescent society and its changing attitude towards life, old age and pain force a liberal society to discuss about various forms of death and particularly euthanasia. As the life pace is running in a breathtaking speed causing many human traumas, which often make a person disabled; the diseases that still remain incurable force us to pay attention to the weak people who need help by providing them not with death but life. In this case the palliative help as an alternative to euthanasia stands for the weak. The problem of the topic rises from the intentions to legalize euthanasia, to prove "the right to die"in the court without submitting any other solutions to such a position. When spreading such the posture covered by mercy, the alternative is found in palliative help and care. Lithuania is the last country in Europe, which legalized palliative help – the tools of life quality improvement of the patient suffering from the dangerous, incurable and progressing disease and his relatives. These tools prevent from torment and palliate them, help to solve other physical, psychosocial and spiritual problems. This topic is particularly relevant to prove that the disease and old age do not destroy the person and therefore it is not allowed to kill him, that not everything that is legal may be moral at the same time, that by regulating the health system it is not allowed to lose the main purpose: to treat a person not to kill him. Research problem – the relevance of legislation protecting human life by encouraging the palliative help with regulating legislation to strengthen the respect to human life and dignified death and by repulsing the spread of euthanasia into the Lithuanian law and health system with the principles of palliative help. Research object – legal regulation of palliative help. Research aim – to analyze the legislation regulating palliative help, to analyze the legislation of the countries that have legalized euthanasia, to submit the main principles and objectives of palliative medicine as contradicting to the principle of stubborn untreatment which becomes an alternative to euthanasia. The thesis aims to reveal the reasons for choosing euthanasia by providing an alternative – palliative help. The right of dieing person to get a full treatment meeting his dignity and the dignified death is an integral field of legal regulation about this medical activity. Objectives of the thesis: 1. To analyze the suicide with the help of a doctor and the legal regulation of euthanasia as well as legal and moral boundaries of evaluation by separating active and passive euthanasia and highlighting the difference of stubborn untreatment. 2. To define the concept, principles and objectives of palliative help by analyzing the legislation regulating the palliative help. 3. To present the palliative help implementing and complying with them in Lithuania and Europe as fundamental legal principles. 4. To analyze the principles of palliative help as an alternative to euthanasia, the organization of palliative help in regulating legislation. Over twenty years of independence Lithuania that was able to radically change its health system by changing the human conscious, letting in itself more and more freedom has to take proper responsibility for its society and each member particularly that who lost his health, reached an old age and is dieing. When the society is rapidly getting older, the oncological diseases are spreading and changing the perception that health is much more than the absence of the disease, the topic of palliative help is relevant than ever before because it is an alternative to euthanasia.

The western countries often considered as those, which had achieved high cultural level and that are the announcers of liberalism and freedom, have legitimized euthanasia with national law by allowing killing a person for a disease or old age. In Lithuania as in the majority of countries of the Old Continent, the decreasing rate of birth, the obsolescent society and its changing attitude towards life, old age and pain force a liberal society to discuss about various forms of death and particularly euthanasia. As the life pace is running in a breathtaking speed causing many human traumas, which often make a person disabled; the diseases that still remain incurable force us to pay attention to the weak people who need help by providing them not with death but life. In this case the palliative help as an alternative to euthanasia stands for the weak. The problem of the topic rises from the intentions to legalize euthanasia, to prove "the right to die"in the court without submitting any other solutions to such a position. When spreading such the posture covered by mercy, the alternative is found in palliative help and care. Lithuania is the last country in Europe, which legalized palliative help – the tools of life quality improvement of the patient suffering from the dangerous, incurable and progressing disease and his relatives. These tools prevent from torment and palliate them, help to solve other physical, psychosocial and spiritual problems. This topic is particularly relevant to prove that the disease and old age do not destroy the person and therefore it is not allowed to kill him, that not everything that is legal may be moral at the same time, that by regulating the health system it is not allowed to lose the main purpose: to treat a person not to kill him. Research problem – the relevance of legislation protecting human life by encouraging the palliative help with regulating legislation to strengthen the respect to human life and dignified death and by repulsing the spread of euthanasia into the Lithuanian law and health system with the principles of palliative help. Research object – legal regulation of palliative help. Research aim – to analyze the legislation regulating palliative help, to analyze the legislation of the countries that have legalized euthanasia, to submit the main principles and objectives of palliative medicine as contradicting to the principle of stubborn untreatment which becomes an alternative to euthanasia. The thesis aims to reveal the reasons for choosing euthanasia by providing an alternative – palliative help. The right of dieing person to get a full treatment meeting his dignity and the dignified death is an integral field of legal regulation about this medical activity. Objectives of the thesis: 1. To analyze the suicide with the help of a doctor and the legal regulation of euthanasia as well as legal and moral boundaries of evaluation by separating active and passive euthanasia and highlighting the difference of stubborn untreatment. 2. To define the concept, principles and objectives of palliative help by analyzing the legislation regulating the palliative help. 3. To present the palliative help implementing and complying with them in Lithuania and Europe as fundamental legal principles. 4. To analyze the principles of palliative help as an alternative to euthanasia, the organization of palliative help in regulating legislation. Over twenty years of independence Lithuania that was able to radically change its health system by changing the human conscious, letting in itself more and more freedom has to take proper responsibility for its society and each member particularly that who lost his health, reached an old age and is dieing. When the society is rapidly getting older, the oncological diseases are spreading and changing the perception that health is much more than the absence of the disease, the topic of palliative help is relevant than ever before because it is an alternative to euthanasia.

Хронологические рамки статьи ограничены периодом существования Западно-Сибирского учебного округа с 1885 г. до установления Советской власти в Сибири; географические границами Тобольской и Томской губерний, Акмолинской и Семипалатинской областей. Статья посвящена проблемам развития начального образования в регионе в связи с планами введения всеобщего начального обучения. Работа написана на основе изученных документов Российского государственного исторического архива и Государственного архива Томской области, опубликованных нормативных, информационных и статистических документов XIXначала XX в., исторической литературы. ; Chronological frames of the article are limited by the period of existence of Western and Sibirian educational district since 1885 till Soviet power establishment in Sibiria; geographical frames are limited by the boundaries of Tobolsk and Tomsk provinces, Akmolinskaya and Semipolatinskaya regions. The article is devoted to the problems of development of elementary education in the region in connection with the plan of introduction of general elementary education. Elementary education in pre-revolutionary Russia consisted of two stages, they were elementary of 3-4 years of study and upper elementary of 5-7 years of study. One-form elementary schools of the Ministry of Public Education and the schools of other institutions, that corresponded the level of the basic educational programs, belonged to elementary educational institutions. Rural two-form elementary and municipal schools belonged to elementary schools of upper level according to the Statute of May 31, 1872. They were renamed as upper elementary schools in 1912. The development of education in Western and Siberian educational district had a series of peculiarities. Firstly, in the region the local territorial self-administration was not established, in particular in the central part of the empire district councils were occupied with building of schools and providing children of school age with general education. During the period of Stolypin's reforms Sibiria became the place of massive peasant migration from western and central parts of Russia. Significant migrational processes prevented the establishment of integrated school network, made difficult the opportunity to predict the population and children of school age in some regions. The territory of educational district differed its low density of population. The question of finantial practicability of opening of state schools arose. Multicultural population needed the development of education regarding cultural needs and opprtunities of the region. By 1885 in Western and Siberian educational district there were only 666 elementary schools; by 1909 their amount became two times bigger. In 1907-1908 the government and the State Duma discussed the bill of introduction of general elementary education in the extent of elementary school. In the Russian Empire this project didn't become law, but since 1908 additional finances were given for the needs of elementary education. In Western Siberia as well as in Russia as a whole the plans of elementary schools extension were thought of. It was done due to the initiative of the locals since 1909, then due to the financial support of MNE since 1912. During 8 years the number of elementary schools in the district increased in 2.2 times, particularly due to the additional finances for schools in in-migrant regions. A very important role in the process of literacy extension was played by schools of Orthodox Department. In 1911 it was possible to provide all 8-11-year-old children with elementary education in some towns of Western Siberia due to the joint efforts of different departments. The First World War and the revolution put some changes into the peace plans of the country. According to the data of 1918 in Western Siberia about 35 % of school age children were taught in elementary schools of all types. In Tobolsk province there were 113 literate persons among 1000 citizens, in Tomsk province 104, in Akmolinskaya region 99, in Semipolatinskaya region 43. In October, 1918 "The Statute about General Labour School of the RSFSR" was adopted; and only in August, 1930 the resolution "About General Compulsory Elementary Education" for 8-15-year-old children in the extent of 4-year-course of elementary school was taken.

Over the past few decades, changes in market conditions such as globalisation and deregulation of financial markets as well as product innovation and technical advancements have induced financial institutions to expand their business activities beyond their traditional boundaries and to engage in cross-sectoral operations. As combining different sectoral businesses offers opportunities for operational synergies and diversification benefits, financial groups comprising banks, insurance undertakings and/or investment firms, usually referred to as financial conglomerates, have rapidly emerged, providing a wide range of services and products in distinct financial sectors and oftentimes in different geographic locations. In the European Union (EU), financial conglomerates have become part of the biggest and most active financial market participants in recent years. Financial conglomerates generally pose new problems for financial authorities as they can raise new risks and exacerbate existing ones. In particular, their cross-sectoral business activities can involve prudentially substantial risks such as the risk of regulatory arbitrage and contagion risk arising from intra-group transactions. Moreover, the generally large size of financial conglomerates as well as the high complexity and interconnectedness of their corporate structures and risk exposures can entail substantial systemic risk and can therefore threaten the stability of the financial system as a whole. Until a few years ago, there was no supervisory framework in place which addressed a financial conglomerate in its entirety as a group. Instead, each group entity within a financial conglomerate was subject to the supervisory rules of its pertinent sector only. Such silo supervisory approach had the drawback of not taking account of risks which arise or aggravate at the group level. It also failed to consider how the risks from different business lines within the group interrelate with each other and affect the group as a whole. In order to address this lack of group-wide prudential supervision of financial conglomerates, the European legislator adopted the Financial Conglomerates Directive 2002/87/EC8 ('FCD') on 16 December 2002. The FCD was transposed into national law in the member states of the EU ('Member States') by 11 August 2004 for application to financial years beginning on 1 January 2005 and after. The FCD primarily aims at supplementing the existing sectoral directives to address the additional risks of concentration, contagion and complexity presented by financial conglomerates. It therefore provides for a supervisory framework which is applicable in addition to the sectoral supervision. Most importantly, the FCD has introduced additional capital requirements at the conglomerate level so as to prevent the multiple use of the same capital by different group entities. This paper seeks to examine to what extent the FCD provides for an adequate capital regulation of financial conglomerates in the EU while taking into account the underlying sectoral capital requirements and the inherent risks associated with financial conglomerates. In Part 1, the definition and the basic corporate models of financial conglomerates will be presented (I), followed by an illustration of the core motives behind the phenomenon of financial conglomeration (II) and an overview of the development of the supervision over financial conglomerates in the EU (III). Part 2 begins with a brief elaboration on the role of regulatory capital (I) and gives a general overview of the EU capital requirements applicable to banks and insurance undertakings respectively. A delineation of the commonalities and differences of the banking and the insurance capital requirements will be provided (II). It continues to further examine the need for a group-wide capital regulation of financial conglomerates and analyses the adequacy of the FCD capital requirements. In this context, the technical advice rendered by the Joint Committee on Financial Conglomerates (JCFC) as well as the currently ongoing legislative reforms at the EU level will be discussed (III). The paper finally closes with a conclusion and an outlook on remaining open issues (IV).

The paper attempts to prove that the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) due to the absence of mutual agreement between its permanent members and frequent usage of veto right, sanctions the usage of preventive self-defence notably rarely. The problem then occurs: because of the ineffectiveness of the UNSC in sanctioning the usage of preventive self-defence, the states implement the preventive self-defence by themselves, in this way violating one of the main international law principles – refraining from threatening or using force principle. This situation encouraged some big states (permanent members of the UNSC) to foresee the possibility to use unilateral preventive self-defence in their military doctrines in this way ignoring international law. The current situation requires dealing with this issue either legalizing the usage of preventive self-defence or searching for the ways how to force the UNSC to implement its primary task – to maintain international peace and security. The goal of the paper – to reveal the issues of the states' usage of preventive self-defence emphasizing the Middle East region. The following objectives have been formulated for achieving the goal: 1. To discuss the concept of refraining from threatening or using force principle, the consolidation of this principle in contemporary law as well as analysis of exceptions. 2. To analyze the types of states' self-defence and find Lithuanian equivalents to English terms of states' self-defence types: preemptive and preventive self-defence. 3. To analyze the demand and opportunities to legalize the unilateral usage of states' preventive self-defence. 4. To analyze the potential usage of preventive self-defence towards Iran. The object of this paper – the usage of the states' preventive self-defence. While determining the research boundaries, the object of the research has been stated - the possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran. The following issues have been addressed in the paper – should the right to use preventive self-defence be stated in the international law even in the case if UNSC would not sanction the usage of preventive military measures? The answer to the question is negative. It is feared that the legalizing of preventive self-defence could have irrecoverable consequences because each state would use preventive self-defence at own discretion and all this would not contribute to the UN efforts to ensure peace and security in the world. It is recommended to deal with the current situation not by legalizing preventive self-defence but by increasing the UNSC efficiency in analyzing and sanctioning the usage of preventive force. Three institutional models that enable to increase the efficiency of the UNSC directly and indirectly while dealing with the usage of preventive force issues and sanctioning it are analyzed in the paper. The possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran was analyzed during the survey. It was assessed whether there were assumptions for Israel to attack Iran and if Israel will eventually attack Iran despite the fact that this kind of attack would be unlawful according to the international law. The historical comparative method was used while answering the question. The bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor by the Israeli Air Force in 1981 was analyzed and Iraq's nuclear programme assessed. The author claims that all assumptions for Israel to attack Iran do exist – Israel suspects that Iran is making nuclear weapon and that it will be used against Israel. At present Israel is deterred from attacking only because of the USA position and the absence of the precise data regarding Iran nuclear objects. In the course of the time the USA position can change and the data (reasoned or not) regarding Iran nuclear objects' location can occur. If it happens, in this case it is possible that Israel will decide to attack Iran.

The paper attempts to prove that the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) due to the absence of mutual agreement between its permanent members and frequent usage of veto right, sanctions the usage of preventive self-defence notably rarely. The problem then occurs: because of the ineffectiveness of the UNSC in sanctioning the usage of preventive self-defence, the states implement the preventive self-defence by themselves, in this way violating one of the main international law principles – refraining from threatening or using force principle. This situation encouraged some big states (permanent members of the UNSC) to foresee the possibility to use unilateral preventive self-defence in their military doctrines in this way ignoring international law. The current situation requires dealing with this issue either legalizing the usage of preventive self-defence or searching for the ways how to force the UNSC to implement its primary task – to maintain international peace and security. The goal of the paper – to reveal the issues of the states' usage of preventive self-defence emphasizing the Middle East region. The following objectives have been formulated for achieving the goal: 1. To discuss the concept of refraining from threatening or using force principle, the consolidation of this principle in contemporary law as well as analysis of exceptions. 2. To analyze the types of states' self-defence and find Lithuanian equivalents to English terms of states' self-defence types: preemptive and preventive self-defence. 3. To analyze the demand and opportunities to legalize the unilateral usage of states' preventive self-defence. 4. To analyze the potential usage of preventive self-defence towards Iran. The object of this paper – the usage of the states' preventive self-defence. While determining the research boundaries, the object of the research has been stated - the possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran. The following issues have been addressed in the paper – should the right to use preventive self-defence be stated in the international law even in the case if UNSC would not sanction the usage of preventive military measures? The answer to the question is negative. It is feared that the legalizing of preventive self-defence could have irrecoverable consequences because each state would use preventive self-defence at own discretion and all this would not contribute to the UN efforts to ensure peace and security in the world. It is recommended to deal with the current situation not by legalizing preventive self-defence but by increasing the UNSC efficiency in analyzing and sanctioning the usage of preventive force. Three institutional models that enable to increase the efficiency of the UNSC directly and indirectly while dealing with the usage of preventive force issues and sanctioning it are analyzed in the paper. The possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran was analyzed during the survey. It was assessed whether there were assumptions for Israel to attack Iran and if Israel will eventually attack Iran despite the fact that this kind of attack would be unlawful according to the international law. The historical comparative method was used while answering the question. The bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor by the Israeli Air Force in 1981 was analyzed and Iraq's nuclear programme assessed. The author claims that all assumptions for Israel to attack Iran do exist – Israel suspects that Iran is making nuclear weapon and that it will be used against Israel. At present Israel is deterred from attacking only because of the USA position and the absence of the precise data regarding Iran nuclear objects. In the course of the time the USA position can change and the data (reasoned or not) regarding Iran nuclear objects' location can occur. If it happens, in this case it is possible that Israel will decide to attack Iran.

The paper attempts to prove that the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) due to the absence of mutual agreement between its permanent members and frequent usage of veto right, sanctions the usage of preventive self-defence notably rarely. The problem then occurs: because of the ineffectiveness of the UNSC in sanctioning the usage of preventive self-defence, the states implement the preventive self-defence by themselves, in this way violating one of the main international law principles – refraining from threatening or using force principle. This situation encouraged some big states (permanent members of the UNSC) to foresee the possibility to use unilateral preventive self-defence in their military doctrines in this way ignoring international law. The current situation requires dealing with this issue either legalizing the usage of preventive self-defence or searching for the ways how to force the UNSC to implement its primary task – to maintain international peace and security. The goal of the paper – to reveal the issues of the states' usage of preventive self-defence emphasizing the Middle East region. The following objectives have been formulated for achieving the goal: 1. To discuss the concept of refraining from threatening or using force principle, the consolidation of this principle in contemporary law as well as analysis of exceptions. 2. To analyze the types of states' self-defence and find Lithuanian equivalents to English terms of states' self-defence types: preemptive and preventive self-defence. 3. To analyze the demand and opportunities to legalize the unilateral usage of states' preventive self-defence. 4. To analyze the potential usage of preventive self-defence towards Iran. The object of this paper – the usage of the states' preventive self-defence. While determining the research boundaries, the object of the research has been stated - the possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran. The following issues have been addressed in the paper – should the right to use preventive self-defence be stated in the international law even in the case if UNSC would not sanction the usage of preventive military measures? The answer to the question is negative. It is feared that the legalizing of preventive self-defence could have irrecoverable consequences because each state would use preventive self-defence at own discretion and all this would not contribute to the UN efforts to ensure peace and security in the world. It is recommended to deal with the current situation not by legalizing preventive self-defence but by increasing the UNSC efficiency in analyzing and sanctioning the usage of preventive force. Three institutional models that enable to increase the efficiency of the UNSC directly and indirectly while dealing with the usage of preventive force issues and sanctioning it are analyzed in the paper. The possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran was analyzed during the survey. It was assessed whether there were assumptions for Israel to attack Iran and if Israel will eventually attack Iran despite the fact that this kind of attack would be unlawful according to the international law. The historical comparative method was used while answering the question. The bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor by the Israeli Air Force in 1981 was analyzed and Iraq's nuclear programme assessed. The author claims that all assumptions for Israel to attack Iran do exist – Israel suspects that Iran is making nuclear weapon and that it will be used against Israel. At present Israel is deterred from attacking only because of the USA position and the absence of the precise data regarding Iran nuclear objects. In the course of the time the USA position can change and the data (reasoned or not) regarding Iran nuclear objects' location can occur. If it happens, in this case it is possible that Israel will decide to attack Iran.

ÖZETGüney Kafkasya Ülkeleri,,Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği İlişkilerinin Analizi adını taşıyan bu tez sizlere konumuzun merkezindeki aktörlerin birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerinin boyutları hakkında siyasi, ekonomik, tarihsel ve sosyo-kültürel referanslar vererek, detaylı bir bakış açısı sunacaktır.Sovyetler sonrası bağımsızlığına kavuşan yeni ülkelerin ortaya çıkması, küresel ve bölgesel güçler için aynı anda hem yeni fırsatlar, hem de yeni problemler ortaya çıkarmıştır.Küçük sayılabilecek bir alana sahip olmasına rağmen, Güney Kafkasya önemli bir jeostratejik bölge olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Avrupa, Orta Asya, Anadolu ve Orta Doğu'nun yol ayrımlarının ortasında yer almakta olan bölgede Kafkas dağları doğal bir sınır çizmekte ve bölge önemli derecede enerji kaynaklarını barındırmaktadır. Güney Kafkasya'nın bu jeostratejik konumu bölgesel etnik yapının karmaşık olmasına ve birbirinden farklı kimliklerin oluşmasına yol açmıştır. Bununla birlikte, Sovyetler sonrasındaki yaklaşık yirmi senelik zaman sürecinde bölgesel işbirliği gerçekleşemediğinden tam olarak istikrar sağlanamamıştır. Azerbaycan, Gürcistan ve Ermenistan bölgesel ülkeleri oluşturmalarına rağmen, çeşitli etnik gruplar kendi etnik kimlikleri aracılığıyla siyasi olarak aktivize olmuştur. Bunda merkezi ulus-devlet kimliklerinin yıpranması, kötü ekonomik altyapı, Sovyet döneminin idari yapılanması ve bölge dışı aktörlerin politikaları etkili olmuştur.Temel olarak çözülemeyen etnik sorunlar, eskimiş ve zayıf bir planlı ekonominin yeniden yapılanma/reforme edilme ihtiyacı, ideolojik boşluğun getirdiği kimlik sorunsalı, doğal kaynakların getirdiği zenginliğin paylaşılması mücadeleleri ve bölgesel işbirliğinin eksiklikleri olarak ele alınabilir. Kaçınılmaz olarak, Güney Kafkasya ülkeleri sadece komşu ülkeler olan Türkiye, Rusya ve İran'ı değil, aynı zamanda bölge dışı ülkeler olan ABD ve kendine özgü bir oluşum olan Avrupa Birliği'nin çıkarlarını da etkilemiştir.Sonuç olarak, içiçe girmiş ilişkilerin ve problemlerin olduğu bir tablo önümüzde durmaktadır. Bu çalışma Türkiye, Avrupa Birliği ve Güney Kafkasya ülkelerinin birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerinin siyasi, ekonomik, kültürel ve tarihi boyutlarına ışık tutacaktır. Bu bağlamda, bu aktörlerin politikalarının birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerini ne derecede etkilediği sorusuna bir yanıt aranacaktır.SUMMARYThis thesis titled as Analysis of Relations Between the Southern Caucasus States, Turkey, EU provides a detailed perspective on the dimension of relations between the parties with significant political, economic, historical and socio-cultural references.Emergence of newly independent states from the Soviet Union has simultaneously created new opportunities and challenges for the global and regional powers around the world. Despite her relatively small size, Southern Caucasus stands as one of the most important geostrategic regions because of being located on the crossroads between Europe, Central Asia, Anatolia and the Middle East, demarcated with natural boundaries drawn by Caucasus mountains and absorbing significant energy reserves. This geostrategic location of the Southern Caucasus also affected the regional mixed ethnic make-up and retaining of specific diverse identities in the region. Nevertheless, the twenty year old history of the post-Soviet period has not shown a well-maintained stability supported by regional cooperation. Even though, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia comprise the regional nation states, several sub-ethnic groups has been politically mobilized on ethnical basis due to erosion of central nation-state identities, poor economic infrastructure, legacy of Soviet-era administrative policies and affiliations with extraregional groups.Those challenges can be briefly summarized as unresolved ethnic conflicts, reforming an outdated and fragile planned economy, identity crisis arising from the ideological vacuum, struggle over the distribution of wealth through regional resources, lack of regional cooperation. It is inevitable that potential of the Southern Caucasus has not only affected the interests of neighbouring powers Turkey, Russia and Iran, but also extraregional actors like the USA and the unique entity of the EU. In this sense, we have a complex picture with interconnected relations and problems between the parties. This study will shed a light on the relations between Turkey, the EU and the Southern Caucasus states with a focus on significant political, economic, cultural and historical dimensions. In this sense, an answer is going to be sought to the question of to what extent these actors' policies influence their relations with each other.

The paper attempts to prove that the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) due to the absence of mutual agreement between its permanent members and frequent usage of veto right, sanctions the usage of preventive self-defence notably rarely. The problem then occurs: because of the ineffectiveness of the UNSC in sanctioning the usage of preventive self-defence, the states implement the preventive self-defence by themselves, in this way violating one of the main international law principles – refraining from threatening or using force principle. This situation encouraged some big states (permanent members of the UNSC) to foresee the possibility to use unilateral preventive self-defence in their military doctrines in this way ignoring international law. The current situation requires dealing with this issue either legalizing the usage of preventive self-defence or searching for the ways how to force the UNSC to implement its primary task – to maintain international peace and security. The goal of the paper – to reveal the issues of the states' usage of preventive self-defence emphasizing the Middle East region. The following objectives have been formulated for achieving the goal: 1. To discuss the concept of refraining from threatening or using force principle, the consolidation of this principle in contemporary law as well as analysis of exceptions. 2. To analyze the types of states' self-defence and find Lithuanian equivalents to English terms of states' self-defence types: preemptive and preventive self-defence. 3. To analyze the demand and opportunities to legalize the unilateral usage of states' preventive self-defence. 4. To analyze the potential usage of preventive self-defence towards Iran. The object of this paper – the usage of the states' preventive self-defence. While determining the research boundaries, the object of the research has been stated - the possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran. The following issues have been addressed in the paper – should the right to use preventive self-defence be stated in the international law even in the case if UNSC would not sanction the usage of preventive military measures? The answer to the question is negative. It is feared that the legalizing of preventive self-defence could have irrecoverable consequences because each state would use preventive self-defence at own discretion and all this would not contribute to the UN efforts to ensure peace and security in the world. It is recommended to deal with the current situation not by legalizing preventive self-defence but by increasing the UNSC efficiency in analyzing and sanctioning the usage of preventive force. Three institutional models that enable to increase the efficiency of the UNSC directly and indirectly while dealing with the usage of preventive force issues and sanctioning it are analyzed in the paper. The possible usage of Israel's preventive self-defence towards Iran was analyzed during the survey. It was assessed whether there were assumptions for Israel to attack Iran and if Israel will eventually attack Iran despite the fact that this kind of attack would be unlawful according to the international law. The historical comparative method was used while answering the question. The bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor by the Israeli Air Force in 1981 was analyzed and Iraq's nuclear programme assessed. The author claims that all assumptions for Israel to attack Iran do exist – Israel suspects that Iran is making nuclear weapon and that it will be used against Israel. At present Israel is deterred from attacking only because of the USA position and the absence of the precise data regarding Iran nuclear objects. In the course of the time the USA position can change and the data (reasoned or not) regarding Iran nuclear objects' location can occur. If it happens, in this case it is possible that Israel will decide to attack Iran.