Suchergebnisse

La actividad empresarial afecta al medio ambiente tanto por el consumo de materiales y energías como por la generación de residuos y emisiones contaminantes, y este hecho da lugar a unos costes medioambientales que son soportados por las empresas (Gibson & Martin, 2004). En los últimos años, la literatura de gestión medioambiental ha realizado importantes contribuciones que denotan el potencial que puede tener una gestión medioambiental avanzada en la generación de capacidades organizacionales valiosas en relación a la reducción de costes empresariales (Hart, 1995; Hart & Ahuja, 1996; Nehrt, 1998; Christmann, 2000; Darnall & Edwards, 2006). Por tanto, dada la creciente importancia de los costes medioambientales tanto en el ámbito académico como en la vida práctica empresarial, cabe la posibilidad de que las empresas que se anticipan a la aparición de este tipo de costes persigan estrategias medioambientales proactivas (Aragón-Correa, 1998). En consecuencia, los principales objetivos de este trabajo son dos. En primer lugar, explicar en qué consisten este tipo de costes y, en segundo lugar, mostrar la relación existente entre el grado de atención o interés prestado por parte tanto de las instituciones públicas como de los directivos a determinados costes medioambientales y la existencia de un patrón de comportamiento empresarial de estrategia medioambiental proactiva. Para ello, el presente estudio ha realizado una revisión teórica sobre los distintos costes medioambientales a los que se enfrentan las organizaciones en la actualidad y se ha efectuado una tipología de los mismos. Tras esta revisión, se ha considerado cómo afrontan las instituciones y las empresas dicha temática mediante un estudio del caso en el sector del transporte de mercancías por carretera. Las principales conclusiones que se pueden destacar del análisis efectuado son dos. En primer lugar, cuanto mayor es la importancia otorgada por parte de las instituciones públicas y los directivos a los costes medioambientales, mayores son los indicios de proactividad medioambiental en sus estrategias. En segundo lugar, y centrando la atención en la industria transportista, los resultados indican que los temas medioambientales en el sector objeto de estudio quedan relegados a una prioridad secundaria en el ámbito institucional y, por este motivo, las empresas van enfrentándose a los mismos según los requerimientos legislativos. Combinando ambas conclusiones se obtiene que dado el escaso interés que suscita el hecho de anticiparse a los costes medioambientales por parte de los organismos competentes y las empresas, dicho sector actúa bajo un patrón de comportamiento medioambiental reactivo. ; The Environment is affected by business activity through the consumption of materials and utilities and the generation of wastes and emissions; this fact represents significant costs that have to be paid by companies (Gibson & Martin, 2004). In the last decade, prior literature related to environmental management have made important contributions which noted the potential that advanced environmental management might have in the generation of valuable organizational capabilities regarding costs minimization (Hart, 1995; Hart & Ahuja, 1996; Nehrt, 1998; Christmann, 2000; Darnall & Edwards, 2006). As a consequence of the increasing importance of environmental costs in the academic literature and business practice, those organizations which are interested in anticipating this type of costs pursue proactive environmental strategies (Aragón-Correa, 1998). Thus, two are the main aims of this paper. Firstly, to indicate what environmental costs are and, second, to highlight the relationship between the degree of concern about this type of costs by both public authorities and managers and the existence of a behavioural pattern due to proactive environmental strategy. With these purposes, the current study presents a theoretical review about different environmental costs and, as a result, a classification of them. After this, it was considered how public authorities and organizations face environmental costs through a case study in the industry of road transport of products. The main conclusions of the current paper are two. Firstly, the more importance the environmental costs have to public authorities and managers, the more proactive the environmental strategy is. Second, and more focused in the transport sector, our findings showed that environmental issues in this industry are relegated to a secondary priority by public authorities and, as a result, organizations face environmental issues according to legal requirements. Combining prior conclusions, due to the undersized interest showed about environmental costs by public authorities and managers, the road transport sector acts under a reactive environmental pattern.

Після історичного огляду розвитку популяцій дичини в Центральній Європі, проаналізовано полювання з моменту революцій 1789 і 1848-1849 рр. і винищення хижаків. Популяція сарни європейської збільшується стабільно, незважаючи на зростання поселень, великомасштабність сільського господарства і високу інтенсивність рекреації. Цьому сприяє також покращення кормової бази і можливостей укриття внаслідок ведення лісового господарства за системою наближеного до природи, утворення світлових вікон та підвищення евтрофікації. Статистика полювання свідчить, що, незважаючи на юридичний мандат та збалансоване управління популяцією сарни, позитивного ефекту не вдалося досягнути й досі. Пошкодження, завдані селективним обкушуванням сарнами природного поновлення та обдиранням кори рогами, ставлять під загрозу біорізноманіття, особливо в умовах зміни клімату. Завдані збитки повинні відшкодовувати мисливці. Головні лісотвірні породи повинні відтворюватися у мисливських угіддях без додаткового захисту. Нові дослідження із лісової біології не визнаються повсюдно. Щорічні наради Асоціації лісівників наближеного до природи лісового господарства (ANW) і "ProSilva Europa" підтвердили в Німеччині і сусідніх країнах переконливо високу щільність популяції дичини та проблему пошкодження природного поновлення. У гірських лісах Альп це питання має ще більшу актуальність через небезпеку сходу лавин. Мисливське і лісове господарство повинні гармоніювати в непередбачуваних умовах зміни клімату для сталого розвитку регіону. ; After a historical retrospect of the development of the wild populations in Central Europe, which goes back into the geological age of the Oligocene Miocene, the latest hunting developments since the revolutions of 1789 and 1848/49 and the extermination of the predators are discussed. The roe deer as a distinctive cultural success increases steadily despite increasing population, large-scale agriculture and high leisure use. In addition to this, permanent forest management, light-filled forest cover and nitrogen nutrition are also contributing to this through the improvement of cover. Hunting statistics show that, despite a legal mandate, the sustainable management of deer can not be achieved on a large scale. Wild fauna of the selected roe deer on the young forestry plants by biting and sweeping seriously endangers the biodiversity, which is especially important with regard to climate change. In addition, these damages are to be replaced by the huntsman. The major tree species occurring in the hunting ground and defined in each case must be able to survive without protection. Recent wild-biologic findings are not widely recognized. Huntful relief from the legislature defused the situation only insignificantly. From the current point of view, the unreliable reef count as a basis for the shooting plan was replaced by the forestry report with the revival-related current condition. This was followed by a three-year plan to compensate for weather-related effects within this period. As a further step, the hunting periods were extended; both advanced to the 1st of May and for roe deer extended until 31 January. On the hunts it can be hunted much more effectively. However, the roebuck in the deserted state is rejected by many hunters. Annual meetings of the Association of Natural Forestry (ANW) and ProSilva Europa strongly confirm the excessively high wilds with their damage problem in Germany and its neighboring countries. In the Alpine region, the demarcation of the forest rejuvenation caused by wild conditions is particularly precarious due to the fact that the avalanche protection is not used. The conclusion is that hunting and forestry should be in harmony with unpredictable climate change for sustainable development of the region. ; После исторического обзора развития популяций диких животных в Центральной Европе, проанализирована охота с момента революций 1789 и 1848-1849 г. и истребление хищников. Популяция европейской косули увеличивается стабильно, несмотря на рост поселений, крупномасштабность сельского хозяйства и высокую интенсивность рекреации. Этому способствует также улучшение кормовой базы и возможностей укрытия в результате ведения лесного хозяйства по системе приближенного к природе, образование световых окон и повышение эвтрофикации. Статистика охоты показывает, что, несмотря на юридический мандат и сбалансированное управление популяцией косули, положительного эффекта не удалось достичь до сих пор. Повреждения, нанесенные селективным обкусыванием косулей естественного возобновления и обдиркой коры рогами, ставят под угрозу биоразнообразие, особенно в условиях изменения климата. Нанесенный ущерб должен возмещаться охотниками. Главные лесообразующие породы должны воспроизводиться в охотничьих угодьях без дополнительной защиты. Новые исследования по лесной биологии не признаются повсеместно. Ежегодные совещания Ассоциации лесоводов приближенного к природе лесного хозяйства (ANW) и "ProSilva Europa" подтвердили в Германии и соседних странах убедительно высокую плотность популяции дичи и проблему повреждения естественного возобновления. В горных лесах Альп этот вопрос имеет еще большую актуальность из-за опасности схода лавин. Охотничье и лесное хозяйство должны гармонировать в непредсказуемых условиях изменения климата для устойчивого развития региона.

The national parks in the Carpathian Mountains along the Polish and Slovak border represent encompassing policy agendas that strive to balance biodiversity conservation and social welfare tasks. These countries have, during the last 25 years, undergone rapid transformation from socialist regimes to liberal democracies, and this transformation has affected the political, social and economic spheres. The accession to the European Union (EU) introduced demands for further changes, such as closer integration of conservation and socioeconomic development and inclusive, transparent and accountable decision-making that are based on participatory mechanisms. This thesis explores key challenges and opportunities for nature conservation policy and practice at the local level in a context of post-socialist legacies and Europeanization. Multi-level governance, Europeanization, and post-socialist studies are used as theoretical vehicles for the analysis of four transboundary national parks: Pieninsky national parks (NP) in both Poland and Slovakia and Bieszczady NP [Poland] and Poloniny NP [Slovakia]. The results of this study show that the early designation of the studied parks as protected areas prevented their exploitation and enabled preservation of important landscapes, which currently are highly valued at the European level. These nature conservation regimes have created tangible restrictions on the possible economic uses of these areas. However, rural development alternatives depend on a broader set of local, national and global factors such as the structure of the local economy and employment, the prioritization of nature conservation in national policies, investors' interest, and increasing urbanization. Europeanization provided opportunities for local actors to benefit from additional funding made available for nature conservation and rural development. At the same time, demands for participatory decision-making posed significant procedural and conceptual challenges to achieving transparent, inclusive and accountable governance. The prevalence of informal practices in local policy-making and the lack of trust in state authorities pose further challenges to formal participatory processes. The opportunities of local actors to reach out across levels to express their interests remain scarce and are not institutionalized, whereas the multi-level characteristics of modern governance indirectly shape local processes by defining common legal and policy frameworks. ; Förvaltningen av nationalparkerna in vid gränsen mellan Polen och Slovakien i Karpaterna är framför allt inriktad mot att uppnå balans mellan bevarande av biologisk mångfald och social välfärd. Polen och Slovakien har under de senaste 25 åren genomgått en snabb förändring från socialistiska regimer till liberala demokratier, vilket har inneburit genomgripande politiska, sociala och ekonomiska förändringar. Medlemskapet i EU innebar ytterligare förändringar, som till exempel integrering av naturvårdsarbete och socioekonomisk utveckling, liksom främjande av inkluderande, transparent och deltagarinriktat beslutsfattande. Därmed bygger den moderna beslutsprocessen inte längre på den tidigare hierarkiska strukturen, utan har nu fått en aningen diffus karaktär, innefattande mängd olika aktörer som interagerar i såväl horisontella som vertikala beslutsprocesser. I denna avhandling utforskas nyckelutmaningar och möjligheter för beslutsfattande och implementering av naturvårdsarbete på lokal nivå, relaterade till de post-socialistiska arven och medlemskapet i EU. Multi-level governance (politiskt beslutsfattande på flera nivåer), Europeanization (europeisering) och post-socialistiska studier används som teoretiska verktyg för analysen av fyra gränsöverskridande nationalparker: Pieninsky, som innefattar såväl polska som slovakiska områden, Bieszczady (Polen) och Poloniny (Slovakien). Studien visar att det tidiga inrättandet av naturskydd i nationalparkerna hindrade exploatering och möjliggjorde bevarandet av värdefulla naturområden, vilka idag är högt värderade utifrån ett europeiskt perspektiv. Reglerna för detta naturskydd har dock skapat begränsningar för hur områdena kan användas för, till exempel, agrara verksamheter och turism. De mer övergripande landsbygdsutvecklingsmöjligheterna beror av lokala, nationella och globala faktorer som exempelvis den lokala ekonomins struktur, tillgång på arbetstillfällen, hur naturskydd prioriteras i nationellt beslutsfattande, intresse för investeringar i området och urbaniseringsprocesser. Medlemskapet i EU har medfört utökade möjligheter för finansiering av naturskydd och landsbygdsutveckling. Samtidigt har medlemskapet för dessa länder lett till ökade förväntningar på politiskt deltagande och nya utmaningar vad gäller transparens i beslutsfattande och inkluderande beslutsprocesser. Vidare har informella beslutsvägar i lokalt beslutsfattande och lågt förtroende för statliga myndigheter lett till ytterligare utmaningar i deltagandeprocesser. Möjligheter för lokala aktörer att kunna kommunicera och påverka beslut på högre nivåer har förblivit begränsade och är ännu inte tydligt institutionaliserade, samtidigt som det moderna, interaktiva beslutsfattandet på flera nivåer indirekt formar lokala processer genom att definiera legala och politiska ramverk inom vilka förvaltningsbeslut fattas.

There is a growing incapacity to understand the major institutional principle that made the research university into such a revolutionary success, firstly in Prussia and in Germany, later in the United States: academic freedom. Far from being a simple formula to be carried out without afterthought, academic freedom is a value, a practical instrument and a legal principle that has to be understood in relation to creativity. In this article, academic freedom and its importance for creativity in research (and teaching) is analyzed from three fundamental vantage points, firstly in terms of what academic freedom is, secondly how it works in practice and thirdly by looking at why academic freedom is so crucial to creativity. It concludes by reflecting on why it is that while the research universities that have worked under the principles of academic freedom have been extremely successful, those who today develop research policies and even university leaders are striving to dismantle the one precondition that makes all the difference, namely academic freedom. ; ISSN 2309-1606. Філософія освіти. 2016. № 1 (18) УНІВЕРСИТЕТСЬКА ОСВІТА ЯК ПРОСТІР СВОБОДИ versities, not the ones C.P. Snow once talked about, 1 but rather one of openended search, uncertainty and curiosity and one of mastering and striving for predictability. The two are not compatible and presently these two cultures are clashing in contemporary sites of higher education and science. While companies like Google or Facebook, entirely relying on the individual creativity of their staff, actively break out of top-down management to create horizontal relations of freedom, playfulness and non-hierarchy, 2 universities in the West have moved away from their previous freedom and autonomy towards a more top-down and Taylorist mode of governing. 3 Finally, as science, research and higher education have moved into the center of public policy—the massification of the university and the belief in science as the major motor for economic growth being two reasons—a 'research-political complex' has been their companion. There is today a massive infrastructure surrounding academia that, in a self-reinforcing way, steadily invents new tasks and new reforms. Research departments, research councils, agencies devoted to evaluations, rankings, certifications and funding all contribute to the inclination to challenge academic freedom and the self-governance of academia in order to increase their power and push reforms for their own sake rather than for the sake of human creativity. Paradoxically, science's success story in itself, in combination with the endurance of democracy, have contributed to create severe challenges for the institutional and individual academic freedom that paved the way for unprecedented creativity in the 19 th and 20 th centuries. The 21 st century is dependent on scientific creativity to continue to progress. This cannot be done without respecting and safe-guarding academic freedom against both its inner and outer enemies. Лі Бенніх-Бьоркман. Академічна свобода: ультрасучасний принцип із старим корінням Зараз в університетському середовищі спостерігається зростаюча нездатність зрозуміти ключовий інституційний принцип академічної свободи, який спочатку в Пруссії, а згодом в об'єднаній Німеччині та США дозволив зробити революційний прорив в розбудові дослідницького університету. Академічна свобода ніяк не може бути зведеною до простих та завершених формулювань, оскільки є одночасно цінністю, практичним інструментом та правовим принципом, який можна зрозуміти лише у співвідношенні з креативністю. Дана стаття аналізує академічну свободу та її важливість для дослідження та навчання з точки зору трьох фундаментальних моментів: по-перше, чим є по суті академічна свобода; по-друге, як цей принцип пра1 Snow, C. P., 2001 (1959), The Two Cultures. London: Cambridge University Press. 2 Sandberg, S.,, 2014, Lean In. 3 Bennich-Björkman, L., 2016, "Långt före sin tid: forskningsuniversitetet som kreativ miljö," (Avantgarde: The Research University as Creative Environment) in eds. Shirin AhlbäckÖberg et al, Det hotade universitetet, Stockholm: Dialogos. Li BENNICH-BJORKMAN. Academic freedom: an ultra-modern principle with old roots цює в практичній площині й, по-третє, чому академічна свобода є критично необхідною для людської креативності. Підсумовуючи розгляд означеної теми, автор розмірковує, чому, не зважаючи на те, що керовані принципом академічної свободи дослідницькі університети демонструють значні успіхи, розробники сучасних дослідницьких політик, а іноді й навіть лідери університетів, намагаються демонтувати або обмежити академічну свободу, цю важливу передумову повноцінного університетського життя.

Much attention has been paid in recent years to the study of the underground economy in many developed and developing countries. The consequences and the policy implications linked with this ambiguous part of the economy have raised concerns among economists and governments that led to proposing various measures and estimation methods. It is not however easy to estimate accurately and precisely the size and trend of the underground economy due to its hidden nature. But, some techniques have been used by economists to directly and indirectly estimate the size of the underground economy.In this thesis, we have focused on the underground economy as a universal phenomenon having its unique and inescapable manifestation in the form of both legal and illegal activities. The main purpose of this thesis is to propose the fuzzy methods to measure the size and the amount of the underground economy.We first constructed a conceptual framework that allowed us to study the specifications of the underground economy. The common numerous estimation methods of the underground economy and their weaknesses and strengths were reviewed then. The basic conditions of applying the fuzzy concept and the initial conditions of the underground economy were investigated to see if they match. Since fuzzy modeling allows for rapid modeling even with imprecise and incomplete data and lets us to model non-linear functions of arbitrary complexity and achieve simplicity and flexibility, we were encouraged to apply fuzzy method.Two fuzzy methods were proposed to estimate the underground economy based on initial investigations during the period 1985-2010, including: the fuzzy modeling applying mean and standard deviation, the fuzzy modeling applying fuzzy clustering and Multiple Indicators and Multiple Causes (Structural Equation Modeling) with Fuzzy Data.Finally, the size of the underground economy was measured for France, Germany, Italy, USA and Canada and the results of these fuzzy methods were compared with other conventional methods. It can be claimed that the proposed methods in this work are qualitatively comparable to the common methods used to estimate the underground economy. ; Une grande d'attentions ont été accordée au cours des années récentes à l'étude de l'économie souterraine dans de nombreux pays développés et en voie de développement. Les conséquences et les implications politiques associées à cette partie ambiguë de l'économie ont suscité des inquiétudes parmi les économistes et les gouvernements qui ont été amenés à proposer diverses mesures et méthodes d'estimation. Il n'est cependant pas facile d'évaluer avec exactitude et précision la taille (l'ampleur) et la tendance de l'économie souterraine à cause de sa nature cachée (dissimulée, discrète). Néanmoins, certaines techniques ont été utilisées par les économistes pour estimer directement ou indirectement la taille de l'économie souterraine. Dans ce manuscrit de thèse, nous nous intéressons à l'économie souterraine comme un phénomène universel ayant une manifestation unique et incontournable sous forme d'activités à la fois légales et illégales. Le but principal de cette thèse est de proposer des « méthodes floues » (méthode de la logique floue) pour en mesurer la taille et la quantité. Dans un premier temps, nous avons construit un cadre conceptuel nous permettant d'étudier les spécificités de l'économie souterraine. Ensuite, de nombreuses (plusieurs, différentes…) méthodes communes d'estimation (méthodes en vigueur pour l'estimation) de l'économie souterraine ont été examinées. Les conditions de base de l'application du concept flou (de la logique floue) ainsi que les conditions initiales de l'économie souterraine ont été explorées (interrogées) pour voir si elles correspondent les unes aux autres (si elles font la paire, si elles sont cohérentes). Dès lors que la logique floue permet une modélisation rapide même avec des données imprécises et incomplètes et des fonctions non-linéaires d'une complexité arbitraire et d'atteindre la simplicité et la flexibilité, nous avons été encouragés à appliquer cette méthode. Trois méthodes floues ont été proposées pour évaluer l'économie souterraine sur la base des enquêtes initiales réalisées pendant la période 1985-2010, à savoir : la modélisation floue appliquant la moyenne et la variance, la modélisation floue appliquant le regroupement flou, la modélisation floue utilisant de multiples indicateurs et causes avec des données floues. En dernier lieu, la taille de l'économie souterraine a été mesurée pour la France, l'Allemagne, l'Italie, les Etats-Unis et le Canada. Les résultats issus de ces différentes méthodes floues ont ensuite été comparés avec ceux obtenus par d'autres méthodes conventionnelles. Il peut être affirmé que les méthodes proposées dans ce travail de recherche sont qualitativement comparables avec les méthodes couramment utilisées pour évaluer l'économie souterraine.

Purpose: To define the Internet of things and to analyze it as a background for the internet of services. Design/methodology/approach: The article discusses potential possibilities and problematic issues concerning the Internet of things (IoT) and Internet of services (IoS). The debates concerning IoT and its possible application fields have continued for more than ten years. The technological background is there and the fields of application are broad. However, there is still a lack of understanding about the possible benefits that technology could give to various bodies if applied correctly. This article is based on comparison and analysis of scientific articles, research papers and case studies related to the potential for IoT and its implementation in IoS. Theoretical findings: IoT is a logical evolutionary step for the internet. Despite the technological background, the concept of objects which are aware of their surroundings, allow to manipulate them by defining different rule patterns and ensuring interaction possibilities with other objects or human beings. The necessity for web-based services is increasing along with the technological gadgets which support them. Applying things, which are connected in a network, could revolutionize many industry and service sectors and create new service provision and administration methods based on information technology. However, there are many problematic issues and research challenges related to the IoT. Few of the most significant are related to standardization of technology, legal regulation and ethical aspects concerning the IoT technology. Research limitations/implications: The IoT is a popular trend promoted by the business sector and governmental bodies. There are few comprehensive studies and projects which talk about the benefits that business and society could gain from the IoT. There is a lot less information about the possible risk and problematic aspects, and a lack of agreements between the developers of technologies. In the scientific community arguments are also varied depending on the technologies used and regulation models adopted. For that reason it is possible to review the topics only focusing on narrow, but most comprehensively analyzed spectrum of problematic issues. Practical implications: Theoretical framework for future research in the field was developed. ; Internetas, kaip tinklas, sudarytas iš tinklų, užtikrina efektyvų panašiais standartais grįstą informacijos perdavimą skirtingiems subjektams. Šiuo metu internetu naudojasi daugiau nei du milijardai žmonių visame pasaulyje. Interneto technologija sudaro sąlygas sudėtingų tinklinių sistemų atsiradimui, kurios evoliucionuoja, keičiasi bei leidžia nustatyti ryšius tarp skirtingų duomenų vienetų. Kita pakopa, leidžianti žengti dar vieną žingsnį interneto technologijos pritaikymo kontekste – daiktų internetas. Buitinių prietaisų, automobilių, energijos sąnaudų daviklių ar miesto transporto sistemų sujungimas į bendrą tinklą, skirtą vieningai prietaisų bei sistemų komunikacijai, leistų gerokai išplėsti funkcinę jų taikymo sritį. Daiktų interneto technologijų plėtojimas gali padėti spręsti nūidienai aktualius socialinius uždavinius, tokius kaip tvarus bei efektyvus energijos išteklių naudojimas, transporto srautų modeliavimas, sveikatos būklės stebėjimas, aplinkos pokyčių sekimas ir pan. Europos Komisijos komunikate, kuris apibrėžia Europos veiksmų planą daiktų interneto plėtros kontekste, išskiriamos prioritetinės gairės bei daiktų interneto technologijos vystymo kryptys. Šiame dokumente pabrėžiama, jog daiktų internetas tik iš dalies remiasi šiandienos internetu. Tai greičiau naujos atskiros sistemos, veikiančios savo infrastruktūroje, kūrimas. Daiktų internetas siejamas su naujų paslaugų atsiradimu bei prietaisų ir įrenginių ryšio užtikrinimu, kuris galėtų sieti 50–70 milijardų kompiuterių. Straipsnio tikslas – apžvelgti bei išnagrinėti daiktų interneto vystymosi kryptis, panaudojimo būdus bei problematiką, susijusią su technologiniais, socialiniais bei teisiniais veiksniais. Daiktų internetas – technologija, siekianti sujungti fizinį ir virtualų pasaulius pasinaudojant sensoriniais įrenginiais bei sujungiant juos į tinklus, kurie komunikuoja tarpusavyje. Daiktų internetas, kai kurių autorių vadinamas kita interneto evoliucijos pakopa, glaudžiai siejasi su paslaugų internetu. Plintant nešiojamiems bei interneto prieigos galimybę turintiems įrenginiams, vystosi ir internetinių paslaugų sritis. Prognozuojama, jog daiktų interneto technologijų naudojimas stipriai paveiks paslaugų interneto plėtrą bei padidins internetu teikiamų paslaugų apimtis ir generuojamas pajamas. Žvelgiant iš technologinės pusės, daiktų interneto kūrimas apibūdinamas kaip kompleksiškas procesas, susiduriantis su standartizacijos bei teisinio reglamentavimo trūkumo problematika. Šiuo metu daiktų interneto kūrimui plačiai naudojama radijo dažnių atpažinimo (RDA) technologija sukelia teisines ir etines problemas, susijusias su privatumo ir asmens duomenų apsauga. Daiktų interneto vystymasis keičia visuomenės įpročius, todėl šios technologijos naudotojai turėtų būti informuoti apie grėsmes bei galimybes. Šiai sričiai nagrinėti yra parengta nemažai studijų apie ateities interneto perspektyvas. Straipsnio autoriai siekia išskirti svarbiausias daiktų interneto vystymosi tendencijas bei suteikti medžiagos diskusijoms ir moksliniams tyrimams plėtojant daiktų interneto pritaikomumo idėją.

Euro-Mediterranean Consortium for Applied Research on International Migration (CARIM) ; (En) Morocco has long been a country of asylum seekers and refugees from various origin countries. Currently, in Morocco, refugees and asylum seekers are mainly from African and Middle-Eastern countries. Morocco is party to the Refugee's Convention (1951) and its additional Protocol (1967). Morocco has ratified the Agreement of 23rd November 1957 on maritime refugees as well as its protocol. In 1957, Morocco adopted a law on the implementation modalities of the Geneva Convention related to the refugee status. This law enables the Office of Refugee and Stateless persons (ORS) for the administrative and legal protection of refugees. The law, as it stands, is too general and the ORS has ceased its activities. In spite of it being short lived, Moroccan Law refers to the Geneva Convention (1951) and thus to the rights related to refugee status in terms of the right to work, to education, to health, to freedom of movement etc (article 12-34). UNHCR has had an official representation in Morocco since 1965, through an honorary delegation, and since 2007 it has had diplomatic representation in the country. Because of the absence of any effective national procedure in the field of asylum, UNHCR registers asylum seekers and determines the refugee statute. The UNHCR office deals with all asylum claims and decides on the recognition of refugee status in Morocco. The refugees recognised in Morocco by UNHCR do not benefit from all the rights normally associated with the refugee statute in the Geneva Convention (1951). The Moroccan authorities do not automatically deliver a stay permit which is a necessary condition for migrants wishing to enjoy their rights. Since 2007, UNHCR in Rabat, in partnership with some local NGOs, is active in supporting recognised refugees. UNHCR's presence in Morocco, in particular, its recent diplomatic representation in the country is considered by some experts and civil society actors as a sign of the 'externalisation' of European borders brought about by the EU's European Immigration and Asylum policy. ; (Fr) Le Maroc a été depuis toujours un pays de réfugiés et de demandeurs d'asile pour plusieurs peuples venant de plusieurs pays. Actuellement les réfugiés et les demandeurs d'asile au Maroc proviennent principalement des pays africains et du Moyen Orient. Le Maroc a adhéré à la Convention de 1951 et à son Protocole additionnel de1967. Il a également ratifié l'Arrangement du 23 novembre 1957 relatif aux marins réfugiés et le Protocole à cet Arrangement. En 1957, le Maroc a adopté une loi qui a fixé les modalités d'application de la Convention de Genève relative au statut des réfugiés et qui a confié la protection juridique et administrative des réfugiés au Bureau des Réfugiés et Apatrides (BRA). Mais cette loi est assez peu détaillée et le BRA a presque cessé actuellement toute activité. Malgré son caractère bref et assez peu explicite, la législation marocaine se réfère à la Convention de Genève de 1951 qui accorde des droits bien précis aux personnes reconnues comme réfugiés, comme le droit au travail, à l'éducation et à la santé, à la liberté de circulation etc.(articles 12 à 34). Le HCR est représenté officiellement au Maroc depuis 1965, tout d'abord à travers une délégation honoraire puis par une représentation diplomatique en 2007. En l'absence d'une procédure nationale effective en matière d'asile, c'est le HCR qui enregistre les demandeurs d'asile et conduit la détermination du statut de réfugié. Le bureau du HCR traite ainsi toutes les demandes d'asile, détermine et reconnaît le statut de réfugié dans le pays. Les réfugiés au Maroc reconnus par le HCR ne bénéficient pas de tous les droits inclus dans la Convention de Genève de 1951. Les autorités marocaines ne leur délivrent pas automatiquement une carte de séjour qui leur permettra de jouir de leurs droits de réfugiés dans le pays. En partenariat avec certaines ONG locales, le HCR à Rabat est actif dans l'accompagnement des réfugiés reconnus, particulièrement depuis 2007. La présence du HCR au Maroc et son installation diplomatique dans le pays depuis 2007 est considérée par certains spécialistes en migration et par des acteurs de la société civile comme l'une des manifestations de l'externalisation des frontières européennes, du fait de la politique commune d'immigration et d'asile développée par l'Union Européenne.

Contemporary Ukrainian state and society pass through complicated and contradictory period of transformation of socio-economic, political, spiritual and moral relations. The youth, as subject and object of policy, social and cultural relations, mirrors the features of Ukrainian political system's evolution and cultural evolution in its vital activity. The youth is an important part of Ukrainian society, the medium of its intellectual potential, a main factor of socio-economic progress. Process of state building largely depends on capability of youth to be an active creative power.Nevertheless, it should be noted, that significant part of youth has no reliable political and socio-cultural reference points, civic consciousness isn't formed, spiritual and moral ideals are lost, increasingly the youth regards with negative to socially useful activities and becomes most separated from society and state than previous generations.Meantime effective socialization of youth is a necessary condition for a constant development of Ukrainian political system, largely depictures the future of the country. Perspective of society's further development primarily depend on the features of formation of the political culture of youth, its political values, socio-political orientation, political choice, attitude to power.In this regard, necessity of studying processes, what spread across youth subculture, political analysis of youth subcultural differentiation, production technologies and mechanisms for prevention deviant behaviour and crises among young people, appears.The socio-economic and spiritual development of Ukraine is impossible without concentration on resolving the problems of the youth as future of our country, a guarantor of social and economic progress, because an immutable truth is that further development mostly depend on providing young generations with decent conditions for life. In despite of declared realization of this truth, a majority of countries in the world starts new millennium with a significant burden of unsolved problems of youth, most of them, for a example, imparity of youth, unemployment, marginalization of young people, propagation of illegal social practices and asocial manifestations among young people, youth health problems and some marital and family problems etc., now shows tendency to intensification.Under conditions of deep economic and demographic crisis, crisis of culture and ideology, of post-Soviet countries, including Ukraine, youth problems in different areas of life become more specific, they entail hard and prolonged consequences, therefore, they need be analyzed deeply and regulated, realistic and balanced youth policy must be developed.The term "youth" is treated diversely in many branches of science - philosophy, sociology, political science, pedagogy, psychology etc. Its generalized version is suggested in encyclopedias and determines the youth as a separate socio-demographic group that differs in a complex of age characteristics, features of social status, that are determined by social system, culture, regularity of socialization, education in terms of a particular society.The youth, within the meaning of current age ranges of youth in Ukraine (according to national legislation an age range of youth is 15 - 34 years), makes up the significant part of the population of Ukraine. Now the youth contingent in Ukraine is demographically heterogeneous, because the youth unites in itself groups of rather a broad age range – from teenagers (15-17 years), post teenagers (18-19 years old) to much more experienced in age and socially persons and adults, that are over 30 years old (30-34 years).It should be considered that the youth is socially heterogeneous. Yong workers, villagers, students, political leaders, representatives of the business community, migrants, young specialists, marginal people with different degree of success adapt to market economy, frequently orient themselves on contradictory political and spiritual values.The position of youth political culture, as well as society generally, is largely fragmented. The separate groups of the youth differ from each other in the interest to policy, level of inclusion in the political life, orientations on different ideological and political currents of modern Ukraine. All this differences haven't characterized as acute antagonism and haven't led to excessive politicization yet.The young people significantly differ from older generations, because they almost got rid of illusions that somebody can solve their own problems. They are individualistic and pragmatic, relate to the modern authority rather neutrally and don't connect any positive changes with it.The young generation perceives the policy and the authority as entity that cause neither admiration, nor especially acute negative emotions. First of all, it proves in removal of a large number of the youth from political life. In some measure apathy of youth, first of all, appears because the reforms that take place in Ukraine impact on the youth most painfully, and because of absence of understanding policy towards youth as an independent socio-demographic group, also because the youth, on the one hand, doesn't see necessity to change something cardinally in environment, but, on the other hand, doesn't consider political activity as something important, it finds most perspective methods and forms of self-fulfillment. As a result – total alienation of the youth from the authority, that can be transformed into active rejection at any time.Today state only declares principles of political culture of participation and public culture. During period of formation of the youth generation it is necessary to examine the situation, to explore the depth and sharpness of social problems, to establish monitoring of youth life.Modern problems such as crisis of relationship of generations, impairment of vital parameters, formation of specific youth subculture and counterculture etc., demonstrate that all structures of socialization together – family, environment and even education, become not enough to solve the problems of society when new generations come on and it is not enough to solve the problems of youth, that takes on its historical subjectivity.Liberal views of youth are often formed under the influence of education, cultural environment, family socialization, but are not the result of a «rational» choice. State youth policy, as an innovative Institute, has it own particularities and the main one of them is that it is specialized and was built on innovative forms of activity. These forms are associated with deep process of knowledge and management. They need political will and great resources to be realized. The payment for that are guaranteed results of activity, without what society can't exist and develop no longer.As a result of new situation, what appeared because political activity in labor and educational groups had been prohibited, the policy moved on from industrial and academic areas to the sphere of free time of youth and led new youth organizations on the competition with traditional structures of free time. The youth structures could gain neither recognition, nor authority on broad stratums of the rising generation.The perspective of further development of society connects, first of all, with features of the formation of political culture of youth, its political values, a socio-political orientation, political choice and attitude towards the authority.The formation of consciousness of the category of population is strategically important for the state, because working politically active forces will be replaced exactly by today's youth. Now it is hard to manipulate the young people, they are very sensitive and note everything that takes place in society. May be, some part of them go to policy in order to make money, but for the most of them is important to realize their own opinions.The current political situation in Ukraine makes the youth think about a lot of questions: how can I, young man, decide something and affect the situation in the country (the region); how much does my vote weigh in elections etc. One of the most important factors that can push these people into active public deeds is confidence of an opportunity that something can be changed by their choice and decision.The modern politicians come to understanding that the slogans are ineffective and the youth can't be conquered with appeals on TV. The new generation is more independent than previous one and, the most important of this, that it has a choice. The votes of youth will not be cast without any reason – someone must work with it. The experience of last decades proves that only when countries pay much attention on work with youth they will success in policy and economy. A sustainable progress is demonstrated by societies that have looked over the system of traditional opinions about new generation and it importance for political and socio-economical development (for example, Germany, Sweden).In Ukraine a program of state and public actions in this sphere and mechanisms of solving these problems is determined by modern national policy. The especial attention should be paid to solving problems of youth self-realization and formation of young citizens.There is 367 003 persons (30,67 percent of all population of the region) of young people from 14 to 35 years old in Mykolaiv, including citizens - 251 712 persons and villagers - 115 291 persons. The youth needs permanent protection and help of state. However to give support to the youth doesn't mean to solve all its problems. First of all, it means to give the youth an opportunity to solve problems by itself.The Regional Program "The Youth of Mykolaiv Region" on 2011-2015 years becomes a strategic document. The conception determines directions of relationship's development between the state and the youth at the regional level. The most optimal way and method of solution are:to develop the scientifically argumentative strategy of implementation of public policy towards the youth of region;to popularize efficiency, availability and creation of extensive network of youth social infrastructure, a directing on activity that will satisfy needs and create the necessary conditions for effective socialization of young people;to promote youth occupation by introduction the system of career-guidance, creation the conditions for secondary employment, provision with fist job, stimulation to make business, outspread of youth information field concerning existing professions and demand for them; to promote youth employment and youth entrepreneurship by expansion of employment, professional training of youth, giving an opportunity to realize youth projects;to involve the youth in realization of social programs and projects of state youth policy that are directed on solving problems according to Program;to create a complex system of social protection for representatives in special categories of youth community, to render social assistance and support for the youth that is in crisis;to create conditions for providing social assistance and modeling healthy lifestyle among all groups of youth in Mykolaiv;to encourage the creative self-realization and total evolution of youth, to support the youth initiatives and activities at different spheres of life, to implement incentives in order to improve the cultural level of youth;to implement the mechanism how to inform youth community by mass media and Internet-resource;to implement measures to create conditions for youth loans;to promote the youth integration towards world and European community, the exchange of experience and joint activities of the youth at the regional and the national levels;to promote spiritual and physical development of young people in Mykolaiv region, a high patriotic consciousness, a national pride, a formation and development of motivation that is directed to preparation for doing public and constitutional duty in order to protect the national interests of Ukraine.Now it is possible to use young people in realization of youth police by enlisting them in youth and children public organizations. These organizations are one of the most important social institutes that promote a formation of civil society. The public organizations have exclusive opportunities for political socialization of youth, because they are not only a key-note subject of youth policy that affects its formation and realization, but also are good staff reserve for the public authorities and local government. The social movement is the force that can't be ignored and should not be ignored.So, it is important to create legal and other conditions for cooperation of the authority, youth public organizations and active representatives of this part of population. The principal revolution in youth attitude to policy will take place only when it feels itself a real member of process of transformation and development in Ukrainian society. ; Статья посвящена исследованию особенностей формирования политической куль-туры молодежи, ее политических ценностей, социально-политических ориентиров в период трансформации украинского общества, анализируется роль государства в формировании и реализации современной молодежной политики. ; Статтю присвячено дослідженню особливостей формування політичної культури молоді, її політичних цінностей, соціально-політичних орієнтирів у період трансформації українського суспільства, проаналізовано роль держави у формуванні та реалізації сучасної молодіжної політики.

From a gender perspective, Viet Nam is an interesting case study because it is widely seen as a "globalization" success story where historically the social and political status of women have been high compared with women's status in many other developing countries. At the same time, there is concern that women's status may be eroding during the country's rapid transition to a market economy. Thus, it is of interest to examine the relationship between gender equality and economic performance, and to assess how women have fared when macroeconomic and structural reforms are judged to have produced successful results for the society as a whole. Viet Nam's recent reform experience is particularly instructive because it helps to identify the preconditions for women to benefit from these reforms. Similar to other rapidly growing Asian countries, Viet Nam's high growth has been accompanied by increased gender inequality as well as increased income inequality. Policy makers are paying more attention to this phenomenon of growing inequality because the country is entering a new development phase which involves an acceleration of the globalization process. At risk are poor households (many headed by single mothers) in rural and remote areas which are least able to cope with the transmission of external shocks. This paper seeks to contribute to a better understanding of macroeconomic policies that benefit women by analysing the links between reform, gender equality, economic development and women's welfare as they played out in Viet Nam during the 1990s, when the government carried out far-reaching and comprehensive reforms. It employs descriptive, narrative and quantitative approaches to explain how macroeconomic and market liberalization policies, although gender-neutral in intent, can give rise to gendered outcomes as a result of various underlying and interrelated factors. These include social attitudes and conventions influenced by patriarchal values, the pattern and structure of occupational segregation and related gender wage differentials, gender differences in education levels, and labour regulations that have the effect of increasing productivity differences between men and women. The main finding of this paper is that the welfare of women in Viet Nam generally improved as a result of macroeconomic stabilization and controlled external liberalization policies adopted by a government that espoused a 'developmentalist state' model. The Doi Moi reform policies were effective because they were broadly appropriate for Viet Nam's particular circumstances. Women on the whole are better off as a result of the reforms, but the gains are not evenly distributed across income groups, regions and ethnic groups. Household and enterprise survey data present a mixed picture regarding gendered outcomes. Urban women belonging to the dominant ethnic group, by virtue of their higher status in society and better access to economic resources, have benefited more. Women who live in rural and remote areas and/or are members of ethnic minority communities tend to have low status and have benefited least. The negative aspects of the reforms bear mention. Although they were gender-neutral in intent, culturally influenced patterns of horizontal segregation and occupational segregation in Viet Nam gave rise to gendered outcomes and increased social stratification. Moreover, women bore the brunt of deflationary measures such as fiscal austerity and public sector downsizing (experienced during the early reform period). As globalization accelerates in Viet Nam, the anticipated change in ownership structure will influence the evolution of the gender wage gap. The output shares of the foreign-invested (FDI) and private sector are expected to rise at the expense of the state enterprise sector. In light of the current pattern of gender wage discrimination in the FDI and private sector, the government will need to adopt and vigorously enforce measures to increase competition in the high-wage sectors of the economy and strengthen laws against gender discrimination, in order to counteract the likelihood of a widening gender wage gap associated with private sector growth. Section 1 of this paper presents an overview of main issues and findings on the gender effects of Viet Nam's reform policies and transition to a market economy. To provide the context for understanding gender disparities in outcomes, section 2 presents basic socioeconomic, health and educational data disaggregated by gender, and outlines the legal status and condition of women in Viet Nam. Section 3 describes the main policy episodes (marked by broadly homogenous policy packages and economic circumstances) of Viet Nam's recent history, and analyses the gender dimensions of key reform policies. Section 4 concludes with a review of policy lessons, directions for future policy research, and recommendations that would enable women to improve their economic and social welfare.

As most of Republican Gov. Jeff Landry's criminal
justice reforms as legislation
heads to his desk for his signature into law, Louisiana's political left is
working overtime to cast aspersions on measures reversing the ethos behind
changes predecessor Democrat Gov. John Bel Edwards had enticed, despite data showing
very much such assertions are baseless.

In essence, Landry's increases severity of
sentences for some crimes, for 17-year-olds convicted of some crimes, and
lengthens incarceration time for many convicts. Edwards' had done the opposite,
on the theory that the existing measures were cost ineffective, or that any
reduction in crime was more than offset by costs involved. Indeed, more vocal
advocates of the so-called "smart on crime" approach actually argued that you
could have it both ways, reduced crime and costs.

At the
very least, the left wishes to delegitimize Landry's restoration with
claims along the lines that being "tougher" on crime won't make much of a
difference, if not make matters worse, and certainly would cost more. A typical
leftist view on the philosophy behind his package is "there is no firm
empirical evidence that confirms" that "more stringent punitive measures [are] a
criminal deterrent."

That view betrays ignorance, whether willful out
of a desire to cherry-pick evidence to support views often limited to those of researchers
with a compatible agenda (and much
of it flawed), of the actual data. In reality, the most comprehensive and
recent analysis demonstrate that more and longer incarceration as a whole
reduces crimes.

Penalties create two disincentives to criminal
behavior. One is deterrence, by increasing the expected cost to a miscreant for
such behavior. The more severe the penalty, in terms of sentencing conditioned
by time actually served and in prison, all other things equal the less of that
behavior occurs.

However, "all other things equal" rarely are and
can be extremely difficult to disaggregate in analyses of deterrence.
Principally, variance occurs around the probability of apprehension and prosecution
to the fullest sense of the law. Capital punishment provides an excellent
example of the latter and how that can affect analyses of its deterrent impact.
In the aggregate, research provides somewhat of a mixed picture for whether
executions prevent murders (by legal definition, premeditated and heinous).

But that's because of the guerilla warfare that
has developed by anti-capital punishment interests to prevent executions deliberately
designed to water down the deterrent effect, essentially vacating the sentences
and breaking society's pact with victims to carry out that punishment. Parsing out
that – in other words, when authorities are able and willing to carry out death
sentences in a reasonably timely fashion – the evidence is quite clear: executions
save innocent lives.

Yet perhaps more trenchantly, punishment is but
the output of a criminal justice system. The input is prosecutorial conduct.
For example, "progressive" prosecutors willing to file less severe charges
and/or ask for less severe sentencing, if they even bother to prosecute,
entirely subvert the deterrence impact of sentences written into law.

In short, the presence of such confounding
variables makes it difficult to assess empirically any relationship between
sentencing and crime commission. Still, behavioral theory dictates that there
must be casual covariance where stiffer punishment reduces criminal activity.
After all, if jaywalking is made a capital crime, even as people know it is rarely
reported and even more rarely enforced, the penalty is so severe that in terms
of expected outcomes it will deter jaywalking, for the penalty is so harsh that
for many even the tiniest odds of being caught don't reduce the expected negative
value of the punishment enough to go below the expected positive value of
saving a few steps by not using a crosswalk.

Fortunately, the other disincentive is much easier
to measure: if incarcerated (unless corrupt authorities are involved), a person
cannot commit criminal activity among the public. Simply, as data show and especially
for serious crimes, most of those incarcerated will commit more crime when
not imprisoned. By keeping them imprisoned for longer periods, through a
combination of sentencing and lower levels of reducing the time served or of
having access to parole and probation, predators are off the streets. In fact,
longer times served in prison for a crime are associated with reduced levels of
recidivism, so a double bonus is enjoyed by society.

And, as
crime data show, after Edwards' changes went into effect, in Louisiana
crime increased relative to the rest of the country and region. Costs may
increase with Landry's agenda in place, such as by keeping more convicts imprisoned,
but the payoff in reduced crime will be worth it.

Landry's restoration from these solidly follows
the evidence (as it does also with the issue
of charging 17-year-olds as adults and making it administratively easier to
carry out capital sentences). Suggestions to the contrary don't inform, but instead
mislead.

There are a wide variety of initiatives and guidelines recommending publishing government data, especially geospatial data as open data, for instance: G8 launched in June 2013 in a meeting in Lough Erne (Ireland) the G8 Open Data Charter recognizing that Open Data improves Governance and it is an innovation engine. Geographic data where included as one of the areas of great value. The eight countries were committed to approve an action plan before 2013 October and yearly publish a report. G20 and United Nations supports the International Open Data Charter since 2015 extending the former proposal to all the countries. Six basic principles are defined: data should be open by default, timely and comprehensive, accessible and usable, comparable and interoperable, for improved Governance and Citizen Engagement, and for inclusive development and innovation. Until now 19 national and 43 local governments has adopted the chart and 46 organisations has endorsed it. The European Interoperability Framework v2, approved by the European Commission on March 2017 to improve the quality of European public services devotes a full section to explain what exactly Open Data is and to support it. The United Nations Global Geographic Information Management (UN GGIM) recognizes in its Integrated Geospatial Information Framework – Part 1 Overarching Strategic Framework (July 2018) that geospatial information is a key component of the government's open data agendas which stimulates opportunities and include government delivery systems focused on the citizen in an efficient and effective way. But, although it seems there is a wide consensus on the positive effect of having governamental Open Data, and there is a common understanding of the theoretical meaning of Open Data (data with no barriers for use and reuse by everybody under any circumstances) there is not a common practical understanding about what Open Data is. In our opinion, the more detailed and precise technical definition of Open Data is due to the Open Knowledge International (opendefinition.org), but the problem is that there is not an Abstract Test Suite to check and verify if a dataset is published fulfilling the requirements defined in it. By the other hand, Open Data are not yet widely implemented. The Global Open Data Index 2018 states that the National Map 1: 250,000 data are published as Open Data only in the 10 % of the countries studied. We think one of the reasons of the lack of implementation Open Geographic Data (OGD) is that there is no a standard easily verifiable technical definition of OGD. Because of that, the Spanish Standardization Technical Committee 148 "Digital Geographic Information" decided in 2016 to define a Spanish standard on Open Geographic Data to have an objective procedure to verify and certify if a geospatial dataset is published or not as Open Data, as a tool to promote and support Open Data. UNE 148004:2018 "Datos geográficos abiertos" (Open Geographic Data) was approved in 2018 after following the standard UNE processes, including two rounds of comments and one public information period. More than the eighty five per cent of the comments received were totally or partially accepted and we think the result reflects the consensus reached in the Spanish geographic data community around this topic. This Spanish standard stablish a technical full and detailed definition of what exactly is Open Geographic Data (OGD) and defines a set of objective requirements to be fulfilled in order to publish a geographic dataset as Open Data. It is based in three main principles: Principle of minimizing barriers, following the idea that Open Data are data published without economic, technical and legal barriers for their use and reuse. Principle of no-discrimination of any kind of users, field of application, social group and future use of data. Principle of technological neutrality, which is in fact a particularization of the former one, stating that any user shall be discriminated on the basis of the technological solutions (browser, operating system, software…) he has chosen. Applying those general principles, UNE 148004:2018 defines four conceptual levels for geographic data in the way of progress towards having OGD: available, well described, under an open license and in an open format geographic data. It provides also an Abstract Test Suit for verifying and certifying, if required, Open Geographic Data. In this communication a general approach to open geographic data, a justification for developing this standard and a brief and complete summary of its contents and prescription are given. We think this new Spanish standard will promote and support Open Data in the field of Geographic Information and we hope it will promote the progress and grow of the Spanish geospatial sector.

There are a wide variety of initiatives and guidelines recommending publishing government data, especially geospatial data as open data, for instance: G8 launched in June 2013 in a meeting in Lough Erne (Ireland) the G8 Open Data Charter recognizing that Open Data improves Governance and it is an innovation engine. Geographic data where included as one of the areas of great value. The eight countries were committed to approve an action plan before 2013 October and yearly publish a report. G20 and United Nations supports the International Open Data Charter since 2015 extending the former proposal to all the countries. Six basic principles are defined: data should be open by default, timely and comprehensive, accessible and usable, comparable and interoperable, for improved Governance and Citizen Engagement, and for inclusive development and innovation. Until now 19 national and 43 local governments has adopted the chart and 46 organisations has endorsed it. The European Interoperability Framework v2, approved by the European Commission on March 2017 to improve the quality of European public services devotes a full section to explain what exactly Open Data is and to support it. The United Nations Global Geographic Information Management (UN GGIM) recognizes in its Integrated Geospatial Information Framework – Part 1 Overarching Strategic Framework (July 2018) that geospatial information is a key component of the government's open data agendas which stimulates opportunities and include government delivery systems focused on the citizen in an efficient and effective way. But, although it seems there is a wide consensus on the positive effect of having governamental Open Data, and there is a common understanding of the theoretical meaning of Open Data (data with no barriers for use and reuse by everybody under any circumstances) there is not a common practical understanding about what Open Data is. In our opinion, the more detailed and precise technical definition of Open Data is due to the Open Knowledge International (opendefinition.org), but the problem is that there is not an Abstract Test Suite to check and verify if a dataset is published fulfilling the requirements defined in it. By the other hand, Open Data are not yet widely implemented. The Global Open Data Index 2018 states that the National Map 1: 250,000 data are published as Open Data only in the 10 % of the countries studied. We think one of the reasons of the lack of implementation Open Geographic Data (OGD) is that there is no a standard easily verifiable technical definition of OGD. Because of that, the Spanish Standardization Technical Committee 148 "Digital Geographic Information" decided in 2016 to define a Spanish standard on Open Geographic Data to have an objective procedure to verify and certify if a geospatial dataset is published or not as Open Data, as a tool to promote and support Open Data. UNE 148004:2018 "Datos geográficos abiertos" (Open Geographic Data) was approved in 2018 after following the standard UNE processes, including two rounds of comments and one public information period. More than the eighty five per cent of the comments received were totally or partially accepted and we think the result reflects the consensus reached in the Spanish geographic data community around this topic. This Spanish standard stablish a technical full and detailed definition of what exactly is Open Geographic Data (OGD) and defines a set of objective requirements to be fulfilled in order to publish a geographic dataset as Open Data. It is based in three main principles: Principle of minimizing barriers, following the idea that Open Data are data published without economic, technical and legal barriers for their use and reuse. Principle of no-discrimination of any kind of users, field of application, social group and future use of data. Principle of technological neutrality, which is in fact a particularization of the former one, stating that any user shall be discriminated on the basis of the technological solutions (browser, operating system, software…) he has chosen. Applying those general principles, UNE 148004:2018 defines four conceptual levels for geographic data in the way of progress towards having OGD: available, well described, under an open license and in an open format geographic data. It provides also an Abstract Test Suit for verifying and certifying, if required, Open Geographic Data. In this communication a general approach to open geographic data, a justification for developing this standard and a brief and complete summary of its contents and prescription are given. We think this new Spanish standard will promote and support Open Data in the field of Geographic Information and we hope it will promote the progress and grow of the Spanish geospatial sector.

International audience ; Imprescriptibility is a legal technique that allows lawyers to place certain things above the human condition.Through imprescriptibility, the law expresses the conviction that certain attributes, goods or actions are the work of something other than men or, at the very least, that they escape them. The slow and constant decline in the imprescriptibility of administrative law teaches that this technique does not mean timelessness. The study, therefore, explores the evolution of the different manifestations of imprescriptibility in administrative law. Because imprescriptibility is supposed to cover the most precious, the temporality of this technique betrays the inescapable change in the values underlying administrative law. The imprescriptibility of competences appears to be a latent rule, whereas there are no political or theoretical obstacles to its recognition today. There seems to be a structural incompatibility between the power to make administrative acts and extinctive prescription. Prolonged inaction can never be served as a renunciation here, because competence is not a possession of which the public body is the master. Paradoxically, in order not to degrade them, not to reduce them to objects of property, the imprescriptibility of competences remains unspoken. If on the contrary, the imprescriptibility of the public domain benefits from a solid foundation in positive law, its history is otherwise troubled. The apparitions and disappearances of the principle over time will have a lasting impact on the doctrine, instilling the conviction that imprescriptibility forms an extrinsic, contingent characteristic, and therefore difficult to justify in theory. In the 19th century, the thesis of "non-commercial goods" flourished, the ones that « Providence divided to everyone indiscriminately, such as air, light and water ». The idea of imprescriptibility by nature of the public domain offers a translation of the divine origin of these goods. The doctrine of imprescriptibility for the sole purpose of public domain dependencies, developed in the 20th century, warns of the end of the empire of natural law and the trivialisation of public goods. From now on, imprescriptibility, which only reflects human choices, no longer has an absolute and immutable character. The removal of the imprescriptibility of disciplinary proceedings by the law of 20 April 2016 confirms the disappearance of the sacred in administrative law. The imprescriptibility of disciplinary proceedings constituted a reminder of the timelessness of subjection, recognised in former public law. It was then impossible to avoid authority by prescription, which came from God. The banishment of the imprescriptibility of disciplinary action thus reflects a desacralization of hierarchical authority. ; L'imprescriptibilité constitue une technique juridique qui offre au juriste de placer certaines choses au-dessus de la condition humaine. A travers l'imprescriptibilité, le droit exprime la conviction que certains attributs, biens ou actions sont l'œuvre d'autre chose que des hommes ou, à tout le moins, qu'ils leur échappent.La lente et constante régression de l'imprescriptibilité en droit administratif enseigne que cette technique ne signifie pas l'intemporalité. L'étude explore donc l'évolution des différentes manifestations de l'imprescriptibilité en droit administratif. Parce que l'imprescriptibilité est supposée recouvrir le plus précieux, la temporalité de cette technique trahit l'inéluctable mutation des valeurs irriguant le droit administratif. L'imprescriptibilité des compétences apparaît comme une règle latente, alors qu'aucun obstacle politique ou théorique n'empêche aujourd'hui sa consécration. Il semble exister une incompatibilité structurelle entre le pouvoir de vouloir les actes administratifs et la prescription extinctive. L'inaction prolongée ne peut ici jamais recevoir la signification d'une renonciation, car la compétence n'est pas une possession dont l'organe est le maître. C'est paradoxalement pour ne pas les avilir, ne pas les réduire à des objets de propriété, que l'imprescriptibilité des compétences demeure inexprimée. Si l'imprescriptibilité du domaine public bénéficie à l'inverse d'un ancrage solide dans le droit positif, son histoire est autrement tourmentée. Les apparitions et disparitions du principe au gré des époques marqueront durablement la doctrine, en instillant la conviction que l'imprescriptibilité forme une caractéristique extrinsèque, contingente, et partant, difficile à justifier théoriquement. Au XIXe siècle, s'épanouit la thèse des « biens hors commerce », ceux que « la Providence départit à tous indistinctement, comme l'air, la lumière, l'eau ». L'idée d'une imprescriptibilité par nature du domaine public offre une traduction de l'origine divine de ces biens. La doctrine de l'imprescriptibilité à raison de la seule destination des dépendances du domaine public, développée au XXe siècle, avertit de la fin de l'empire du droit naturel et de la banalisation des biens publics. Désormais, l'imprescriptibilité, qui ne traduit que des choix humains, ne revêt plus de caractère absolu et immuable. La suppression de l'imprescriptibilité de l'action disciplinaire par la loi du 20 avril 2016 confirme l'évanouissement du sacré en droit administratif. L'imprescriptibilité de l'action disciplinaire constituait en effet une rémanence de l'intemporalité de la sujétion, reconnue dans l'ancien droit public. On ne pouvait alors se soustraire par la prescription à l'autorité, celle-ci procédant de Dieu. Le bannissement de l'imprescriptibilité de l'action disciplinaire traduit ainsi une désacralisation de l'autorité hiérarchique.

On Wednesday the 11th of of May, I met with Deputy Prime Minister John Anderson to discuss the conclusions of this report. During our meeting, his senior policy adviser explained to me the role that Mr Anderson had played in the negotiations surrounding the National Water Initiative, and how, without the zeal of the Deputy Prime Minister, the agreement may not have come to fruition. At the outset, his adviser explained to me, senior Commonwealth public servants were of the opinion that a Deputy Prime Minister who wanted to talk water reform was simply a Deputy Prime Minister looking for more money for the bush. They were proven wrong, she claims, when Mr Anderson explained to the assembled group of experts just how such a scheme was to be achieved, what it would achieve, and how, despite their earlier opinion, this scheme was to benefit farmers and the rest of the nation simultaneously. Out of this desire, and that of the States to look at ways to secure a water future, the National Water Initiative was borne. Its achievements are significant, the most important of which is assigning property rights to a water title, thus ensuring farmers have a legal entitlement to water. The valuation of water that this achieves will doubtlessly lead to better efficiency throughout the system, and force users, whether they be farmers or domestic, to utilise a finite, valuable resource more wisely. The National Water Initiative was not a pyrrhic victory for the Commonwealth like the constitutional conventions had been for the States 103 years previous. It was the States who caused many of the water-related problems faced in Australia today, mainly by their refusal, quite obstinate in the case of New South Wales, to the premise of federal control for Australia's waterways. The most important river system in this country, the Murray-Darling, has tributaries which cross three State boundaries and one Territory. Other than the Border Rivers region of north-east New South Wales and Queensland and the Snowy River in south-eastern Australia, it is the only system in the country that undergoes regulation by more than one government; in the case of the Basin, four governments manage its affairs. This situation exists because the States were so short sighted and vote-hungry when it came to apportioning water licenses that they did not see the need to give the new Commonwealth Government the legislative control of rivers. Because of this, the States failed to establish a pure federal system, rather opting for populism over common sense. To this end, the States have every right to manage the rivers that flow within their State that do not have any impact upon other systems or States; it would be silly, for example, for the Commonwealth Government to regulate the Clarence River in northern New South Wales, or the Barwon River in Victoria. These two rivers do not flow into, or have any impact upon, any other State. However, given the size of the Murray-Darling Basin, and the number of jurisdictions which it covers, it is simply ludicrous that the management of such a system is not vested in one central authority. Currently, because of State-based management, the Murray-Darling Basin is stressed beyond simple repair. For example, the over-allocation of water licenses to suit political purposes in Australia's early federal history has resulted in allocation and pricing inequities. To overcome such inequities, there needs to be on over-arching body, capable of policy formulation, implementation and regulation. The Commonwealth Government is the only body able to do this, yet still be capable, should it so desire, to devolve power to more local authorities for "localised" management within a "national" framework with "national" standards. How can a resolution of this situation be achieved? The only possible way to wrest the power of water system management back from the States is to change the Constitution. This is not easy - in fact it would probably fail - but it is the only method by which federalism can be maintained as a tenet of Australian politics. The States have shown their willingness to work with the Commonwealth to achieve national standards and service improvements for water. They must now accept that the Commonwealth is the best manager of water systems across the Murray Darling Basin, and must be willing to cede such power to the Commonwealth. This is an important first step in improving the management structure of Australian waterways where a common interest is required. There is no more pressing issue in Australia than resolving one of the longest running disputes in Australian federal history. The time is now right for this sore-point of Australia's constitution to be reformed, and the true custodian of the power given it.

The article is devoted to the release of problems and proposed actions to improve the efficiency of the municipal electric companies. While indicating that the rhythmic and smooth operation of passenger electric occupies in the spectrum of life issues of contemporary big city an important place. The article pointed out the legal framework of urban electric transport in Ukraine. For example, transportation services are provided in compliance with requirements such as: consistency (reliability) of traffic on the routes (lines) account in determining the number of passenger rolling stock; establishing speed routes (lines) in compliance with the technical condition of the rolling stock; transportation safety. The article also noted that the management of municipal electric companies has its own peculiarities and differences from the private sector: low profitability; government regulation of pricing; the need for state support; small opportunities and onerous conditions on borrowing. Slow adaptation to market conditions of work and the resulting difficult financial and economic situation of the main problems is called municipal electric companies. The basic factors of low efficiency of the municipal electric companies: unequal conditions of competition in the urban passenger transportation, lobbying stakeholders interests of private carriers; partial compensation for the cost of providing services at subsidized passenger transportation from the state, the uneven subventions for the year; mismatch fares on its cost, the City Council unrecovered difference between economic and tariff setting; critical physical deterioration of the park trams and trolleybuses; the decline in the provision of transport services in the context of stable growth of fixed costs, such as administration costs. The efficiency of the provision of transport, efficiency of passenger security, the efficiency of toll collection, the effectiveness of operational work, the effectiveness of the use of labor resources and the effectiveness of financial and economic activity. Given rating performance indicators of financial and operational activities of municipal electric companies. ; Статья посвящена выделению проблем и предлагаемым мероприятиям по повышению эффективности деятельности предприятий городского электротранспорта. Указано, что обеспечение ритмичной и бесперебойной работы пассажирского электротранспорта занимает в спектре проблем жизнедеятельности современного большого города важное место. В статье отмечено законодательную базу городского электрического транспорта Украины. Так, транспортные услуги предоставляются с соблюдением таких требований, как: постоянство (надежность) перевозок на маршрутах (линиях) учета пассажиропотоков при определении количества подвижного состава; установление скорости движения на маршрутах (линиях) в соответствие технического состояния подвижного состава; безопасность перевозок. В статье также отмечено, что управление предприятиями городского электротранспорта имеет свои особенности и отличия от частного сектора: низкая прибыльность; государственное регулирование ценообразования; потребность в государственной поддержке; небольшие возможности и обременительные условия получения заемных средств. Медленную адаптацию к рыночным условиям работы, а также обусловленное этим сложное финансово-экономическое состояние названо основными проблемами предприятий городского электротранспорта. Выделены основные факторы низкой эффективности деятельности предприятий городского электротранспорта: неравные условия конкуренции на рынке городских пассажироперевозок, лоббирование заинтересованными лицами интересов частных перевозчиков; неполная компенсация затрат на оказание услуг по льготным пассажироперевозкам со стороны государства, неравномерность поступления субвенции в течение года; несоответствие тарифа на проезд его себестоимости, невозмещение горсоветами разницы между экономически обоснованным и установленным тарифом; критический физический износ парка трамвайных вагонов и троллейбусов; сокращение объемов предоставления транспортных услуг в условиях стабильного роста постоянных затрат, в частности расходов на администрирование. Проанализирована эффективность обеспечения транспортной работы, эффективность обеспечения пассажироперевозок, эффективность сбора платы за проезд, эффективность эксплуатационной работы, эффективность использования трудовых ресурсов и эффективность финансово-экономической деятельности. Приведены рейтинговые показатели эффективности финансово-эксплуатационной деятельности предприятий городского электротранспорта. ; Стаття присвячена виділенню проблем та запропонуванню заходів щодо підвищення ефективності діяльності підприємств міського електротранспорту. Зазначено, що забезпечення ритмічної і безперебійної роботи пасажирського електротранспорту займає в спектрі проблем життєдіяльності сучасного великого міста важливе місце. В статті наголошено на законодавчій базі міського електричного транспорту України. Так, транспортні послуги надаються з додержанням таких вимог, як: постійність (надійність) перевезень на маршрутах (лініях); врахування пасажиропотоків під час визначення кількості рухомого складу; встановлення швидкості руху на маршрутах (лініях); відповідність технічного стану рухомого складу; безпечність перевезень. В статті також відзначено, що управління підприємствами міського електротранспорту має свої особливості і відмінності від приватного сектора: низька прибутковість; державне регулювання ціноутворення; потреба в державній підтримці; невеликі можливості та обтяжливі умови отримання позикових коштів. Повільну адаптацію до ринкових умов роботи, а також зумовлений цим складний фінансово-економічний стан названо основними проблемами підприємств міського електротранспорту. Виділено основні чинники низької ефективності діяльності підприємств міського електротранспорту: нерівні умови конкуренції на ринку міських пасажироперевезень, лобіювання зацікавленими особами інтересів приватних перевізників; неповна компенсація витрат на надання послуг з пільгових пасажироперевезень з боку держави, нерівномірність надходження субвенції протягом року; невідповідність тарифу на проїзд його собівартості, невідшкодування міськрадами різниці між економічно обґрунтованим та встановленим тарифом; критичний фізичний знос парку трамвайних вагонів і тролейбусів; скорочення обсягів надання транспортних послуг в умовах стабільного зростання постійних витрат, зокрема витрат на адміністрування. Проаналізовано ефективність забезпечення транспортної роботи, ефективність забезпечення пасажироперевезень, ефективність збору плати за проїзд, ефективність експлуатаційної роботи, ефективність використання трудових ресурсів та ефективність фінансово-економічної діяльності. Наведено рейтингові показники ефективності фінансово-експлуатаційної діяльності підприємств міського електротранспорту.