Researched problem and relevance of the paper. In the second half of the 198th century the concept of medicine as art was finally refused: achievements of the science of medicine allowed to explain physiological processes, revealed the reasons of many pathological processes, quickly developed technologies granted a possibility not only observe all functions of an organism, nut frequently – to control them as well. On one hand, rapid development of the science of medicine and practice determined an obvious improvement of health indicators (decrease of babies' mortality, extension of average lifetime), on the other hand, it has to be admitted that possibilities to control the treatment process and to achieve the desired result are limited . Application of nanotechnologies and genes engineering in medicine aroused the problems of the preservation of the identity of an individual, therefore it had to be discussed anew the nature and essence and the effectiveness of the means ensuring the protection of patients' rights including the effectiveness of legal instruments. The topic of the regulation of patients' rights and duties and the effectiveness of the provided legal protection are determined by the following factors: multiplicity and complexity of the relationship of the physician and patient, frequent ethnical problems arising during treatment and examination, fragmentary regulation of the relationship of physician and patient at the national level and abundant non-codified so-called soft law norms, the participation of the state which provided social guarantees to patients in the relationship of physician and patient, phenomena of the culture of consumption and "shame and blame" in the health relationship, increasing effectiveness of health care and potential dangerous for the patient's health and rapid increase of patients' civil plaints and the amount of the adjusted loss, provoking health care services providers' civil liability insurance "crisis" (situation, when there no insurance companies in the market which provide the services of civil liability insurance). In 1997 the Council of Europe approved the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with re-gard to the Application of Biology and Medicine (hereafter in referred to as Convention on Human Rights and Biomedi-cine) which is a fundamental over-national document in the law doctrine, consolidating patients' rights. Political, eco-nomic, social processes of integration requires a deep analysis of the content of the patients' rights entrenched in the sys-tems of national rights, their implementation and protection mechanisms, the need of the provided legal protection unifi-cation and possibilities. Recognition of the sanctity of a person's body in health care, implementation of new treatment and examination methods, more frequent implementation of the automatic management of the data on a patient's health and other factor require to evaluate the topicality of the patient's rights' list and to correct them if needed. However, the aim of this paper – to examine, considering the acknowledgement in the law doctrine, the peculiarities of one of the most important patient's right – patient's right to the compensation of loss aroused due to treatment or examination, and the institutes influencing the conditions of compensation – informed consent of the patient and the patient's duties. The topicality of the theme is determined by different factors. In recent years the date of the performed researches confirms the topicality of the topic of the compensation of damage aroused due to treatment or examination: health care has been acknowledged as the most dangerous activity of humanity; frequency of undesirable events in developed countries comprises more than 10 percent of all treatment events , at least 44 000 residents of the United States of America (hereinafter – USA) die in hospitals due to the mistakes of treatment . Therefore it is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of the legal protection provided to patients. The conclusions of the audit performed by State control institutions of the Republic of Lithuania of the implementation of the compulsory insurance of the civil liability for the damaged performed to patients and the social researches performed in Lithuania show the distrust of the society in the system of the compensation to patient for damage and the dissatisfaction of the participants of the health system for the present legal regime of the patient's right to compensation for damage and the way of the implementation of this right. The validity of such opinion is supposed by the fact that the number of complaints regarding the compensation for damage suffered by patients is one of the smallest in the world (37 claims for a million of residents per year). The number of complaints regarding the compensation for damage suffered by patients in other countries varies a lot (for example, in North European countries there are five times more complaints regarding the compensation for damage suffered by patients for a million of residents per year than in the USA). On the other hand, the expenses for compensation of the damaged made for the patient in various countries correlates not with the number of the satisfied claims, but with the regime of the protection of patients' rights: the largest expenses of the compensation for damage suffered by patients where the patients' right to the compensation of damage is implemented according to the plaint order of the rule of civil liability in case of fault (USA – 112 EUR/ resident, Italy – 41 EUR/ resident) .At the meantime, in the countries which have implemented special systems of compensation for damage suffered by patients which are based on the concept of health care services providers' civil liability without fault, the expenses of these systems for one resident fluctuates from 4 to 9 Euros (9 EUR / resident in Denmark, 4 EUR / resident in Sweden, 6 EUR / resident in Finland, 8 EUR / resident in New Zealand). The systems of the compensation of special damage for patients are deemed as favourable for patients and it is often indicated that these systems are based on the concept of liability without fault. Therefore it is purposeful to examine of the countries with the longest experience of the regulation of the systems of the compensat
Our thesis concerns the study of the penal colonization of the French Guiana by one relegated interned in the penal colony of Saint-Jean-du-Maroni. The law on the banishment of the recidivists voted May 27th, 1885 entails the exile for life within a colony of delinquents and criminal recidivists. From 1887 till 1953, Guyana is so going to receive more than 17 000 condemned persons intended to become colonists and to become integrated in economic and social structures of the colony. The targets of this law are essentially delinquents recidivists condemned for offences of common theft, swindle and wandering and their " social elimination " bases on a unique mechanics in the history of the French criminal law. The banishment indeed fits out a " irrefragable assumption of incorrigibility " which bases on a quantum, that is on a number of punishments which, if they are quite registered on the police record of a condemned person recidivist, entail the compulsory pronouncement for the magistrate of the punishment of the banishment. This law so determines a positive threshold which dedicates the existence of criminals and delinquents said incorrigible. Our work thus bases on one hand on the analysis of the construction of the penal category of incorrigible criminals whom the banishment comes to dedicate in law from 1885 and articulates on the other hand on the modalities of application of this measure on the ground of the metropolis then on that of the colony. The process of elaboration of the banishment is made within a political configuration which leads the legislators to undergo multiple pressures and to take into account conclusions brought out by actors' large number outer the parliamentary sphere. The origin of this law is so strongly packaged by experts of the crime and the punishments, by magistrates and by statisticians who are going to build in their respective fields of activity a representation of the criminality which bases on a fundamental distinction from the second half of the XIXth century: the sharing between criminals of accident either second-hand and criminal usually or incorrigible. These last ones correspond to all those whom the classic penalty, that is the detention, does not any more succeed in "correcting" and the multiple second offenses of which they are guilty show to the eyes of the legislators their turned out dangerousness. In this plan, the banishment allows to guarantee in the metropolis its security by exiling them beside herself and allows to hope their recovery thanks to a change of saving "environment". But the banishment, by labelling as incorrigible all the condemned persons whom it affects, does not miss to indicate them as such on the ground of the colony. The stigma of the incorrigibility so pursues the relegated in Guyana and, shared by the actors to condemn them in mainland France, it is also shared in Guyana by the actors to facilitate and to organize their reintegration. Far from facilitating their spot installation, the banishment is so similar to a condemnation to the hard labor and the relegated remain a workforce essentially employed on the needs of a penal colony. ; Notre thèse porte sur l'étude de la colonisation pénale de la Guyane française par des relégués internés au bagne colonial de Saint-Jean-du-Maroni. La loi sur la relégation des récidivistes votée le 27 mai 1885 entraîne l'exil à perpétuité au sein d'une colonie de délinquants et de criminels récidivistes. De 1887 à 1953, la Guyane va ainsi recevoir plus de 17 000 condamnés destinés à devenir des colons et à s'intégrer au tissus économique et social de la colonie. Les cibles de cette loi sont essentiellement des délinquants récidivistes condamnés pour des délits de vol simple, d'escroquerie et de vagabondage et leur "élimination sociale" repose sur une mécanique unique dans l'histoire du droit pénal français. La relégation aménage en effet une "présomption irréfragable d'incorrigibilité" qui repose sur un quantum, c'est-à-dire sur un nombre de peines qui, si elles sont toutes inscrites au casier judiciaire d'un condamné récidiviste, entraînent le prononcé obligatoire pour le magistrat de la peine de la relégation. Cette loi détermine ainsi un seuil positif qui consacre l'existence de criminels et de délinquants dits incorrigibles. Notre travail repose donc d'une part sur l'analyse de la construction de la catégorie pénale de criminels incorrigibles que la relégation vient consacrer en droit à partir de 1885 et s'articule d'autre part sur les modalités d'application de cette mesure sur le sol de la métropole puis sur celui de la colonie. Le processus d'élaboration de la relégation s'effectue au sein d'une configuration politique qui conduit les législateurs à subir de multiples pressions et à tenir compte des conclusions dégagées par un grand nombre d'acteurs extérieurs à la sphère parlementaire. L'origine de cette loi est ainsi fortement conditionnée par des experts du crime et des peines, par des magistrats et par des statisticiens qui vont construire dans leurs domaines d'activité respectifs une représentation de la criminalité qui repose sur une distinction fondamentale à partir de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle : le partage entre criminels d'accident ou d'occasion et criminels d'habitude ou incorrigibles. Ces derniers correspondent à tous ceux que la pénalité classique, c'est-à-dire l'emprisonnement, ne parvient plus à "corriger" et les multiples récidives dont ils sont coupables manifestent aux yeux des législateurs leur dangerosité avérée. Dans ce schéma, la relégation permet de garantir à la métropole sa sécurité en les exilant hors d'elle et permet d'espérer leur relèvement grâce à un changement de "milieu" salvateur. Mais la relégation, en étiquetant comme incorrigibles tous les condamnés qu'elle atteint, ne manque pas de les signaler comme tels sur le sol de la colonie. Le stigmate de l'incorrigibilité poursuit ainsi les relégués en Guyane et, partagé par les acteurs en charge de les condamner en métropole, il est également partagé en Guyane par les acteurs en charge de faciliter et d'organiser leur réinsertion. Loin de faciliter leur installation sur place, la relégation s'apparente ainsi à une condamnation aux travaux forcés et les relégués demeurent une main-d'œuvre essentiellement employée aux besoins d'un bagne colonial.
Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors. ; Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors.
This guide accompanies the following article: Christian Fuchs, 'New Media, Web 2.0 and Surveillance', Sociology Compass 5/2 (2011): 134–147, [DOI]. 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2010.00354.xIntroductionThe Internet has become part of our everyday lives. Many of us use it for work, hobbies, entertainment, politics, staying in touch with friends and family, learning to know new people and other cultures, for getting all kind of information, etc. In the past 10 years, we have seen the emergence of platforms like Facebook and Myspace (social networking sites), Wordpress and Blogger (blogging) Twitter (social networking, microblogging), YouTube (video sharing), Wikipedia (wiki‐based encyclopaedia), or the Pirate Bay (filesharing index site). The notions of 'web 2.0' and 'social media' have been used by some scholars to describe features of such sites such as community‐building and maintenance, continuous communication, user‐generated content production and diffusion, collaborative authoring, and distributed content classifications (the latter mechanism is also called folksonomy). Most web 2.0 platforms collect, store, and share a lot of personal user data and data about usage behaviour. Therefore, questions about privacy violations and online surveillance have arisen in public discussions, especially concerning Google (for example the discussions about Google targeted advertising, Google Street View, Google Buzz, etc.) and Facebook (for example the discussions concerning Facebook targeted advertising, Facebook beacon, the Facebook privacy policy, Facebook places, etc.). The field of web 2.0 surveillance studies critically asks questions about the data protection aspects and power dimensions of the contemporary Internet. It is crucial for students and scholars, who are interested in the contemporary media landscape, and who study in fields such as media/communication studies, cultural studies, political science, law, computer science, social informatics, information science, sociology, business studies, advertising, marketing and public relations, philosophy, ethics, science and technology studies etc., to also engage with web 2.0 surveillance studies.Recommended readings Fuchs, Christian. 2010. 'Labour in Informational Capitalism and on the Internet'. The Information Society 26(3): 179–96. doi: 10.1080/01972241003712215 Christian Fuchs discusses in this article the political economy of the contemporary Internet. He does so by giving first an introduction to Karl Marx's analysis of capitalism that is then applied for understanding aspects of the exploitation of the users of contemporary commercial Internet platforms like Facebook. Fuchs uses Dallas Smythe's notion of the audience commodity for critically discussing the business models of web 2.0. He coins the notion of Internet prosumer labour in this context. He concludes that on commercial web 2.0 platforms, user activity tends to become exploited and is unpaid labour. Surveillance is situated in the framework of this analysis. Andrejevic, Mark. 2002. 'The Work of Being Watched'. Critical Studies in Media Communication 19(2): 230–48. doi: 10.1080/07393180216561 Mark Andrejevic argues in this article that contemporary commercial forms of interactive media make use of surveillance for exploiting consumers. He introduces in this context the notion of 'the work of being watched'. This concept is based on Sut Jhally's concept of the work of watching. Andrejevic also introduces the notion of the digital enclosure and gives very good examples for online surveillance. Albrechtslund, Anders. 2008. 'Online Social Networking as Participatory Surveillance'. First Monday 13(3). [online]. Retrieved on 1 March 2011 from: http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2142/1949. In this article, Anders Albrechtslund introduces the notion of participatory surveillance. Other than Fuchs and Andrejevic, Albrechtslund has a rather positive concept of surveillance, he focuses on the description of potentially empowering aspects of social networking sites and other web 2.0 technologies. Albrechtslund stresses the social dimension of web 2.0, its ability for enabling communication, sharing, and community‐building. Mathiesen, Thomas. 2004. Silently Silenced. Essays on the Creation of Acquiescence in Modern Society. Winchester: Waterside Press. In this short 100 page book, Thomas Mathiesen discusses mechanisms and examples of how political opposition is silently silenced, that is ideologically forestalled. The work is a masterpiece of contemporary ideology critique. Mathiesen identifies mechanisms of how silent silencing works and gives many examples. In chapter 8, it is discussed how the corporate Internet works as system of silent silencing or what Mathiesen terms the synopticon. Mathiesen's work is influenced among others by Foucault and Frankfurt School ideology critique. Campbell, John E. and Matt, Carlson M. 2002. 'Panopticon.com: Online Surveillance and the Commodification of Privacy'. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 46(4): 586–606. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4604_6 In this paper, Campbell and Carlson discuss the usefulness of Michel Foucault's notion of the panopticon as technology of surveillance for explaining how Internet advertising and marketing work. They employ a political economy framework and argue that Internet advertising and marketing commodify users' private data and their privacy.Online materialsThe following online journals are very good sources for further papers about critical internet studies, information society studies, surveillance studies, and privacy studies:
tripleC: Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society. http://www.triple‐c.at Surveillance and Society. http://www.surveillance‐and‐society.org First Monday. http://firstmonday.org/ Journal of Privacy and Confidentiality. http://repository.cmu.edu/jpc/
Sample syllabusTopics for Lectures and DiscussionWeek I: Foundations of surveillance studiesReadings:Foucault, Michel. 1977. 'Panopticims.' (Part 3). Pp. 195–228 in Discipline and Punish. New York: Vintage.Lyon, David. 1994. 'Surveillance in Modern Society' (Chapter 2). Pp. 22–39 in The Electronic Eye. Cambridge: Polity.Lyon, David. 2007. 'Explaining Surveillance' (I.3). Pp. 46–70 in Surveillance Studies. An Overview. Cambridge: Polity.Week II: Foucault's surveillance theory and the panopticon: criticism and defenceReadings:Lyon, David (ed.) 2006. 'Pre‐ and Post‐Panopticism: The Search for Surveillance Theories.' Pp. 3–20 in Theorizing Surveillance. Portland, OR: Willan.Haggerty Kevin. 2006. 'Tear Down the Walls: On Demolishing the Panopticon.' Pp. 23–45 in Theorizing Surveillance, edited by David Lyon. Portland, OR: Willan.Fuchs, Christian. 2010. How Can Surveillance Be Defined? Remarks on Theoretical Foundations of Surveillance Studies. Vienna: Unified Theory of Information Research Group. SNS3 Research Paper No.1. ISSN 2219‐603X. http://www.sns3.uti.at/wordpress/wp‐content/uploads/2010/10/The‐Internet‐Surveillance‐Research‐Paper‐Series‐1‐Christian‐Fuchs‐How‐Surveillance‐Can‐Be‐Defined.pdfWeek III: What is web 2.0?Readings:Fuchs, Christian. 2010. 'Social Software and Web 2.0: Their Sociological Foundations and Implications.' Pp. 764–89 in Handbook of Research on Web 2.0, 3.0, and X.0: Technologies, Business, and Social Applications. Volume II, edited by San Murugesan. Hershey, PA: IGI‐Global.Castells, Manuel. 2009. 'Communication in the Digital Age' (Chapter 2). Pp. 54–136 in Communication Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Alternative to reading Castells (2009):Castells, Manuel. 2010. 'Communication Power: Mass Communication, Mass Self‐Communication, and Power Relationships in the Network Society.' Pp. 3–17 in Media and Society, edited by James Curran. London: Bloomsbury.Scholz, Trebor. 2008. 'Market Ideology and the Myths of Web 2.0.'First Monday 13(3). [online]. Retrieved on 1 March 2011 from: http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2138/1945.Week IV: Computing and surveillanceThe role of surveillance in the age of computingReadings:Marx, Gary T. 2002. 'What's New About the "New Surveillance"? Classifying for Change and Continuity.'Surveillance & Society 1(1): 9–29.Lyon, David. 1998. 'The World Wide Web of Surveillance. The Internet and Off‐World Power‐Flows.'Information, Communication & Society 1(1): 91–105.Clarke, Roger. 1988. 'Information Technology and Dataveillance.'Communications of the ACM 31(5): 498–512.Week V: The capitalist business and ideology of surveillanceReadings:Gandy, Oscar H. 1996. 'Coming to Terms with the Panoptic Sort.' Pp. 132–55 in Computers, Surveillance & Privacy, edited by David Lyon and Elia Zureik. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Mathiesen, Thomas. 1997. 'The Viewer Society. Michel Foucault's "Panopticon" Revisited.'Theoretical Criminology 1(2): 215–34. doi: 10.1177/1362480697001002003Week VI: The Internet prosumer commodityReadings:Smythe, Dallas W. 1981. 'On the Audience Commodity and Its Work.' Pp. 230–56 in Media and Cultural Studies, edited by Meenakshi G. Durham and Douglas M. Kellner. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Fuchs, Christian. 2010. 'Labour in Informational Capitalism and on the Internet.'The Information Society 26(3): 179–96. doi: 10.1080/01972241003712215Week VII: The work of watching and the work of being watchedReadings:Jhally, Sut. 2006. 'Chapters: Watching as Working. The Valorization of Audience Consciousness. The Political Economy of Culture'. Pp. 25–61 in The Spectacle of Accumulation. New York: Peter Lang.Andrejevic, Mark. 2002. 'The Work of Being Watched.'Critical Studies in Media Communication 19(2): 230–48. doi: 10.1080/07393180216561Week VIII: Economic online surveillance and web 2.0Readings:Mathiesen, Thomas. 2004. 'Panopticon and Synopticon as Silencing Systems' (Chapter 8). Pp. 98–102 in Silently Silenced. Essays on the Creation of Acquiescence in Modern Society. Winchester: Waterside Press.Fuchs, Christian, Kees Boersma, Anders Albrechtslund, Marisol Sandoval (eds) 2011. The Internet and Surveillance. New York: Routledge.
Chapter by Christian Fuchs: 'Critique of the Political Economy of Web 2.0 Surveillance.' Chapter by Marisol Sandoval: 'A Critical Empirical Case Study of Consumer Surveillance on Web 2.0.' Chapter by Thomas Allmer: 'Critical Internet Surveillance Studies and Economic Surveillance.'
Campbell, John E. and Matt, Carlson M. 2002. 'Panopticon.com: Online Surveillance and the Commodification of Privacy.'Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 46(4): 586–606. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4604_6Focus questionsDiscussion in week 1:What different kinds of definitions of surveillance are there? Compile various definitions by making a literature search. Compare these definitions and discuss how surveillance should best be defined.Discussion in week 2:Discuss first in small groups of 3–5 and compare then the results of the group discussions in a general discussion.Consider the following list of information processing phenomena. Which one do you consider as surveillance, which one's not? Compare your results with the results of your colleagues. Discuss then if a Foucauldian understanding of surveillance fits your understanding of surveillance or not. Discuss pro and con arguments for 'demolishing' Foucault's notion of the panopticon. Discuss if using the notion of the panopticon makes political and theoretical sense in contemporary society or not.
teachers watching private activities of pupils via webcams at Harriton High School, Pennsylvania, the employment of the DART system (Deep‐ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) in the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Caribbean Sea for detecting tsunamis, the scanning of the fingerprints of visitors entering the United States, consensual online video sex chat of adults, parents observing their sleeping sick baby with a camera or babyphone in order to see if it needs their help, the use of speed cameras for identifying speeders (involves state power), the seismographic early detection of earthquakes, electronic monitoring bracelets for prisoners in an open prison system, the scanning of Internet and phone data by secret services with the help of the Echelon system and the Carnivore software, the usage of a GPS‐based car navigation system for driving to an unknown destination, the usage of full body scanners at airports, biometrical passports containing digital fingerprints, the use of the DoubleClick advertising system by Internet corporations for collecting data about users' online browsing behaviour and providing them with targeted advertising, CCTV cameras in public means of transportation for the prevention of terrorism, the assessment of customer shopping behaviour with the help of loyalty cards, the data collection in marketing research, the usage of smog and air pollution warning systems, the publication of sexual paparazzi photos of celebrities in a tabloid, the assessment of personal images and videos of applicants on Facebook by employers prior to a job interview, drinking water quality measurement systems, the collection of data about potential or actual terrorists in the TIDE database (Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment) by the US National Counterterrorism Center, Passenger Name Record (PNR) data transfer from Europe to the United States in aviation, the permanent electrocardiogram of a cardiac infarction patient, the activities of radioactivity measuring stations for detecting nuclear power plant disasters, Telekomgate: spying on employees, trade unionists, journalists, and members of the board of directors by the German Telekom, measurement of meteorological data for weather forecasts the video filming of employees in Lidl supermarkets and assessment of the data by managers in Germany, the usage of a fire detector and alarm system and a fire sprinkling system in a public school, watching the watchers: corporate watch systems, filming of the police beating of Rodney King (LA 1992), YouTube video of the police killing of Neda Soltan (Iran 2009) systems for detecting and measuring temperature, humidity, and smoke in forest areas that are prone to wildfires.
Discussion in week 3:Work in groups of 3–5 people. Compile a list of Internet platforms that you use. Based on the literature that you have read about web 2.0, try to identify key qualities of the communication processes that are supported by the Internet platforms on your list. Discuss if it makes sense to employ notions like 'web 2.0' and 'social media'. Discuss how the communication qualities of the platforms you listed are connected to/enable surveillance. Compare the results in a plenary discussion.Discussion in week 4:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Discuss the meaning of the notions of the panoptic sort and the synopticon. Make a list of examples, where surveillance plays a role in the economy. Make a list of examples, where surveillance, the media, and information technology function as means for advancing ideologies. Discuss to which examples the notions of the panoptic sort and/or the synopticon can be applied. Discuss first in the small group and then in general with all colleagues in the seminar how useful the notions of the panoptic sort and the synopticon are for understanding the contemporary Internet and media landscape.Discussion in week 5:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Find examples for the connection of computers and surveillance. Based on your list of examples and the read literature, try to identify key qualities of computer‐based surveillance. Compare the three articles of Marx, Lyon, and Clarke: What are the key characteristics of computer‐based surveillance for each of the three authors? How do the three approaches differ? What do they have in common? If you compare computer‐based and non‐computer based forms of surveillance, what are commonalities and differences? Can we speak in the case of computer‐based surveillance of a new form of surveillance?Compare the group discussion results to the results of the discussions in the other groups.Discussion in week 6:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Discuss the meaning of the notions of the audience commodity and the Internet prosumer commodity. Find examples for how the audience commodity works in the area of advertising in newspapers and TV. Find examples for the Internet prosumer commodity in relation to web 2.0 platforms that you use. Discuss the role of surveillance in Internet prosumer commodification. Discuss if you as Interner prosumers that use Facebook, Google, YouTube, etc. are exploited by the companies owning these platforms or not. If you think you are exploited, what can be politically done in order to overcome the exploitation of labour on the Internet? Compare the results of the group discussions and conduct a general discussion about the crucial questions.Discussion in week 7:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Discuss the meaning of the notions of the work of watching and the work of being watched. Discuss the role of surveillance in the work of being watched. Find examples both for the work of watching and the work of being watched. Compare Dallas Smythe's concept of the audience commodity to Sut Jhally's concept of the work of watching. Compare Fuchs's concept of Internet prosumer commodification to Andrejevic's concept of the work of being watched online. What are differences and commonalities? Compare the results of the group discussions. Discuss with all colleagues what the political implications of economic online surveillance are: How dangerous is economic online surveillance and online labour exploitation? What can be done about it politically?Discussion in week 8:Work first in groups of 3–5 people. Based on the read literature, make a list of qualities of economic surveillance on web 2.0. Identify which web 2.0 platforms you read most frequently. Read the terms of use and privacy policies of these platforms. Make a list, how each of these platforms exactly uses your data and usage behaviour data, for economic purposes. List for each platform what kind of data about you it stores, collects from other Internet platforms, which data it is allowed to sell for advertising purposes, and which data about you or that you upload becomes property of the platform owner. How does the organization model of Wikipedia differ from the ones of Facebook and Google? Inform yourself about the alternative web 2.0 platform Diaspora. What are its organizational principles, how do they differ from Facebook? Compare the results of the group work.Conduct a general discussion about the following questions: What are the problems of surveillance on web 2.0? What are the advantages and disadvantages of platforms like Facebook, Google, YouTube, Twitter? How can advantages and disadvantages be overcome? Do you see possibilities for creating a non‐commercial Internet or non‐commercial Internet platforms? What are advantages and disadvantages of a non‐commercial, non‐profit, commons‐based Internet?Seminar/project ideaInternet Studies in general and Critical Internet Studies and Web 2.0 Surveillance Studies are very young fields of studies. There are a lot of unexplored topics relating to the political economy of web 2.0 that have thus far not been pursued. Writing master's theses and dissertations in this area is not only interesting and important, but is also a lot of fun because one engages in research about those media that we have come used to utilize in our everyday life and work. Students may also consider to present chapters from their dissertations or theses at international conferences, like the PhD student workshops and conferences of the ICTs and Society Network (http://www.icts‐and‐society.net) or the annual conference of the Association of Internet Researchers (http://www.air.org).Research results can also be presented to the public in the form of blog postings or small articles for popular journals or newspapers. For writing for these more popular formats, it is good to connect more theoretical ideas to concrete events and phenomena in the world of the Internet (see the example writings on the NetPoliticsBlog: http://fuchs.uti.at/blog). One can also pursue writing an op‐ed piece for a daily newspaper.Social movements and groups that discuss Internet politics and want to foster a common and free access to knowledge and the Internet can be interesting discussion and co‐operation partners for scholars, which can give a more practical dimension to research.Short BiographyChristian Fuchs holds the chair in media and communication studies at Uppsala University's Department of Informatics and Media. He is also board member of the Unified Theory of Information Research Group, Austria, and editor of tripleC (cognition, communication, co‐operation): Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society. He studied computer science at the Vienna University of Technology in the years 1994–2000. He completed his PhD in 2002 at the Vienna University of Technology. In 2000–2006, he was lecturer for information society studies at the Institute of Design and Technology Assessment of the Vienna University of Technology. He was a research associate at the same department in the years 2002–2004. At the University of Salzburg, he was assistant professor in the years 2005–2007 and associate professor from 2008 to 2010 in the field of ICTs and society. His main research fields are: social theory, critical theory, critical political economy of media, information, technology; information society studies, ICTs and society. He is author of many academic publications, including the books Internet and Society: Social Theory in the Information Age (New York: Routledge, 2008) and Foundations of Critical Media and Information Studies (New York: Routledge, 2011). He is co‐editor of The Internet and Surveillance (edited by Christian Fuchs, Kees Boersma, Anders Albrechtslund and Marisol Sandoval). He co‐ordinates the research project Social Networking Sites in the Surveillance Society (2010–2013), which is funded by the Austrian Science Fund FWF and is management committee member of the EU COST Action Living in Surveillance Societies (2009–2013).
After stagnating for much of its postcolonial history, economic performance in Sub?Saharan Africa has markedly improved. Since 1995, average economic growth has been close to 5 percent per year. Has Africa finally turned the corner? This paper analyzes growth accelerations and decelerations-that is, country level deviations from long?run trend growth. Seen from this perspective, Africa's record of slow and volatile growth reflects a pattern of offsetting accelerations and declines, and much of the improvement in economic performance in Africa post 1995 turns out to be due to a substantial reduction in the frequency and severity of growth decelerations. The fall in economic declines since 1995 is largely due to better macroeconomic policies, but changes in such 'growth determinants' as investment, export diversification, and productivity have not accompanied the growth boom. Lack of change in these variables and the significant role played by natural resources in sparking growth accelerations suggest that Africa's growth recovery was fragile, even before the recent global economic crisis. The paper concludes by setting out four elements of a strategy that can help move Africa from fewer mistakes to sustained growth: managing natural resources better, pushing nontraditional exports, building the African private sector, and creating new skills.
After stagnating for much of its postcolonial history, economic performance in Sub?Saharan Africa has markedly improved. Since 1995, average economic growth has been close to 5 percent per year. Has Africa finally turned the corner? This paper analyzes growth accelerations and decelerations-that is, country level deviations from long?run trend growth. Seen from this perspective, Africa's record of slow and volatile growth reflects a pattern of offsetting accelerations and declines, and much of the improvement in economic performance in Africa post 1995 turns out to be due to a substantial reduction in the frequency and severity of growth decelerations. The fall in economic declines since 1995 is largely due to better macroeconomic policies, but changes in such 'growth determinants' as investment, export diversification, and productivity have not accompanied the growth boom. Lack of change in these variables and the significant role played by natural resources in sparking growth accelerations suggest that Africa's growth recovery was fragile, even before the recent global economic crisis. The paper concludes by setting out four elements of a strategy that can help move Africa from fewer mistakes to sustained growth: managing natural resources better, pushing nontraditional exports, building the African private sector, and creating new skills.
Secret Wars is the first book to systematically analyze the ways powerful states covertly participate in foreign wars, showing a recurring pattern of such behavior stretching from World War I to U.S.-occupied Iraq. Investigating what governments keep secret during wars and why, Austin Carson argues that leaders maintain the secrecy of state involvement as a response to the persistent concern of limiting war. Keeping interventions "backstage" helps control escalation dynamics, insulating leaders from domestic pressures while communicating their interest in keeping a war contained. Carson shows that covert interventions can help control escalation, but they are almost always detected by other major powers. However, the shared value of limiting war can lead adversaries to keep secret the interventions they detect, as when American leaders concealed clashes with Soviet pilots during the Korean War. Escalation concerns can also cause leaders to ignore covert interventions that have become an open secret. From Nazi Germany's role in the Spanish Civil War to American covert operations during the Vietnam War, Carson presents new insights about some of the most influential conflicts of the twentieth century. Parting the curtain on the secret side of modern war, Secret Wars provides important lessons about how rival state powers collude and compete, and the ways in which they avoid outright military confrontations
Verfügbarkeit an Ihrem Standort wird überprüft
Dieses Buch ist auch in Ihrer Bibliothek verfügbar:
There is a growing appreciation in economics that people have emotional vulnerabilities, commitments to social norms, and systematic irrationalities, which impact their decision making and choice in the marketplace. The flip side of this is that human beings are susceptible to being manipulated by unscrupulous agents who are single-minded about marketing their services and wares. This paper reviews George Akerlof and Robert Shiller's book, Phishing for Phools: The Economics of Manipulation and Deception, alongside other writings in the field, and discusses how this research agenda can be taken forward. The paper shows how this new research can shed light on the ubiquity of corruption in so many societies, and proposes ideas for controlling corruption.
Management has a large effect on the productivity of large firms. But does management matter in micro and small firms, where the majority of the labor force in developing countries works? This study developed 26 questions that measure business practices in marketing, stock-keeping, record-keeping, and financial planning. These questions have been administered in surveys in Bangladesh, Chile, Ghana, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka. This paper shows that variation in business practices explains as much of the variation in outcomes — sales, profits, and labor productivity and total factor productivity — in microenterprises as in larger enterprises. Panel data from three countries indicate that better business practices predict higher survival rates and faster sales growth. The effect of business practices is robust to including many measures of the owner's human capital. The analysis finds that owners with higher human capital, children of entrepreneurs, and firms with employees employ better business practices. Competition has less robust effects.
Agglomeration economies are among the most important factors to increase firm productivity. However, there is little evidence supportive of this in Africa. By applying the conditional and nested logit models, this paper examines the relationship between firm locations and infrastructure accessibility in Rwanda. It is found that agglomeration economies matter to even one of the smallest countries in Africa. It is also found that infrastructure availability has an important role in affecting the firm location decision. Electricity access and transport connectivity to the domestic and international markets are found to be important to attract new investment. In addition, the quality of local labor supplied, measured by educational attainment, is found as an important determinant of firm location, while the effect of labor costs remains inconclusive.
This article presents data on the evolution of top incomes and wages for 1922-2000 in India using individual tax return data. The data show that the shares of the top 0.01 percent, 0.1 percent, and 1 percent in total income shrank substantially from the 1950s to the early to mid-1980s but then rose again, so that today these shares are only slightly below what they were in the 1920s and 1930s. This U-shaped pattern is broadly consistent with the evolution of economic policy in India: from the 1950s to the early to mid-1980s was a period of ''socialist'' policies in India, whereas the subsequent period, starting with the rise of Rajiv Gandhi, saw a gradual shift toward more pro-business policies. Although the initial share of the top income group was small, the fact that the rich were getting richer had a nontrivial impact on the overall income distribution. Although the impact is not large enough to fully explain the gap observed during the 1990s between average consumption growths shown in National Sample Survey based data and the national accounts based data, it is sufficiently large to explain a non-negligible part of it.
Eine dauerhafte Verfügbarkeit ist nicht garantiert und liegt vollumfänglich in den Händen der Herausgeber:innen. Bitte erstellen Sie sich selbständig eine Kopie falls Sie diese Quelle zitieren möchten.
Electronic hardware has been vulnerable to malign cyber activities since the dawn of digital networks. However, the widespread adoption of the so-called Internet of Things (IoT) has led to a multiplication of cyber vulnerabilities in goods and pieces of infrastructure that were previously considered safe from digital threats.[1] The European Union witnessed this first-hand, with a significant increase in the number of cyberattacks to its hardware and software products in the last few years.[2] Interconnectedness has been a boon to product efficiency, business opportunities and standard quality. Yet, it has also opened new avenues for malign activity, not only of the criminal kind. There are multiple examples of consumer goods bearing critical vulnerabilities, from webcams to pacemakers.[3] Amidst growing international tensions, such products will likely remain a playing field for state-sponsored and politically minded cyber actors. Since Russia's brutal invasion of Ukraine, the EU has observed a peak of attacks targeting digital service providers.[4] As a result of the conflict, cyberspace overall has registered an increase in offensive operations such as destructive malware, phishing campaigns and influence operations. Cyber risks associated with the IoT are current, growing, cogent and critical – especially in the private sector and for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Recent reports have shown that 87 per cent of the companies affected by ransomware attacks in Europe are SMEs with under 50 employees. Such companies are becoming progressively more connected; yet, each technological advancement entails an increase in vulnerabilities. Even though one of the main concerns lies with unmanaged devices, also devices that have been diligently managed can pose challenges, due to the lack of available patches for numerous known vulnerabilities. Inadequate authentication and unresolved vulnerabilities hold particular significance, as IoT devices can be exploited for activities such as bitcoin mining. This could be done, for instance, with hackers installing malware on a device or creating networks of compromised devices, also known as botnets. The exposure of IoT devices and connected goods has to be contextualised within a broader trend, which sees overall cybersecurity risks becoming endemic. The European Repository of Cyber Incidents reports 1,634 total politically relevant cyber incidents since 2015, with 2023 marking a peak of 486 recorded incidents.[5] Fifty-three per cent of attacks in this timespan were directed against government and political institutions, 39 per cent against critical infrastructures and the others against commercial actors, private citizens, social groups, media and other non-state actors. The political and strategic ramifications of such actions can be far-reaching, as recently exposed by the 2021 attack against Colonial Pipeline in the US, when a hacker group identified as DarkSide hit the infrastructure with ransomware.[6]A fraught public-private relationship The international debate has long pointed towards some forms of public-private partnership as the pillar of future cybersecurity governance, recognising the outsized role played by major businesses in shaping the digital commons and the supposed ease with which they could identify and act upon vulnerabilities in their products.[7] Yet, the divergence of interests between the state and private actors has been identified as a major shortcoming of this model, which rests on the assumption of an implausible dedication of private companies to implement costly self-regulation and monitoring.[8] The proliferation of state-sponsored cyber actors and bustling criminal activity on the one hand, and the reliance on privately owned, operated or produced infrastructures on the other, has led to an intense debate regarding who bears the responsibility for guaranteeing the safety and security of connected products. This discussion is becoming ever more important considering that critical vulnerabilities and zero-day exploits – namely, a vulnerability that is only discovered once exposed – are more and more in the crosshairs of malevolent state-sponsored actors, both as a way to compromise operational technologies and to penetrate networks violating office routers or VPNs.[9] As a result, the policy debate seems to have decisively moved towards a stronger role of public authorities, both at the national and international levels. In the conclusions on the EU's Cybersecurity Strategy for the Digital Decade, the Council emphasised that cybersecurity is vital for the "functioning of public administration and institutions at both national and EU level and for our society and the economy as a whole".[10] In the US, the director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency recognised that "For too long, we have sacrificed security for features and speed to market, leaving us increasingly vulnerable, with the burden of security placed on those least able to bear it."[11] In an attempt to create a positive cooperation between the public and private sectors, the upcoming EU Cyber Resilience Act (CRA), which proposes some new measures specific to product vulnerabilities, can become a landmark for this approach.The EU's Cyber Resilience Act The CRA was first announced by European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen in the State of the Union address in September 2021, as part of the EU's toolbox towards a European Cyber Defence Policy.[12] Subsequently, the Council conclusions of May 2022 on the development of the European Union's cyber posture stressed the need for "a horizontal and holistic approach that covers the whole lifecycle of digital products, as well as existing regulation, especially in the area of cybersecurity".[13] Thus, the Council invited the Commission to propose common and horizontal cybersecurity requirements for all products with digital elements by the end of 2022. On 15 September 2022, the Commission adopted the proposal for a Regulation aimed at mandating cybersecurity requirements for hardware and software products "with digital elements whose intended or reasonably foreseeable use includes a direct or indirect logical or physical data connection to a device or network".[14] The focus of such requirements would include the products' design, development, production and availability on the market. At the same time, the CRA also complements the EU cybersecurity framework established by the EU Cybersecurity Act (Regulation (EU) 2019/881)[15] and referred to in the Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive 2,[16] which already includes measures to "introduce more stringent supervisory measures and stricter enforcement requirements, including harmonised sanctions across the EU".[17] The Council has made several changes to the Commission's CRA proposal, concerning the scope, the support measures for SMEs, the declaration of conformity and the reporting obligations of manufacturers. With regard to the latter, the manufacturers shall notify any actively exploited vulnerability contained in the product and any incident having an impact on the security of the product with digital elements that they become aware of. For example, changes include a shift in the recipients of cybersecurity information, as manufacturers shall notify the designated national Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRTs) and not the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA), as in the Commission's draft. In addition, a two-step reporting process has been introduced. It involves an initial early warning notification to be made "without undue delay" and in any event within 24 hours of becoming aware of the actively exploited vulnerability or incident impacting the security of the product. The early warning is followed by a second notification within 72 hours, aiming to update the information already provided and indicate any available information about either the status of remediation or any corrective or mitigating measures taken. The CRA also provides for a sanctions regime for non-compliance with the essential cybersecurity requirements, that may have fundamental implications for those involved. The potential maximum fines for non-compliance could be either from 5 to 15 million euro or from 1 to 2.5 per cent of annual global turnover, whichever is greater. Given the complexity and sensitivity of the issues at stake, there have been several moments of discussion between EU member states to find a compromise. The representatives of the member states (Coreper) finally reached a consensus on horizontal cybersecurity requirements for products with digital elements on 19 July 2023, allowing the Council to start negotiations with the European Parliament on the final version of the proposed legislation.[18]A difficult balance The CRA draft touches upon a diverse set of issues that need to be tackled to modernise and adapt Europe's cybersecurity governance. For the foreseeable future, this will likely remain a multilayered, complex affair which relies on two potentially fractious relationships: that between national cyber authorities and the ENISA, and that between cyber authorities and the private sector. ENISA acts as an interface between the national and the European level: it promotes and participates in European working groups, it contributes to studies on practices at member state level meant to elaborate common guidelines, and it works to raise awareness on cybersecurity amongst European SMEs. ENISA also endures some undeniable difficulties stemming from its role as an EU organisation. For instance, it faces obstacles in maintaining an operational capacity to investigate and react to threats in real time, especially when political considerations are brought into the equation. Each member state has its own national position on cyber security and defence. Similarly, different national Computer Security Incident Response Teams (CSRITs) have different approaches in dealing with cyber vulnerabilities and responding to emergencies. Their respective approaches largely depend on their internal security culture, both in terms of human resources and organisational habits. The third protagonist to be factored in is, as mentioned, the private sector. The European information and communication technologies (ICT) industry does not seem to be inherently opposed to the CRA, but requires certain conditions to be met. The CRA mandates that all manufacturers have resources and procedures in place to mitigate vulnerabilities in products with digital elements and to ensure that vulnerabilities in their products can be addressed through security updates. Article 11 in particular sets a series of requirements that manufacturers have to comply with concerning the reporting of exploited vulnerabilities to the competent authority.[19] Such a development should significantly improve the cybersecurity of products placed on the market in the EU and elsewhere. At the same time, increasing the responsibility of manufacturers by obliging them to provide security support and software updates to address identified vulnerabilities may "undermine the security of digital products and the individuals who use them".[20] Yet, the CRA is horizontal to almost all sectors of the economy: every product, device or software application that contemplates connection to a network falls within the scope of the Act. It affects industry sectors that are less accustomed to the digital sphere and which will have to go through a number of procedures for the certification of conformity of their products. As a consequence, the wider industrial sector is asking for some time to adapt and get acquainted with the legislation and its implications. An additional argument put forward by the industrial players concerns the security of information. By sharing details on their products' cyber vulnerabilities, they worry they would unintendedly be feeding malevolent actors with information on ways to exploit such vulnerabilities. Moreover, whilst sharing information about significant cybersecurity incidents is deemed crucial to support collective defence actions, exchanging data about unpatched vulnerabilities before effective countermeasures are available can divert the attention of responders, as becoming aware of the presence of a vulnerability may compel those concerned with user protection to take hasty action rather than trying to identify the root cause of the incident and elaborate a structured response.Looking forward The adoption of the CRA represents a significant milestone in the EU's journey towards becoming a global leader in setting cybersecurity standards. Over the years, the cumulative effect of past initiatives at both EU and national levels had resulted in a somewhat fragmented legislative landscape within the internal market, underscoring the necessity for a comprehensive and global perspective. Legal developments such as the drafting of the CRA aim to standardise cybersecurity practices and certifications across the EU, thereby contributing to a more harmonised and robust cybersecurity landscape. Such legal efforts, however, must be complemented by other actions in order to achieve comprehensive digital security. As known, cooperation and information sharing are key in order to prevent threats, also in the cyber domain. The adoption of a standardised vocabulary for threat intelligence – that is, evidence-based knowledge about existing cyberattacks or emerging cyber threats – would facilitate the sharing of threat intelligence both internally and externally, and both between public and private entities.[21] As the virtual landscape exposed to cyber risks continues to expand, it is crucial to promote a corresponding increase in cyber awareness. A positive step in this direction is demonstrated by an increasing focus on coordination and information sharing by public and private actors working in cyber defence, as also stipulated by the CRA. Furthermore, these efforts must be accompanied by a broader cultural shift. It will be important to promote an action of cultural mentoring to facilitate the transition of private companies, and especially SMEs, to the digital realm, ensuring that they not only meet compliance requirements but also become proactive contributors to the broader cybersecurity ecosystem. By combining regulatory measures, threat intelligence standardisation, enhanced cyber awareness and a cultural mentoring approach, the EU is better positioned to fortify its cybersecurity posture and foster a more resilient digital landscape.Ottavia Credi is Researcher in the Defence and Security Programmes at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI). Michelangelo Freyrie was a Junior Researcher in the Defence and Security Programmes at IAI. Federica Marconi is a Researcher in the Multilateralism and Global Governance Programme at IAI. The authors would like to thank Paola Tessari (IAI) for her valuable contribution to this commentary. For the fruitful exchange of view, the authors would like to thank Anitec-Assinform, the Italian National Cybersecurity Agency (Agenzia per la cybersicurezza nazionale, ACN) and Microsoft. The views expressed in the commentary are those of the authors' only.[1] Elizabeth MacBride, "The Dark Web's Criminal Minds See Internet of Things as Next Big Hacking Prize", in CNBC, 9 January 2023, https://www.cnbc.com/2023/01/09/the-dark-webs-criminal-minds-see-iot-as-the-next-big-hacking-prize.html.[2] Javier Espinoza, "EU to Impose Tough Rules on 'Internet of Things' Product Makers", in Financial Times, 7 September 2022, https://www.ft.com/content/cfa2e2be-8871-4b56-b7bf-c5d2c55e8ed5.[3] Harold Kilpatrick, "5 Infamous IOT Hacks and Vulnerabilities", in IOTSolutions World Congress, 3 October 2018, https://www.iotsworldcongress.com/5-infamous-iot-hacks-and-vulnerabilities.[4] European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA), ENISA Threat Landscape 2022, November 2022, https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-2022.[5] European Repository of Cyber Incidents, Cyber Incident Dashboard, last updated on 30 October 2023, https://eurepoc.eu/dashboard.[6] Sean Michael Kerner, "Colonial Pipeline Hack Explained: Everything You Need to Know", in Whatls Features, 26 April 2022, https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/feature/Colonial-Pipeline-hack-explained-Everything-you-need-to-know.[7] See, for instance: Kristoffer Kjærgaard Christensen and Karen Lund Petersen, "Public–Private Partnerships on Cyber Security: A Practice of Loyalty", in International Affairs, Vol. 93, No. 6 (November 2017), p. 1435-1452, DOI 10.1093/ia/iix189; Raphael Bossong and Ben Wagner, "A Typology of Cybersecurity and Public–Private Partnerships in the Context of the European Union", in Oldrich Bures and Helena Carrapico (eds), Security Privatization. How Non-security-related Private Businesses Shape Security Governance, Cham, Springer, 2018, p. 219-247, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63010-6_10; Daniel R. McCarthy, "Privatizing Political Authority: Cybersecurity, Public-Private Partnerships, and the Reproduction of Liberal Political Order", in Politics and Governance, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2018), p. 5-12, https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v6i2.1335.[8] Madeline Carr, "Public–private Partnerships in National Cyber-Security Strategies", in International Affairs, Vol. 92, No. 1 (January 2016), p. 43-62, DOI 10.1111/1468-2346.12504, https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/ia/INTA92_1_03_Carr.pdf.[9] ENISA, ENISA Threat Landscape 2022, cit., p. 22-23; and ENISA Threat Landscape 2023, October 2023, p. 22-23, https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/enisa-threat-landscape-2023.[10] Council of the European Union, Council Conclusions on the EU's Cybersecurity Strategy for the Digital Decade (6722/21), 22 March 2021, point 2, https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-6722-2021-INIT/en/pdf.[11] Jen Easterly and Tom Fanning, "The Attack on Colonial Pipeline: What We've Learned & What We've Done Over the Past Two Years", in CISA News, 7 May 2023, https://www.cisa.gov/node/18129.[12] European Commission, 2021 State of the Union Address by President von der Leyen, 15 September 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_21_4701.[13] Council of the European Union, Cyber Posture: Council Approves Conclusions, 23 May 2022, https://europa.eu/!6VvGNk; and Council Conclusions on the Development of the European Union's Cyber Posture (9364/22), 23 May 2022, point 4, https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-9364-2022-INIT/en/pdf.[14] European Commission, Proposal for a Regulation on Horizontal Cybersecurity Requirements for Products with Digital Elements… (COM/2022/454), 15 September 2023, Art. 2(1), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=celex:52022PC0454.[15] European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Regulation (EU) 2019/881 of 17 April 2019 on ENISA (the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity) and on Information and Communications Technology Cybersecurity Certification… (Cybersecurity Act), http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/881/oj.[16] European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Directive (EU) 2022/2555 of 14 December 2022 on Measures for a High Common Level of Cybersecurity across the Union…, http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2022/2555/oj.[17] Maria del Mar Negreiro Achiaga, "The NIS2 Directive: A High Common Level of Cybersecurity in the EU", in EPRS Briefings, February 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2021)689333.[18] See the steps of Procedure 2022/0272/COD: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/procedure/EN/2022_272; and European Parliament, Legislative Train Schedule: Horizontal Cybersecurity Requirements for Products with Digital Elements, as of 20 October 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-a-europe-fit-for-the-digital-age/file-european-cyber-resilience-act.[19] To read the text of Art. 11, see European Commission, Proposal for a Regulation on Horizontal Cybersecurity Requirements for Products with Digital Elements, cit.[20] Tony Anscombe et al., Joint Letter of Experts on CRA and Vulnerability Disclosure, 3 October 2023, https://www.centerforcybersecuritypolicy.org/insights-and-research/joint-letter-of-experts-on-cra-and-vulnerability-disclosure.[21] Boning Feng, "Threat Intelligence Sharing: What Kind of Intelligence to Share?", in Concordia Blog, 20 August 2021, https://www.concordia-h2020.eu/?p=5655.
The problem of economic development has been the subject of discussion in economic theory for hundreds of years. It is one of the most important issues in economics. To this day, it is crucial to specify the factors and conditions of this phenomenon. The purpose of this article is to identify the direction and strength of the relationship between the quality of the institutional environment and the level of economic development. The soft modelling method and analysis of the literature were applied to identify this relationship. Selected research methods allowed for the positive verification of the adopted hypothesis- institutional environment has a significant, positive impact on shaping economic development dynamics. ; University of Bialystok, Doctoral School in the Social Sciences, Poland ; MA, PhD Student, Doctoral School in the Social Sciences, University of Bialystok (Poland) ; m.borkowski@uwb.edu.pl ; 27 ; 48 ; 2 ; Barro, R.J. (1996). Democracy and growth. J Econ Growth, 1, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00163340.Becker, G. (1962). Investment in Human Capital: A Theoretical Analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 9-49. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1829103. ; Bidard, C. (2014). The Ricardian rent theory: an overview. Centro Sraffa Working Papers, 8, 1-37. Retrieved from http://www.centrosraffa.org/public/54f0dec7-cea7-4c15-8121-d4a8ed3c7ccb.pdf. ; Bochenek, M. (2016a). Historia rozwoju ekonomii. Od starożytności do szkoły klasycznej [The history of the development of economics. From antiquity to the classical school] (Vol. 1). Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ; Bochenek, M. (2016b). Historia rozwoju ekonomii. Od idei socjalistycznych do historyzmu [The history of the development of economics. From socialist ideas to historicism] (Vol. 2). Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ; Bochenek, M. (2016c). Historia rozwoju ekonomii. Od keynesizmu do syntezy neoklasycznej [The history of the development of economics. From Keynesianism to the neoclassical synthesis] (Vol. 5). Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. ; Borkowski, M. (2020). Economic security of Polish Voivodeships. Measuring the concept. Studia Prawno-Ekonomiczne, 114, 195-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.26485/SPE/2020/114/11. ; Breton, T.R. (2014). A Human Capital Theory of Growth: New Evidence for an Old Idea. Center for Research in Economics and Finance (CIEF), Working Papers, 13-14. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2456903. ; Danowska-Prokop, B. (2017). Poglądy Adama Smitha, Tomasza Roberta Malthusa i Davida Ricardo na kwestie ludnościowe [The Views of Adam Smith, Thomas Robert Malthus and David Ricardo on Population Issues]. Studia Ekonomiczne. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach, 309, 49-56. Retrieved from https://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/publication/287342/edition/271802/content?&ref=desc. ; Dobler, C. (2011). The Impact of Formal and Informal Institutions on Economic Growth. Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien: Peter Lang International Academic Publishers. http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-00883-8. ; Domar, E.D. (1946). Capital Expansion, Rate of Growth, and Employment. Econometrica, 14(2), 137-147. https://doi.org/10.2307/1905364. ; European Commission (2010). Europe 2020. A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, (2010), Brussels. Retrieved December 12, 2020, from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A52010DC2020. ; Faundez, J. (2016). Douglas North's Theory of Institutions: Lessons for Law and Development. Hague Journal Rule Law, 8, 373-419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40803-016-0028-8. ; Fiedor, B. (2015). Instytucje formalne i nieformalne w kształtowaniu trwałego rozwoju [Formal and Informal Institutions in Shaping Sustainable Development]. Studia i Prace Wydziału Nauk Ekonomicznych i Zarządzania, 40(2), 83-107. http://dx.doi.org/10.18276/sip.2015.40/2-07. ; Fraser Institute (2018). Human Freedom. Retrieved December 19, 2018, from https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/human-freedom-index-2018. ; Fraser Institute (n.d.). Economic Freedom. Retrieved December 19, 2018, from https://www.fraserinstitute.org/economic-freedom/approach. ; Freedom House (n.d.). Freedom House Index. Retrieved April 14, 2021, from https://freedomhouse.org/reports/freedom-world/freedom-world-research-methodology. ; Gruszewska, E. (2013). Instytucje a proces tworzenia kapitału w Polsce [Institutions vs. The Process of Capital Formation in Poland]. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku. ; Gruszewska, E. (2015). Instytucje a akumulacja kapitału rzeczowego we współczesnej gospodarce [The Influence of Institutions on Capital Accumulation in Contemporary Economy]. Nierówności Społeczne a Wzrost Gospodarczy, 42(2), 251-265. Retrieved from http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-8cab7627-001f-4910-93cd-0adba046894b/c/17_Gruszewska_E.pdf. ; Gruszewska, E. (2017). Instytucje formalne i nieformalne. Skutki antynomii [Formal and Informal Institutions. Results of Antinomy]. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, 493, 36-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.15611/pn.2017.493.03. ; Haller, A.P. (2012). Concepts of Economic Growth and Development. Challenges of Crisis and of Knowledge. Economy Transdisciplinarity Cognition, 15(1), pp. 66-71. Retrieved from https://www.ugb.ro/etc/etc2012no1/09fa.pdf. ; Harrod, R.F. (1939). An Essay in Dynamic Theory. The Economic Journal, 49(193), 14-33. https://doi.org/10.2307/2225181. ; Heritage Foundation (n.d.). Economic Freedom Index. Retrieved December 19, 2018, from https://www.heritage.org/index. ; Hodgson, G.M. (2006). What Are Institutions? Journal of Economic Issues, 40(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2006.11506879. ; Keynes, J.M. (2003). Ogólna teoria zatrudnienia, procentu i pieniądza [The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. (Orginal work published 1936). ; Lewis, W.A. (1954). Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour. The Manchester School, 22(2), 139-140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1954.tb00021.x. ; Lohmöller, J.B. (1989). Latent Variable Path Modeling with Partial Least Squares. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-52512-4. ; Malthus, T.R. (2003). Prawo ludności. Wydał, objaśnił i poprzedził przedmową A. Krzyżanowski [An Essay on the Principle of Population] (K. Stein, Trans.). Warszawa, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Wilno, Zakopane: Wydawnictwo Gebethnera i Wolfa. (Original work published 1798). ; Mankiw, N. G., Romer, D., & Weil, D. N. (1992). A Contribution to the Empirics of Economic Growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(2), 407–437. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118477. ; Marcinkiewicz, J. (2013). Procesy globalizacji a poziom rozwoju Giełdy Papierów Wartościowych w Warszawie - model miękki [The processes of globalization and the level of development of the Warsaw Stock Exchange - soft model]. Zarządzanie i Finanse, 11(1), 445-460. Retrieved from http://zif.wzr.pl/pim/2013_1_1_30.pdf. ; Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1955). Manifesto of the Communist Party. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. (Orginal work published 1848). ; Meoqui, J.M. (2014). Reconciling Ricardo's Comparative Advantage with Smith's Productivity Theory. Economic Thought, 3(2), 1-33. Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/41442. ; Miłaszewicz, D. (2011). Jakość instytucji a wzrost gospodarczy [The Quality of Institutions and Economic Growth]. Studia i Prace Wydziału Nauk Ekonomicznych i Zarządzania, 19, 5-24. Retrieved from http://wneiz.pl/nauka_wneiz/sip/sip19-2011/SiP-19-1.pdf. ; Misiewicz, E. (2013). Działalność innowacyjna a rozwój gospodarczy województw Polski [Innovation activity and Economic Development of Polish Voivodeships]. Zarządzanie i Finanse, 3(2), 195-206. Retrieved from http://zif.wzr.pl/pim/2013_3_2_14.pdf. ; North, D.C., (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808678. ; Osiobe, E.U. (2019). A Literature Review of Human Capital and Economic Growth. Business and Economic Research, 9(4), 179-196. https://doi.org/10.5296/ber.v9i4.15624. ; Palmer, G. (1992). The Earth Summit: What went wrong at Rio?. Washington University Law Quarterly, 70(4), 1005-1028. Retrieved from https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_lawreview/vol70/iss4/1. ; Pearce, D., Barvier, E. & Markandya, A., (1990). Sustainable Development. Economics and Environment in the Third World. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. ; Perło D. (2014b). Environmental quality as a decisive variable in shaping regional development policy. Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric, 37(1), 159-178. https://doi.org/10.2478/slgr-2014-0023. ; Perło, D. (2014a). Modelowanie zrównoważonego rozwoju regionów. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersyteckie Trans Humana. ; Piętak, Ł. (2016). Zrównoważony wzrost gospodarczy w teoriach i modelach wzrostu i rozwoju gospodarczego [Sustainable Economic Growth in Theories and Models of Economic Growth and Development]. Gospodarka w praktyce i teorii, 2(43), pp. 51-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1429-3730.43.04. ; Poczta-Wajda, A., & Sapa, A. (2017). Paradygmat rozwoju zrównoważonego - ujęcie krytyczne [The paradigm of sustainable development: a critical approach]. Progress in Economic Sciences, 4, 131-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.14595/PES/04/009. ; Popiel, I. (2015). Aspekty pojęciowe kapitału ludzkiego i jego znaczenie [Conceptual Aspects of Human Capital and Its Importance]. Studia Prawno-Ekonomiczne, 95, 301-315. ; Ratajczak, M. (2011). Popularność ekonomii instytucjonalnej. Moda czy trwała zmiana? [The Popularity of Institutional Economics. A Fashionable Trend or Lasting Change?]. Zeszyty Naukowe/ Polskie Towarzystwo Ekonomiczne, 9, 29-42. Retrieved from http://www.pte.pl/pliki/1/1144/ZN-9_Ratajczak.pdf. ; Ricardo, D. (2001). On The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Ontario: Batoche Books. (Orginal work published 1817). Retrieved from https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/ricardo/Principles.pdf. ; Rocki, M. (1998). Miękkie wskaźniki stanu gospodarki [Soft Indicators of Economic Situation]. Prace i Materiały Instytutu Rozwoju Gospodarczego SGH, 60, 107-127. Retrieved from http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.cejsh-8838c708-5163-49f3-b574-fa8852ebcb07/c/PiM_60_M.Rocki.pdf. ; Rodrik, D. (2006). Goodbye Washington Consensus, Hello Washington Confusion? A Review of the World Bank's Economic Growth in the 1990s: Learning from a Decade of Reform. Journal of Economic Literature, 44(4), 973-987. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/30032391. ; Rodrik, D. (2007). One Economics. Many Recipes. Globalization, Institutions, and Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvcm4jbh. ; Rodrik, D., Subramanian A., & Trebbi, F. (2004). Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions Over Geography and Integration in Economic Development. Journal of Economic Growth, 9, 131-165. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOEG.0000031425.72248.85. ; Rogowski, J. (1990). Modele miękkie. Teoria i zastosowanie w badaniach ekonomicznych. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Filii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego w Białymstoku. ; Rostow, W.W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth. A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; Roszkowska, E., & Filipowicz-Chomko, M. (2016). Ocena rozwoju społecznego województw w latach 2005 oraz 2013 w kontekście realizacji koncepcji zrównoważonego rozwoju z wykorzystaniem metody TOPSIS [The Analysis of Social Development of Polish Voivodeships in 2005 and 2013 in the Context of Implementing the Concept of Sustainable Development Using TOPSIS Method]. Ekonomia i Środowisko, 57(2), 94-118. Retrieved from http://www.ekonomiaisrodowisko.pl/uploads/ekonomiaisrodowisko57/09_roszkowska_filipowicz.pdf. ; Schultz, T.W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1-17. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907. ; Schumpeter, J.A. (1949). The Theory of Economic Development. An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1912). ; Skrodzka, I., & Ciborowski, R. (2019). International Technology Transfer, Innovation and Economic Development of European Union Countries in 2008-2017. European Research Studies Journal, 22(3), 384-404. https://portal.issn.org/resource/ISSN/1108-2976. ; Smith, A. (2007). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Amsterdam, Lausanne, Melbourne, Milan, New York, Sao Paulo: MetaLibri. (Original work published 1776). Retrieved from https://www.ibiblio.org/ml/libri/s/SmithA_WealthNations_p.pdf. ; Solow, R.M. (1956). A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94. https://doi.org/10.2307/1884513. ; Swan, T.W. (1956). Economic Growth and Capital Accumulation. Economic Record, 32(2), 334-361. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.1956.tb00434.x. ; Weingast, B.R. (2018). The Many, Diverse 'Main Points' of Adam Smith's the Wealth of Nations. Political Theory: History of Political Thought eJournal, 1-27. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3163699. ; Wilkin, J. (2016). Instytucjonalne i kulturowe postawy gospodarowania. Humanistyczna perspektywa ekonomii. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe SCHOLAR. ; Wold, H. (1980). Soft Modelling: Intermediate between traditional model building and data analysis. Mathematical Statistics Banach Center Publications, 6(1), 333-346. Retrieved from http://eudml.org/doc/209137. ; World Bank (n.d.). Doing Business. Retrieved December 19, 2018, from http://www.doingbusiness.org/. ; World Bank (n.d.). The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI). Retrieved December 19, 2018, from http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.aspx#home. ; Zagóra-Jonszta, U. (2015). Teoria rozwoju gospodarczego i "twórczej destrukcji" Schumpetera oraz jej aktualność [Validity of Economic Development Theory and Schumpeter's Creative Destruction in Modern Times]. Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne, 3(75), 20-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.15290/ose.2015.03.75.02. ; 4
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina. Escuela de Posgrado. Maestría en Ecología Aplicada ; Uno de los problemas que enfrenta Espinar es la presencia de conflictos relacionados con la actividad expansiva de la gran minería. El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer y determinar las causas-implicancias y las relaciones de los conflictos socio-ambientales de la gran minería en Espinar (1980- 2013). Para ello, primero se recopiló información sobre la historia de la minería, se identificó y se caracterizó los ciclos mediante la metodología de análisis de ecología política y los ciclos adaptativos. Luego se elaboró modelos cualitativos de evolución histórica que permitió identificar a los principales actores y factores en los diferentes momentos. Finalmente, se realizó una encuesta que permitió conocer la percepción ambiental de la sociedad civil. Se caracterizó los momentos Ω (omega) o colapso de cada ciclo mediante el análisis de los seis capitales, (stocks que un sistema tiene, tales como el natural, económico, humano, social, político y físico). Se determinó- desde la llegada de Minero Perú que dio inicio a las sucesivas exploraciones y explotación por socavón hasta los años 80s con mediana minería; y la explotación a tajo abierto por la gran minería hasta la actualidad. Se considera una etapa, donde presenta un ciclo parcial y dos miniciclos. El ciclo parcial se encuentra en estado de madurez, que comprende miniciclos: 1-Explotación por EMETINSA S.A, hasta su privatización. 1994. 2- Explotación por Magma Copper Company hasta la actualidad. 2003. El análisis indica que a finales de la etapa 0 el capital natural (Kn) y el económico (Ke) están cayendo, tenemos, por un lado el precio del cobre estaba en decadencia a nivel internacional, pero al mismo tiempo muchos mineros locales se dedicaban a la minería artesanal, preferentemente de oro, en tanto para explotar el cobre era difícil por la compleja organización geológica de la mina. El capital social (Ks), político (Kp) y humano (Kh) se mantienen constantes y el capital físico (Kf) tiende a bajar ligeramente previo a la apertura de los tajos. Para el inicio de la gran minería a tajo abierto, diferentes variables entran en fase colapso de manera conjunta o simultanea que indica que el sistema completo entra en la fase omega () de la etapa I. El Kn (↓) se encontraba en descenso a causa del precio internacional del cobre. La infraestructura era deficiente inicialmente ya que no se contaba con energía eléctrica y carreteras para el traslado del mineral a mayor escala, los cuales no han sido fáciles de encaminar por el comportamiento nada favorable del precio de metales, haciendo que el Ke (↓) disminuya. El Kp (↓) decrece, porque muchas decisiones políticas para la explotación no se hizo participativamente y con el desbroce del suelo han perdido la infraestructura, lo que significó el deterioro de los modos de vida ancestrales, costumbres, sus relaciones personales, así como la introducción al sistema de moldes mentales exógenos, haciendo que también el Kf (↓) disminuya. El Ks (↓) tenemos por un lado las expropiaciones forzadas de tierras ganaderas y agrícolas para el desbroce y apertura del tajo, el desplazamiento de las poblaciones que ha generado otros problemas socioculturales como la migración campo-ciudad, ruptura de las familias, entre otros. En tanto el Kh se mantiene constante, aunque mostró una leve caída al inicio de esta Etapa. En miniciclo 1. El Ks (↓) decrece, debido a la reducción drástica de trabajadores y el desvanecimiento de la organización minera. El Kn y Ke (↑) fueron favorables dado que el precio internacional del cobre desde 1993 se eleva notoriamente y la mina inicia explotación polimetálica y diversifica su producción. En tanto el Kp (→) se mantiene igual, debido a la "política cerrada" del gobierno central. El Kh (→) se mantiene igual, aunque se hace visible los primeros efectos negativos en la naturaleza, los primeros indicios de contaminación se evidencian a partir de varios estudios ambientales. En miniciclo 2. El Ks () mostró una leve mejora por los acuerdos alcanzados entre la sociedad civil y la minera. El Kp (↑) ha incrementado debido a la conectividad, participación y propuesta que ha desarrollado el gobierno local y la sociedad civil con otras entidades internacionales. Con el pasar del tiempo el Kn () se ha ido reduciendo en términos de acceso a recursos naturales y calidad, focalizadas en las poblaciones adyacentes y el precio del cobre se fue incrementando, además del ingreso per cápita y IDH por lo que el Ke (↑). Los actores más influentes en el ciclo parcial y miniciclos: inicialmente los mineros locales y Minero Perú, gobierno central, poblaciones expropiadas, EMETINSA S. A. y en la actualidad las poblaciones adyacentes a la mina, gobierno central y local, CooperAcción, sociedad civil, minera y Fundación Tintaya. Entre los factores el precio del cobre y la Ley N° 18880 (nacionalización). R.D. N°41/81/EM/DGM (expropiación), D.L. N° 674 y 708 (privatización) y demanda por metales. Las escalas de influencia de los actores van desde lo global hacia lo local. La minera incide en algunas variables del sistema como la migración, gobernanza, la intensificación y los impactos ambientales. La causa del conflicto es por afectación del recurso agua y suelo que ha llevado al deterioro y degradación socio-ambiental de poblaciones adyacentes. En cuanto a la percepción existe contaminación y afectación del agua y suelo, la calidad de la salud es mala. La mina no es percibida como sector que genere empleo, a pesar que afirman que si aporta al desarrollo y por el cuidado del ambiente consideran a las ONG. Se sugiere hacer análisis con los ciclos adaptativos que permiten organizar información y describir la dinámica del sistema, se recomienda la institucionalización de una instancia permanente de diálogo y desarrollo orientados a lograr efectivas transformaciones a los conflictos y promover el Consentimiento, para la toma de decisiones que involucran el uso de los recursos naturales. ; One of the issues that Espinar faces is the presence of conflicts due to the expanding activity of the 'Great Mining'. The objective of this study was to understand and determine the cause-effects and the relationships of the socioenvironmental struggles of the 'Great Mining' in Espinar (1980-2013). In order to accomplish this, compiling information on the history of mining was done first, which identified and characterized cycles by the methodology of analysis of political ecology and adaptive cycles. Afterwards, qualitative models of historical evolution were produced, which allowed identification of the main actors and factors at different moments. Lastly, a survey was carried out, which aided to understand the environmental perception of the civil society. Ω (omega) moments or collapse of each cycle were characterized through analyzing the six capitals (natural, economic, human, social, political and physical). The arrival of Minero Perú gave rise to subsequent explorations and exploitations by tunnel until the 1980s with a medium amount of mining, as well as open-pit mines to present day. A single stage is divided into a partial cycle and two mini-cycles. The partial cycle is in a state of maturity, and it comprises mini-cycles: exploitation by EMETINSA S.A, until their privatization in 1994, and exploitation by Magma Copper Company until 2003. The analysis indicates that at the end of stage 0, the natural capital (Kn) and the economic one (Ke) are falling. On one hand, we have the price of the copper in decadence on an international level, and on the other hand, many local miners were devoted to handmade mining, preferably of gold. As for copper, it was difficult to be exploited due to the complex geologic organization of the mine. The social capital (Ks), the political capital (Kp) and the human capital (Kh) remain steady, whereas the physical capital (Kf) tends to fall a little, prior to the opening of the pits. To begin 'open cut' mining, a number of variables enter, jointly or simultaneously, a phase of collapse, thereby indicating that the whole system is entering the omega phase (Ω) of stage I. Kn (↓) declines because of the international price of copper. Originally, the infrastructure was faulty since it lacked electric power and highways to transfer minerals on a larger scale, which were difficult to guide due to the unfavorable behavior of the price of metals, making Ke (↓) diminish. Kp (↓) fell because many political decisions regarding exploitation had not been made, and with the clearing of the floor they lost their infrastructure, which caused the deterioration of ancestral ways of life, customs, personal relationships, as well as the introduction of mental exogenous molds to the system, causing a decline in Kf (↓). Ks (↓) had the forced expropriations of cattle and agricultural lands to clear and open the pit, plus the displacement of the populations, which generated further socio-cultural issues, such as country-city migration, breakdown of families, among others. Although Kh remained steady, it showed a slight fall at the beginning of this stage. In mini-cycle 1, Ks (↓) fell due to the drastic reduction of workforce and the dissipation of the mining organization. Kn and Ke (↑) were favorable due to the evident rise of the international price of copper since 1993, as well as the polymetallic mining exploitation, and a diversification of its production. Kp (→) remains the same, due to the central government's 'closed policy'. Kh (→) remains the same too, although its first negative effects on the environment become clear; the first indications of contamination are evidenced primarily from several environmental studies. In minicycle 2, Ks (↑) showed a slight improvement because of the agreements reached between the civil society and the mining one. Kp (↑) increased due to the connectivity, participation and proposal developed by the local government and the civil society with other international entities. Over time, Kn (↓) has been declining in terms of access to natural resources and quality, focused on the adjacent populations and the rising price of copper; the per capita income and HDI for Ke (↑) has been increasing too. Initially, the most influential actors in the partial cycle and mini-cycles were the local miners and Minero Perú, the central government, a number of expropriated populations, and EMETINSA S.A.; however, the adjacent populations to the mine, as well as the central and local government, CooperAcción, the civil society, the mine and Fundación Tintaya are currently the most influential ones. The price of copper, Law N° 18880 (nationalization), Royal Legislative Decree N° 41/81/ME/Municipal Decree (expropriation), Legislative Decree N° 674 and 708 (privatization), and the demand for metals have been major influencers, too. The influence scales of the actors reach from a global standpoint to a local one. The mining has an impact on some variables in the system, such as migration, governance, escalation, and environmental impacts. The conflict was due to the degradation of the water and soil resources, which led to socio-environmental degradation of adjacent populations. Such resources have been contaminated and degraded, and so has the quality of people's health. The mining sector is not perceived as an employment generator, despite it is claimed to contribute to the development and the sustainability of the environment (NGOs). It is suggested to conduct an analysis with adaptive cycles in order to organize the data and describe the dynamics of the system. It is also recommended to institutionalize a permanent dialogue and have a goal-oriented development in order to effectively transform the conflicts and promote individual consent for better decisions that affect our natural resources. ; Tesis
AbstractThe title of this thesis is An Analysis of Language Style Used in the Slogan of AdvertisementThat Found in the Internet. It aims to determine the type of language style that used in eachkind of slogans. The writer examines for the meaning contained. Descriptive method used toexplain the data. Four steps exercised by the author, who has to determine the sources, collect,analyze & present the data. The writer used Agih method (Sudaryanto: 1993). The authoremploys An Introduction to Sociolinguistics theory by Holmer, Janet. (1992), Metode andTeknik Analisis Bahasa theory By Sudaryanto (1993). The writer found the different oflanguage style used in the same categories of slogan. The writer make an analysis about thedata with divided the data one by one in the same categories of product.Key words: Language Style, Slogan, Advertisement, InternetINTRODUCTIONAdvertising or advertisementis a form of communication used to persuadean audience (viewers, readers or listener) totake some action with respect to products,ideas, or services. Most commonly, thedesired result is to drive consumer behaviorwith respect to a commercial offering,although political and ideological advertisingis also common. Advertising messages areusually paid for by sponsor and viewed viavarious traditional media; including massmedia such as newspaper, magazines,television commercial, radio advertisementoutdoor advertising or direct mail; or newmedia such as websites and text messages.Beside, Crabtree, et al(1991:237) say that:"Advertising is a business inwhich language is used to persuadepeople to do things, for examples tobuy some product or vote someone,and / or believe thing, for example, thatsome one corporation is trustworthy orsome political philosophy is good one"Like other advertising media,online advertising frequently involves both apublisher, who integrates advertisements intoits online content, and an advertiser, whoprovides the advertisements to be displayedon the publisher's content. Other potentialparticipants include advertising agencies thathelp generate and place the ad copy, an adserver who technologically delivers the adand tracks statistics, and advertising affiliateswho do independent promotional work forthe advertiser. Internet advertising is a formof promotion that uses the Internet and2World Wide Web for the expressed purposeof delivering marketing messages to attractcustomer. Examples of internet advertisinginclude contextual ads that appear on searchengine result pages, banner advertising, intext ads, Rich Media advertising, onlineclassified advertising, advertising networkand e-mail marketing, including e-mail spamand slogans.A slogan is an advertising taglineor phrases that advertisers create tovisually express the importance and benefitsof their product. By and large, it's a theme toa campaign that usually has a genuine role inpeople's lives. It has the ability to loanpeople's time and attention by puttingconsumers at the heart of the solution. Everyday we see millions of messages andcatchphrase everywhere from print media tointernet advertisement.Slogans are powerful marketingtools that can motivate their customers tosupport their brand. The best slogans areinstantly recognizable. It is an advertisingtag-line or phrase that advertisers create toovisually and verbally expresses theimportance and benefits of their product.Internet advertisement use somelanguage style. It purposes to attract theirconsumer. The language style has greatcontribution in attracting people whobrowsing the internet. So, they use languagestyle that interesting to the netter.In this research the writer tries todescribe and to look for the forms oflanguage for her analysis in internetadvertisement. At this analysis, the writerfocuses on language style used in slogans ininternet advertisement.Holmes (1992: 1) saysthat: "Sociolinguistics isconcerned with the relationshipbetween language and context inwhich it is used".In this case, the writer took some researchthat have relation with language variety,there are: The first one , Maria (2000) aboutlanguage style in some short stories as foundin Cool 'n Smart magazine in her research,she analyzes casual style and slang which,are found in Cool 'n Smart magazine. Sheanalyzes longer expressions(which idiomatic meaning) that arecharacteristic of slang usage. Another one,Anti (1998), about non-standard Indonesianlanguage in teenager magazine. In herresearch, she analyzes style of language inshort stories in teenager's magazines.Advertising or advertisement is aform of communication used to persuade anaudience (viewers, readers or listener) to takesome action with respect to products, ideas,or services. Most commonly, the desiredresult is to drive consumer behavior withrespect to a commercial offering, althoughpolitical and ideological advertising is alsocommon. Advertising messages are usuallypaid for by sponsor and viewed via varioustraditional media; including mass media suchas newspaper, magazines, television3commercial, radio advertisement outdooradvertising or direct mail; or new media suchas websites and text messages.Beside, Crabtree, et al(1991:237) in Arri Anti (1998 )saythat:"Advertising is a business inwhich language is used to persuadepeople to do things, for examples tobuy some product or vote someone,and / or believe thing, for example, thatsome one corporation is trustworthy orsome political philosophy is good one"According to Wikipedia, a sloganis a memorable motto or phrase used in apolitical, commercial, religious, and othercontext as a repetitive expression of an ideaor purpose. A slogan is an advertising taglineor phrases that advertisers create tovisually express the importance and benefitsof their product. By and large, it's a theme toa campaign that usually has a genuine role inpeople's lives. It has the ability to loanpeople's time and attention by puttingconsumers at the heart of the solution. Everyday we see millions of messages andcatchphrase everywhere from print media tointernet advertisement.Slogans are powerful marketingtools that can motivate their customers tosupport their brand. The best slogans areinstantly recognizable. It is an advertisingtag-line or phrase that advertisers create forvisually and verbally expresses theimportance and benefits of their product.The style of language that speakersuse with friends, when one a job interview,when talking to parents, the situationallanguage is called language style. Accordingto Holmes (1992:245), states that theaddresses and the context affect out choice ofcode of variety, whether language, anddialect. From the definition, the writer canconclude that language style is variety ofspeakers which is following the writer byaddressing and context.According to Holmes (1992:236) astandard variety is generally one which iswritten and which has under gone some ofregularization or codification (for example,in a grammar and dictionary), it is used for H(high) function a long side a diversity of L(Low) varieties.A Standard language variation isgenerally: (1) Used in the news media and inliterature (2) Described in dictionaries andgrammar (3) Taught in school and to nativespeakers when they learn language as aforeign languageAccording to Halim (1980) in Chaer(2004:192) non standard language is varietythat has indication or symbol fromcharacteristic to set out of the way fromnorm of standard language also calledinformal language.Non standard language shows greatervariety than standard language. The highersocial position of the non standard speakers,4the more nearly do they approach thestandard language.According to Richard, et al (1985)non standard language is use in speaking orwriting; with differ in pronunciation,grammar or vocabulary from the standardlanguage. Sometime the expressionsubstandard is used but linguist differ theterm non-standard as it a more neutral term.According to Holmes (1992: 74), there aremany components of the meaning of the termnon-standard language, they are;(1)Unstandardized or uncodified variety(2)Refers to the way it's acquired in thehome at first variety (3)It's used forrelatively circumscribed the function(4)Used in informal situationOne mark of an informal language isthe frequent occurrence of slang. Almosteveryone use slang occasions but it is noteasy to define the word. According toFromkin (1985:276) slang has been definedas "one of those things that everybody canrecognize and nobody can define".Regardless of social position, almostall people use slang from time to time.According to Yeager (1981:183) slang isanother word that is difficult to define butexpresses a concept that is understood byalmost everyone; probably the fundamentalquality of a slang term is not generallyaccepted. Slang words may come about bycombining to do word, by introducing acompletely new word. Slang expressionshave come and gone ever the year, some toreturn again but other never does. At thesometime, though same slang expressionsare remarkably resilient and persistent andsurvive over long periods of time.Akmadjian (1984) in Sudrawati(1999) explain about slang as follows:(1)Slang is part of casual informal styles oflanguage use (2)Slang like fashion in dottingand popular music, changer rapidly(3)Specific areas of slang often associatedwith particular social group, and hence onespeaks teenager slang.A daily activity has conversational language.Generally, colloquial style is not reallyattention to pronunciation, choice or words,or sentence structure. According toAlwasilah (1986:59) in Arry Anti (1998) thatcolloquial is words or phrases that are onlyused in utterances in spoken language. Itused in casual conversation. Educationnative speakers of a language normally usecolloquial speech in informal situation withfriends, fellow worker and members of thefamily.In this research, the writer would liketo use some theories in order to support indevelopment this thesis. The theories will bedescribed briefly, that is language style,formal and informal language, for exampleslang and colloquial.RESEARCH METHODOLOGYIn this research, the writer also usedthe qualitative method is a processing of5research, which is have a result descriptivedata like spoken or written language. In thisresearch, the writer uses this method toanalyze the language style as found inslogans in internet advertisementIn this research, the writer took the data fromslogans in internet advertisement. In internetadvertisement the writer copying someslogans into a flash disk and found some datafor to analyze. The data are categorized intofood and beverage, automotive, cosmetics,electronics etc.To collect the data, the writer usesobservation method. Observation methoditself is observes the language from thesource of data, that are some slogans ininternet advertising. In collecting the data thewriter browse the internet and uses flash diskto save the data in both formal and informallanguage which includes the words thatrelated to the research.DISCUSIONBased of the analysis, language style inadvertisement can be describe into nonstandard (that are slang and colloquial) andstandard languageNon StandardSlang1) BRYLCREEM - "A Little Dab'll DoYa!"From the example above, the sloganis about men's pomade or hair cream. Slangis not based to the true meaning but to thecontext. In the true meaning the word Dab'llsame with Dabble or playing with water butin the context meaning the word Dab'll isslang that means the hair is gloss or shiny ona surface because that hair cream.2) BURGER KING – It'll blow your mindawayFrom the example above, the word'blow' in the true meaning the wind action tomake something has different position orlook. But in the context meaning the word'blow' is slang version that means make yourmind only thinking about this food.3) GOOGLE - Don't be evilFrom the example above, the word'evil' in the true meaning has a negativemeaning or it is a crime or bad spirit. But inthe context meaning the word 'evil' is slangversion that means stupid. It is fit with theslogan because Google is the one of manysources of knowledge, information, socialnetwork etc. with Google the people cansmarter not stupid anymore.4) SUZUKI SWIFT - It's a boy thing.SWIFT, wanna play?From the example above, the word'wanna' in the true meaning is 'want to'.But in the context meaning the word'wanna' is slang version that meanschallenge. It is based from the slogan thatsays It's a boy thing. So are you brave to getthe challenge?5) AUSTRALIAN TOUR – So where thebloody hell are you?6From the example above, it is a sloganabout the tourist industry. The word 'bloodyhell' in the true meaning has a negativemeaning or may be a swearword. But in thecontext meaning the word 'bloody hell' isslang version that means to make sure wherethe place you wish will to go toColloquialA daily activity has conversationallanguage. Generally, colloquial style is notreally attention to pronunciation, choice orwords, or sentence structure. It used in casualconversation. Education native speakers of alanguage normally use colloquial speech ininformal situation with friends, fellowworker and members of the family.6) KFC - Finger lickin' Good!From the example above, it is seenthat the word lickin' is the colloquial versionfrom licking' is the standard language byswitching the alphabet g with the symbol 'from the word licking' become lickin' fromcolloquial. Because this word is not aboutthe creation of completely new word, it isonly about the change the spelling that isswitching one alphabet with one symbol butnot change the meaning.7) Mc D - I'm Lovin itFrom the example above, it is seenthat the word Lovin is the colloquial versionfrom Loving is the standard language bydeleting the alphabet 'g' from the wordLoving become Lovin from colloquial.Because this word is not about the creationof completely new word, it is only about thechange the spelling that is deleting onealphabet but not change the meaning.8) L'OREAL - Because you're worth itFrom the example above, it is seenthat to be 'are' from "Because you're worthit" contracted with pronoun 'you'. In Englishstructure it is should be 'you are'. The wordis colloquial because this slogan is notpaying attention to grammar or the word notabout the creation of completely new wordsbut only about the change the spelling of theshortened pronunciation.9) LG - "Life's Good"From the example above, it is seenthat to be 'is' from "Life's Good" contractedwith pronoun 'life'. In English structure it isshould be 'life is'. The word is colloquialbecause this slogan is not paying attention togrammar or the word not about the creationof completely new words but only about thechange the spelling of the shortenedpronunciation.10) Visa - "Its Everywhere you want to be"From the example above, is same withthe above. To be 'is' from Its Everywhereyou want to be" contracted with pronoun 'it'.In English structure it is should be 'it is. Theword is colloquial because the word notabout the creation of completely new wordsbut only about the change the spelling of theshortened pronunciation.7Standard Language11) Canon - "See what we mean"In example above the advertiser makethe slogan in standard language. It can beseen through the sentence is made in goodgrammar, good spelling and formalvocabulary, so this example uses the formallanguage. So this example is suitable to useon formal language style of advertisingslogans.12) Nike - "Just do it"In example above the advertiser makethe slogan in standard language. It can beseen through the sentence is made in goodgrammar, good spelling and formalvocabulary, so this example uses the formallanguage. So this example is suitable to useon formal language style of advertisingslogans.13) Haagen-Dazs - Pleasure is the path tojoyIn example above the advertiser makethe slogan in standard language. It can beseen through the sentence is made in goodgrammar, good spelling and formalvocabulary, so this example uses the formallanguage. So this example is suitable to useon formal language style of advertisingslogans.14) Red Cross - "The greatest tragedy isIndifference"In example above the advertiser makethe slogan in standard language. It can beseen through the sentence is made in goodgrammar, good spelling and formalvocabulary, so this example uses the formallanguage. So this example is suitable to useon formal language style of advertisingslogans.15) Matchbox - We sell more cars thanford, Chrysler, Chevrolet, and Buickcombined.In example above the advertiser makethe slogan in standard language. It can beseen through the sentence is made in goodgrammar, good spelling and formalvocabulary, so this example uses the formallanguage. So this example is suitable to useon formal language style of advertisingslogans.CONCLUSIONLanguage style is the ways toshow the freedom of expression, tocomment, to express the ideas, feelings, andgive information to other people. Languagestyle is a part of communication. That usedusually in some situation such as on schooland internet. On this situation usually thepeople mostly use variation of languagestyle.BIBLIOGRAPHYAlwasilah, A. Chaedar (1986) SosiologiBahasa. Bandung: Angkasa.Anti, Arry, (1998) An Analysis of Non-Standard Indonesia Language inTeenangers Magazines. Thesis S1:Padang. Bung Hatta University.8Chaer, Abdul. (2004) Sosiolinguistik.Jakarta : PT. Rineka Cipta.Fromkin, Victoria and Rodman, Robert.1985. An Analysis to Language. LosAngeles: Holt Rinehart and Winston,Inc.Holmer, Janet. (1992) An Introduction toSosiolinguistics. New York:Longman.Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_sloganHttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ InternetAdvertisementHttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_advertisingHttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SloganMeri Efrina (2006) An Analysis of LanguageStyle in Advertising of CleoMagazine. Thesis S1: Padang.BungHatta University.Nurul Huda (2004) An Analysis of LanguageVariation Used in Teenlits. ThesisS1: Padang. Bung Hatta University.Richards, Jack. (1985) Longman Dictionaryof Linguistics. Longman.Spolsky, Bernard. (1998) Sosiolinguistics.Longman York press.Sudaryanto (1993) Metode dan TeknikAnalisis Bahasa. Yogyakarta: DutaWacana Uuniversity Press.Sudrawati (2004) An Analysis of casual styleof Advertisement in AnekaMagazine. Thesis S1: Padang. BungHatta University.Yeager, Edwar. (1981) An Introduction tolinguistics. Boston : Little Brown andCompany
