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Мета статті полягає у дослідженні політичної, громадської, культурницької діяльності Олега Штуля-Ждановича під час Другої світової війни. У процесі написання роботи використано загальнонаукові і спеціальні історичні методи дослідження, основні принципи історичного пізнання. Методологія. Принципи історизму і науковості дозволили відтворити діяльність Олега Штуля-Ждановича у взаємозв'язку з тогочасними суспільно-політичними подіями. Принцип об'єктивності допоміг критично проаналізувати літературно-джерельну базу дослідження. Принцип системності дозволив сформувати цілісну картину діяльності Олега Штуля-Ждановича у роки Другої світової війни. Наукова новизна дослідження полягає в тому, що тут уперше на основі наявної джерельної бази подано узагальнюючу картину діяльності Олега Штуля-Ждановича в роки Другої світової війни. У результаті автор приходить до висновків, що політична діяльність Олега Штуля-Ждановича у роки Другої світової війни була досить активною та різносторонньою. Він став учасником Похідних Груп ОУН(М) та брав активну участь у політичному житті окупованого Києва, тісно співпрацював з провідними діячами націоналістичного руху, передусім з Оленою Телігою та Олегом Ольжичем. Громадсько-культурна діяльність Олега Штуля-Ждановича у роки Другої світової війни представлена його роботою у редакції газети «Українське слово» (Київ). Вагоме значення мала співпраця Олега Штуля-Ждановича з Тарасом Бульбою-Боровцем, оскільки мета співпраці полягала в об'єднанні усіх самостійницьких сил перед спільним ворогом. По суті, саме завдяки їхній співпраці можна говорити про постійний політичний зв'язок між ОУН(М) та силами Тараса Бульби-Боровця. Згідно поглядів Олега Штуля-Ждановича, головна ціль будь-якої боротьби полягала у здобутті незалежності України. Загалом, у дослідженні надано оцінку політичній, громадській, культурницькій діяльності Олега Штуля-Ждановича на українських землях під час Другої світової війни.Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych's social and cultural activity during World War II is represented by his work in the editorial office of the newspaper "Ukrainske Slovo" ("Ukrainian Word") (Kyiv). Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych's cooperation with Taras Bulba-Borovets was of great importance, while its purpose was to unite all independent forces against a common enemy. In fact, their cooperation supported a permanent political connection between the OUN (M) and the forces of Taras Bulba-Borovets. According to Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych, the main goal of any struggle was to gain Ukraine's independence. In general, the research provides an estimation of the political, social and cultural activities of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych in the Ukrainian lands during World War II. ; The aim of the article is to study the political, social and cultural activities of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych during World War II. In the process of the research general and special historical methods and basic principles of historical knowledge were used. The principles of historicism and scientificity allowed to analyze the activities of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych seen in the perspective of social and political events of the time. The principle of objectivity helped to critically analyze the literature and source base of the study. The principle of systematicity allowed to form a holistic picture of the activities of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych during World War II. Being based on the available source base, the article presents an unprecedented generalized image of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych's activity during World War II, comprising the scientific novelty of the research. The author made conclusions that the political activity of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych during World War II was quite active and diverse. He became a member of the OUN (M) marching groups and actively participated in the political life of occupied Kyiv, closely cooperating with leading figures of the nationalist movement, especially with Olena Teliha and Oleh Olzhych.Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych's social and cultural activity during World War II is represented by his work in the editorial office of the newspaper "Ukrainske Slovo" ("Ukrainian Word") (Kyiv). Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych's cooperation with Taras Bulba-Borovets was of great importance, while its purpose was to unite all independent forces against a common enemy. In fact, their cooperation supported a permanent political connection between the OUN (M) and the forces of Taras Bulba-Borovets. According to Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych, the main goal of any struggle was to gain Ukraine's independence. In general, the research provides an estimation of the political, social and cultural activities of Oleh Shtul-Zhdanovych in the Ukrainian lands during World War II. ; Cel artykułu polega na tym, żeby zbadać polityczną, społeczną i kulturalną działalność Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza w czasie II wojny światowej. W trakcie napisania pracy wykorzystano ogólne i szczególne metody badań historycznych, podstawowe zasady poznania historycznego. Zasady historyzmu i naukowości pozwoliły odtworzyć działalność Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza w związku z ówczesnymi wydarzeniami społeczno-politycznymi. Zasada obiektywności pomogła w krytycznej analizie literatury i bazy źródłowej tego badania. Zasada systematyczności pozwoliła na ukształtowanie całościowego obrazu działalności Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza podczas II wojny światowej. Oryginalnością naukową badania jest to, że po raz pierwszy na podstawie dostępnej bazy źródłowej przedstawiono uogólniony obraz działalności Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza w czasie II wojny światowej. W wyniku autor stwierdza, że działalność polityczna Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza podczas II wojny światowej była dość aktywna i różnokierunkowa. Został członkiem Pochodnych Grup OUN (M) i aktywnie brał udział w życiu politycznym okupowanego Kijowa, ściśle współpracując z wybitnymy postaciami ruchu nacjonalistycznego, przede wszyskim z Oleną Teligą i Olegiem Olżyczem. Działalność społeczną i kulturalną Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza podczas II wojny światowej reprezentuje jego praca w redakcji gazety "Ukraińskie Słowo" (Kijów). Ogromne znaczenie miała jego współpraca z Tarasem Bulbą-Borowcem, ponieważ jej celem było zjednoczenie wszystkich niezależnych sił przed wspólnym wrogiem. Tak naprawdę dzięki ich współpracy możemy mówić o trwałym związku politycznym między OUN (M) a siłami Tarasa Bulby-Borowca. Według Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza głównym celem każdej walki było odzyskanie przez Ukrainę niepodległości. Ogólnie mówiąc, w pracy dokonano oceny politycznej, społecznej i kulturalnej działalności Olega Sztul-Żdanowicza na ziemiach ukraińskich w okresie II wojny światowej.

Purpose. The purpose of the article is to define main directions and ways to legitimize philosophical ideas of self-determination as a fundamental global and valuable intention of Western culture in the context of its enlightenment paradigm. Methodology. The research is based on historical and logical methods, which allowed to theoretically reconstruct the cultural and historical context, as well as philosophical and theoretical principles of understanding and recognition of self-determination as a phenomenon of Western culture of the Enlightenment age. The authors have used their own theoretical model similar to the one of "ideal type" by. M.Weber based on the methods of generalization, abstraction and idealization, which allowed to present the phenomenon of individualism in the most general form as a system of value orientations of an individual, whose nature is seeking self-determination and originality. Originality. The historical and philosophical analysis has shoяк.wn how the philosophy of the Enlightenment age created moral principles of European culture advancement, especially through rationalization and the idea of political, economic and moral independence of a personality, recognition of rights for own initiative and sovereignty, individual identity as a public good. Thus, the idea of self-determination in this philosophy is related not only to the recognition of human rights, but also to the search of possible ways for a person to embrace current legislative system, harmony conditions and public interests. Conclusions. The philosophy of the Enlightenment has made a significant step toward further development of self-determination concept and its rationalization – separation of freedom and tyranny, new perception of necessary conditions for free self-determination of an individual as the ability to manage own passions and build own life on some rational principles, to refuse from excessive egoism, combining personal interests with the interests of others and public in generally these ideas were performed in the system of philosophical and legal liberalism, which emerged as a result of the synthesis of individualism and rationality concepts, and became an ideological basis for the modernization of Western civilization. ; Цель работы – определить основные направления и способы философской легитимации идеи личного самоопределения, как фундаментальной и сквозной ценностной интенции западной культуры, в контексте ее просветительской парадигмы. Методология. Основополагающими для данного исследования стали исторический и логический методы, использование которых позволило теоретически реконструировать культурно-исторический контекст и философско-теоретические способы осмысления и легитимизации идеи личного самоопределения как феномена западной культуры эпохи Просвещения. Автор при этом опирался на собственную теоретическую модель вроде "идеального типа" М. Вебера, созданную на основании методов обобщения, абстрагирования и идеализации, что позволило представить феномен индивидуализма в максимально обобщенном виде как систему ценностных ориентаций личности, сущностное ядро которой составляет стремление индивида к независимому самоопределению и неповторимости. Научная новизна. В ходе историко-философского анализа показано, как философия Просвещения создавала духовные основы модернизации европейской культуры, в частности, путем рационализации и распространения идеи политической, экономической и духовной независимости личности, признания ее прав на собственную инициативу и суверенность, ее индивидуального своеобразия как общественного блага. При этом идея самоопределяющейся личности в философии просвещения коррелирует уже не просто с признанием естественных прав человека, а с поисками путей ее включения в систему действующего права, условий гармонизации частных и общественных интересов. Выводы. В философии Просвещения был сделан очень важный, в плане дальнейшего становления идеи личного самоопределения, шаг по ее рационализации – разграничение свободы и произвола, осознание того, что необходимым условием действительно свободного самоопределения личности является умение управлять собственными страстями и строить свою жизнь на рациональных началах, способность отказаться от проявлений чрезмерного эгоизма, согласовывать свои интересы с интересами других, общества в целом. Все эти идеи нашли свое выражение в философско-правовой системе либерализма, которая, возникнув в результате синтеза концепций индивидуализма и рациональности, и стала мировоззренческой основой модернизации западной цивилизации. ; Мета роботи. Визначити основні напрями та способи філософської легітимації ідеї особистого самовизначення, як фундаментальної та наскрізної ціннісної інтенції західної культури, в контексті її просвітницької парадигми. Методологія. Основоположними для даного дослідження стали історичний і логічний методи, використання яких дозволило теоретично реконструювати культурно-історичний контекст та філософсько-теоретичні засади осмислення та легітимізації ідеї особистого самовизначення як феномена західної культури доби Просвітництва. Автор при цьому спирався на власну теоретичну модель на зразок "ідеального типу" М.Вебера, створену на підставі методів узагальнення, абстрагування та ідеалізації, що дозволило представити феномен індивідуалізму в максимально узагальненому вигляді як систему ціннісних орієнтацій особистості, сутнісне ядро якої складає прагнення індивіда до збереження власної неповторності та незалежного самовизначення. Наукова новизна. У ході історико-філософської реконструкції показано, як саме філософія Просвітництва створювала духовні засади модернізації європейської культури, зокрема, на шляхах визнання її прав на власну ініціативу і суверенність, її індивідуальної своєрідності як суспільного блага, раціоналізації та поширення ідеї політичної, економічної і духовної незалежності особистості. Істотно, що ідея самовизначення особистості в просвітницькій філософії корелює не лише з визнанням природних прав людини, а з пошуками шляхів її включення до системи чинного права, умов гармонізації приватних і суспільних інтересів. Висновки. У філософії Просвітництва був зроблений дуже важливий, у плані подальшого становлення ідеї особистого самовизначення, крок щодо її раціоналізації – розмежування свободи і сваволі, усвідомлення того, що необхідною умовою дійсно вільного самовизначення особи є вміння керувати власними пристрастями і будувати своє життя на раціональних засадах, здатність відмовлятися від проявів надмірного егоїзму, погоджувати власні інтереси з інтересами інших, суспільства взагалі. Всі ці ідеї знайшли своє вираження у філософсько-правовій системі лібералізму, яка, виникнувши внаслідок синтезу концепцій індивідуалізму і раціональності, і стала світоглядною основою модернізації західної цивілізації.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies show that high circulating cystatin C is associated with risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), independent of creatinine-based renal function measurements. It is unclear whether this relationship is causal, arises from residual confounding, and/or is a consequence of reverse causation. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to use Mendelian randomization to investigate whether cystatin C is causally related to CVD in the general population. METHODS: We incorporated participant data from 16 prospective cohorts (n = 76,481) with 37,126 measures of cystatin C and added genetic data from 43 studies (n = 252,216) with 63,292 CVD events. We used the common variant rs911119 in CST3 as an instrumental variable to investigate the causal role of cystatin C in CVD, including coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke, and heart failure. RESULTS: Cystatin C concentrations were associated with CVD risk after adjusting for age, sex, and traditional risk factors (relative risk: 1.82 per doubling of cystatin C; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.56 to 2.13; p = 2.12 × 10(-14)). The minor allele of rs911119 was associated with decreased serum cystatin C (6.13% per allele; 95% CI: 5.75 to 6.50; p = 5.95 × 10(-211)), explaining 2.8% of the observed variation in cystatin C. Mendelian randomization analysis did not provide evidence for a causal role of cystatin C, with a causal relative risk for CVD of 1.00 per doubling cystatin C (95% CI: 0.82 to 1.22; p = 0.994), which was statistically different from the observational estimate (p = 1.6 × 10(-5)). A causal effect of cystatin C was not detected for any individual component of CVD. CONCLUSIONS: Mendelian randomization analyses did not support a causal role of cystatin C in the etiology of CVD. As such, therapeutics targeted at lowering circulating cystatin C are unlikely to be effective in preventing CVD. ; The individual study sponsor(s) had no role in the study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the paper for publication. Dr. Isgum is supported by research grants from Pie Medical Imaging, 3Mensio Medical Imaging B.V., the NWO and Foundation for Technological Sciences under Project 12726, The Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development, and the Dutch Cancer Society. Dr. Arpegård has received funding through the Stockholm County Council (combined clinical residency and PhD training program). Dr. Amouyel has received personal fees from Servier, Hoffman Laroche, Total, Genoscreen, Alzprotect, Fondation Plan Alzheimer, and Takeda outside of the submitted work; and has shares in Genoscreen. Dr. Morris is a Wellcome Trust Senior Fellow in Basic Biomedical Science under grant number WT098017. Dr. Worrall has received compensation for his role as deputy editor of the Journal of Neurology; and has received National Institutes of Health funding through the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (U-01 NS069208) and National Human Genome Research Institute (U-01 HG005160). Dr. Samani is supported by the British Heart Foundation (BHF); and is a National Institute for Health Research Senior Investigator. Dr. Nelson is supported by the BHF. Dr. Franco works in ErasmusAGE, a center for aging research across the life course funded by Nestlé Nutrition (Nestec Ltd.), Metagenics Inc., and AXA; Nestlé Nutrition (Nestec Ltd.), Metagenics Inc., and AXA had no role in design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; and preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript. Dr. Patel is supported by a BHF Intermediate Fellowship. Dr. Koenig has received funds through NGFNplus, project number 01GS0834; has received research grants from Abbott, Roche Diagnostics, Beckmann, and Singulex; has received honorarium for lectures from AstraZeneca, Novartis, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Amgen, and Actavis; and has served as a consultant for Novartis, Pfizer, The Medicines Company, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and GlaxoSmithKline. Dr. Jukema is an Established Clinical Investigator of the Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant 2001 D 032). Dr. Svensson has received a grant from the Swedish Society of Medicine (SLS-412071). Dr. Kivimaki has received funding through the Medical Research Council (K013351), Economic and Social Research Council, and National Institutes of Health (HL36310). Dr. Dehghan is supported by a Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) grant (VENI, 916.12.154) and the EUR Fellowship; and has received consultancy and research support from Metagenics Inc. (outside the scope of this work). Dr. Ingelsson is supported by grants from Göran Gustafsson Foundation, Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation (20140422), Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse), European Research Council (ERC-StG-335395), Swedish Diabetes Foundation (Diabetesfonden; grant no. 2013-024), and the Swedish Research Council (VR; grant no. 2012-1397). Dr. de Bakker is an employee of Vertex Pharmaceuticals. Dr. Ärnlöv was funded by the Swedish Research Council (2012-1727, 2012-2215), Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation, Thuréus Foundation, the Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation, Dalarna University, and Uppsala University. Dr. Asselbergs is supported by a Dekker scholarship-Junior Staff Member 2014T001–Netherlands Heart Foundation and UCL Hospitals National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013 under grant agreement n° HEALTH-F2-2013-601456 (CVgenes-at-target). All other authors have reported that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose. ; Peer-reviewed ; Publisher Version

RESUMENEl objetivo del presente trabajo es aportar una visión novedosa y moderna en torno al principio de la conservación de la empresa que impregna a todo nuestro ordenamiento jurídico tal como se aprecia en los aspectos teleológicos y ontológicos de las leyes de concursos y quiebras y de sociedades comerciales.La principal característica de este trabajo es que la metodología de investigación bajo la cual se efectúa es la del análisis económico del derecho, conocido en el mundo anglosajón bajo la denominación de law and economics; constituyendo ésta una las escuelas que ha efectuado múltiples críticas a las instituciones tradicionales del derecho tanto de raigambre romano continental como del common law.La metodología de investigación abarca tanto el estudio de los objetivos y funciones de las disposiciones normativas, reflexionando sobre la teorética jurídica vigente, así como su estructuración de sus preceptos, cuerpos normativos e instituciones.La utilización de herramientas propias de la economía, más específicamente de la microeconomía, como la teoría de precios, la moderna teoría de la oferta, de la demanda y de los mercados de producto así como también de la denominada economía de la regulación, que tiene por objeto estudio el efecto económico que las disposiciones normativas tienen en el desarrollo, tanto en la fluctuación positiva o negativa de los mercados como en la corrección de imperfecciones y la redistribución de la riquezas, constituyendo los pilares sobre los que se basa el análisis económico del derecho.En cuanto al sistema de investigación, el análisis económico del derecho permite respecto al estudio del mencionado principio de conservación de la empresa comprender la racionalidad estratégica y la eficiencia de su aplicación en los procesos concursales, permitiendo a los diversos operarios del derecho - sean estos juristas, magistrados, síndicos concursales o estudiosos de la materia - tener una visión más amplia y profunda de su importancia en la vida económica.Para ello hemos de exponer de manera breve y concisa las diversas aseveraciones del análisis económico respecto al derecho concursal, sus consideraciones en cuanto a la ontología, motivación y objetivos que se persiguen tanto en los mentados procesos de reorganización y liquidación empresarial.Como aclaración previa debemos señalar que el análisis económico del derecho no pretende suplantar ni constituirse en el método predominante en las investigaciones jurídicas sino aportar una visión enriquecedora para la problemática.En un mundo dinámico como el de hoy, donde los cambios revolucionarios han dejado de producirse en los campos políticos e ideológicos pasando a desarrollarse en la esfera de las comunicaciones, de la tecnología y del comercio internacional, pretender mantener una visión estrictamente dentro del formalismo jurídico no sólo resulta perjudicial para la comprensión de los novedosos fenómenos que han de sucederse sino que, como oportunamente indicó el Dr. Ricardo Lorenzetti, "es penoso que el derecho pretenda la autosuficiencia ante un mundo tan complejo", señalando así la necesaria interdisciplinariedad que ha de primar, no sólo en el ámbito jurídico sino en el estudio de los mencionados fenómenos.PALABRAS CLAVES: eficiencia, falencia, liquidación, reorganización, empresa.ABSTRACTThe aim of this study is to provide a new and modern view on the principle of the conservation of the company that permeates our entire legal system as seen in teleological and ontological aspects of the laws on bankruptcy and commercial companies.The main feature of this work is that the research methodology under which it takes place is that of economic analysis of law, known in the English speaking world under the name of law and economics; constituting this one the schools that has made many criticisms of the traditional institutions of Roman law roots of both continental and common law.The research methodology includes both the study of the objectives and functions of regulatory requirements, reflecting on the current legal theoretical and structuring of its precepts, regulatory bodies and institutions.Using proprietary tools of economics, specifically microeconomics, price theory and the modern theory of supply, demand and product markets as well as the so-called economics of regulation, which has designed to study the economic impact that regulatory requirements are in development, both positive and negative market fluctuation and correcting imperfections, and the redistribution of wealth, constituting the pillars on which economic analysis is based right.As the research system, the economic analysis of law allows regarding the study of the aforementioned principle of conservation of the company understand the strategic rationale and efficiency of their application in bankruptcy proceedings, allowing different operators to the right - be they lawyers magistrates, bankruptcy trustees and students of the subject - have a broader and deeper understanding of its importance in the economic life vision.To do this we set forth briefly and concisely the various assertions of economic analysis regarding bankruptcy law, their considerations of ontology, motivation and objectives pursued mented both reorganization and liquidation business.As a preliminary explanation we note that the economic analysis of law is not intended to supplant or act as the predominant method in legal research but to provide an enriching vision for the issue.In a dynamic world like today, where the revolutionary changes are no longer produced in the political and ideological fields going to develop in the field of communications, technology and international trade, pretending vision within a strictly legal formalism not only detrimental to the understanding of the new phenomena that are to succeed but, as promptly Dr. Ricardo Lorenzetti said, "it is unfortunate that the law seeks self-sufficiency to such a complex world," noting that it has the necessary interdisciplinary to prevail, not only in the legal field but in the study of the phenomena mentioned.KEY WORDS: efficiency, bankruptcy, liquidation, reorganization, company.

AbstractThe distinction between the international refugee status and the national legal position as a refugee is important. The decision is based on different legal sources and taken by different competent bodies. Furthermore, different procedures should apply to the two different questions. In practice, however, the recognition procedure is often one and the same. The relation between the refugee and the country of asylum is the most important relation and this is where most problems come up. It is a serious problem, if states refuse to grant the international refugee status in order to regulate for instance the labour market. Furthermore, there is a legal dichotomy which may create difficulties in the fact that international law such as for instance the Refugee Convention of 1951 often regulates the international refugee status, as well as the legal position as a refugee in national law. In practice, the international rules apply only if a person has been recognized as belonging to the category of people defined as refugees. This is not logic, because the recognition as a refugee is declaratory not constructive. This is important, not just from a legal point of view, but also because of diplomatic and political considerations concerning the relationship between the country of asylum and the refugee's own country. The material question of defining who is a refugee is established in international treaties which also define the competence for recognizing refugee status. This competence lies with the potential country of Asylum. At the same time, however, the competence of recognizing a refugee under the statute of the UNHCR lies with the High Commissioner. This inconsistency, however, has not in practical terms led to too many unfortunate results. It is quite normal that it is left to the states to interprete international law embodied in the principle of autointerpretaion. Autointerpretation, however, does not include a right to autodecision. The interpretation which states attach to international law has to be acceptable for the international community and the spokesmen of the international community in this respect is Unied Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. While the material problems and the problems of competence are regulated in international treaties, these treaties are, however, silent about the procedure for recognition. Very few states have a formalized procedure for the recognition of refugee status. One argument, which has been put forward, is that national authorities are reluctant to recognize the international refugee status of a person, because this recognition will have effects in other countries particularly concerning entry and status in these other countries. The author suggests that even if it is desirable for the individual refugee that his status as a refugee is recognized once and for all by all contracting parties to the Refugee Convention, it appears obvious that the conventions leave it to each state to decide on the refugee status in relation to the individual refugee as well as in relation to other states. This legal situation has drawbacks, but it means on the other hand that states cannot deny refugee status with reference to the practice of other states. The author furthermore suggests that international harmonization of the recognition procedures is desirable probably only from a political point of view, namely that states in the same region solve the problems in common so that no single state escapes its international responsibility by a particularly restrictive practice. A harmonization does not appear to be necessary out of considerations for the individual refugee, and it would probably be impossible. Certain elements should, however, be included in every recognition procedure. As far as the evaluation of facts is concerned it is quite difficult to establish judicial or administrative bodies to deal effectively with this side of the problem. The author refers to the Danish solution according to which cases are referred to the Danish Refugee Council which is a private organization for the elucidation of facts involved in the case. The Council is in a position much more freely than the official administration to use its private international connection to receive information which is beyond the judicial official administrative system. As far as the legal aspects are concerned it is necessary that there is a close contact with the international community in order to make sure that the decision of the state is acceptable to the international community. The author points out that the decision of a person's international status as a refugee is a decision for life. It is therefore necessary that at least as many legal safeguards are included in this decision as in ordinary judical proceedings. Decisions should be made by legal authorities independent of the political structure. The legal guarantees should ensure that the decision is made by persons who are independent of the political power structure, that legal counsel is offered the applicant, that there is a possibility of appeal and that the decisions and proceedings to the widest possible extent are public. If there is not complete harmony between national and international law, it will be up to the national courts to point out that there is a breach of an international obligation. According to normal practice in the Nordic countries, the court will probably go far in constructing the national rules in conformity with the international obligations. Three points in conclusion and for debate: — A person's international refugee status is something that primarily comes out of international rules and the only purpose of the recognition procedure is to establish this in relation to the country of asylum. The decision is legal and should be taken in legal forms. A person's international refugee status and the legal position which a country normally gives refugees should not be confused.

BACKGROUND: Women of reproductive age can be exposed to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) at work, and exposure to EDCs in pregnancy may affect fetal growth. OBJECTIVES: We assessed whether maternal occupational exposure to EDCs during pregnancy as classified by application of a job exposure matrix was associated with birth weight, term low birth weight (LBW), length of gestation, and preterm delivery. METHODS: Using individual participant data from 133,957 mother-child pairs in 13 European cohorts spanning births from 1994 through 2011, we linked maternal job titles with exposure to 10 EDC groups as assessed through a job exposure matrix. For each group, we combined the two levels of exposure categories (possible and probable) and compared birth outcomes with the unexposed group (exposure unlikely). We performed meta-analyses of cohort-specific estimates. RESULTS: Eleven percent of pregnant women were classified as exposed to EDCs at work during pregnancy, based on job title. Classification of exposure to one or more EDC group was associated with an increased risk of term LBW [odds ratio (OR) = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.49], as were most specific EDC groups; this association was consistent across cohorts. Further, the risk increased with increasing number of EDC groups (OR = 2.11; 95% CI: 1.10, 4.06 for exposure to four or more EDC groups). There were few associations (p < 0.05) with the other outcomes; women holding job titles classified as exposed to bisphenol A or brominated flame retardants were at higher risk for longer length of gestation. CONCLUSION: Results from our large population-based birth cohort design indicate that employment during pregnancy in occupations classified as possibly or probably exposed to EDCs was associated with an increased risk of term LBW. ; This work was supported by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (grants FP7/2007-2013, 226285, 241604) as part of the Environmental Health Risks in European Birth Cohorts project (http://www.enrieco.org) and the Developing a Child Cohort Research Strategy for Europe project (http://www.chicosproject.eu); and by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (grant CD12/00563). Funding per cohort: ABCD: This work was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (grant 2100.0076). BAMSE: This work was supported by the Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation; Stockholm County Council; Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare; and the European Commission's Seventh Framework 29 Program: the Mechanisms of the Development of Allergy (grant 261357). DNBC: This work was supported by the Danish Epidemiology of Science Centre; Pharmacy Foundation; Egmont Foundation; March of Dimes Birth Defect Foundation; Agustinus Foundation; and the Health Foundation. Generation R: This work was supported by the Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam; Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development; European Commission Seventh Framework Programme; and the Contaminant Mixtures and Human Reproductive Health Project (grant 212502); V.J. received an additional grant from the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (grant VIDI 016.136.361) and Consolidator Grant from the European Research Council (grant ERC-2014-CoG-648916). Generation XXI: This work was supported by the Programa Operacional de Saúde – Saúde XXI; Quadro Comunitário de Apoio III; Administração Regional de Saúde Norte (Regional Department of Ministry of Health); Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology; Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional, and the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. INMA_Granada: This work was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (grants G03/176, CB06/02/0041); Spanish Ministry of Health (grant FIS-07/0252); European Union Commission (grants QLK4-1999-01422, QLK4-2002-00603, FP7-ENV-212502); and the Consejería de Salud de la Junta de Andalucía (grant 183/07; 0675-2010). INMA_New: This work was supported by the European Union (grants FP7-ENV-2011, 282957, HEALTH.2010.2.4.5-1); Instituto de Salud Carlos III (grants G03/176, CB06/02/0041, FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1509, 04/1112, 04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314, 09/02647, 11/01007, 11/02591, CP11/00178, FIS-PI06/0867, FIS-PS09/00090); Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana; Spanish Ministry of Health (grants FIS-PI041436, FIS- PI081151, FIS-PI042018, FIS-PI09/02311); Generalitat de Catalunya (grants CIRIT1999SGR, 00241); Obre Social Cajastur; Universidad de Oviedo; Department of Health of the Basque Government (grants 2005111093, 2009111069); and the Provincial Government of Gipuzkoa (grants DFG06/004, DFG08/001). KANC: This work was supported by the European Commission (grant FP6-036224). MoBa: This work was supported by the Norwegian Ministry of Health; National Institutes of Health; National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant N01-ES–85433); National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (grant 1 UO1 NS 047537); Norwegian Research Council; Functional Genomics (grant 151918/S10); and Environmental Exposures and Health Outcomes (grant 213148). NINFEA: This work was supported by the Compagnia San Paolo Foundation, and by the Piedmont Region. Pélagie: This work was supported by the National Institute of Health and Medical Research; the French Ministry of Health; the French Ministry of Labor; French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety; French National Research Agency; and the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance. REPRO_PL: This work was supported by the National Centre for Research and Development, Poland (grants PBZ-MEiN-/8/2/2006, K140/P01/2007/1.3.1.1); the Norwegian Financial Mechanism within the PolishNorwegian Research Fund (grant PNRF-218-AI-1/07); and European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (grant FP7/2007-2013, 603946). Rhea: This work was supported by the European Union Integrated Project NewGeneris, 6th Framework Programme, (grant FOOD-CT-2005-016320); and the Health Impacts of Long-term Exposure to Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water project (grant Food-CT-2006-036224).

ARTES E CIÊNCIAS EM PERSPECTIVA AFRICANA: reflexões sobre a Revolução Africana inacabadaARTES Y CIENCIAS DESDE UNA PERSPECTIVA AFRICANA: reflexiones sobre la Revolución Africana inacabadaABSTRACTThis article results from a master thesis in Musicology (Panafricanism and African Revolution in Brazilian Music), which analyzed the role of Music within the anti-racist and anti-colonialist struggle in Brazil. Among numerous conclusions, from more broader remarks to more specific ones, the bottom line of the analyses is that Music, although crucial to the anti-colonialist efforts in Brazil, is still generally situated under the epistemological frameworks of the European colonizer when it comes to the hegemonic societal structure and dynamics. In short, the revolutionary individuals and collectives – who, more or less successfully, retain or reclaim their African ancestry as to the holistic inseparability between arts, sciences, spirituality, philosophy, pedagogy, medicine, economy, politics, and daily life – have been long buried under the hegemonic structure of European episteme. Under such euro-colonialist episteme, Arts and Music cringe into mere embellishment luxuries and commodities that gradually strangle their original African potencies and potentials, often undermined by invisibilization, appropriation, folklorization, commoditization, co-option, and annihilation of its physical and cultural bodies. This article offers some insights upon this grave issue galvanizing such debate and, most of all, pointing out how the Academia in general and the Social Sciences in particular should tackle the responsibility for decolonial changes (or colonialist maintenance) in this paradigm.Keywords: Epistemology; Epistemicide; Social Sciences; Music; Decoloniality; African Revolution.RESUMOEste artigo resulta da tese de mestrado, Panafricanismo e Revolução Africana na Música Brasileira, que analisou o papel da Música na luta antirracista e anticolonialista no Brasil. Dentre numerosas conclusões, das mais amplas às mais específicas, um ponto importante nestas análises é que a Música, embora crucial para os esforços anticolonialistas no Brasil, ainda está, em geral, situada sob os esquadros epistemológicos euro-colonialista quando se trata das estruturas e dinâmicas societais hegemônicas. Em resumo, os indivíduos e coletivos revolucionários – que, com mais ou menos sucesso, mantêm ou recuperam sua ancestralidade africana quanto à inseparabilidade holística entre artes, ciências, espiritualidade, filosofia, pedagogia, medicina, economia, política e cotidiano – estão desde sempre soterrados sob a estrutura hegemônica da episteme europeia. Sob esta episteme euro-colonialista, as Artes e a Música se reduzem a meros enfeites de luxo e mercadorias que gradualmente estrangulam suas próprias potências e potenciais originais africanos, comumente mitigados pela invisibilização, apropriação, folclorização, comoditização, cooptação, aniquilamento, e esvaziamento de seus corpos físicos e culturais. Este artigo oferece algumas ideias sobre esta grave questão, galvanizando o debate e, acima de tudo, propondo como a Academia em geral e as Ciências Sociais em particular devem assumir responsabilidade pelas mudanças decoloniais (ou mantimentos colonialistas) neste paradigma.Palavras-chave: Epistemologia; Epistemicídio; Ciências Sociais; Música; Decolonalidade; Revolução Africana.RESUMENEste artículo es el resultado de la tesis de maestría, Panafricanismo y revolución africana en la música brasileña, que analizó el papel de la música en la lucha antirracista y anticolonialista en Brasil. Entre las numerosas conclusiones, desde las más amplias hasta las más específicas, un punto importante de estos análisis es que la música, aunque sea crucial para los esfuerzos anticolonialistas en Brasil, sigue estando generalmente situada bajo los escuadrones epistemológicos eurocolonialistas cuando se trata de estructuras y dinámicas societales hegemónicas. En resumen, los individuos y colectivos revolucionarios – que mantienen o recuperan con mayor o menor éxito su ascendencia africana en lo que respecta a la inseparabilidad holística entre las artes, las ciencias, la espiritualidad, la filosofía, la pedagogía, la medicina, la economía, la política y la vida cotidiana – siempre han quedado enterrados bajo la estructura hegemónica de la episteme europea. Bajo esta episteme eurocolonialista, las Artes y la Música son reducidas a meros adornos de lujo y mercancías que gradualmente estrangulan sus propios poderes y potenciales africanos originales, comúnmente mitigados por la invisibilización, la apropiación, la folklorización, la commoditización, la cooptación, la aniquilación y el vaciado de sus cuerpos físicos y culturales. Este artículo ofrece algunas ideas sobre esta grave cuestión, galvanizando el debate y, sobre todo, proponiendo cómo la Academia en general y las Ciencias Sociales en particular deberían asumir la responsabilidad por los cambios decoloniales (o por los suministros colonialistas) en este paradigma.Palabras clave: Epistemología; Epistemicidio; Ciencias Sociales; Música; Decolonialidad; Revolución Africana.

Salps are marine pelagic tunicates that have evolved opportunistic skills to bloom under favorable conditions and persist during adverse periods. They experience population outbursts (blooms) which, combined with their efficient feeding mechanism, produce several ecological and societal consequences. Although salp blooms are common in the Catalan Sea during spring and autumn, their causes and effects on the ecosystem have never been studied in this area before. The general aim of the present thesis is to understand the spatial and temporal processes leading to salp blooms and estimate their trophic impact in the Catalan Sea, northwestern Mediterranean Sea. For this purpose, mechanistic (matrix models) and statistical models (GAMs) combined with in situ observations allowed us to propose the simplest mechanisms to account for bloom development. In contrast to previous hypotheses, we found that changes in female reproduction drive the population to latency under unfavorable conditions and trigger the bloom when conditions improve (Chapter 1). From a spatial scale, hydrodynamic factors mainly drove high local salp abundances, although biological variables (predator abundance) had secondary importance (Chapter 2). We observed the coexistence of contrasting diel vertical migration (DVM) patterns in a salp (nocturnal and diurnal migrations), which explains controversial conclusions in previous studies, but brings new questions about the drivers of DVM in salps (Chapter 3). The two species found produced contrasting trophic impacts: Thalia democratica was less abundant and its effect on the ecosystem seemed to be negligible while, Salpa fusiformis ingested a maximum of 69.92 mg C m-2 day-1 and defecated 35.76 mg C m-2 day-1, contributing to the transport of organic matter to the deep ocean (Chapter 2). Our findings contribute to general knowledge in salp ecology. They lead us to consider evolutionary demographic studies to understand the potential benefits of their life cycle as an adaptation to environmental change and the mechanisms which maintain genetic variability after bloom-latency periods. ; Les salpes són tunicats pelàgics marins que han desenvolupat característiques oportunistes per a proliferar quan les condicions són favorables i mantenir-la en períodes adversos. Les altes abundàncies assolides durant un bloom, en combinació amb els seus mecanismes d'alimentació altament eficients, tenen un efecte notable pels ecosistemes així com per a la societat. Tot i que els blooms de salpes són comuns a la costa catalana durant primavera i tardor, les seves causes i el seu paper en l'ecosistema no s'han estudiat mai al mar Català. L'objectiu general de la present tesi és entendre els processos espacials i temporals que condueixen a formar les agregacions de salpes i estimar el seu paper en el mar Català, nord-oest del Mediterrani. Per assolir aquesta fita, s'han combinat models mecanístics (models matricials) i estadístics (GAMs) amb observacions in situ que ens han permès proposar els mecanismes més simples que expliquen el desenvolupament d'un bloom. Hem vist que canvis en la reproducció de les femelles serien els responsables del fre del creixement poblacional durant el període de latència i el detonador del bloom quan les condicions es tornen favorables (Capítol 1). Des d'un punt de vista espacial, l'abundància local de salpes està influenciada principalment per factors físics tot i que les variables biològiques juguen un paper secundari (Capítol 2). Per primer cop s'ha observat la coexistència de patrons diferents de migració vertical diürna (DVM) en una salpa (migració diürna i nocturna en Salpa fusiformis), la qual cosa explica les conclusions contradictòries d'estudis anteriors, però obre noves preguntes sobre els mecanismes de la DVM en salpes. Les dues especies presents en l'estudi produïren impactes tròfics molt diferents: l'impacte de Thalia democratica, va ser quasi negligible degut a la seva baixa abundància mentre que S. fusiformis va ingerir un màxim de 69.92 mgC m-2 dia-1 i defecar 35.76 mgC m-2 dia-1, incrementant considerablement el flux de matèria orgànica cap a l'oceà profund (Capítol 2). Els resultats d'aquesta tesi contribueixen a l'ecologia general de les salpes i ens han portat a la necessitat de plantejar estudis de demografia evolutiva per entendre l'efecte del seu cicle de vida en l'adaptació de la població a canvis ambientals i en el manteniment de la variabilitat genètica entre períodes de latència-bloom. ; Postprint (published version)

Salps are marine pelagic tunicates that have evolved opportunistic skills to bloom under favorable conditions and persist during adverse periods. They experience population outbursts (blooms) which, combined with their efficient feeding mechanism, produce several ecological and societal consequences. Although salp blooms are common in the Catalan Sea during spring and autumn, their causes and effects on the ecosystem have never been studied in this area before. The general aim of the present thesis is to understand the spatial and temporal processes leading to salp blooms and estimate their trophic impact in the Catalan Sea, northwestern Mediterranean Sea. For this purpose, mechanistic (matrix models) and statistical models (GAMs) combined with in situ observations allowed us to propose the simplest mechanisms to account for bloom development. In contrast to previous hypotheses, we found that changes in female reproduction drive the population to latency under unfavorable conditions and trigger the bloom when conditions improve (Chapter 1). From a spatial scale, hydrodynamic factors mainly drove high local salp abundances, although biological variables (predator abundance) had secondary importance (Chapter 2). We observed the coexistence of contrasting diel vertical migration (DVM) patterns in a salp (nocturnal and diurnal migrations), which explains controversial conclusions in previous studies, but brings new questions about the drivers of DVM in salps (Chapter 3). The two species found produced contrasting trophic impacts: Thalia democratica was less abundant and its effect on the ecosystem seemed to be negligible while, Salpa fusiformis ingested a maximum of 69.92 mg C m-2 day-1 and defecated 35.76 mg C m-2 day-1, contributing to the transport of organic matter to the deep ocean (Chapter 2). Our findings contribute to general knowledge in salp ecology. They lead us to consider evolutionary demographic studies to understand the potential benefits of their life cycle as an adaptation to environmental change and the mechanisms which maintain genetic variability after bloom-latency periods. ; Les salpes són tunicats pelàgics marins que han desenvolupat característiques oportunistes per a proliferar quan les condicions són favorables i mantenir-la en períodes adversos. Les altes abundàncies assolides durant un bloom, en combinació amb els seus mecanismes d'alimentació altament eficients, tenen un efecte notable pels ecosistemes així com per a la societat. Tot i que els blooms de salpes són comuns a la costa catalana durant primavera i tardor, les seves causes i el seu paper en l'ecosistema no s'han estudiat mai al mar Català. L'objectiu general de la present tesi és entendre els processos espacials i temporals que condueixen a formar les agregacions de salpes i estimar el seu paper en el mar Català, nord-oest del Mediterrani. Per assolir aquesta fita, s'han combinat models mecanístics (models matricials) i estadístics (GAMs) amb observacions in situ que ens han permès proposar els mecanismes més simples que expliquen el desenvolupament d'un bloom. Hem vist que canvis en la reproducció de les femelles serien els responsables del fre del creixement poblacional durant el període de latència i el detonador del bloom quan les condicions es tornen favorables (Capítol 1). Des d'un punt de vista espacial, l'abundància local de salpes està influenciada principalment per factors físics tot i que les variables biològiques juguen un paper secundari (Capítol 2). Per primer cop s'ha observat la coexistència de patrons diferents de migració vertical diürna (DVM) en una salpa (migració diürna i nocturna en Salpa fusiformis), la qual cosa explica les conclusions contradictòries d'estudis anteriors, però obre noves preguntes sobre els mecanismes de la DVM en salpes. Les dues especies presents en l'estudi produïren impactes tròfics molt diferents: l'impacte de Thalia democratica, va ser quasi negligible degut a la seva baixa abundància mentre que S. fusiformis va ingerir un màxim de 69.92 mgC m-2 dia-1 i defecar 35.76 mgC m-2 dia-1, incrementant considerablement el flux de matèria orgànica cap a l'oceà profund (Capítol 2). Els resultats d'aquesta tesi contribueixen a l'ecologia general de les salpes i ens han portat a la necessitat de plantejar estudis de demografia evolutiva per entendre l'efecte del seu cicle de vida en l'adaptació de la població a canvis ambientals i en el manteniment de la variabilitat genètica entre períodes de latència-bloom. ; Postprint (published version)

En el presente trabajo buscamos contextualizar la situación del sector hidroeléctrico en América Latina, los principales argumentos que se presentan por parte de diferentes actores para la implementación de estos proyectos y la realidad que esto ofrece para las economías locales impactadas. En primer lugar, se presenta la configuración en América Latina de las principales iniciativas de expansión del sector eléctrico, reflejada en la acción de empresas y gobiernos en esta región. Posteriormente, se delimita el artículo a partir del estudio de caso de la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo en Colombia, que muestra la forma de acción del Estado colombiano al impulsar estos proyectos de expansión. Dentro de los procedimientos legales para la implementación de estos proyectos, guarda especial importancia el análisis de la Licencia Ambiental, que refleja en su proceso de concesión diferentes disputas entre los actores relacionados: la empresa Endesa-Enel, los afectados que constituyen diferentes grupos, las diferentes instituciones del Estado y el movimiento social. Metodológicamente, el estudio se basa en una serie de autores que buscan rescatar las contradicciones y los intereses de los afectados por la implementación de este tipo de proyectos (Sigaud 1992, 1995, Vianna 2009, Borralho, 1988) a partir de una muestra de argumentación cualitativa. De este modo, el estudio se sustentó en una revisión bibliográfica y de prensa sobre el funcionamiento de la expansión eléctrica en América Latina y posteriormente sobre el contexto colombiano a partir de sus proyectos de expansión hidroeléctrica y la legislación acerca del funcionamiento de la Licencia Ambiental en este país. Finalmente, se sitúa en el caso concreto de El Quimbo, donde se realizaron diversos trabajos de campo con campesinos localizados en el área de afectación y se recolectó material de prensa y material emitido tanto por Emgesa como por la Asociación de Afectados por la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo-Asoquimbo. El trabajo investigativo refleja el panorama sobre la expansión de grandes proyectos de infraestructura y el consenso que existe sobre su implementación tanto por el sector privado como por los gobiernos nacionales, materializados a través de marcos legales del Estado y figuras como las licencias ambientales. A partir de este caso, se muestra cómo estas decisiones del Estado generan cambios en las condiciones previas de vida de poblaciones rurales, que reaccionan a partir de protestas y de la conformación de grupos con diferentes intereses y tiempos de resistencia y negociación. ; In this paper we research about the situation in the hydroelectric sector in Latin-American, the principal arguments that have the different actors for the implementation of big infrastructure projects and how the local economies are affected. First we worked about how the principals expansion´s initiatives in the hydroelectric sector are organized in Latin American, represented in the companies and government actions. Later, the study is delimited in the Colombian State action that promotes the expansion, at the same time that explores one important mechanism inside the State: the environmental license, that reflects disputes related with these projects. Third, we worked with the hydroelectric project Quimbo case, located in Huila-Colombia, this is one transnational private´s initiative (company ENDESA-ENEL) support by the national government. In this case we show how the State have made decisions product of forced relations and have created changes in the peasant population that live in that region. The study is based on a qualitative methodology (Sigaud, 1992, 1995, Vianna, 2009 and Borralho, 1988), with bibliographic and press review related with the hydroelectric expansion in Latin America, afterwards we work about the Colombian context we restore with official documents the expansion in the sector and approach about the environmental license, the principal mechanism to install these projects in this country. Last one, in the Quimbo dam case, we worked about his context based on press material, organizations material (Emgesa company and the social movements) and interviews with peasants stricken by that project. The research study shows the outlook of the hydroelectric expansion and the consensus about the implementation of those big projects by the different governments and the private sector. These interest are implemented by the State references where is important the environmental license, that decree the implementation of that projects. In the last part is showed how with one hydroelectric case, how the State decisions create changes in the local population, who reacts with social protest and non-conformism front the failure of their social life. ; Centro de Historia Argentina y Americana

En el presente trabajo buscamos contextualizar la situación del sector hidroeléctrico en América Latina, los principales argumentos que se presentan por parte de diferentes actores para la implementación de estos proyectos y la realidad que esto ofrece para las economías locales impactadas. En primer lugar, se presenta la configuración en América Latina de las principales iniciativas de expansión del sector eléctrico, reflejada en la acción de empresas y gobiernos en esta región. Posteriormente, se delimita el artículo a partir del estudio de caso de la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo en Colombia, que muestra la forma de acción del Estado colombiano al impulsar estos proyectos de expansión. Dentro de los procedimientos legales para la implementación de estos proyectos, guarda especial importancia el análisis de la Licencia Ambiental, que refleja en su proceso de concesión diferentes disputas entre los actores relacionados: la empresa Endesa-Enel, los afectados que constituyen diferentes grupos, las diferentes instituciones del Estado y el movimiento social. Metodológicamente, el estudio se basa en una serie de autores que buscan rescatar las contradicciones y los intereses de los afectados por la implementación de este tipo de proyectos (Sigaud 1992, 1995, Vianna 2009, Borralho, 1988) a partir de una muestra de argumentación cualitativa. De este modo, el estudio se sustentó en una revisión bibliográfica y de prensa sobre el funcionamiento de la expansión eléctrica en América Latina y posteriormente sobre el contexto colombiano a partir de sus proyectos de expansión hidroeléctrica y la legislación acerca del funcionamiento de la Licencia Ambiental en este país. Finalmente, se sitúa en el caso concreto de El Quimbo, donde se realizaron diversos trabajos de campo con campesinos localizados en el área de afectación y se recolectó material de prensa y material emitido tanto por Emgesa como por la Asociación de Afectados por la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo-Asoquimbo. El trabajo investigativo refleja el panorama sobre la expansión de grandes proyectos de infraestructura y el consenso que existe sobre su implementación tanto por el sector privado como por los gobiernos nacionales, materializados a través de marcos legales del Estado y figuras como las licencias ambientales. A partir de este caso, se muestra cómo estas decisiones del Estado generan cambios en las condiciones previas de vida de poblaciones rurales, que reaccionan a partir de protestas y de la conformación de grupos con diferentes intereses y tiempos de resistencia y negociación. ; In this paper we research about the situation in the hydroelectric sector in Latin-American, the principal arguments that have the different actors for the implementation of big infrastructure projects and how the local economies are affected. First we worked about how the principals expansion´s initiatives in the hydroelectric sector are organized in Latin American, represented in the companies and government actions. Later, the study is delimited in the Colombian State action that promotes the expansion, at the same time that explores one important mechanism inside the State: the environmental license, that reflects disputes related with these projects. Third, we worked with the hydroelectric project Quimbo case, located in Huila-Colombia, this is one transnational private´s initiative (company ENDESA-ENEL) support by the national government. In this case we show how the State have made decisions product of forced relations and have created changes in the peasant population that live in that region. The study is based on a qualitative methodology (Sigaud, 1992, 1995, Vianna, 2009 and Borralho, 1988), with bibliographic and press review related with the hydroelectric expansion in Latin America, afterwards we work about the Colombian context we restore with official documents the expansion in the sector and approach about the environmental license, the principal mechanism to install these projects in this country. Last one, in the Quimbo dam case, we worked about his context based on press material, organizations material (Emgesa company and the social movements) and interviews with peasants stricken by that project. The research study shows the outlook of the hydroelectric expansion and the consensus about the implementation of those big projects by the different governments and the private sector. These interest are implemented by the State references where is important the environmental license, that decree the implementation of that projects. In the last part is showed how with one hydroelectric case, how the State decisions create changes in the local population, who reacts with social protest and non-conformism front the failure of their social life.

En el presente trabajo buscamos contextualizar la situación del sector hidroeléctrico en América Latina, los principales argumentos que se presentan por parte de diferentes actores para la implementación de estos proyectos y la realidad que esto ofrece para las economías locales impactadas. En primer lugar, se presenta la configuración en América Latina de las principales iniciativas de expansión del sector eléctrico, reflejada en la acción de empresas y gobiernos en esta región. Posteriormente, se delimita el artículo a partir del estudio de caso de la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo en Colombia, que muestra la forma de acción del Estado colombiano al impulsar estos proyectos de expansión. Dentro de los procedimientos legales para la implementación de estos proyectos, guarda especial importancia el análisis de la Licencia Ambiental, que refleja en su proceso de concesión diferentes disputas entre los actores relacionados: la empresa Endesa-Enel, los afectados que constituyen diferentes grupos, las diferentes instituciones del Estado y el movimiento social. Metodológicamente, el estudio se basa en una serie de autores que buscan rescatar las contradicciones y los intereses de los afectados por la implementación de este tipo de proyectos (Sigaud 1992, 1995, Vianna 2009, Borralho, 1988) a partir de una muestra de argumentación cualitativa. De este modo, el estudio se sustentó en una revisión bibliográfica y de prensa sobre el funcionamiento de la expansión eléctrica en América Latina y posteriormente sobre el contexto colombiano a partir de sus proyectos de expansión hidroeléctrica y la legislación acerca del funcionamiento de la Licencia Ambiental en este país. Finalmente, se sitúa en el caso concreto de El Quimbo, donde se realizaron diversos trabajos de campo con campesinos localizados en el área de afectación y se recolectó material de prensa y material emitido tanto por Emgesa como por la Asociación de Afectados por la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo-Asoquimbo. El trabajo investigativo refleja el panorama sobre la expansión de grandes proyectos de infraestructura y el consenso que existe sobre su implementación tanto por el sector privado como por los gobiernos nacionales, materializados a través de marcos legales del Estado y figuras como las licencias ambientales. A partir de este caso, se muestra cómo estas decisiones del Estado generan cambios en las condiciones previas de vida de poblaciones rurales, que reaccionan a partir de protestas y de la conformación de grupos con diferentes intereses y tiempos de resistencia y negociación. ; In this paper we research about the situation in the hydroelectric sector in Latin-American, the principal arguments that have the different actors for the implementation of big infrastructure projects and how the local economies are affected. First we worked about how the principals expansion´s initiatives in the hydroelectric sector are organized in Latin American, represented in the companies and government actions. Later, the study is delimited in the Colombian State action that promotes the expansion, at the same time that explores one important mechanism inside the State: the environmental license, that reflects disputes related with these projects. Third, we worked with the hydroelectric project Quimbo case, located in Huila-Colombia, this is one transnational private´s initiative (company ENDESA-ENEL) support by the national government. In this case we show how the State have made decisions product of forced relations and have created changes in the peasant population that live in that region. The study is based on a qualitative methodology (Sigaud, 1992, 1995, Vianna, 2009 and Borralho, 1988), with bibliographic and press review related with the hydroelectric expansion in Latin America, afterwards we work about the Colombian context we restore with official documents the expansion in the sector and approach about the environmental license, the principal mechanism to install these projects in this country. Last one, in the Quimbo dam case, we worked about his context based on press material, organizations material (Emgesa company and the social movements) and interviews with peasants stricken by that project. The research study shows the outlook of the hydroelectric expansion and the consensus about the implementation of those big projects by the different governments and the private sector. These interest are implemented by the State references where is important the environmental license, that decree the implementation of that projects. In the last part is showed how with one hydroelectric case, how the State decisions create changes in the local population, who reacts with social protest and non-conformism front the failure of their social life.

In this paper we research about the situation in the hydroelectric sector in Latin-American, the principal arguments that have the different actors for the implementation of big infrastructure projects and how the local economies are affected.First we worked about how the principals expansion´s initiatives in the hydroelectric sector are organized in Latin American, represented in the companies and government actions. Later, the study is delimited in the Colombian State action that promotes the expansion, at the same time that explores one important mechanism inside the State: the environmental license, that reflects disputes related with these projects. Third, we worked with the hydroelectric project Quimbo case, located in Huila-Colombia, this is one transnational private´s initiative (company ENDESA-ENEL) support by the national government. In this case we show how the State have made decisions product of forced relations and have created changes in the peasant population that live in that region.The study is based on a qualitative methodology (Sigaud, 1992, 1995, Vianna, 2009 and Borralho, 1988), with bibliographic and press review related with the hydroelectric expansion in Latin America, afterwards we work about the Colombian context we restore with official documents the expansion in the sector and approach about the environmental license, the principal mechanism to install these projects in this country. Last one, in the Quimbo dam case, we worked about his context based on press material, organizations material (Emgesa company and the social movements) and interviews with peasants stricken by that project.The research study shows the outlook of the hydroelectric expansion and the consensus about the implementation of those big projects by the different governments and the private sector. These interest are implemented by the State references where is important the environmental license, that decree the implementation of that projects. In the last part is showed how with one hydroelectric case, how the State decisions create changes in the local population, who reacts with social protest and non-conformism front the failure of their social life. ; En el presente trabajo buscamos contextualizar la situación del sector hidroeléctrico en América Latina, los principales argumentos que se presentan por parte de diferentes actores para la implementación de estos proyectos y la realidad que esto ofrece para las economías locales impactadas.En primer lugar, se presenta la configuración en América Latina de las principales iniciativas de expansión del sector eléctrico, reflejada en la acción de empresas y gobiernos en esta región. Posteriormente, se delimita el artículo a partir del estudio de caso de la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo en Colombia, que muestra la forma de acción del Estado colombiano al impulsar estos proyectos de expansión. Dentro de los procedimientos legales para la implementación de estos proyectos, guarda especial importancia el análisis de la Licencia Ambiental, que refleja en su proceso de concesión diferentes disputas entre los actores relacionados: la empresa Endesa-Enel, los afectados que constituyen diferentes grupos, las diferentes instituciones del Estado y el movimiento social.Metodológicamente, el estudio se basa en una serie de autores que buscan rescatar las contradicciones y los intereses de los afectados por la implementación de este tipo de proyectos (Sigaud 1992, 1995, Vianna 2009, Borralho, 1988) a partir de una muestra de argumentación cualitativa. De este modo, el estudio se sustentó en una revisión bibliográfica y de prensa sobre el funcionamiento de la expansión eléctrica en América Latina y posteriormente sobre el contexto colombiano a partir de sus proyectos de expansión hidroeléctrica y la legislación acerca del funcionamiento de la Licencia Ambiental en este país. Finalmente, se sitúa en el caso concreto de El Quimbo, donde se realizaron diversos trabajos de campo con campesinos localizados en el área de afectación y se recolectó material de prensa y material emitido tanto por Emgesa como por la Asociación de Afectados por la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo-Asoquimbo. El trabajo investigativo refleja el panorama sobre la expansión de grandes proyectos de infraestructura y el consenso que existe sobre su implementación tanto por el sector privado como por los gobiernos nacionales, materializados a través de marcos legales del Estado y figuras como las licencias ambientales. A partir de este caso, se muestra cómo estas decisiones del Estado generan cambios en las condiciones previas de vida de poblaciones rurales, que reaccionan a partir de protestas y de la conformación de grupos con diferentes intereses y tiempos de resistencia y negociación.

En el presente trabajo buscamos contextualizar la situación del sector hidroeléctrico en América Latina, los principales argumentos que se presentan por parte de diferentes actores para la implementación de estos proyectos y la realidad que esto ofrece para las economías locales impactadas. En primer lugar, se presenta la configuración en América Latina de las principales iniciativas de expansión del sector eléctrico, reflejada en la acción de empresas y gobiernos en esta región. Posteriormente, se delimita el artículo a partir del estudio de caso de la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo en Colombia, que muestra la forma de acción del Estado colombiano al impulsar estos proyectos de expansión. Dentro de los procedimientos legales para la implementación de estos proyectos, guarda especial importancia el análisis de la Licencia Ambiental, que refleja en su proceso de concesión diferentes disputas entre los actores relacionados: la empresa Endesa-Enel, los afectados que constituyen diferentes grupos, las diferentes instituciones del Estado y el movimiento social. Metodológicamente, el estudio se basa en una serie de autores que buscan rescatar las contradicciones y los intereses de los afectados por la implementación de este tipo de proyectos (Sigaud 1992, 1995, Vianna 2009, Borralho, 1988) a partir de una muestra de argumentación cualitativa. De este modo, el estudio se sustentó en una revisión bibliográfica y de prensa sobre el funcionamiento de la expansión eléctrica en América Latina y posteriormente sobre el contexto colombiano a partir de sus proyectos de expansión hidroeléctrica y la legislación acerca del funcionamiento de la Licencia Ambiental en este país. Finalmente, se sitúa en el caso concreto de El Quimbo, donde se realizaron diversos trabajos de campo con campesinos localizados en el área de afectación y se recolectó material de prensa y material emitido tanto por Emgesa como por la Asociación de Afectados por la hidroeléctrica El Quimbo-Asoquimbo. El trabajo investigativo refleja el panorama sobre la expansión de grandes proyectos de infraestructura y el consenso que existe sobre su implementación tanto por el sector privado como por los gobiernos nacionales, materializados a través de marcos legales del Estado y figuras como las licencias ambientales. A partir de este caso, se muestra cómo estas decisiones del Estado generan cambios en las condiciones previas de vida de poblaciones rurales, que reaccionan a partir de protestas y de la conformación de grupos con diferentes intereses y tiempos de resistencia y negociación. ; In this paper we research about the situation in the hydroelectric sector in Latin-American, the principal arguments that have the different actors for the implementation of big infrastructure projects and how the local economies are affected. First we worked about how the principals expansion´s initiatives in the hydroelectric sector are organized in Latin American, represented in the companies and government actions. Later, the study is delimited in the Colombian State action that promotes the expansion, at the same time that explores one important mechanism inside the State: the environmental license, that reflects disputes related with these projects. Third, we worked with the hydroelectric project Quimbo case, located in Huila-Colombia, this is one transnational private´s initiative (company ENDESA-ENEL) support by the national government. In this case we show how the State have made decisions product of forced relations and have created changes in the peasant population that live in that region. The study is based on a qualitative methodology (Sigaud, 1992, 1995, Vianna, 2009 and Borralho, 1988), with bibliographic and press review related with the hydroelectric expansion in Latin America, afterwards we work about the Colombian context we restore with official documents the expansion in the sector and approach about the environmental license, the principal mechanism to install these projects in this country. Last one, in the Quimbo dam case, we worked about his context based on press material, organizations material (Emgesa company and the social movements) and interviews with peasants stricken by that project. The research study shows the outlook of the hydroelectric expansion and the consensus about the implementation of those big projects by the different governments and the private sector. These interest are implemented by the State references where is important the environmental license, that decree the implementation of that projects. In the last part is showed how with one hydroelectric case, how the State decisions create changes in the local population, who reacts with social protest and non-conformism front the failure of their social life.

As the history of this land continues to unfold, we come to the time when the capitol of the State was moved to a new city to the north of Baghdad, which was called Samarra, and this was the opportunity taken by the Khalifahs to build new palaces and excavate new canals and open more land for cultivation. In this paper details on the building of Sammara by Khalifah al- Mu'tasim, son of Khalifah Harun al- Rashid and moving the capitol to it from Baghdad in the year 836 and remaining as such until 892 are given. One of the main reasons which led al-Muʿtaṣim to build Samarra and moving to it was the problems raised by the presence of his Turkish slave-soldiers in Baghdad and the friction they had created with the population. Al-Muʿtaṣim construction works in Samarra, the various public buildings, and numerous palaces he constructed here are described. As the city was located on the eastern bank of the Tigris, water supply could not be drawn to it by gravity since its location was higher than the river and even higher than the Katul Kisrawi canal adjoining to it from the east. Therefore, the irrigation works of al- Muʿtaṣim were concentrated on the western bank of the Tigris, which he had already connected it to the right bank by building a bridge. The main irrigation work he embarked upon was the construction of Nahr Ishaqi Canal. This old canal dated to the Partho- Sassanid era but it had to be re-excavated and remodeled since it was already filled up by sediments and abandoned. More over the canal had to be extended for a very long distance downstream to irrigate all the qati'as he had given to his top generals and courtiers to develop into cultivations and farms. These farms then produced all sorts of crops and fruits while the large date palm orchards planted here gave the best types of dates. Moreover, the canal in its downward route supplied water to the large tract of land that al- Mu'tasim had reserved for the encampment of his Maghariba troops which was called "Istablat". Details of the barracks, housing quarters, stables and training arena of the encampment are presented in addition to the three branch canals off taking from Nahr Ishaqi, which were to irrigate also the extensive pastureland that was reserved for the 140,000 cavalry horses to graze in. The canal was then followed to its end in the other old canal called al- Dujail canal. The works of al- Mu'tasim, however, were no match to what his grandson al- Mutawakkil had done which are described. This Khalifah was determined to irrigate Samarra by gravity from the Tigris and to have plentiful water supply to the city and to his palaces and to his many artificial ponds. He embarked on a daring project by constructing a dual kariz and open channel conduit system taking water from the Tigris at a location forty kilometers north of Samarra and running for great part of its length along the Katul Kisrawi canal adapting to the hilly topography of the land. The scheme was then described following its course after crossing the Katul by an aqueduct to an earth reservoir. This reservoir was built to retain the incoming water before distributing it to the main city dual Kariz, and to the canal supplying the Dakka palace. In addition to the flood escape channel that was known as the Nahr Murayr which took off from the west side of the reservoir and passed down to the Tigris where it poured. The main city Kariz system is followed i and the details of its branching network are fully described. Such details covered the water supply to the racing courses, the Dar Khilafa palace and its unique pools intended for the Khalifah's pleasure and the water supply to Abu Dulaf Mosque congregational mosque with its famous fountain. Having finished in the Tigris at al- Matira this stream could not irrigate the 5000 hectares of land of al- Hayr, or the wild animal reserve created by al- Mutawakkil to practice his hobby of hunting, as this land was above its course. The al- Hayr was so important to al- Mutawakkil that he excavated a new canal directly from the Katul, which commanded the whole area, called it Nahr al Nyzak and gave from its final reach a branch to another palace he built there and supplied one more of his favorite ponds adjoined to it. The construction works of al- Mutawakkil were not confined to Samarra but he extended this to build a new city 18 kilometers to the north of Samarra and called it al- Mutawakkiliyya, and here he again built new government compound, a mosque and gave qati'as to his sons, generals and may more people to build houses and palaces. He built for himself another palace and called it al Ja'fari. To supply the new city with water, he ordered the excavation of a new canal, which he called Nahr al Ja'fari. The intake of this canal was on the Tigris River some forty kilometer north of Tikrit and it followed a course parallel to the river for a considerable distance before it crossed the Katul Kisrawi by an aqueduct and then entered the city. This project proved an engineering failure as the ground, which had to be dug, was extremely hard and the work had to be stopped after spending twenty five million dirham. While some of these works may be considered as grand works, they were very costly and deprived public works such as irrigation networks from their share necessary for their maintenance and proper functioning. This extravagance coupled with political intrigues led to the assassination of al- Mutawakkil in a plot that was planned by his own son. This point marked the beginning of the decline of al- Khilafa which took some more time till it finally collapsed in 1258 fall of Baghdad on the hands of the Mongols. In addition to Samarra and its irrigation work described also the Nahr Dujail canal flowing on the western bank of the Tigris not far downstream from Samarra. Much older than Samarra itself, it was irrigating a large tract of land extending to Baghdad. In description of the course of the canal followed its western branch, which had gone out of use at the Abbasid times and also concentrated attention on the eastern branch that was known as Nahr Batatiya. It irrigated the Tusuj of Maskin before it reached the northern parts of Baghdad and branched into a dense network of watercourses that supplied al- Harbbiyyah quarter. Further details are presented of the various places and parts of this quarter that benefited from these watercourses before the full supply was exhausted. The details as given augment therefore the description of the canal networks serving Baghdad (the round city and the Karkh districts) that had originated from Nahr Isa. The Abbasid Khilafa after it had experienced its golden era began after the assassination of al- Mutawakkil, a long process of slow but steady decline due to multiplicity of reasons. ; Validerad;2020;Nivå 1;2020-04-24 (alebob)