Suchergebnisse

Звернено увагу на особливості виникнення та формування сучасних моделей економіки. Наведено поняття та розглянуто єдності, відмінності та напрями взаємодії між різними економіками: екологічною, зеленою, синьою, коричневою, інклюзивною трансформаційною, замкнутого циклу (або циркулярною), біоекономікою, економікою екосистем та біорізноманіття й фізичною економією. Визначено, що ключовим інструментом втілення загальновизнаної у світі концепції сталого розвитку є екологічна економіка. Розглянуто зв'язок між концепціями «зелена економіка» і «сталий розвиток» та з'ясовано, що «зелена економіка – це орієнтована на результат концепція, спрямована на досягнення конвергенції між трьома складовими сталого розвитку», однак стратегії переходу до «зеленої економіки» потребують ґрунтовнішого розроблення економічних важелів на рівні як національних економік, так і окремих секторів. Обґрунтовано необхідність формування нового еколого-економічного мислення та ментальності суспільства, шлях до яких лежить через екологізацію освіти. Визначено спільну мету сучасної економіки, яка полягає у подоланні суперечностей між екологічною та економічною системами, збереженні якості довкілля і раціональному використанні природних ресурсів. З огляду на імплементацію законодавства Європейського Союзу щодо охорони та збереження навколишнього природного середовища в Україні, обґрунтовано перспективні напрями екологізації освіти і розвитку сучасних моделей економіки. Визначено перспективи подальших досліджень, які полягають у визначенні кращих моделей екологізації економіки та розробленні теоретико-методологічної основи, спрямованої на забезпечення практичної реалізації визначених моделей економіки в Україні. ; Обращено внимание на особенности возникновения и формирования современных моделей экономики. Сделан обзор понятий и рассмотрены единства, различия и направления взаимодействия между различными экономиками: экологической, зеленой, синей, коричневой, инклюзивной трансформационной, замкнутого цикла (или циркулярной), биоэкономикой, экономикой экосистем и биоразнообразия и физической экономией. Определено, что одним из инструментов реализации общепризнанной в мире концепции устойчивого развития является экологическая экономика. В соответствии с принципами экологической экономики, на каком-то этапе экономика должна прекратить рост в материальном измерении. Человечество обязано перейти от роста к развитию – повышение уровня удовлетворения потребностей человечества при использовании того же количества энергии и ресурсов. В 2008 г. в ответ на финансовый и экономический кризис Программа ООН по окружающей среде объявила переход к зеленой экономике. Рассмотрены связи между концепциями "зеленая экономика" и "устойчивое развитие" и выяснено, что "зеленая экономика – это ориентированная на результат концепция, направленная на достижение конвергенции между тремя составляющими устойчивого развития", однако стратегии перехода к "зеленой" экономики требуют более основательной разработки экономических инструментов на уровне как национальных экономик, так и отдельных секторов. В рамках экологизации экономики важное значение имеет модель экономики замкнутого цикла (или циркулярной экономики). Ключевым элементом экономики замкнутого цикла является рациональное использование сырьевых материалов, в том числе металлов, энергии, химической и промышленного сырья, а также воды и биомассы. Возрастает актуальность нового трансдисциплинарного направления в экономике – биоэкономики, которая тесно связана с наращиванием энергоэффективности, устойчивым сельским хозяйством, производством экологически чистых продуктов питания, эффективным использованием отходов и возобновляемой энергетикой. Доказано, что более широкое использование биоэкономики позволит достичь таких целей устойчивого развития, в частности, как борьба с голодом, нищетой и изменением климата. Обоснована необходимость формирования нового эколого-экономического мышления и ментальности общества, путь к которым лежит через экологизацию образования. Считается, что экологизации образования и развития современных моделей экономики в Украине будет способствовать Соглашение об ассоциации между Украиной и Европейским Союзом, которое предусматривает сотрудничество по вопросам образования в течение жизни. С целью имплементации соответствующих положений Соглашения и Закона Украины "Об образовании" в 2017 г. Министерством образования и науки начата разработка проекта Закона Украины "Об образовании взрослых", направленного на реализацию права каждого совершеннолетнего человека на непрерывное обучение с учетом его личностных потребностей, приоритетов общественного развития и потребностей экономики. Определена общая цель современной экономики, которая заключается в преодолении противоречий между экологической и экономической системами, сохранении качества окружающей среды и рациональном использовании природных ресурсов. Определены перспективы дальнейших исследований, которые заключаются в определении лучших современных моделей экологизации экономики и разработке теоретико-методологической основы, направленной на обеспечение практической реализации определенных моделей экономики в Украине. ; The article explores emergence and development of contemporary approaches to greening of economics in terms of their similarities, contradictions and possibilities for mutual enrichment. The approaches discussed in the papaer include ecological economics, green economy, blue economy, brown economy, inclusive transformational economics, circular economy, bioeconomics (bioeconomy), economics of ecosystems and biodiversity and physical economy. In 2008, in response to the financial and economic crises, the United Nations Environment Program announced transition to a green economy. The link between the concepts of "green economy" and "sustainable development" is explored, considering green economy' aspiration for convergence between different pillars of sustainability, but the strategy of transition to a "green economy" needs more thorough development of economic levers at the level of both national economy and individual sectors. Circular economy is another novel concept deserving attention – being officially adopted by EU, China and a number of other countries, it promotes rational use of raw materials, including metals, energy, chemical and industrial raw materials, as well as water and biomass. A new important transdisciplinary trend in the economics is bioeconomics, closely linked to energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture, efficient use of waste and renewable energy. Wider application of bioeconomics would help to achieve multiple Sustainable Development Goals, particularly eradication of hunger and poverty, as well as climate change mitigation and adaptation. We determine ecological economics as the primary tool for implementing the universally accepted concept of sustainable development. In accordance with the principles of the ecological economics, at some stage, the economy must stop growing in material terms. Humans must move from growth to development – increasing human wellbeing with the use of the same amount of energy and resources. We ground the necessity for developing ecological and economic thinking and mentality of society, the way of which lies through greening of education. The greening of education and the development of current economic models in Ukraine can be greatly facilitated through the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union, which provides opportunities for cooperation on life-long education. In order to implement the relevant provisions of the Agreement and the Law of Ukraine "On Education" in 2017, the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine began developing the Draft Law of Ukraine "On adult education" in 2017, which focuses on implementing the right of every adult to continuous learning with regard to their personal needs, social development priorities and economic needs. The contemporary task of economics is to help overcome the contradictions between ecological and economic systems, preserve the environment and promote rational use of natural resources. Further research is however needed to determine how each of the alternative economic models can best contribute to the greening of economy. This also requires developing theoretical and methodological bases of these concepts, which would assist their practical realization in the context of Ukraine's economy.

Tese de doutoramento em Arquitetura, apresentada ao Departamento de Arquitetura da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; This dissertation emerged in the wake of the 2008 real-estate crisis and a will to discuss, understand and project the role professional architecture might play in reorganizing collective stakes. The aim was to understand how architecture's expert knowledge contributed to the political construction of reality. This was developed through the study of a group of Portuguese architects and architecture practices from mid-20th century, specifically from 1945 to 1969. The study of the career of Portuguese architect Fernando Távora (1923-2005) was the starting point and mediator to a specific collective universe of professional formation, urban development and political embattlement. Távora was agent of a culture of architecture in which the ideas of respecting the context, commitment to local needs and history, internationally projected by the reputation of Porto architects Álvaro Siza Vieira and Eduardo Souto de Moura, were first articulated. Thus, this dissertation transports a dual questioning: how did post-war Portuguese architects interpret the discipline as politically committed? And, what can we learn from this specific case about the political constitution of the practice of professional architecture? These questions are answered through the study of two elements of professional-political construction: expert discourses and their relations to government, power and political ideology; architecture designs and their relation to the transformation of Portuguese landscapes. The study of discourses cross-reads the development of architecture expert discourses with the emergence of problems of government and languages of power and govenment. This study of discourses derives from an ethnographic study of architecture designs, based on guidelines from material and spatial anthropology. This dissertation attempts to seize architectural designs in their articulations and projections of community, comfort, modernity and culture. The first part of the dissertation, comprising chapters 1 to 3, addresses the formation of a collective project for professional architecture developed by young architects in the post-war, and attempting to draw democratic ideals and practices closer. The second part, comprising chapters 4 to 6, addresses how this collective project of architecture involved the putting forward of a particular view of the city and its edifying mission in national well-being. The third part, comprising chapter 7, adresses how this style of apprehending the city was practiced in the case of an urban renewal process. These parts assemble together a specific urban history and culture, pedagogical experiments in architecture education, and architectural practices that sought to reframe Portuguese urban reality through a professional reframing. This dissertation discusses the intimacies and distinctions between a professional and a political project, transported by the debated identification of being Portuguese with being modern. It discusses how a project of architecture practice articulated a style of apprehending the city and, thus, of performing a desired urban community through the bodies of architecture. It presents arguments for the discussion of how modern architecture practices perform the nation-state and national culture. It identifies how an architecture for a true national culture, with a style of apprehending the city, made a political construction pass through the practice of spatial organization. This dissertation aims to contribute to the identification of some elements allowing to draw architecture's expert culture closer to democracy. ; Esta dissertação surgiu no debalde da crise imobiliária de 2008 e de uma vontade de discutir, perceber e projectar o papel que a prática profissional de arquitectura pode desempenhar na reorganização de interesses colectivos. O objectivo foi perceber como o conhecimento especializado da arquitectura contribui para a construção política da realidade. Isto foi desenvolvido através do estudo de um grupo de arquitectos e práticas arquitectónicas portuguesas de meados do seculo XX, especificamente de 1945 a 1969. A análise da carreira do arquitecto português Fernando Távora (1923- 2005) foi o ponto de partida e mediador para um universo colectivo de formação profissional, desenvolvimento urbano e confronto político. Távora foi agente de uma cultura de arquitectura em que o respeito pelo contexto, o compromisso com necessidades e história locais, projectadas internacionalmente pela reputação de arquitectos portuenses como Álvaro Siza Vieira e Eduardo Souto de Moura, foram articuladas pela primeira vez. Como tal, esta dissertação transporta uma dupla interrogação: como é que arquitectos portugueses interpretaram no pós-guerra a disciplina como politicamente comprometida? E o que podemos aprender deste caso específico acerca da constituição política da práctica professional de arquitectura? Procura-se responder a estas questões estudando dois elementos de construção profissional e política: discursos especializados e as suas relações com governo, poder e ideologia política; projectos de arquitectura e a sua relação com a transformação de paisagens portuguesas. O estudo de discursos cruza a leitura do desenvolvimento de discursos arquitectónicos com a emergência de problemas de governação e linguagens de poder e governo. Este estudo de discursos parte do estudo etnográfico de projectos de arquitectura, baseado em directrizes da antropologia material e espacial. Esta dissertação procura capturar projectos de arquitectura nas suas articulações e projecções de comunidade, comforto, modernidade e cultura. A primeira parte, do capítulo 1 ao 3, trata da formação de um projecto colectivo para a prática profissional de arquitectura, desenvolvido por jovens arquitectos no pós-guerra, e que tentou aproximarse de ideais e práticas democráticas. A segunda parte, do capítulo 4 ao 6, trata de como este projecto colectivo de arquitectura implicou a projecção de uma visão particular de cidade e da sua missão edificante no bem-estar nacional. A terceira parte, capítulo 7, trata de como este estilo de apreender a cidade foi praticado no caso de um processo de renovação urbana. Estas partes reúnem uma história e cultura urbana particular, a experiências pedagógicas em educação de arquitectura, a práticas arquitectónicas que procuraram reformular a realidade urbana portuguesa através de uma reformulação profissional. Esta dissertação discute as intimidades e distinções entre um projecto profissional e um projecto político, transportadas pela disputada identificação de ser português com ser moderno. Discute como um projecto de prática arquitectónica articulou um estilo de apreender a cidade e, como tal, de realizar uma desejada comunidade urbana através dos corpos da arquitectura. Apresenta argumentos para a discussão de como práticas modernas de arquitectura realizam o estado-nação e uma cultura nacional. Identifica como uma arquitectura para uma verdadeira cultura nacional, com um estilo de apreender a cidade, fez uma construção política passar através da prática da organização espacial. Esta dissertação pretende contribuir para apontar alguns elementos que permitam aproximar a cultura especializada de arquitectura da democracia. ; Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia

INTRODUCCIÓN La comunicación que aquí se presenta recoge los resultados de una investigación impulsada en el marco de la Cátedra de Ética Económica y Empresarial de la Universidad Pontificia Comillas. El propósito es conocer en qué medida las instituciones españolas de educación superior, firmantes de distintos compromisos por el Bien Común, se están involucrando en el impulso de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible, acuerdo transnacional auspiciado por Naciones Unidas, evaluando el avance dieciocho meses después de su firma. JUSTIFICACIÓN En Septiembre de 2015 un total de 192 países firmaron en Nueva York un compromiso conjunto para trabajar por mejorar el mundo en el que vivimos. Tras un largo periodo de consultas, se acordó establecer una agenda a 15 años vista que incluía la definición de 17 objetivos por los que trabajar para un desarrollo más sostenible para todos los habitantes del planeta. Con el propósito de medir el desempeño en la consecución de metas concretas asociadas a cada objetivo, se definieron hasta 169 indicadores que debían permitir mostrar hasta qué punto se han involucrado de forma eficaz los diferentes agentes políticos, económicos y de la sociedad civil. Desde entonces, se vienen sucediendo planteamientos estratégicos para alcanzar los objetivos marcados, compaginando el trabajo individual con propuestas en equipo que se impulsan a través de la colaboración entre las partes. Una labor que responde al llamamiento global que realizan con frecuencia grandes líderes mundiales, como es el caso del Papa Francisco, quien, junto a otros referentes mundiales, aboga por un mundo más justo, más igualitario, más cuidadoso con la naturaleza y, en definitiva, más sostenible. En línea con los esfuerzos descritos, el Pacto Mundial viene liderando la búsqueda de consenso en un foro multistakeholder pero principalmente orientado a empresas. Se pretende así dinamizar un espacio para compartir experiencias y hallar nuevo conocimiento sobre algunos objetivos concretos que se amplían cada año. En él participan, además de organizaciones empresariales, instituciones académicas y organizaciones del Tercer Sector interesadas en impulsar alianzas colaborativas. Por lo que respecta a las instituciones académicas, no es ésta la única manera de hacer explícito el compromiso con el Desarrollo Sostenible. También instituciones firmantes de los Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME) vienen centrando esfuerzos por dar visibilidad en sus reportes al trabajo que realizan para fomentar la sostenibilidad en sus centros. Y lo hacen poniendo el foco a dos niveles: ad intra, mediante la gestión interna, y ad extra, a través de la formación, la investigación y las diferentes actuaciones de extensión universitaria que cada vez más se vienen desarrollando en colaboración con organizaciones del Tercer Sector y con otros agentes sociales. Se cruzan así los puntos cardinales de lo que se denomina la Responsabilidad Social Universitaria con el compromiso por los ODS, a resultas del cual las universidades y escuelas de negocios vienen rindiendo cuentas a través de distintos informes y memorias, no integrados hasta la fecha. Ello a pesar de la iniciativa puesta en marcha en España y Portugal para impulsar un modelo de reporte que fusione los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible con los PRME a través de una matriz de indicadores mixtos que permitan responder al tiempo a los correspondientes objetivos y principios. ; INTRODUCTION The communication presented here reflects the results of a research carried out within the framework of the Chair of Economic and Business Ethics of the Universidad Pontificia Comillas. The purpose is to know to what extent the Spanish institutions of higher education, signatories of different commitments for the Common Good, are being involved in the promotion of the Sustainable Development Goals, a transnational agreement sponsored by the United Nations, evaluating the progress eighteen months after his signature. JUSTIFICATION In September 2015 a total of 192 countries signed a joint commitment in New York to work oon the improvement of our world. After a long period of consultations, it was agreed to establish a 15-year agenda that included the definition of 17 goals for working towards a more sustainable development for all the world's inhabitants. In order to measure performance in achieving specific goals associated with each objective, up to 169 indicators were defined that should show how effectively the different political, economic and civil society actors have been involved. Since then, strategic approaches have been developedto achieve the goals, combining the individual work with associated proposals that are promoted through the collaboration between the parties. A task that responds to the global call often made by great world leaders, as is the case of Pope Francis, who, together with other world leaders, advocates a world that is more just, more egalitarian, more careful with nature and, ultimately , more sustainable. In line with the efforts described, the Global Compact has been leading the search for consensus in a multistakeholder forum, but mainly corporate oriented. The aim is to stimulate a space to share experiences and find new knowledge on some concrete objectives that are extended each year. It includes, in addition to business organizations, academic institutions and organizations of the Third Sector interested in promoting collaborative alliances. As far as academic institutions are concerned, this is not the only way to make explicit the commitment to Sustainable Development. Furthermore, institutions that have signed the Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME) have been focusing their efforts on making their reports visible to the work they do to promote sustainability in their centers. And they do this by putting the focus on two levels: ad intra, through internal management, and ad extra, through training, research and the various university extension actions that are increasingly being developed in collaboration with organizations from the Third Sector and with other social partners. The cardinal points of what is called University Social Responsibility are crossed with the commitment by the ODS, as a result of which universities and business schools are accountable through different reports and reports, not integrated to date. This despite the initiative launched in Spain and Portugal to promote a reporting model that fuses the Sustainable Development Objectives with the PRME through an array of mixed indicators that allow time to respond to the corresponding objectives and principles. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/draft

Розглянуто суть екологізації суспільної свідомості в контексті духовного розвитку, збереження й удосконалення життя на Землі. Екологізацію суспільної свідомості розглядають як процес оптимізації життя на Землі, який враховує потреби земної цивілізації в ресурсах довкілля і можливостях навколишнього природного середовища їх задовольняти. Проаналізовано зв'язки між деградацією навколишнього природного середовища під впливом деструктивної господарської діяльності людини, воєнних конфліктів у межах гібридної війни та глобальними екологічними загрозами, що пов'язані з порушенням планетарних меж. Визначено найвагоміші вимоги до еволюційного розвитку земної цивілізації в XXI ст. в межах вісімнадцяти цілей. Розглянуто суть гібридної війни як війни символів і злочинних інтересів кланових угруповань, в яких нехтують міжнародними домовленостями, національним законодавством і традиціями. Зроблено висновок про те, що помилковою є думка щодо того, що гібридні війни – це протистояння, яке пов'язане головним чином з етичними і ціннісними інтересами, бо за ними, як звичайно, криється проімперська загарбницька війна. ; В XXI веке в связи с обострением глобальных экологических проблем и ростом деструктивной антропогенной нагрузки на экосистемы Земли, повышается общественное осознание значимости экологизации общественного сознания, которая развивается под влиянием науки и образования. Концепция экологизации общественного сознания рассматривается нами в рамках земной цивилизации. Она охватывает экономическую, экологическую, социальную и духовную сферы. С помощью инструментов экологической политики будет обеспечиваться экологизация науки, образования и средств массовой информации, что будет способствовать росту интеллекта людей на Земле и преодолению глобальных экологических угроз, нависших над земной цивилизацией в XXI веке. Проблемы охраны окружающей среды в общественном сознании завуалированы противостоянием, что происходит между крупными игроками на глобальном уровне. Целью исследования является определение концептуальных основ экологизации общественного сознания в условиях гибридной войны в контексте духовного развития земной цивилизации. Объектом исследования является экосистемы Земли, которые деградируют под влиянием антропогенных и природных факторов. Использован абстрактно-логический метод исследования – для раскрытия сути эколого-экономического инструмента экологизация общественного сознания во взаимосвязи с духовным развитием земной цивилизации и обоснование глобальных целей, которые нужно достичь земной цивилизации в процессе эволюционного развития в XXI веке с помощью экологически направленного общественного сознания. Экологизация общественного сознания в контексте духовного развития – это сложный политический процесс, у которого есть сегодня, и будет в будущем большая когорта оппонентов. Крупный капитал спонсирует большие деньги на дискредитацию идей, связанных с потеплением климата под влиянием парниковых газов. Экологическая сфера земной цивилизации страдает как под влиянием природных факторов, так и деструктивной антропогенной деятельности. В XXI веке их совокупное негативное влияние на человека настолько высоко, что угрожает сохранению жизни на Земле. В связи с этим экологическую сферу Земли нужно не только адаптировать к будущим климатическим условиям, но, вместе с тем, восстановить в полном объеме ее экологические и социальные функции. Поэтому и декабрьские Парижские соглашения (2015) в рамках климатического форума нужно выполнять, не прибегая к дискуссиям о потеплении или похолодании климата, которые с годами все менее отражают объективную реальность. Предложено ряд глобальных целей экологизации общественного развития, которые человечеству необходимо будет достигать в условиях гибридной войны, которая предусматривает замаскированное использование военными наемниками ряда военных средств среди гражданского населения. Гибридная война динамично прорывается в экономическую, образовательную и научную сферы. Средства гибридной войны используются лидерами крупнейших государств мира для достижения целей, которые в большинстве случаев идут вразрез с целями экологической политики, направленной на преодоление глобальных экологических угроз. ; The 21st century stand out by the elevation of the global consciousness about the importance of environmental awareness of society based on the advances of science and education as the result of the sharp rise of global ecological problems and increased destructive anthropogenic influence on the ecosystem of the planet Earth. The concept of environmental awareness of the society is looked at within the frame of our planet. It includes economic, environmental, social and spiritual spheres. Applying the instruments of the environmental policy we'll ensure the greening of the science, education and the media which will increase the intellectual potential of the population of our planet and solve global ecological threats that are hovering over it in the 21st century. The pressing issues of the environmental protection in the collective consciousness are obscured by the stand off between influential players on a global level. The goal of the research is to define conceptual premises of ecological evolution of collective consciousness under the condition of hybrid war in the context of spiritual development of our civilization. The subject of the research is Earth's ecosystem that is degrading under the influence of anthropogenic and natural processes. Abstract logical method of the research is used to uncover the essence of ecological and economic instruments of the ecological development in collective consciousness in congruence with spiritual development of the Earthly civilization, and the justification of the global goals that must be achieved by the humanity throughout the process of evolutionary development in the 21st century driven by ecologically oriented societal consciousness. Ecological evolution of humanity in the context of spiritual development is complex political process which nowadays has numerous cohorts of opponents and will have them in the future. Big business pours a huge amount of capital to discredit the ideas related to the global climate change due to the green house effect from the gas emissions. Ecological sphere of global community suffers under the influence of natural processes as well as from destructive anthropogenic activity. In the 21st century their cumulative negative effect on the environment is so impactful that it threatens the continuity of the life on Earth. As the result, the environment of Earth needs not only to adapt to the future climate conditions, but along with it - to completely renew it's ecological and social functions. That's why the Paris Agreement of December 2015 in the frame of the Climate Forum needs to be implemented without discussions about warming or cooling of the climate that less and less reflect the objective reality as the years pass. We propose the number of global goals to improve ecological evolution of the society which humanity must achieve and implement - especially under difficult conditions of hybrid wars, that provide the use of selective military methods that are masked and used by the concealed military recruits among civilians. The hybrid war dynamically breaks into economic, educational and scientific spheres. Methods of hybrid war are used by leaders of the most powerful nations to achieve the goals, that in most instances contradict the goals of environmental policy aimed at overcoming global ecological threats.

Das vorliegende Datenhandbuch soll der Forschung zu den Aspekten internationaler Migration das adäquate Datenmaterial an die Hand geben. Anregung für diese Datensammlung wurde 1924 durch das Komitee zu den wissenschaftlichen Aspekten menschlicher Wanderung des Social Science Research Council gegeben. Die Durchführung der statistischen Studie wurde dem National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) in New York (Prof. Dr. Willcox) anvertraut, welches unterstützt wurde von der Abteilung Migration des International Labour Office (ILO bzw. Internationale Arbeitsorganisation (IAO), Prof. Dr. Ferenczi) in Genf (Schweiz). Das vorliegende Datenhandbuch geht über die Zusammenstellung bekannter, vorliegender Statistiken der einzelnen Länder hinaus. Viele Materialien wurden neben den schon publizierten öffentlichen Statistiken in den Archiven zusätzlich gesichtet und aufbereitet.

Die Forscher sammelten nationale Statistiken und stellten sie in internationalen Tabellen zusammen, soweit es die Datenlage erlaubte. Die besondere Herausforderung dieser Arbeit lag in der Tatsache, dass die Unvollständigkeit der nationalen Migrationsstatistiken steigt, je weiter die Daten in die Vergangenheit zurückreichen. Für jedes Land wurde die Anzahl der Auswanderer nach dem von ihnen angegebenen Zielland bzw. Einwanderungsland erhoben. Weiterhin wurden im Gegenzug für jedes Land die Einwanderer nach dem Land ihrer Abfahrt erfasst. Damit sollte für jedes Land ein Überblick der dieses Land betreffenden Migrationsflüsse erstellt werden.
Interkontinentale Wanderungsbewegungen stellen den Schwerpunkt dieser Studie dar. Die kontinentale Wanderung innerhalb Europas und anderen Teilen der Welt wurde jedoch ebenfalls erfasst.

Das Material für die Statistiken wurde beschafft durch die Korrespondenz mit dem ILO und seinen Mitglieds-Staaten (Vereinte Nationen), durch die Zusammenarbeit mit den statistischen Ämtern der jeweiligen Länder und durch Sichtung der Archive.

In den nationalen Datentabellen werden die Migranten zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Abreise aus dem Land ihres gegenwärtigen Aufenthalts bzw. zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Ankunft in dem Land ihres zukünftigen Aufenthaltes erfasst. Bevölkerungsstatistiken oder Arbeitsmarktstatistiken, in denen auch die ausländische Bevölkerung erfasst wird und die daher eine indirekte Schlussfolgerung auf Wanderungsbewegungen zulassen, sind von den Autoren nicht berücksichtigt worden. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 67) Dort, wo Migrationsstatistiken auf der Basis von unterschiedlichen Methoden erhoben wurden, wie z.B. Hafen-Statistiken, Reisepass-Statistiken, oder Grenz-Statistiken, sind die entsprechenden Werte berücksichtigt worden und in den Tabellen wurde auf die Quelle hingewiesen. Dort, wo in den nationalen Migrationsstatistiken Auswanderer nach dem Zielland oder Einwanderer nach ihrem Herkunftsland klassifiziert wurden, wird sich in der Statistik indirekt auf ein anderes Land bezogen. Für die jeweiligen anderen Länder, welche in diesen nationalen Datentabellen erwähnt werden, stellen diese Statistiken eine Art 'indirekte Wanderungsstatistik' dar. Indirekte Statistiken beziehen sich normalerweise auf die Nennung von Ländern (z.B. Herkunftsland). Dort, wo diese Nennungen fehlen, wurde die Nationalität oder die Volkszugehörigkeit der Migranten herangezogen. Weiterhin wird in den Daten zwischen Bürgern des Landes (Dänen, d.h. in Dänemark geborene Bürger) und Ausländern unterschieden. Hierbei wurde immer die Definition des jeweiligen Landes für Staatsbürger und für Ausländer bei der Datenerhebung herangezogen. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 67) Ebenfalls wurde zwischen kontinentalen und interkontinentalen Migrationsbewegungen unterschieden. Eine Migration wird als kontinental bezeichnet, wenn sie zwischen den Territorien verschiedener Länder des gleichen Kontinents stattfindet. Sie wird als interkontinental bezeichnet, wenn Länder unterschiedlicher Kontinente betroffen sind. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 68) Als Regel geben die Autoren folgende persönliche Charakteristiken der Migranten an: Geschlecht, Alter, Nationalität, Beruf, Land des letzten ständigen Aufenthaltsortes und das Land des zukünftigen ständigen Aufenthaltsortes. Diese Eigenschaften wurden auf der Basis der 'International Labour Conference' von 1922, Empfehlung Nr. 19, gewählt.
Für Migrations-Statistiken sind die staatlichen Territorien von besonderer Bedeutung. Historische Grenzverläufe und ihre Veränderungen über die Zeit sind von besonderer Bedeutung. So ist es z.B. irreführend, den heutigen Begriff des 'Vereinten Königreichs von England' (United Kingdom) zu verwenden, da seine heutige Bedeutung durch die Etablierung des Freien Irischen Staates sich verändert hat. Daher wird der Begriff 'Britische Inseln' von den Autoren verwendet. Dort, wo sich historische Territorien über die Zeit verändert haben, wurde das neue Territorium in der Hauptüberschrift und das ältere Territorium unterhalb der Hauptüberschrift genannt (z.B.: Ungarn – vor dem Krieg und nach dem Krieg; Irish Free State – Ireland, etc.) (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 68) Wo frühere Territorien aufgehört haben, ein selbständiges politisches oder administratives Gebiet zu sein, wurde es unter dem früheren vorherrschenden Gebiet klassifiziert (z.B. wurden Bosnien und Herzegovina unter Österreich platziert).
In allen Tabellen werden die Migranten in 12-Monats-Perioden dargestellt, soweit es möglich war. Rechnungsjahre wurden meistens von Kalenderjahren getrennt dargestellt, wobei eine Information über die exakte Periode des Rechnungsjahres in den Anmerkungen gegeben wurde. Wo Statistiken nur für Fünfjahres- oder Zehnjahres-Zeiträume vorlagen, wurde in den Originalquellen nach den jeweiligen Jahresdaten recherchiert.
Es kamen für die Studie nur Statistiken offizieller Quellen zur Anwendung. Nur in seltenen Fällen wurde auf sekundäre Quellen zurückgegriffen (Briefe, offizielle Korrespondenzen). Der Vorzug wurde den offiziellen Statistiken mit dem spätesten Datum gegeben.
Die Nationalen Statistiken des vorliegenden Datenhandbuches berichten die Berufe in der Klassifikation, die in den Quellen verwendet wurde. Wo möglich, wurde die Untergliederung mit den sechs Klassen 'Landwirtschaft', 'Industrie und Bergbau', 'Transport und Handel bzw. Kommunikation', 'Hausdienstleistungen und Handwerk', 'freie Berufe und öffentliche Dienstleistungen', sowie 'andere Berufe, keinen Beruf, Beruf unbekannt' gewählt. Familienmitglieder, die nicht berufstätig waren, wurden in Kategorie 6 (andere Berufe, keinen Beruf, Beruf unbekannt) eingeordnet. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 70)
In den nationalen Datentabellen, in denen die Einwanderer nach dem Land des letzten ständigen Aufenthaltsortes oder nach ihrer Nationalität aufgeführt werden, wurde meistens die Klassifikation der genutzten offiziellen Quelle des jeweiligen Landes beibehalten, wobei die genutzte Klassifikation der USA als Arbeitsgrundlage für eine Vereinheitlichung der Kategorien diente. Wenn die jeweiligen nationalen Untergliederungen sehr viel mehr Klassifikationen hatten als jene der USA, wurden diese Untergliederungen den größeren Gruppen der US-Klassifikation angepasst.
Wo es schwierig war, ein Territorium einem Land zuzuordnen, wurde die Klassifikation des 'International Statistical Institute' (ISI) herangezogen. In anderen Fällen wurde die Nationalität oder die Volkszugehörigkeit nach geographischen oder politischen Gesichtspunkten gewählt (z.B.: Juden (nicht spezifiziert) wurden unter den Gruppen 'andere Europäer' aufgeführt. Juden (polnisch) wurden unter 'Polen' aufgeführt. Türken (nicht spezifiziert) wurden unter 'Türken in Asien' aufgeführt, etc.). (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 70)


Polen (Kongress-Polen und Republik Polen)

1. Statistik für die Zeit Kongress-Polens
Das Statistische Komitee von Warschau (Vorkriegs-Russland) sammelte von Zeit zu Zeit Statistiken für den Zeitraum von zehn Regierungen des damaligen Kongress Polens. Diese Datenerhebungen wurden jedoch nicht kontinuierlich oder systematisch durchgeführt. Daher liegen auch keine regelmäßig erschienenen statistischen Veröffentlichungen vor. Einige der Erhebungen wurden in verschiedene Ausgaben der statistischen "Berichte (Proceedings)" des oben genannten Ausschusses publiziert, andere wurden überhaupt nicht veröffentlicht. Der Direktor des Statistischen Amtes der Republik Polen hat die Berichte für die Zeit Kongress-Polens zusammengestellt und bei der Übermittlung folgende Aussage hinzugefügt:

- Gebietsabgrenzung: Diese Statistiken beziehen sich auf das Gebiet des ehemaligen Königreichs Polen oder Kongress-Polens, das durch den Wiener Vertrag von 1815 gegründet wurde. Dieses Gebiet entspricht ungefähr dem Umfang der fünf der zentralen Provinzen (voiévodies) der polnischen Republik, nämlich Warschau, Lodz, Kielce, Lublin und Bialystok. Ausgenommen von der damaligen Fläche sind der nördliche Teil der alten Regierung von Suwalki, der jetzt zu Litauen gehört, sowie der östliche Teil der Provinz Bialystok, der während der russischen Herrschaft nicht zum Kongress Polen gehörte.
- Die Auswanderungszahlen wurden vom ehemaligen Statistischen Komitee von Warschau mit Hilfe der kommunalen Verwaltungen erhoben. Sie sind etwas ungenau und unvollständig, vor allem im Hinblick auf die frühere Periode, sind aber nicht ohne Wert. Tatsächlich spiegeln diese Zahlen die allgemeinen Tendenzen der Migrationen, sowohl in Bezug auf die Schwankungen der Gesamtsumme als auch die Richtung, die der Strom der Auswanderer genommen hat. Allerdings ist die Einstufung von Emigranten nach Amerika in vorübergehende und dauerhafte Auswanderer nicht ganz richtig.
- Die Angaben enthalten keine Auswanderung nach Russland. Daten zu diesem Thema existieren für bestimmte Jahre, sind aber sehr unvollständig.
- Es liegen keine Daten über
(a) vorübergehende Auswanderung für andere Länder als Deutschland in den Jahren
1890 und 1900-03 vor und
(b) die Aufteilung der ständigen Emigranten nach dem Bestimmungsland für den Zeitraum 1890-1903.
- Für die letzten Jahre vor dem Krieg (1909-13 und teilweise 1904-08) sind detaillierte Informationen verfügbar
(a) zu den Auswanderern, untergliedert nach den Berufsgruppen in Bauern mit Landeigentum, landlose Bauern (ländliches Proletariat), qualifizierte und ungelernte Arbeiter, sowie
(b) zu den Auswanderern nach ihrer Religion.


2. Statistik für die Zeit der Republik Polen
Während des Zeitraums 1920-23 stellten Beamte der Auswanderungsbehörden Berichte zur interkontinentale Auswanderung polnischer Bürger zusammen. In den darauffolgenden Jahren wurden diese Statistiken vom Nationalen Auswanderungsamt auf der Grundlage von Daten der autorisierten Reedereien und Schifffahrtsgesellschaften erstellt.
Zahl der Auswanderer in kontinentale Länder wurden dagegen aus den bewilligten Visa ermittelt. Die Zahlen über Auswanderung nach und Einwanderung aus Frankreich wurden dem Auswanderungsamt durch die französische Mission in Poznan zur Verfügung gestellt.


Statistiken über die Anzahl der Auswanderer aus Polen in die Vereinigten Staaten nach Geschlecht (1869-98 und 1899-1924), nach Südafrika (1922-24), Argentinien (1921-24), Australien (1902- 24), Brasilien (1920-24), Kanada (1900-24), Kuba (1911-24) und Palästina (1922-24) finden sich in den nationalen Tabellen der jeweiligen Länder.

Statistiken über die Anzahl der Migranten, die aus Argentinien (1911-24) und den Vereinigten Staaten (1908-24) nach Polen zurückkehren, werden in den nationalen Tabellen von Argentinien bzw. der Vereinigten Staaten zur Verfügung gestellt.


Tabellen

A. Statistik Kongress-Polens (1815-1913)

A.01 Auswanderung aus Polen (Kongress-Polen), 1890-1903.
A.02 Auswanderung aus Polen (Kongress-Polen) nach Zielland, 1904-1913.
A.03 Auswanderung nach Zielland und Geschlecht der Auswanderer, 1809-1913.
A.04 Auswanderung aus Polen (Kongress-Polen) nach Religion der Auswanderer, 1909-1913.
A.05 Vorübergehende Auswanderung aus Polen (Kongress-Polen) nach Zielland, 1890-1913.


B. Statistik der Republik Polen (1920-1924)

B.01 Interkontinentale Auswanderung aus der Republik Polen nach Land des zukünftigen Wohnsitzes,1920-1924.
B.02 Kontinentale Auswanderung aus der Republik Polen nach Land des zukünftigen Wohnsitzes,1920-1924.

La República Democrática Popular de Laos (Lao PDR) o Laos es un país montañoso y sin acceso al mar situado en el centro de la región continental del Sudeste Asiático, en la frontera con Myanmar, China, Camboya, Tailandia y Vietnam. Es considerado uno de los países más boscosos de la región, y está clasificado como una de las regiones con mayor diversidad cultural, con casi el 50 por ciento de población indígena. Sin embargo, es una de las naciones más pobres del mundo. Durante la última década, los recursos forestales se han degradado considerablemente debido a la tala, las concesiones privadas, la energía hidráulica y la minería, así como a los cultivos itinerantes intensificados por el progresivo aumento de la densidad poblacional en las tierras altas. La política del Gobierno de Laos se ha centrado en la erradicación de esta agricultura itinerante, pero el programa gubernamental inicial de reasignación de tierras y bosques ha significado la pérdida por parte de diversos grupos étnicos sobre el uso de las tierras de secano, al no estar ya permitido el uso del suelo consuetudinario con barbechos largos. En este nuevo contexto, ninguno de los grupos étnicos de las tierras altas tienen ya derecho a la tierra que utilizan. No obstante, todavía existen muchos sistemas de uso de la tierra tradicionales y ecológicamente racionales en la República Democrática Popular de Laos en áreas remotas, y que mantienen la forma de tenencia comunal. Aquí la tierra es gestionada por el pueblo, que cada año la redistribuye según las necesidades y el trabajo. Esta investigación se centra en estos sistemas tradicionales, buscando identificar qué características de este régimen de gestión comunal podría ayudar a sustituir la actual "degradación" por la "innovación" en el uso de la tierra. La hipótesis de la investigación es que estos regímenes de propiedad común son un medio para que los pobres puedan garantizar el acceso a los flujos de beneficios de los recursos naturales, sirviendo así como una "red de seguridad contra la vulnerabilidad". Al mismo tiempo y lo más importante, esta tenencia comunal reconocida por el gobierno puede reducir considerablemente para estas comunidades los riesgos derivados de las concesiones privadas. Esta tesis utiliza por tanto la teoría de Elinor Ostrom sobre los "Recursos de Propiedad Común" (CPR), y demás literatura sobre lo común para probar las hipótesis de la investigación. El estudio de campo se llevó a cabo en la provincia de Houaphan en la RDP de Laos, y se centra en los grupos étnicos Hmong y Tai Daeng en tres distritos (Xum-Nue, Viengxay y Sopbao). Así se entiende la gestión de la tierra comunal tradicional como un sistema que para los grupos étnicos de la zona está vinculado a su cultura. Este sistema permite la equidad y puede ser exportado en virtud de acuerdos institucionales apropiados a otros lugares del país, siempre y cuando el gobierno apruebe títulos de propiedad comunal –permitidos por la ley pero aún no implementados–. Asimismo, el gobierno se percató de que las tierras de estas regiones no pueden estar sometidas durante mucho más tiempo a la agricultura itinerante –debido como dijimos a la creciente densidad de población–, por lo que son necesarias medidas proactivas que garanticen la restauración apresurada de los barbechos. Este cambio en el uso más racional de la tierra puede derivarse precisamente del control comunal de sus tierras. Este estudio no sólo debe ser considerado como una importante contribución al actual proceso de toma de decisiones sobre la política de tierras; debe ser entendido además en su dimensión práctica sobre la gestión del suelo en la RDP de Laos. ABSTRACT Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) or Laos is a landlocked and mountainous country situated in the center of the Continental Southeast Asia region bordering with Myanmar, China, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. It is considered one of the most forested countries in the region and ranked as one of the most culturally diverse with almost 50 percent indigenous peoples. Yet, it is one of the poorest nations in the world. Over the last decade, forest resources have become degraded because of logging, concessions, hydropower and mining as well as shifting cultivation due to rising population density in the uplands. Lao Government policy has focused on eradicating shifting cultivation, but the initial government land and forest allocation program meant that the ethnic groups lost their rain-fed upland fields as they were no longer allowed to practice customary land use with long fallows. None of the upland ethnic groups have title to the land they use. Many environmentally sound traditional land use systems still exist in Lao PDR in remote areas in the form of communal tenure. Here the land is managed by the village which each year re-distributes it according to need and labor. This research focuses on these traditional systems to identify which particular features of the management regime could help "reverse degradation by innovation". The research hypothesis is that common property regimes are a means for the poor to secure access to natural resources' benefit streams that serve as a safety net against vulnerability. At the same time and most importantly, with communal tenure recognized by government, the communities can lower the risk of their lands being grabbed by concessions. The thesis reviews Elinor Ostrom's theory on Common Property Resource (CPR) of literature to test the hypothesis. Field study was conducted in Houaphan province in Lao PDR focusing on Hmong and Tai Daeng ethnic groups in three districts (Xum-Nue, Viengxay and Sopbao). It is seen that the traditional communal land management as a system which for the ethnic groups is linked to their culture. It allows for equity and if the government endorses communal land title which is possible by law but not yet implemented, this system could be copied under appropriate institutional arrangements to other places in the country. It is also realized that land may not be under shifting cultivation for many more years due to growing population density and that proactive measures should be taken to quickly restore the fertility of the fallows. This change of land use can best be practiced by the communities as a whole with control over their lands. This study is not only considered an important contribution to current land policy making process; it also is necessary to take into account when carrying out in practice land management in Lao PDR.

Climate change has prompted nations, provinces, and cities to take actions to reduce anthropogenic sources of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Accurate and consistent quantification of the emissions is required for both scientists and policymakers. Inventories of the CO2 emissions due to fossil fuel combustion are based on statistical data collected and reported by the emitters themselves and their quality is highly variable between countries. In principle, atmospheric measurements and inverse modeling could provide independent information to verify and evaluate these emissions. However, there are difficulties to separate the fossil fuel CO2 signal (FFCO2) from the signal of natural CO2 fluxes, in the atmospheric CO2 measurements from ground based continental networks. In this thesis, I aimed to improve the understanding of the potential of atmospheric 14CO2 measurements, one of the few tracers helping to separate FFCO2 from the signal of other CO2 sources, for the objective estimate of the fossil fuel emissions at national or provincial scales based on atmospheric inversion.I developed global inversion systems based on the global coarse-resolution (2.5°×3.75°) LMDZ atmospheric transport model, and on continental networks of atmospheric observations of CO2 and 14CO2, solving for the fossil fuel emissions at sub-continental / monthly scales in Europe and in China.In Chapter 2, I defined and quantified critical sources of modeling errors and their impact on the inversion of large-scale budget of the fossil fuel emissions when using a global inversion system and assuming FFCO2 data can be directly derived from 14CO2 measurements. The analysis highlighted the impact of ignoring the spatial distribution of the emissions and FFCO2 at a resolution higher than that of the transport model.In Chapter 3, I applied inversions with the system, assumptions and diagnostics of the modeling error from Chapter 2 in a series of Observing System Simulation Experiments to evaluate the skill of such an inversion system and of different virtual observation networks for estimating regional budgets of fossil fuel emissions in Europe. Results indicate that if assimilating continuous 2-week mean FFCO2 data from 17 existing 14CO2 European sites, the inversion would reduce the uncertainties in monthly fossil fuel emissions of western Germany by 30% compared to the assumed uncertainty in the inventories used as a prior knowledge in the Bayesian framework of the inversion. Using a larger network of 43 European sites that may be available in the future, up to 47% uncertainty reduction could be achieved for annual budgets of fossil fuel emissions for regions where the network would be the densest.In Chapter 4, I implemented a global isotopic inversion system that jointly assimilates atmospheric observations of CO2 and 14CO2 to simultaneously solve for fossil fuel emissions and natural CO2 fluxes over Europe and China. The purpose is to move beyond the assumption that variations in 14CO2 relate only to FFCO2 by accounting for non-fossil 14CO2 fluxes. The results confirm that 14CO2 data are useful to separate FFCO2 from the signal of natural fluxes at sites close to large emission regions, making 2-week mean 14CO2 data more efficient than daily CO2 data for estimating the emissions. ; Dans le contexte du réchauffement climatique, des états et des villes s'engagent à réduire leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre et en particulier celles de CO2. Une quantification précise des émissions est nécessaire aux scientifiques et aux décideurs politiques. La qualité des inventaires des émissions dues à la consommation des combustibles fossiles, qui reposent sur des données statistiques compilées et rapportées par les émetteurs, reste très variable selon les pays. Les mesures atmosphériques et la modélisation inverse pourraient fournir une information indépendante pour la vérification de ces émissions. Il est cependant difficile de séparer le signal de CO2 fossile (CO2CF) du signal des flux naturels dans les mesures atmosphériques fournies par les réseaux continentaux de mesure au sol. L'objectif de ma thèse est d'améliorer la compréhension du potentiel des données de 14CO2, un des traceurs permettant de séparer le signal de CO2CF des autres sources de CO2, pour l'estimation objective des émissions fossiles aux échelles nationales par inversion atmosphérique.J'ai développé des systèmes d'inversions mondiaux basés sur le modèle de transport atmospherique LMDz à basse résolution (2.5° ×3.75°), et reposant sur des réseaux de mesure du CO2 et du 14CO2, résolvant les émissions fossiles à l'échelle subcontinentale / mensuelle en Europe et en Chine.Dans le Chapitre 2, j'ai défini et quantifié les sources d'erreurs de modélisationprincipales, puis analysé leur impact pour l'estimation des bilans d'émissions fossiles à grande échelle avec un système d'inversion mondial en faisant l'hypothèse que les données de CO2CF peuvent être directement déduites des données de 14CO2. Les analyses soulignent l'impact de la méconnaissance de la distribution spatiale des émissions de CO2 et du CO2CF aux résolutions spatiales plus fines que celle du modèle de transport.Dans le Chapitre 3, j'ai utilisé le système, les hypothèses et les diagnostics d'erreurs de modélisation du Chapitre 2 dans une série d'expériences avec des données synthétiques pour évaluer le potentiel d'un tel système d'inversion et de différents réseaux d'observation virtuels pour l'estimation les bilans régionaux d' émission fossile en Europe. Les résultats indiquent qu'en assimilant des moyennes sur 2 semaines de mesures CO2CF issues du réseau actuel de 17 sites 14CO2 en Europe, l'inversion réduirait l'incertitude sur les émissions mensuelles pour l'Ouest de l'Allemagne de 30% par rapport à l'incertitude supposée sur les inventaires utilisés comme connaissance a priori dans le cadre du formalisme Bayésien de l'inversion. En utilisant un réseau plus dense en Europe, constitué de 43 futurs sites, des réductions d'incertitude de 47% pourraient être réalisées pour les bilans annuels des émissions pour les régions où le réseau serait le plus dense.Dans le Chapitre 4, j'ai implémenté un système d'inversion global isotopique permettant d'assimiler conjointement des données atmosphériques de CO2 et de 14CO2 pour résoudre simultanément les émissions fossiles et les flux naturels de CO2 en Europe et en Chine. L'objectif est de dépasser l'hypothèse que les variations de 14CO2 ne sont liées qu'au CO2CF, en tenant compte ses flux de 14CO2 non fossiles. Les résultats confirment que les données de 14CO2 sont utiles pour séparer le CO2CF du signal des flux naturels près des régions fortement émettrices, rendant les données de 14CO2 moyennes sur 2 semaines plus efficaces que les données journalières de CO2 pour l'estimation des émissions.

This thesis is an understanding of the recurring transgression of testing the framework of "good governance" imposed by the World Bank, opposite the finding of bad results Beninese public enterprises (former Dahomey). So it tries to answer a question: why are the mechanisms established, procedures and rules constantly violated in the public sector? Answering this question captures the causes of the remoteness of used performance businesses, in this context, from the perspective of socio-economic efficiency, user-customers satisfaction and good use of resources. This research is based on the idea that management practices must be part of the socio-cultural context and mobilizes the notion of clan as providing the basis for the formation of the suppliers and employees psychological contract of public companies in public procurement on the one hand, and employment relationships on the other. This promotes the context of transgressions of "good governance". There has been talk of exploring, SBEE and CNCB, if the clan logic based or not psychological contracts, prone transgressions, what separates these companies from performance.From Interviews conducted with stakeholders in public procurement (suppliers, internal organs award to the company) and employment relations (personal, leaders), operation of the documents collected within companies and narration of observed facts, it appears that the public company is represented as a clan. Also coexist political, ethnic and family clans as the "adoptive paternalism" whose action logics include transgressions involving the misuse of public resources and the dissatisfaction of the users-customers. However, the clan is not exclusive. The perception of public enterprises by the various stakeholders as well as the good faith of people, eager to bring their expertise to get out of unemployment, determine the psychological contracts. It happens, in general, that the psychological contract is subject to rupture, which is the source of great disappointment. This may not be definitive. With a fight of strength, hope or the advent of a new director, their former expectations / promises can be restored, corresponding to a recovery of the psychological contract. The performance of public enterprises is first of all, clanic. But, looking for the satisfaction of physiological needs by honest work is poorly exploited. The remoteness of public enterprises performance is enhanced by a set of converging factors including the clan, company representation as "a godsend to distribute" then search for job security in an unemployment context and particularly the fear of unemployment. On the factors listed above, what are the solutions to the transgressions? - First, the decline of the state of governance of public enterprises through the integration of outside directors, although not participating in their capital. - It is impossible to exclude the clan logic. However, the organizational rules must be implemented and the common goals of performance must be set and achieved together. - Develop the new rules on the principle of inclusiveness, ensure their proper dissemination / internalization and collective monitoring of their implementation. - Focus on work values and contribution to the nation. As perspective, research on the performance of public enterprises is based on the reality of the clan and representations help to better define the objectives to make them feasible. ; La présente thèse est un essai de compréhension de la transgression récurrente du cadre de « bonne gouvernance », imposé par la Banque Mondiale, face au constat des mauvais résultats des entreprises publiques béninoises (ancien Dahomey). Elle tente donc de répondre à une question : pourquoi les mécanismes, procédures et règles établis sont-ils en permanence transgressés dans le secteur public ? Répondre à cette question permet de saisir les causes de l'éloignement des entreprises de la performance mobilisée, dans ce contexte, sous le prisme de l'efficacité socio-économique, de la satisfaction des clients-usagers et de la rationalisation des ressources. Cette recherche se fonde sur l'idée que les méthodes de gestion doivent s'inscrire dans le cadre socioculturel et mobilise la notion de clan comme servant de base à la formation du contrat psychologique des fournisseurs et des employés des entreprises publiques dans les commandes publiques d'une part et les relations d'emploi d'autre part. Ce contrat psychologique favorise les transgressions du cadre de « bonne gouvernance ». Il a été question d'explorer, à la SBEE et au CNCB, si les logiques claniques fondent ou non les contrats psychologiques, propices aux transgressions, ce qui éloigne ces entreprises de la performance. Des interviews conduites auprès des parties prenantes des achats publics (fournisseurs, organes de passation internes à l'entreprise) et de l'emploi (personnels, dirigeants), de l'exploitation des documents collectés et de la narration des faits observés, il ressort que l'entreprise publique est perçue comme un clan. Aussi, cohabitent les clans politique, ethnique et familial de même que le « paternalisme adoptif » dont les logiques d'action comportent les transgressions entraînant la mauvaise utilisation des ressources publiques et l'insatisfaction des clients-usagers. Toutefois, le phénomène du clan n'est pas exclusif. La perception des entreprises publiques par les différents acteurs de même que la bonne foi de gens, désireux d'apporter leur expertise en vue de sortir du chômage, sont aussi parfois la base des contrats psychologiques. Il arrive, en général, que le contrat psychologique fasse l'objet de rupture, ce qui est à l'origine de grandes déceptions. Cette situation peut ne pas être définitive. A force de lutte, d'espoir ou à l'avènement d'un nouveau directeur, leurs anciennes attentes/promesses peuvent être restaurées, ce qui correspond à une reprise du contrat psychologique. La performance des entreprises publiques est, en premier lieu, clanique en sus de la recherche de la satisfaction de besoins physiologiques par du travail honnête, ce que l'environnement peut corrompre. L'éloignement des entreprises publiques de la performance est donc favorisé par un ensemble de facteurs convergents dont le clan, la représentation de l'entreprise comme « une manne à se distribuer » puis la recherche de la sécurité d'emploi dans un contexte marqué par le chômage. Quelles sont les solutions aux transgressions ? - En premier lieu, le recul effectif du pouvoir politique des entreprises publiques par l'intégration des administrateurs extérieurs, bien que ne participant pas au capital est une solution. - Permettre au conseil d'administration de jouer son plein rôle. - Il est impossible d'exclure les clans et leurs logiques. Toutefois, ils ne devraient pas exister au détriment des intérêts de la collectivité nationale. Ainsi, est-il utile de remettre le travail, l'équité la contribution individuelle et collective au cœur de l'éducation nationale. -Les règles d'organisation existantes pourraient être évaluées, de nouvelles règles élaborées suivant le principe de l'« inclusiveness » puis mises en œuvre. - Assurer leur bonne diffusion/internalisation et la surveillance collective de leur mise en œuvre. - Les objectifs communs de performance devront être définis et atteints ensembles.

Climate change has prompted nations, provinces, and cities to take actions to reduce anthropogenic sources of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Accurate and consistent quantification of the emissions is required for both scientists and policymakers. Inventories of the CO2 emissions due to fossil fuel combustion are based on statistical data collected and reported by the emitters themselves and their quality is highly variable between countries. In principle, atmospheric measurements and inverse modeling could provide independent information to verify and evaluate these emissions. However, there are difficulties to separate the fossil fuel CO2 signal (FFCO2) from the signal of natural CO2 fluxes, in the atmospheric CO2 measurements from ground based continental networks. In this thesis, I aimed to improve the understanding of the potential of atmospheric 14CO2 measurements, one of the few tracers helping to separate FFCO2 from the signal of other CO2 sources, for the objective estimate of the fossil fuel emissions at national or provincial scales based on atmospheric inversion.I developed global inversion systems based on the global coarse-resolution (2.5°×3.75°) LMDZ atmospheric transport model, and on continental networks of atmospheric observations of CO2 and 14CO2, solving for the fossil fuel emissions at sub-continental / monthly scales in Europe and in China.In Chapter 2, I defined and quantified critical sources of modeling errors and their impact on the inversion of large-scale budget of the fossil fuel emissions when using a global inversion system and assuming FFCO2 data can be directly derived from 14CO2 measurements. The analysis highlighted the impact of ignoring the spatial distribution of the emissions and FFCO2 at a resolution higher than that of the transport model.In Chapter 3, I applied inversions with the system, assumptions and diagnostics of the modeling error from Chapter 2 in a series of Observing System Simulation Experiments to evaluate the skill of such an inversion system and of different virtual observation networks for estimating regional budgets of fossil fuel emissions in Europe. Results indicate that if assimilating continuous 2-week mean FFCO2 data from 17 existing 14CO2 European sites, the inversion would reduce the uncertainties in monthly fossil fuel emissions of western Germany by 30% compared to the assumed uncertainty in the inventories used as a prior knowledge in the Bayesian framework of the inversion. Using a larger network of 43 European sites that may be available in the future, up to 47% uncertainty reduction could be achieved for annual budgets of fossil fuel emissions for regions where the network would be the densest.In Chapter 4, I implemented a global isotopic inversion system that jointly assimilates atmospheric observations of CO2 and 14CO2 to simultaneously solve for fossil fuel emissions and natural CO2 fluxes over Europe and China. The purpose is to move beyond the assumption that variations in 14CO2 relate only to FFCO2 by accounting for non-fossil 14CO2 fluxes. The results confirm that 14CO2 data are useful to separate FFCO2 from the signal of natural fluxes at sites close to large emission regions, making 2-week mean 14CO2 data more efficient than daily CO2 data for estimating the emissions. ; Dans le contexte du réchauffement climatique, des états et des villes s'engagent à réduire leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre et en particulier celles de CO2. Une quantification précise des émissions est nécessaire aux scientifiques et aux décideurs politiques. La qualité des inventaires des émissions dues à la consommation des combustibles fossiles, qui reposent sur des données statistiques compilées et rapportées par les émetteurs, reste très variable selon les pays. Les mesures atmosphériques et la modélisation inverse pourraient fournir une information indépendante pour la vérification de ces émissions. Il est cependant difficile de séparer le signal de CO2 fossile (CO2CF) du signal des flux naturels dans les mesures atmosphériques fournies par les réseaux continentaux de mesure au sol. L'objectif de ma thèse est d'améliorer la compréhension du potentiel des données de 14CO2, un des traceurs permettant de séparer le signal de CO2CF des autres sources de CO2, pour l'estimation objective des émissions fossiles aux échelles nationales par inversion atmosphérique.J'ai développé des systèmes d'inversions mondiaux basés sur le modèle de transport atmospherique LMDz à basse résolution (2.5° ×3.75°), et reposant sur des réseaux de mesure du CO2 et du 14CO2, résolvant les émissions fossiles à l'échelle subcontinentale / mensuelle en Europe et en Chine.Dans le Chapitre 2, j'ai défini et quantifié les sources d'erreurs de modélisationprincipales, puis analysé leur impact pour l'estimation des bilans d'émissions fossiles à grande échelle avec un système d'inversion mondial en faisant l'hypothèse que les données de CO2CF peuvent être directement déduites des données de 14CO2. Les analyses soulignent l'impact de la méconnaissance de la distribution spatiale des émissions de CO2 et du CO2CF aux résolutions spatiales plus fines que celle du modèle de transport.Dans le Chapitre 3, j'ai utilisé le système, les hypothèses et les diagnostics d'erreurs de modélisation du Chapitre 2 dans une série d'expériences avec des données synthétiques pour évaluer le potentiel d'un tel système d'inversion et de différents réseaux d'observation virtuels pour l'estimation les bilans régionaux d' émission fossile en Europe. Les résultats indiquent qu'en assimilant des moyennes sur 2 semaines de mesures CO2CF issues du réseau actuel de 17 sites 14CO2 en Europe, l'inversion réduirait l'incertitude sur les émissions mensuelles pour l'Ouest de l'Allemagne de 30% par rapport à l'incertitude supposée sur les inventaires utilisés comme connaissance a priori dans le cadre du formalisme Bayésien de l'inversion. En utilisant un réseau plus dense en Europe, constitué de 43 futurs sites, des réductions d'incertitude de 47% pourraient être réalisées pour les bilans annuels des émissions pour les régions où le réseau serait le plus dense.Dans le Chapitre 4, j'ai implémenté un système d'inversion global isotopique permettant d'assimiler conjointement des données atmosphériques de CO2 et de 14CO2 pour résoudre simultanément les émissions fossiles et les flux naturels de CO2 en Europe et en Chine. L'objectif est de dépasser l'hypothèse que les variations de 14CO2 ne sont liées qu'au CO2CF, en tenant compte ses flux de 14CO2 non fossiles. Les résultats confirment que les données de 14CO2 sont utiles pour séparer le CO2CF du signal des flux naturels près des régions fortement émettrices, rendant les données de 14CO2 moyennes sur 2 semaines plus efficaces que les données journalières de CO2 pour l'estimation des émissions.

Yerel demokrasi kavramı ile bağlantılı kavramlardan biri olan ve literatürde kimi zaman yerel demokrasi ile eşdeğer anlamda kullanılan "yerel özerklik" kavramı, en genel anlamıyla; bir yerel topluluğun, yerel nitelikteki işleri, kendi başına, kendi organları eliyle görebilmesi ve buna olanak verecek kaynaklara sahip olabilmesidir (Keleş, 2000: 49). Avrupa Yerel Yönetimler Özerklik Şartı'nın üçüncü maddesi, "özerk yerel yönetim" kavramını, "yasalar çerçevesinde kamu hizmetlerinin önemli bir bölümünü yurttaşlarının yararı doğrultusunda ve kendi sorumluluğunda yerine getiren, hukuki ve yönetsel yeteneklere sahip yerel tüzel kişilik" olarak tanımlamaktadır. Aynı maddenin ikinci fıkrasında ise bu hakkın, üyeleri serbest, gizli, eşit, doğrudan ve genel seçimle oluşturulan konseyler ya da meclisler tarafından kullanılacağı ifade edilmektedir (Mengi, 1998: 70).halkın karar alma süreçlerine katılımını çok büyük oranda sınırlayan katı merkeziyetçi yapılardan uzaklaşarak yerel yönetimlerin yetkilerinin artırılması ve katı, hantal, bürokratik bir anlayış yerine üretken, gerçek anlamda eşitlikçi halk katılımına dayanan bir anlayışın hâkim kılınması, küreselleşmenin ve neo-liberalizmin yıkıcı etkilerine karşı bir alternatif oluşturabilecektir. Öte yandan, yerel yönetimlerin yetkilerinin artırılması ve güçlendirilmesi özellikle Türkiye'nin en önemli sorunlarından biri olan Kürt sorununun çözümüne de önemli ölçüde katkı sunabilecek bir potansiyel taşımaktadır. Cumhuriyet tarihi boyunca yerel yönetimler, özellikle de belediyeler, yerel demokrasinin sağlanmasından ziyade, yerel hizmetlerin etkin, verimli ve daha az maliyetle sağlanmasının aracı olarak görülmüştür. Ancak bu yaklaşım yerine, Fransa'nın 1951'den itibaren yaptığı gibi, ulus-devletin katı merkeziyetçi sistemini gevşeterek yerel yönetimlere anlamlı oranda yetki devri yapmak yoluyla hem ülke içinde eşitlikçi bir bütünleşme sağlanabilecek, hem bölgeler arası sosyo-ekonomik dengesizlikler aşılabilecek, hem de farklı yerelliklerin kendi farklılıklarını korumalarına olanak tanıyacak çoğulculuk sağlanabilecektir. Bu yolla halkın yönetimde yer alma olanaklarının geliştirilmesini sağlayacak mekanizmaların kurulması, yerel yönetimlerin toplumun bütün sorunları ile ilişkilendirilmesi, sosyal, ekonomik, tarihsel ve kültürel varlığın korunması ve geliştirilmesinde yerel yönetimlerin bir özne olarak değerlendirilmesi mümkün hale getirilebilecektir. Bu anlayışa ek olarak ise, söz konusu yerelliklerin hem gelişmişlik oranlarına göre denge sağlayıcı bir biçimde merkezi bütçe tarafından desteklenmesi, hem de kendi ekonomik kalkınmalarını sağlayabilmelerine imkân tanıyan olanakların (kooperatifleşme gibi) verilmesi, yani bir nevi ortaklaşma ve ürettiğini tüketebilme, kendine yetebilme imkânı tanınması, neo-liberal sistemin halk için değil sermaye için esas aldığı "küreselleşmeci yerelleşme" anlayışının alternatifi olabilecektir. Bu esaslara dayanan bir "yerel özerklik" anlayışı ile liberal yaklaşım tarafından savunulan yerel yönetimlerin merkezi yönetimin müdahalesinden uzak olması ile sınırlandırılmış olan "yerel özerklik" anlayışı arasındaki fark ise ortadadır. ; The concept of -local autonomy-, frequently used synonymously with local democracy, is broadly defined as `the possibility of a local community to independently handle its local tasks using its own means` (Keles, 2000: 49). The third entry in the European Charter of Self-Government defines the concept of self-government as `a local legal entity that owns legislative and governing capability to perform a significant quantity of public services within legal boundaries and under its own responsibilities in line with its public's interests`. The second article of the same entry, on the other hand, states that this capability is used by councils or assemblies whose members are elected via independent, confidential and direct general elections (Mengi, 1998: 70) As one of the frequently debated issues, the demand for more autonomous local governments is restricted to being repressed and independent of the central government by liberal approaches which aim to privatize local services, to increase the power of global capital flows by distributing public services, and to provide suitable conditions for the implementation of neo-liberal policies. In addition to ignoring general public participation, such an autonomy demand of localism seeks to adapt democracy to fit the needs of sovereign powers and to create a local governing platform where everything is subcontracted, transferred to the global capital via neo-liberal policies, and then left to the conscious of capitalism which, referring to Marx; -. cuts down the tree if its shadow cannot be sold-. Particularly today, an increasing promotion of global localization is witnessed while being moved away from the central government often equals to giving in to the wheels of the global capitalism and entering into a competitive localism with its global companies. However, this should threaten neither the existence of a local government as a self-governing unit nor the local public's right to participate in decision-making processes. The firm centralist approach, more or less like the neo-liberal approach, is an obstacle against local governments to become participatory autonomous units. Throughout the human history, all communities have been organized according to their own needs. Today, it is clear that self-governments are vital for the top-down expansion of democracy and the coordination of social development. In this respect, moving away from firm centralist bodies that cause obstructions and restrict the possibility of public participation in decision-making processes seems crucial to create an alternative against the destructive effects of globalization and neo-liberalism. This can be achieved by empowering the authority of local governments and by adapting a true egalitarian participatory approach rather than a firm, clumsy, bureaucratic method. However, increasing and empowering the authorization of local governments has the potential of contributing greatly to the solution of Kurdish issue as one of the important knots in Turkey. Throughout the history of the Republic, local governments and municipalities have been considered as effective tools in providing cost-efficient and prevalent public service rather than maintaining local democracy. Nevertheless, instead of adapting this approach, transferring significant amount of authority to local governments and loosening the firm centralist system of nation-state, as France has been doing since 1951, will not only create an integration in the country and reduce the unbalanced socio-economic conditions among the regions but it will also sustain the plurality by maintaining the differences of each local community. It will then be possible to establish mechanisms to enable public participation, to relate local governments with the problems of the whole society, and to include local governments in the protection and the development of social, economic, cultural, and historical assets. In addition, supporting local governments by the central budget in line with their growth rate, providing them with the autonomous possibilities of improving economically (e.g. becoming a cooperative); that is, giving them the opportunity to cooperate, consume what they produce, and be self-sufficient, could be an alternative for neo-liberal system's -global localization- approach adapted not for public but for the capital. The difference between such a -local government- and the one advocated by liberal approach repressed from central government is self-evident.

Worldwide, around 780 million people lack access to improved drinking water sources and 2.5 billion lack improved sanitation (WHO, 2013c). The United Nations (UN) declared access to drinking water and sanitation a fundamental human right in July 2010 (UN, 2010). Each year there are approximately 1.7 billion cases of diarrhoea worldwide. It kills around 2.2 million people globally each year (4.0% of all death), of which 760,000 are children under five years old, mostly in developing countries. Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five years old (WHO, 2013c). The lack of drinking water, sanitation facilities and good hygiene practises are considered the main causes for diarrhoea (WHO, 2013d). For this dissertation, a specific health intervention (CBHFA - Community based Health and First Aid) was evaluated which had taken place during three years in 20 target communities in Bokeo Province in Lao PDR. The activities were in the field of water supply, sanitation facilities and hygiene education against diarrhoea. Objective: The objective of this survey study is to show that hygiene behaviour changes in a certain target population through the implementation of CBHFA, if a) individuals have access to improved drinking water sources; b) have access to a HH latrine and c) receive hygiene information. An improvement by 50.0% for each of the hygiene indicator: water use and treatment, hand washing, sanitation, food handling, waste disposal and cleanliness was considered a behavioural change and thus an illustration of the effectiveness of CBHFA. Methods: Hygiene behaviour was measured before and after the CBHFA intervention through above mentioned hygiene indicators. Quantitative figures were collected at two different points in time, in a pre- and post-survey, then analysed and evaluated. Interviews and observations were done through community assessment/evaluation with 20 focus groups in all target communities. 488/487 (pre-survey/post-survey) households (HHs) were interviewed and observed. Knowledge about diarrhoea (definition/signs, prevention, danger, treatment and modes of transmission) was tested. The change in hygiene behaviour as well as the water and sanitation situation was measured through a comparison of the pre- with the post-results. The Relative Risk (RR) and Odds Ratio (OR) were calculated for different variables, such as ethnicity, gender, education, age and income and their changes before and after the implementation of the health intervention project. Results: Water use and sanitation This research clearly shows that the availability of a public water system (gravity fed water system) in the target communities has increased (from 45.0% to 85.0%) as well as the availability and use of hand flush pit latrines (from 20.2% to 63.7%). 95.2% of HHs that owned a latrine used them. The water treatment through "boiling" (from 70.1% to 75.0%) in HHs has improved, but not significantly. Open defecation (OD) decreased from 78.9% to 34.7% (by 56.0%). However it is still practised by more than a third of HHs. OD is one of the highest transmission risks of diarrhoea and can only be eliminated by 100.0% sanitation within the community (WHO, 2008). Hand washing There has been a significant increase of interviewees washing their hands with water and soap (from 8.0% to 38.0%). This result was confirmed by observing the existence of soap in kitchens with 33.0% and in latrines with 20.3% of HHs. The ORs calculated for hand washing "with water and soap" and compared for each stratum of the variables gender, formal education and age group show no statistical difference, but there is a statistical difference regarding income and washing hands "with water and soap". Relevant occasions for hand washing, such as "after defecation" and "before food preparing", that could reduce the risk of the transmission of diarrhoeal diseases have not achieved a meaningful improvement. Waste disposal Waste disposal, such as collecting and burning has increased from 23.4% to 42.5% (by 81.6%) according to the HH responses. A matter of concern is the increased HHs (from 26.8% to 29.0%) that disposed their waste by "throwing the waste outside the village". This waste disposal method is statistically different regarding formal education. The number of HHs with non-educated interviewees where this method was practised has increased over the intervention time in contrast to the number of HHs with educated interviewees. Knowledge about diarrhoea Knowledge was tested. The definition/signs of diarrhoea, its prevention, danger, treatment and modes of transmission were not known by more than 50.0% of the interviewees. It seems that hygiene indicators can improve without this awareness, if improved water and sanitation facilities are provided. However, further investigations are required. The results show that knowledge about diarrhoea is not statistically different regarding formal education and age, but regarding gender. Giving at least one right answer was higher in women than in men. Results and income The results of the pre-survey show that income is significantly associated with owning a latrine and using water vessels, such as pots and jars for drinking, but not associated with using soap for hand washing. However after the implementation of the health interventions, the comparison of the ORs of the HHs with low income per capita (≤200,000 LAK, exchange rate: 1 EUR=10,000 LAK) versus the HHs with high income per capita (>200,000 LAK) shows a statistical difference regarding hand washing "with water and soap". The OR of the high income per capita group is stronger than the OR of the low income per capita group. Owning a latrine does not show a statistical difference regarding income due to the provision of subsidized latrines by the health intervention project. Occurrence of diarrhoeal diseases The pre-survey results clearly show that diarrhoeal diseases ranked at the top of all recorded cases of diseases. The post-survey results show fewer villages with diarrhoeal outbreak and reduced numbers of reported cases. Summary: An improvement by 50.0% has been reached in hand washing with water and soap, reduction of OD, safe food (by covering), waste disposal (by collecting and burning) and cleanliness but no improvement has been reached in the hygiene indicators "water use and treatment" and in crucial "occasions for hand washing (after defecation, before food preparing)". Therefore the CBHFA intervention is considered only partially effective in the field of hygiene behaviour change.

An die historische Erfahrung der Gleichursprünglichkeit von Theater und Politik in der attischen Polis schließt die Grundintuition der Arbeit an: Auch das Stadttheater in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland sei nicht nur eine Kulturkonsumnische oder ein Bildungsbürgerritual, sondern es bilde einen öffentlichen Raum, in dem politisch kommuniziert wird. Der empirischen Validierung dieser Intuition widmet sich eine Fallstudie, der Begriffsklärungen bezüglich politischer Öffentlichkeit vorausgehen. Diese orientieren sich am Stand der Forschung und Theorie an Hannah Arendts Begriff des Politischen, mit entsprechenden Gegenbegriffen des Konsumismus und Ritualismus. Das grundsätzliche Maß, welches die Realität des Theaters als politische Öffentlichkeit angeben kann, ist dabei die Struktur und Reichweite seiner Kommunikationen. Bezüglich des Begriffes "Öffentlichkeit" schließt die Arbeit an Jürgen Habermas und andere den Bereich normativ konzipierende Autoren an. Öffentlichkeit ist ein diskursives (reflexives) und darstellendes (präsentierendes) Netzwerk verschiedener "Arenen" und "Galerien" (Jürgen Gerhards) mit individuellen "Backstages" (Produktionsstrukturen; Bernhard Peters). Ein Bereich ist "öffentlich" insofern Sprecher ihre Beiträge auf ein Publikum ausrichten (Arena) und dieses Publikum diese Ausrichtung auch versteht (Galerie). Die politische Öffentlichkeit rahmt ihre Themen als Probleme des Gemeinwesens. "Kulturelle Öffentlichkeiten", in denen Form der Darstellung und "Kathexis" (Parsons), also affektive Besetzung der Handlungen zum Thema gemacht werden, dienen potenziell als Produktionsstruktur einer solchen politischen Öffentlichkeit, indem sie lebensweltliche Erfahrungen mit Strategien zugänglich und 'diskursfähig' machen, die der politischen Öffentlichkeit im engeren Sinne fremd sind. Die Rekonstruktion eines Begriffs des Politischen hält aus der aristotelischen Tradition einerseits fest, dass es um eine kollektive Selbstbestimmung, um einen "Raum gemeinsamer Angelegenheiten" geht. Insofern hängt der Begriff mit dem der Öffentlichkeit zusammen. Zweitens stellt politische Kommunikation den unhintergehbaren (wenngleich manipulierbaren) Bezug auf ein ethisch Richtiges her. Die Einsicht in die Pluralität der Perspektiven und Meinungen steht als drittes Definiens in einer Spannung zu dem vierten eines "agonistischen", in Entscheidungsalternativen polarisierten Raums (C. Schmitt u. a.). Im Gegensatz zu diesen Merkmalen stellt der "Konsumismus" Bezüge ausschließlich zu individuellen Präferenzen her und formuliert diese normativ neutral sowie (tendenziell) nicht-argumentativ und nicht-exklusiv. Im Gegenbegriff des "Ritualistischen" hingegen verschwindet die reflexive und pluralistische Dimension; das Gesellschaftliche wird hier auf das Gemeinschaftliche zurückgeführt. Bevor dieseBegriffe in der Fallstudie empirisch angewandt werden, verdeutlichen exemplarische historische Exkurse ins Theater Athens, des Elisabethanischen England und das Deutschland des 19. Jahrhunderts die Relevanz der Fragen nach der Kommunikationsstruktur der theatralen 'Sprecher' und ihrer Publika, wobei über die letzteren systematisch weniger bekannt ist. Am griechischen Theater wird der Bezug auf gemeinsame Angelegenheiten, am elisabethanischen die Pluralität der Sichtweisen, am deutschen die Ambivalenz zwischen aufs Private zielendem Bildungsauftrag und ritueller Gemeinschaftsbildung hervorgehoben. Das Theater der Bundesrepublik wird als Erbe des bürgerlichen Theaters, dessen Normativität in der mediatisierten Erlebnisgesellschaft unter Druck gerät, vorgestellt. Das "Stadttheater" wird als Typus von anderen Öffentlichkeiten abgegrenzt (wie der Freien Szene oder den Metropolentheatern), um klar zu machen, womit die Fallstudie sich beschäftigt. Die Fallstudie im westdeutschen "Mittelstadt" untersucht Kommunikationen des Theaterbetriebs (Interviews mit Produzenten; teilnehmende Beobachtungen), der Rezipienten (Zuschauerinterviews) und der Arena selbst (Inhaltsanalyse von Texten der Öffentlichkeitsarbeit). Von Interesse sind dabei sowohl Wissen wie Einstellungen der Befragten, also Informationen über Realia wie Desiderate. Die Analyse mit MAXQDA ist dabei qualitativ mit quantitativen Elementen, deren Gesamtbild eine Gewichtung der verschiedenen Kommunikationstypen möglich macht. Politische Attributionen finden sich, außer in Teilen der PR, deutlich stärker ausgeprägt als konsumistische. Ritualistische Vorstellungen und Vorgänge sind randständig. Diskurse haben einen wichtigen Stellenwert sowohl für Macher wie Publikum; reflexive Anschlussfähigkeit des von ihnen Vorgeführten und Wahrgenommenen wird von ihnen geschätzt, aber wegen verschiedener Hemmnisse in der Produktionsstruktur nicht durchweg genutzt. Am Ende der Arbeit werden die überwiegend positiven Befunde bezüglich politischer Kommunikation am Stadttheater der Bundesrepublik noch einmal kritisch auf ihre Reichweite hin befragt. Dabei wird der offenkundige Verlust ritueller Gemeinschaftsbildung im theatralen Feld als möglicherweise doch bedenklich für die Erneuerung politischer Öffentlichkeit gewertet. Eine neue Zentralität der in der Fallstudie oft randständigen Aufführungen und ihres kathektisch-repräsentativen Potenzials wird ins Visier genommen. Die Schwierigkeiten kultureller und politischer Öffentlichkeit, sowohl in die Breite der Gesellschaft wie in die Tiefe des individuellen Verständnisses hinein "bildend" zu wirken, werden angesprochen. ; In this dissertation, I explore how the link between politics and theatre - which share a common origin in the Attic democracy - is preserved in contemporary Germany, i.e., whether theatre still serves as a "political public sphere" (the overall title of the thesis). In order to do so, the notions of "public sphere" and "the political" are thoroughly defined by revising useful elements provided by sociological and political theory. Following Habermas and other German authors, I understand "public sphere" as a network consisting of "arenas" (speakers) and "galleries" (audiences) who produce discourses and presentations and react to them, with part of the production occuring non-publicly "backstage". While political publics frame their dis-courses as related to contentious issues of the polity, cultural publics concentrate on the for-mal aspects of presentation and on the emotive interface between the individual and society ("cathexis" in Parsonian terms). Political communication, more specifically, is understood here as discourse which relates (1) to the polity and (2) to what is good or bad for it, presenting arguments in a (3) pluralistic way, and with (4) potential polarization regarding the different alternatives. Hannah Arendt's view on the political sphere is a central inspiration for criterion [3], noting that there is a tension between this plural exchange of perspectives and the polarization criterion, which leads to diffcult trade-offs. As an antonym, "consumerist" communication is only related to indi-vidual preferences and indifferent to arguments and normative alternatives. "Ritualism", on the other hand, is akin to the political, but lacks the decisive feature of pluralism. The terrain for the empirical study is then paved by looking at exemplary stations of occi-dental theatre, namely the Athenian, the Elizabethan, and finally the German national theatre of the 19th century. The increasing ritualism of the latter is seen as the normative ancestor of contemporary state-subsidized staging in the Federal Republic of Germany. Among the different types of theatres to be found here, the typical "Municipal Theatre" is singled out as a public of local reach and importance (distinguished, e.g., from the "Metropolitan Theatre" with nation-wide frames and impacts). The discussions in that section make clear that the case study carried out in "Mittelstadt" is a typical one in many respects. The case study, operationalizing "the public" and "political communication" through a semi-quantitative content analysis of interviews (with producers and audience members) as well as of PR-related texts, finds clear evidence for both actual pluralistic discourse and reference to society, and - even stronger - for normative striving toward such kind of discourse. The "productive structure" of the Municipal Theatre imposes certain constraints on the reali-zation of said normativity, though, which result in shortcomings of dialogue and lacking of necessary knowledge about the communication partner (mostly about the audience in the case of producers). A missing centrality of the actual theatrical piece, the presentation, within the audience's discourse is a particularly critical finding. In the very last section, however, I put the overall positive findings of the case study into perspective. Firstly, I question whether the virtual 'withdrawal' of ritualistic elements can be assessed as entirely beneficial for the effectiveness of theatre as a cultural and political sphere (which re-opens the debate on the possibility and conditions for a "linguification of the Sacred" found in Durkheim and Habermas). Secondly, I make the point that the act of demonstration, of "showing" something - located at the heart of theatrical representation - harbours a specific political potential, but only if it is understood and received as a speech act in need of public interpretation. Thirdly, I reconsider the often noted tension between an in-depth elaboration of issues, on the one hand, and the inclusion of ever more topics and voices, on the other. While this tension is inherent to every public and not really dissolvable, in contemporary German theatre it might be advisable to emphasize the "Bildungsauftrag", the mandate for aesthetic in-depth education, instead of striving for an overproduction of discursive offer-ings and activities.

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli tarkastella siirtolaisten oppimisprosesseja ylirajaisissa ympäristöissä ja näissä muodostuvia ylirajaisia oppimistiloja. Kansainvälisten muuttoliikkeiden ja rajat ylittävän yhteistyön myötä syntyviä erilaisia ylirajaisia yhteisöjä ja verkostoja sekä yksilöiden kokemuksia näissä on tutkittu vähän oppimisnäkökulmista. Ylirajainen tila (transnational space) viittaa tässä kansalliset rajat ylittäviin, sosiaalisesti muotoutuneihin tiloihin, jotka yhdistävät kahdessa eri yhteiskunnassa asuvat tai asuneet henkilöt. Siirtolaisilla (migrants) tarkoitetaan sekä maiden välillä liikkuvia muuttajia että pysyvämmin maasta toiseen muuttaneita henkilöitä. Tutkimus keskittyi erityisesti Suomen ja Viron välillä liikkuvien siirtolaisten ja maahanmuuttajien kokemuksiin. Tutkimuskysymykset olivat 1) Millaisia informaaleja oppimisympäristöjä muodostuu ylirajaisissa toimintaympäristöissä (koskien erityisesti siirtolaisia Suomen ja Viron välillä)? 2) Millaisia ovat ylirajaiset oppimisprosessit siirtolaisten näkökulmasta? 3) Miten käsityksiä ja toimintatapoja jaetaan ylirajaisissa oppimisympäristöissä? Tutkimusaineisto (78 puolistrukturoitua haastattelua ja 20 elämänkertahaastattelua) kerättiin Suomessa TRANS-NET- tutkimusprojektissa (Transnationalisation, Migration and Transformation: Multi-Level Analysis of Migrant Transnationalism, 2008-2011). Haastatteluaineisto analysoitiin laadullisen, teoriaohjaavan sisällönanalyysin avulla. Tutkimuksessa sovellettiin sosiokulttuuriseen oppimiseen ja ylirajaisuustutkimukseen liittyviä teorioita ja käsitteitä. Situationaalisen oppimisen teoria (esim. Lave & Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998) korostaa oppimisen tilannesidonnaisuutta, sosiaalisten yhteisöjen toimintaan osallistumisen merkitystä yksilöiden oppimiselle ja oppimisen kollektiivista luonnetta. Kansainvälisiä muuttoliikkeitä tarkasteleva ylirajaisuustutkimus on nostanut esiin ylirajaiset tilat, joita muodostuu sosiaalisen vuorovaikutuksen kautta erityisesti tulo- ja lähtömaissa asuvien ihmisten välille. Ylirajaisen tilan rakenteen tarkastelussa sovellettiin aikaisemmin kehitettyä mallia (Faist 2000; Pitkänen ym. 2012). Tutkimuksessa nousi esiin kolme laajaa ylirajaista oppimisympäristöä: ylirajainen perhetila, ylirajainen ammatillinen tila ja ylirajainen yhteiskunnallinen tila. Nämä rajat ylittävät, sosiaalisesti rakentuneet tilat yhdistivät kahdessa tai useammassa eri yhteiskunnassa asuvat tai asuneet henkilöt. Makrotasolla erilaiset tekijät, kuten kansainvälinen, alueellinen ja kansallinen politiikka, hallinnollinen sääntely ja yhteiskuntien sosio-kulttuurinen ja poliittis-historiallinen kehitys, muovasivat näitä tiloja ja vaikuttivat sekä yksilöiden että yhteisöjen toimintaan. Mesotasolla, erilaiset sosiaaliset ryhmät ja yhteisöt, kuten perheet, työyhteisöt, kansalaisjärjestöt ja ylirajaiset verkostot, tarjosivat yhteisöllisen oppimisen areenoita erilaisissa arkipäivän toimintaympäristöissä. Mikrotasolla yksilöillä oli erilaisia oppimispolkuja ja -kokemuksia ylirajaisissa ympäristöissä. Tässä tutkimuksessa siirtolaisten keskeisiksi oppimisprosesseiksi ylirajaisissa ympäristöissä nousivat esiin käsitysten ja toimintatapojen erojen tunnistaminen, erilaisten uskomusten ja tapojen vertailu, oman sosio-kulttuurisen taustan reflektio, uusien ideoiden, toimintatapojen ja ajattelutapojen omaksuminen ja jakaminen yli kansallisten rajojen sekä identiteetin rakentuminen erilaisten yhteisöjen jäsenyyksien kautta. Osa tutkimukseen osallistuneista henkilöistä oli toiminut ylirajaisina välittäjinä esimerkiksi eri maissa sijaitsevien työyhteisöjen, järjestöjen ja perheiden välillä. Nämä ylirajaiset välittäjät olivat selittäneet ja jakaneet yhteiskunnallisiin, ammatillisiin ja kulttuurisiin traditioihin liittyviä käsityksiä ja toimintatapoja sukulaistensa, ystäviensä ja kollegoidensa kanssa, vaikka yhteiskuntien erilainen poliittishistoriallinen kehitys muodosti esteitä tälle toiminnalle. Tutkimustulokset osoittavat, että ylirajaisissa oppimistiloissa niin siirtolaiset kuin kantaväestökin voivat omaksua ja jakaa, yli kansallisten rajojen, uusia käsityksiä ja toimintatapoja sekä luoda identiteettiään sosiaalisen toiminnan kautta. Rajat ylittävään, yhteisölliseen oppimiseen vaikuttavat myös yhteisöjen ja ryhmien sisäiset kamppailut ja jäsenten erilaiset valta-asemat. ; The aim of this dissertation was to explore the learning processes of migrants in transnational settings and the emerging transnational spaces of learning. The focus was specifically on the experiences of people migrating between Estonia and Finland (both transmigrants, shuttling to and fro between the countries, and the more settled immigrants). The research questions were: 1) What kinds of informal learning environments emerge in transnational settings, particularly concerning migrants between Estonia and Finland? 2) What are the characteristics of transnational learning processes from migrants' perspectives? 3) How are conceptions and practices shared in transnational learning environments? The research data (78 semi-structured and 20 life-course interviews) were gathered in Finland during the TRANS-NET project (Transnationalisation, Migration and Transformation: Multi-Level Analysis of Migrant Transnationalism, 2008-2011). The interview data were analysed qualitatively, following theory-guided content analysis in which theoretical concepts provided insights for the interpretation of the data collected. The theoretical framework related to socio-cultural, situated learning theories (for example, Lave and Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998) and research on migrant transnationalism. The situated learning approach has examined learning as a collective phenomenon, exemplified through shared participation in the social practices. Transnational migration studies have explored how migrants engage in transnational social fields, spaces, or circuits embedded in at least two societies across national borders. The framework developed by Faist (2000) and Pitkänen et al. (2012) was applied in this research to analyse the structure of transnational spaces. While there is a large body of research on transnational networks and border-crossing activities of migrants, there are only few studies examining migrants' learning experiences in transnational settings and diverse transnational learning environments. Three main, broad transnational learning environments were identified: transnational family space, transnational occupational space and transnational civic space. These border-crossing, socially constructed spaces connected people residing or having resided in at least two or more different societies. On the macro level, these spaces were shaped by international, regional, and national policies, administrative regulations as well as the socio-cultural and political development of societies. The meso level social formations, such as families, work communities, non-governmental organisations and transnational networks, provided arenas in which both migrants and non-migrants had the opportunity to engage in situated learning processes in their everyday lives in a transnational setting. On the micro level, individuals had diverse learning trajectories and experiences in transnational environments. The informants' key learning processes included identifying differences in conceptions and practices, comparison of different beliefs and behaviours, reflecting on one's own socio-cultural heritage, on-going processes of identity construction, adoption of new ideas, ways of behaviour and mindsets as well as sharing conceptions and practices across national borders. Some of the informants had been acting as transnational brokers by mediating and interpreting information, skills and practices, for example, between families, work organisations and associations located in different countries. The informants had shared conceptions and practices related to societal and occupational issues, gender orders as well as cultural traditions with their non-migrant relatives, friends, colleagues and associative contacts although differences in the politico-historical development of societies created barriers between the individuals and groups impeding and complicating such exchanges. The results show how in transnational learning spaces both migrants and non-migrants can adopt and share new conceptions and practices as well as construct their identities through their engagement in various social groups and communities, involving on-going struggles and power differentials, both within a nation-state and across national borders. The study provides new perspectives through which to explore informal, cross-border learning environments in a world in which people are increasingly mobile and interconnected through their family, occupational, associative and societal ties.

This doctoral thesis is focused on what nowadays is known as the Mesoamerica Project (MP). The Integration and Development Mesoamerica Project arises due to the need not only to the regional integration but also to the lack of solutions to the regional problems.It is important to considerar that at the beginning of this research the member states were only Mexico (MX) and Central America (CA); but Colombia and Dominican Republic (DR) became new members of it. So, we can say that if this research will start today, its title will be "The New Diplomatic and Trade Agenda of the Mesoamerica Project". Nevertheless this research is focused in MEX and CA with some comments related to these two new members but their diplomatic and trade relationships are not mentioned. The principal problem analyzed is that instead of having bilateral or regional free trade agreements and dispersed cooperation mechanisms between MX and CA, the ideal status would be that all the countries should work together under the same "umbrella"; in this case it already exists but in a framented way. This means, that the proposal is to unify everything in one single agreement to facilitate and not to obstruct the region's foreign trade. Besides this, it is relevant to insert Belize notwithstanding the cultural differences between this country and the rest. Therefore, the general objetive is to have one diplomatic-trading bloc between MX and CA so this can help to have a better political and commercial dialogue so this will contribute to an economic development, instead of having different bilateral or sub-regional forums, cooperation understandings, and trade agreements. With this previous information, seven specific objectives were established and became the "backbone" of the complete research. In chapter one, the theoretical framework -that gives support to the entire thesis- is presented. In chapter two, MX-CA's diplomatic and trade relationships background is provided. In chapter three, their current relationships are shown plus Colombia and DR. In chapter four, the MP is explained in a detailed way where all the agenda topics are shown and its current status related to the Development Millenium Goals (DMG) established by the United Nations (UN). In this last chapter, a new agenda -with diplomatic and trade matters- is proposed under the new 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) that replace the DMG, which have been set up by the UN to work for the next 15 years. Along this research, two relevant issues are considered. The first one is to give answers to the central and adjacent hypothesis. The second one is that new possible research areas are mentioned. As final conclusions, every inquiry is answered in order to have as a final reflection that definitely a new agenda in both areas -diplomatic and trade- is required in order to respond to current needs. Being that regional problems, require regional solutions. ; La presente tesis doctoral se enfoca a lo que hoy en día es el Proyecto Mesoamérica. El Proyecto de Integración y Desarrollo de Mesoamérica (PM) surge ante la necesidad no sólo de integración regional, sino como una búsqueda de solución ante problemas regionales en común. Cabe aclarar que al inicio de esta investigación los países miembros de este proyecto eran sólo México y Centroamérica (CA); pero conforme avanzó el tiempo, se integraron Colombia (C) y República Dominicana (RO). Por lo que si el inicio de esta investigación fuera a partir de ahora, el título de ésta sería "La Nueva Agenda Diplomática y Comercial del Proyecto Mesoamérica". Sin embargo, esta tesis está enfocada a México y CA, con algunos comentarios respecto a C y RD, pero no se analizan las relaciones diplomáticas ni comerciales con estos paises ni con nuevos miembros que pudieran suscitarse. Como planteamiento del problerna, se analizó que en lugar de que continúen existiendo tratados comerciales bilaterales o regionales de México con CA por un lado, mecanismos de cooperación dispersos por el otros lado, y de que cada país vaya para caminos diferentes, lo ideal es que caminen juntos cobijados para un mismo proyecto. Es dercir, lo que debe de buscar es unificar un solo tratado para facilitar -y no entorpecer- el comercio de la región; además de insertar a Belice a pesar de las diferencias culturales que existen entre dicho pals y el resto. Dado lo anterior, es que se establece como "objetivo general" el de proponer la conformación de un gran bloque diplomático-comercial entre México y CA con el fin de que ello genere un mayor entendimiento político y comercial entre los países miembros y contribuya a su desarrollo económico. De aquí se derivan siete objetivos específicos, los cuales fueron el eje motor para realizar la investigación necesaria. En el primer capítulo se muestra el marco teórico que da sustento a toda la investigación. En el segundo capftulo se presentan los antecedentes de las relaciones comerciales y diplomáticas entre México y los países centroamericanos. En el tercer capítulo se muestra la actualidad de estas relaciones multilaterales donde se suman Colombia y República Dominicana. En el cuarto capitulo se aborda, de manera detallada, los antecedentes y la actualidad del PM; pasando por los ejes centrales, los temas actuales de su agenda y su status con respecto a los ocho Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio (ODM) establecidos por la Organización de las Naciones Unidas (ONU) hace 15 años. En este último capítulo se propone una nueva agenda -tanto diplomática como comercial- para que esté alineada a los 17 nuevos Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) que vienen a suplir a los ODM, los cuales han sido establecidos por la ONIU para trabajar los próximos 15 años. A la largo de la tesis, se muestran dos aspectos relevantes. El primero es dar respuestas a !a hipótesis central y a las adyacentes planteadas al principio de esta investigación. El segundo es que se va mencionando posibles líneas de investigación. A manera de conclusiones, se responde a cada una de las interrogantes iniciales para dar como reflexión final que definitivamente se requiere una nueva agenda en ambos aspectos -diplomáticos y comercial- para que responda a las necesidades actuales de la región. Ya que los problemas regionales, requieren de soluciones regionales ; Postprint (published version)

This doctoral thesis is focused on what nowadays is known as the Mesoamerica Project (MP). The Integration and Development Mesoamerica Project arises due to the need not only to the regional integration but also to the lack of solutions to the regional problems.It is important to considerar that at the beginning of this research the member states were only Mexico (MX) and Central America (CA); but Colombia and Dominican Republic (DR) became new members of it. So, we can say that if this research will start today, its title will be "The New Diplomatic and Trade Agenda of the Mesoamerica Project". Nevertheless this research is focused in MEX and CA with some comments related to these two new members but their diplomatic and trade relationships are not mentioned. The principal problem analyzed is that instead of having bilateral or regional free trade agreements and dispersed cooperation mechanisms between MX and CA, the ideal status would be that all the countries should work together under the same "umbrella"; in this case it already exists but in a framented way. This means, that the proposal is to unify everything in one single agreement to facilitate and not to obstruct the region's foreign trade. Besides this, it is relevant to insert Belize notwithstanding the cultural differences between this country and the rest. Therefore, the general objetive is to have one diplomatic-trading bloc between MX and CA so this can help to have a better political and commercial dialogue so this will contribute to an economic development, instead of having different bilateral or sub-regional forums, cooperation understandings, and trade agreements. With this previous information, seven specific objectives were established and became the "backbone" of the complete research. In chapter one, the theoretical framework -that gives support to the entire thesis- is presented. In chapter two, MX-CA's diplomatic and trade relationships background is provided. In chapter three, their current relationships are shown plus Colombia and DR. In chapter four, the MP is explained in a detailed way where all the agenda topics are shown and its current status related to the Development Millenium Goals (DMG) established by the United Nations (UN). In this last chapter, a new agenda -with diplomatic and trade matters- is proposed under the new 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) that replace the DMG, which have been set up by the UN to work for the next 15 years. Along this research, two relevant issues are considered. The first one is to give answers to the central and adjacent hypothesis. The second one is that new possible research areas are mentioned. As final conclusions, every inquiry is answered in order to have as a final reflection that definitely a new agenda in both areas -diplomatic and trade- is required in order to respond to current needs. Being that regional problems, require regional solutions. ; La presente tesis doctoral se enfoca a lo que hoy en día es el Proyecto Mesoamérica. El Proyecto de Integración y Desarrollo de Mesoamérica (PM) surge ante la necesidad no sólo de integración regional, sino como una búsqueda de solución ante problemas regionales en común. Cabe aclarar que al inicio de esta investigación los países miembros de este proyecto eran sólo México y Centroamérica (CA); pero conforme avanzó el tiempo, se integraron Colombia (C) y República Dominicana (RO). Por lo que si el inicio de esta investigación fuera a partir de ahora, el título de ésta sería "La Nueva Agenda Diplomática y Comercial del Proyecto Mesoamérica". Sin embargo, esta tesis está enfocada a México y CA, con algunos comentarios respecto a C y RD, pero no se analizan las relaciones diplomáticas ni comerciales con estos paises ni con nuevos miembros que pudieran suscitarse. Como planteamiento del problerna, se analizó que en lugar de que continúen existiendo tratados comerciales bilaterales o regionales de México con CA por un lado, mecanismos de cooperación dispersos por el otros lado, y de que cada país vaya para caminos diferentes, lo ideal es que caminen juntos cobijados para un mismo proyecto. Es dercir, lo que debe de buscar es unificar un solo tratado para facilitar -y no entorpecer- el comercio de la región; además de insertar a Belice a pesar de las diferencias culturales que existen entre dicho pals y el resto. Dado lo anterior, es que se establece como "objetivo general" el de proponer la conformación de un gran bloque diplomático-comercial entre México y CA con el fin de que ello genere un mayor entendimiento político y comercial entre los países miembros y contribuya a su desarrollo económico. De aquí se derivan siete objetivos específicos, los cuales fueron el eje motor para realizar la investigación necesaria. En el primer capítulo se muestra el marco teórico que da sustento a toda la investigación. En el segundo capftulo se presentan los antecedentes de las relaciones comerciales y diplomáticas entre México y los países centroamericanos. En el tercer capítulo se muestra la actualidad de estas relaciones multilaterales donde se suman Colombia y República Dominicana. En el cuarto capitulo se aborda, de manera detallada, los antecedentes y la actualidad del PM; pasando por los ejes centrales, los temas actuales de su agenda y su status con respecto a los ocho Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio (ODM) establecidos por la Organización de las Naciones Unidas (ONU) hace 15 años. En este último capítulo se propone una nueva agenda -tanto diplomática como comercial- para que esté alineada a los 17 nuevos Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) que vienen a suplir a los ODM, los cuales han sido establecidos por la ONIU para trabajar los próximos 15 años. A la largo de la tesis, se muestran dos aspectos relevantes. El primero es dar respuestas a !a hipótesis central y a las adyacentes planteadas al principio de esta investigación. El segundo es que se va mencionando posibles líneas de investigación. A manera de conclusiones, se responde a cada una de las interrogantes iniciales para dar como reflexión final que definitivamente se requiere una nueva agenda en ambos aspectos -diplomáticos y comercial- para que responda a las necesidades actuales de la región. Ya que los problemas regionales, requieren de soluciones regionales ; Postprint (published version)