Suchergebnisse

身為世界上最大的貿易體,歐盟深知善用本身市場的吸引力,在與第三國/區域簽訂貿易協定時,將帶有歐盟價值的規範性議程納入協定中,以實踐自身外交政策的目標。此「規範性權力(normative power)」論述在學界已有廣泛的討論,實務上,歐盟的規範性權力亦不斷透過各種不同的管道在不同的地區和領域內發揮影響力,亞洲自然也屬此範圍中。歐盟自2006年宣示新貿易策略「全球歐洲:在世界競爭」之後,即看重亞洲國家蘊藏的巨大市場潛力而將其列為首要談判夥伴。十個年頭過去,目前歐盟在亞洲地區唯一通過的貿易協定為歐韓自由貿易協定,其他尚有十個協定各在不同的談判階段。細看歐盟在與這些不同的亞洲國家互動時,確實無一例外的將規範性議程納入協商過程,然而,在與不同的國家談判時,歐盟所設的規範標準和條件卻有所不同。本文將探討歐盟與亞洲國家談判、簽訂經貿協定時所呈現的條件性差異,並以五個目前談判進程較進階的國家-中國、日本、韓國、新加坡與越南-進行綜合比較與討論,整理出可能影響規範性條件差異的變數並初探其解釋力。 ; As the largest trading bloc in the world, the European Unions (EU) knows how to make use of its market appeal to set its own normative agenda when negotiating trade agreements with third countries/regions, in order to pursue its goals in its foreign policy. This "normative power" theory has seen extensive discussion in the IR academia; in practice, the normative power of the EU is constantly exerting influence through various channels in different parts of the world, Asia is naturally included. Since the launch of the new trade strategy "Global Europe: Competing in the World" in 2006, the EU has put Asian countries as first priority partners for its great market potential. Ten years have passed, as the time of writing, the only free trade agreement that the EU has signed and gone into force in Asia is the one with South Korea. There are other ten agreements that are still in different stages of negotiation. Taking a closer look at these trade agreement negotiations, the EU has indeed inserted its normative agenda into discussion with no exception. However, when negotiating with different countries, the norms and conditions set by the EU are somewhat different. This article will explore the differences in condition when the EU negotiates and signs trade agreements with Asian countries, taking five agreement negotiations which are in more advanced stage - with South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam and China - for comprehensive comparison and discussion. Finally, the analysis will come up with certain variables that may affect the differences in EU's normative condition and examine primordially their explanatory power.

In the fall of 2013, a parents' group formed to protest the new Common Core based mathematics textbook recently adopted by their school district. Quickly allying with teachers, the new coalition began to, "hammer," the district to drop the Common Core and return to more traditional texts and pedagogies. They did so by speaking at Governing Board meetings, participating in interviews with local newspapers, appearing on a local radio talk show, and forming social media accounts. This intrinsically motivated case study uses qualitative media analysis to examine the texts produced from these and other public declarations to better understand local policy formation through the mechanics of "political spectacle." Political spectacle theory suggests that policy may be formed through dramatic public displays and that policy formed from such spectacles often undemocratically reinforces existing inequalities. The study analyzes the parent, teacher and administration policy actors' use of political spectacle elements such as symbolic language, construction of problems, casting of enemies and allies and distinctions between onstage and backstage drama to understand the adoption, challenge and ultimate rejection of a Common Core based mathematics text in a mid-sized southwestern United States School district. ; En el otoño de 2013, un grupo de padres se reunió para protestar el nuevo programa Common Core, cuyo libro de texto matemático habia sido adoptado recientemente por su distrito escolar. Después de aliarse con maestros, la nueva coalición empezó a presionar el distrito para que abandonen el Common Core y regresen a textos y pedagogías más tradicionales. Para cumplir esto, hablaron en las reuniones del Consejos Directivos de distritos escolares, participaron en entrevistas dadas por periódicos locales, aparecieron en un show de radio local, y formaron cuentas de media social. Este estudio de caso, motivado intrínsecamente, utiliza el análisis de media cualitativa para examinar los textos producidos de estas y otras declaraciones públicas en cuanto a entender la creación de política local a través de la mecánica del "espectáculo público". La teoría del espectáculo publico sugiere que la política podría formarse a través de dramáticas muestras públicas y que estas políticas frecuentemente refuerzan la desigualdades antidemocrática y ya existente. Para entender el uso, desafío y rechazo de un libro de texto matemático basado en Common Core en un distrito escolar de medio tamaños en suroeste de los Estados Unidos, este estudio analiza el uso de los elementos del espectáculo político como lenguaje simbólico; la construcción de problemas; el papel de enemigos y aliadas; y distinciones entre el drama pública y privada. ; No outono de 2013, um grupo de pais se reuniram para protestar contra o novo Common Core, cujo livro de texto matemático foi recentemente aprovada pelo distrito escolar. Depois de aliar-se com os professores, a nova coalizão começou a pressionar o distrito a deixar o Common Core e voltar para os textos e pedagogias mais tradicionais. Para conseguir isso, eles falaram nas reuniões do Conselhos de distritos escolares, participaram de entrevistas dadas pelos jornais locais, apareceram em um programa de rádio local, e formaram contas de mídia social. Este estudo de caso, intrinsecamente motivado, utiliza a análise qualitativa para examinar textos qualitativos produzidos por estas e outras declarações públicas para entender a criação da política local por meio de uma mecânica do "espetáculo público". A teoria espetáculo público sugere que a política poderia ser formada através de um drama público e que estas políticas muitas vezes reforçam a desigualdade antidemocrático e já existente. Para entender o uso, desafio e rejeição de um livro de texto matemático baseado em Common Core em um distrito escolar de tamanho médio em o sudoeste dos Estados Unidos, este estudo analisa o uso de elementos do espetáculo político como a linguagem simbólica; a construção de problemas; o papel de inimigos e aliados; e as distinções entre o drama público e privado.

Este estudio aborda el tema de las califi caciones que los estatutos
de las Regiones italianas y de las Comunidades autónomas dan a sus respectivos
ordenamientos.
La materia se encuadra en el contexto (de teoría general, de semántica jurídica
y de Derecho comparado) que se refi ere al titular de las califi caciones: la pregunta
de establecer que cosa es un ente incumbe tanto a la doctrina como al legislador.
En el tema de la descentralización, la naturaleza federal, descentralizada, unitaria,
etc. del Estado normalmente es declarada por la Constitución, pero no siempre
la doctrina se muestra de acuerdo con los adjetivos utilizados.
A menudo, las fórmulas utilizadas por las Constituciones son usadas también
por los entes periféricos (Estados miembros, Regiones, Cantones, Comunidades
autónomas, etc.), pero no siempre en absoluta concordancia. A veces, por razones
políticas, en la periferia se acentúan algunas características (el carácter de nación,
de comunidad histórica, etc.) En el casoo de Italia y de España, en general, las
defi niciones y las fórmulas constitucionales circulan de arriba a abajo y horizontalmente,
con procesos imitativos difusos, y por lo demás, los entes periféricos
renuncian a califi car los entes con adjetivos no usados por las respectivas Constituciones
(por ejemplo, soberano), a pesar de la fuerza cultural que una calificación
podría tener en sede política y jurídica/interpretativa.
Azterlan honetan, Italiako eskualdeek eta autonomia-erkidegoetako
estatutuek bakoitzak bere ordenamenduei ematen dien kalifi kazioak landuko
ditugu.
Kalifi kazioen titularrari buruzko testuinguruan kokatu behar da lana, hots, teoria
orokorra, semantika juridikoa eta zuzenbide alderatua: entea zer den jakiteko
galdera doktrina berari dagokio, legelariari bezainbeste.
Estatuaren deszentralizazioa, edo izaera federala, deszentralizatua, unitarioa
eta abar dela-eta, hori guztia normalean konstituzioak izendatzen du, baina doktrina
ez da beti bat etortzen erabilitako adjektiboekin.
Askotan, konstituzioek erabiltzen dituzten formula horiek berak erabiltzen dituzte
ente periferikoek ere (estatu kideek, eskualdeek, kantoiek, autonomia-erkidegoek...),
baina ez erabateko konkordantziaz beti. Batzuetan, arrazoi politikoak direla-eta, zenbait
bereizgarri askoz gehiago nabarmentzen dira periferian (nazio izaera, komunitate
historiko izatea, etab.). Italiaren eta Espainiaren kasuan, orokorrean, defi nizio
eta formula konstituzionalak goitik behera eta horizontalean mugitzen dira, imitaziozko
prozesu lausokoekin; gainerakoan, ente periferikoek uko egiten diote bakoitzaren
konstituzioan ageri ez diren adjektiboei, enteak kalifi katzeko orduan (adibidez,
subirano adjektiboari), nahiz kalifi kazio horrek indar kultural handia izan politikan eta
epaitegietan nahiz interpretatzeko orduan.
This study deals with the topic of the denomination given to their
respective legal orders by Statutes from the Italian Regions and the Spanish Autonomous
Communities. The subject is framed within the context (of general
theory, legal semantics and comparative law) which refers to whom gives the denomination:
the question about establishing what an entity is both scholar¿s and
legislators¿s bussiness. In the fi eld of descentralization, the State¿s federal, decentralized
or united nature is usually proclaimed by the Constitution, but scholars do
not always agree with those adjectives.
The expressions often used by the Constitutions are also used by periferic entities
(Member states, Regions, Cantons, Autonomous Communities, etc.) although
with not absolute concordance. Sometimes, some features are stressed in the periphery
(the characteristic of nation, historical community, etc.) because of political
reasons.
As for the Italian and Spanish examples, in general, defi nitions and constitutional
expressions work vertical and horizontally, with difuse imitative procedures,
and apart from that peripherical entities relinquish to use adjetives not used by
their own respective Constitutions (for instance, sovereign) despite the cultural
impetus an adjective might hold from a political and legal/interpretative point of
view.

Problem setting. The development of modern professional public administration in the EU began with simple but strategic tasks, such as ensuring the stability of public authority and regulating basic social processes. Further differentiation has led to tasks of the social service provision of public concern to clients, prevention and assistance to people in social and other risks (poverty, unemployment, illness, etc.), that is, creating an effective social work system.Recent research and publications analysis. Problems of public administration reform were investigated by foreign scientists: I. Banks, M. Buser, T. Berzel, P. Birkinshaw, G. Bouckaert, R. Foster, L. Fuller, T. Gabler, J. Ziller, M. Clark, J. Clayton, H. Margets, O. Mayers, S. Montin, M. Porter, F. Holger, K. Hood, W. Weiss, F. Schnapp, J. Schumpeter and others. Among domestic scientists should be distinguished G. Androshchuk, O. Bandurka, Y. Bytiak, B. Beschasnyi, M. Hnydiuk, O. Vlasenko, V. Yevdokimenko, L. Melnichuk, Y. Mykhailuk, I. Kolosovska, E. Legeza, M. Pukhtynskyi, G. Pisarenko, V. Tymoshchuk, H. Khachaturian and others.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Despite the considerable number of scientific works, the study of the of the European countries' experience on the outlined issues, as well as the aspects of theoretical and practical instruments of public administration of the social work system, is of particular importance. The purpose of the article is to analyze and identify the results of the impact of the latest of public administration concepts in EU countries on the development of social work system and identify positive practices for further implementation in the national reform of public administration in the social sphere.Paper main body. The European model of deinstitutionalization (DI) of the system of social work and support for vulnerable groups is considered to be the most balanced and effective today, especially in the first place, with orphaned children and children deprived of parental care. The development of public administration and the improvement of its mechanisms: legal, socio-economic, organizational, informational and others contributed to the development of this model. It is public administration that has played a dominant role in reforming the social work system with families with children.At the same time, social policy measures, based on the theory of the state welfare, that is, creating favorable, equal living conditions, ensuring social justice for all segments of the population were implemented at the state, regional and local levels.Simultaneously application of innovative management practices and standard procedures in public administration challenges the value of social work, transferring social services it into more regulatory practices.Therefore, modern European society wants to reduce its influence in the social sphere under the pretext of guaranteeing more individuality and self-determination to citizens. In addition, the modern state promises to keep state responsibility as the lowest, as well as to develop new forms of distribution of social services in the context of NPM – New Public Management philosophy.The author analyzes the dissemination of neoliberal political beliefs and principles of the New Public Management (NPM) in European countries from the early 1980s and up to the present day, which has significantly influenced the institutional and operational environment in the provision of social services.For social work, a new political strategy may be a growing danger. Namely, the term "social work" can be replaced by the term "social services". The European trend in this direction is clearly traced and leads to many formulations of "Service Principles" and "Service Standards" (for example, in the UK, Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.). This can cause social work to lose its political and critical function and get positive focus in return.Thus, public and social service institutions, stimulated by the liberalization of the EU market, have been radically restructured through the corporatization, outsourcing and privatization of service provision.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Therefore, New Public Management (NPM) concept implies decentralization of public administration, in order to modernize public administration of the social work system in Ukraine, it would be positive to use certain elements: modern information technologies, social partnership principles, methods and tools of the NPM concepts. The blind copying of European public administration reforms in the field of social services should be avoided now.Thus, the organic introduction of market-based methods and principles of appropriate management has led to the definition of the main directions of adaptation to the current conditions of the existing public administration systems in the leading EU countries. It is about informatization, debureaucratization, decentralization, deconcentration (outsourcing), privatization and introduction of economic mechanisms of regulation of administrative processes and service administration, which can be introduced in the reform of the public administration of the social work system in Ukrainian society. ; Розглянуто досвід та інноваційні методи управління і стандартні процедури вдержавному управлінні країн Європейського Союзу та їх вплив на ефективність надання соціальних послуг. Зроблено аналіз розповсюдження неоліберальних політичних переконань та принципів нового державного управління (далі – NPM) у європейських країнах із початку 80-х рр. ХХ ст. і до сьогодні, що суттєво вплинуло на існуючу систему соціальної роботи. Виокремлено дієві інструменти: інформатизація, дебюрократизація, децентралізація, деінституціалізація, деконцентрація (аутсорсинг), приватизація та запровадження економічних механізмів регулювання управлінських процесів і сервісне адміністрування, які можна впровадити у реформування державного управління системою соціальної роботи в українському суспільстві.

Problem setting. The development of modern professional public administration in the EU began with simple but strategic tasks, such as ensuring the stability of public authority and regulating basic social processes. Further differentiation has led to tasks of the social service provision of public concern to clients, prevention and assistance to people in social and other risks (poverty, unemployment, illness, etc.), that is, creating an effective social work system.Recent research and publications analysis. Problems of public administration reform were investigated by foreign scientists: I. Banks, M. Buser, T. Berzel, P. Birkinshaw, G. Bouckaert, R. Foster, L. Fuller, T. Gabler, J. Ziller, M. Clark, J. Clayton, H. Margets, O. Mayers, S. Montin, M. Porter, F. Holger, K. Hood, W. Weiss, F. Schnapp, J. Schumpeter and others. Among domestic scientists should be distinguished G. Androshchuk, O. Bandurka, Y. Bytiak, B. Beschasnyi, M. Hnydiuk, O. Vlasenko, V. Yevdokimenko, L. Melnichuk, Y. Mykhailuk, I. Kolosovska, E. Legeza, M. Pukhtynskyi, G. Pisarenko, V. Tymoshchuk, H. Khachaturian and others.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Despite the considerable number of scientific works, the study of the of the European countries' experience on the outlined issues, as well as the aspects of theoretical and practical instruments of public administration of the social work system, is of particular importance. The purpose of the article is to analyze and identify the results of the impact of the latest of public administration concepts in EU countries on the development of social work system and identify positive practices for further implementation in the national reform of public administration in the social sphere.Paper main body. The European model of deinstitutionalization (DI) of the system of social work and support for vulnerable groups is considered to be the most balanced and effective today, especially in the first place, with orphaned children and children deprived of parental care. The development of public administration and the improvement of its mechanisms: legal, socio-economic, organizational, informational and others contributed to the development of this model. It is public administration that has played a dominant role in reforming the social work system with families with children.At the same time, social policy measures, based on the theory of the state welfare, that is, creating favorable, equal living conditions, ensuring social justice for all segments of the population were implemented at the state, regional and local levels.Simultaneously application of innovative management practices and standard procedures in public administration challenges the value of social work, transferring social services it into more regulatory practices.Therefore, modern European society wants to reduce its influence in the social sphere under the pretext of guaranteeing more individuality and self-determination to citizens. In addition, the modern state promises to keep state responsibility as the lowest, as well as to develop new forms of distribution of social services in the context of NPM – New Public Management philosophy.The author analyzes the dissemination of neoliberal political beliefs and principles of the New Public Management (NPM) in European countries from the early 1980s and up to the present day, which has significantly influenced the institutional and operational environment in the provision of social services.For social work, a new political strategy may be a growing danger. Namely, the term "social work" can be replaced by the term "social services". The European trend in this direction is clearly traced and leads to many formulations of "Service Principles" and "Service Standards" (for example, in the UK, Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.). This can cause social work to lose its political and critical function and get positive focus in return.Thus, public and social service institutions, stimulated by the liberalization of the EU market, have been radically restructured through the corporatization, outsourcing and privatization of service provision.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Therefore, New Public Management (NPM) concept implies decentralization of public administration, in order to modernize public administration of the social work system in Ukraine, it would be positive to use certain elements: modern information technologies, social partnership principles, methods and tools of the NPM concepts. The blind copying of European public administration reforms in the field of social services should be avoided now.Thus, the organic introduction of market-based methods and principles of appropriate management has led to the definition of the main directions of adaptation to the current conditions of the existing public administration systems in the leading EU countries. It is about informatization, debureaucratization, decentralization, deconcentration (outsourcing), privatization and introduction of economic mechanisms of regulation of administrative processes and service administration, which can be introduced in the reform of the public administration of the social work system in Ukrainian society. ; Розглянуто досвід та інноваційні методи управління і стандартні процедури вдержавному управлінні країн Європейського Союзу та їх вплив на ефективність надання соціальних послуг. Зроблено аналіз розповсюдження неоліберальних політичних переконань та принципів нового державного управління (далі – NPM) у європейських країнах із початку 80-х рр. ХХ ст. і до сьогодні, що суттєво вплинуло на існуючу систему соціальної роботи. Виокремлено дієві інструменти: інформатизація, дебюрократизація, децентралізація, деінституціалізація, деконцентрація (аутсорсинг), приватизація та запровадження економічних механізмів регулювання управлінських процесів і сервісне адміністрування, які можна впровадити у реформування державного управління системою соціальної роботи в українському суспільстві.

У статті детально розглянуті такі напрямки і методи з точки зору оцінки і вдосконалення діяльності операторів автоматизованих систем управління (АСУ): концепція трансформаційної теорії динаміки систем; семіотичні системи ситуаційного управління; графоаналітичний метод оцінки очікуваної ефективності бойових дій; метод структурно-алгоритмічного аналізу; метод мережевих моделей діяльності; метод еталонного оператора (метод копіювання). Наявність позитивних сторін і недоліків у кожного з розглянутих методів дозволяє говорити про те, що при вдосконаленні методики побудови моделей діяльності розрахунків автоматизованих командних пунктів (АКП) доцільно комплексне використання різних методів аналізу процесів бойової роботи з урахуванням особливостей дій груп операторів. При вирішенні питань застосування моделей діяльності на АКП необхідно враховувати особливості діяльності різних операторів АСУ та рівень їх підготовки. Аналіз зазначених напрямків науково-методичного апарату з виявленням сильних і слабких сторін дозволив сформулювати необхідні вимоги при вирішенні питань застосування моделей діяльності різних операторів АСУ та рівень їх підготовки, а також виділити рівні підготовки операторів. ; Автоматизация производства и управления с использованием ЭВМ выдвинула на передний план проблему организации эффективного взаимодействия машины и человека с учетом особенностей человека как звена системы управления и создания наилучших условий работы. В статье детально рассмотрены следующие направления и методы с точки зрения оценки и совершенствования деятельности операторов автоматизированных систем управления (АСУ): концепция трансформационной теории динамики систем; семиотические системы ситуационного управления; графоаналитический метод оценки ожидаемой эффективности боевых действий; метод структурно-алгоритмического анализа; метод сетевых моделей деятельности; метод эталонного оператора (метод копирования). Наличие положительных сторон и недостатков у каждого из рассмотренных методов позволяет говорить о том, что при совершенствовании методики построения моделей деятельности расчетов автоматизированных командных пунктов (АКП) целесообразно комплексное использование различных методов анализа процессов боевой работы с учетом особенностей действий групп операторов. При решении вопросов применения моделей деятельности на АКП необходимо учитывать особенности деятельности различных операторов АСУ и уровень их подготовки. Анализ указанных направлений научно-методического аппарата с выявлением сильных и слабых сторон позволил сформулировать необходимые требования при решении вопросов применения моделей деятельности различных операторов АСУ и уровень их подготовки, а также выделить уровни подготовки операторов. ; The article describes in detail the following areas and methods from the point of view of evaluating and improving the activities of operators of automated control systems (ACS): the concept of the transformation theory of system dynamics; semiotic systems of situational management; graphoanalytical method for assessing the expected effectiveness of military operations; structural-algorithmic analysis method; method of network activity models; reference operator method (copy method). The presence of positive sides and shortcomings in each of the considered methods allows us to say that, when improving the methodology for constructing models of automated command post (ACP) calculations, it is expedient to comprehensively use various methods of analysis of combat work processes taking into account the specifics of actions groups of operators. When deciding on the application of activity models at the automatic transmission, it is necessary to take into account the features of the activities of various ACS operators and their level of training. When deciding on the application of activity models at the automatic transmission, it is necessary to take into account the features of the activities of various ACS operators and their level of training. In accordance with the activity approach, five levels of training can be distinguished for the calculation of AKP. The initial (basic) level is associated with the assimilation of mainly theoretical knowledge about the principles of construction, composition and capabilities of ACS equipment, the features of its functioning and various modes, the basics of operation and combat use of systems. Without the availability of this level of training, it is almost impossible to move to subsequent levels. The first level of training of an ACS specialist, the so-called "student", is determined by the ability to act according to instructions with instructions in hand. This level is sufficient for activities not limited by strict time limits (for example, carrying out certain types of preventive work, etc.). The second, higher level is called "algorithmic". It differs in that the operator acts according to instructions, according to a certain algorithm, the contents of which are stored in his memory. In this case, the efficiency of operations is increased, which is essential for operator-operators taking part in combat work. The third level of training ("heuristic") is associated with the identification of the situation and with the selection of the required activity algorithm from the set of well-known algorithms. This level is necessary for operator-managers acting in the course of combat work in a stream of various situations. The fourth, highest level of training is conditionally called "creative." It allows you to solve the problems of research and inventive work, to develop new action algorithms for both known and unknown situations. A comparison of the given training levels and possible ways of reproducing activity algorithms (according to instructions, from memory, from a variety of known algorithms, from a variety of possible algorithms) shows that an increase in the level of preparation is associated with an increase in the uncertainty of actions. The smallest degree of activity uncertainty will be when working according to instructions, the greatest - when developing new unknown activity algorithms. Thus, to implement models of activity with a variable structure, a methodology for training ACS operators to a "creative" level of training is required

Explore the major ideological patterns of development of a socially philosophies of education in the context of the problems of institutionalization of knowledge about human and social development. To analyse system-integration aspect of social philosophy and education management in interaction with model of «new humanism» in formation of socially valuable orientations. Classification existing in the western philosophy of education and education of directions is spent, proceeding from basic principles of philosophical school or a current, first of all considering those the purpose and means which are really involved by them in process of education, social development and socially-moral education and being based on the basic installations, the purpose expressed by that or other direction, how its supporters imagine the person, its requirement, a social role, behaviour which the education system and education urged to form. Considering growing requirement of a practical embodiment of ideas of freedom, justice, aspiration to realisation of the human rights proclaimed a society, supporters of the concept of «new humanism» see the main objective in blocking a way to conformism, to a manipulation behaviour of the person and to create conditions for its free self-expression, for realisation by the person of a fundamental choice of acts in a concrete situation and by that to warn danger of formation of the unified form of behaviour. In it principles of «new humanism» approach with a position of instrumentalism and neopragmatism. Before social philosophy of education/upbringing it is necessary to define a problem factors which cause achievement of its main objective, to state an estimation to moral principles and personal qualities with which actually the education/education theory connects realisation of the problems, to show, why these, instead of any any other principles and qualities open to the person possibility to choose in a concrete situation socially powerful both morally defensible and comprehensible line of conduct in public the relation. Statement of a question on necessity of the philosophical analysis of problems of education and education in a social context serves as an indicator of understanding philosophers, teachers of an increasing role of the human and moral factor in society development. And, at last, the aspiration to develop socially-philosophical bases of pedagogics in general and education in particular, testifies that the western and domestic philosophers, teachers, representatives of social and psychological sciences, at least, the majority of them, have realised the public importance of an education system and education, its global character. ; Досліджуються основні ідейні закономірності розвитку соціальноорієнтованих концепцій філософії освіти у контексті проблем інституалізації знань про розвиток людини і суспільства. Аналізується системно-інтеграційний аспект соціальної філософії і менеджменту освіти у взаємодії з моделлю «нового гуманізму» у формуванні соціально ціннісних орієнтацій. Враховуючи зростаючу потребу практичного втілення ідей свободи, справедливості, прагнення до реалізації проголошених суспільством прав людини, прихильники концепції «нового гуманізму» вбачають свою основну мету у тому, щоб перегородити шлях конформізму, маніпулюванню поведінкою особистості і створити умови для її вільного самовираження, для здійснення людиною ґрунтовного вибору вчинків у конкретній ситуації і тим самим попередити небезпеку формування уніфікованої форми поведінки. Гегель Г.В.Ф. (1970). Работы разных лет. В 2 т., Т.1. М.: Мысль. Зинченко В.В. (2017). Глобальные трансформации современности. Т.1. Системные глобальные трансформации: монограф. Saarbrücken: Palmarium Academic Publishing. Зинченко В.В. (2014). Дискурс коммуникации: личность, общество, практика: монограф. П.-П.-С.: Ун.-т П(ИС), АУЦ, ПГУ. Сноу Ч. (1981). Лакировка. Новый мир, 5,164. Barrow, R. (1998). Moral Philosophy for Education. Boston, London: George Allen and Unwin. Bufford, Th. (2001). Toward а Philosophy Education. Boston: World-Press. Brent, A. (2013). Philosophical Foundations for the Curriculum. London; Boston: Allen & Unwin. Harris, A. (1996). Teaching, Morality and Religion. London: Allen and Unwin. Hirst, P. (2005). Knowledge and the Curriculum. In: Knowledge and the Curriculum. A Collection of Philosophical Papers (International Library of Philosophy of Education). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Books. Hirst, P. (2014). Moral Education in а Secular Society. London: University of London Press. Knowledge and the Curriculum (2005). A Collection of Philosophical Papers (International Library of Philosophy of Education). New York: Routledge. Kohlberg, L. (2000). Education for а just society. Moral Development, Moral Education. Ethics and Educational Policy. Birmingham: Munsey. Kohlberg, L. (1992). Stages of moral development as а basis for moral education. Bangor: University Press. Peters, R.S. (1979). Democratic Values and Educational Aims. In: Democratic Values; Educational Philosophy; Philosophy; Values Teachers College Record, V.80, 3, 463-482. Peters, R. (2009). Education and Values. N-Y: Sloan. Silberman, Ch. (2010). Crisis in the classroom; the remaking of American education. New York: Random House, ХІV, 552. Sintschenko, V.V. (2016). Gesellschaft und Ethik im Kontext Wissenwirtschaft: über den Umgang mit ernsten Soziale Fragen. Soziale Wirtschaft, 3, 6 (H.112). Suhrkamp Publishers & Sozialforschung, 54-63. Sintschenko, V. (2016). Welches Wirtschaft Wissen? Welche Soziale Gesellschaft? WISSENSGESELLSCHAFT. Textbeitrag «Gut zu Wissen», 11, 67-78. Warnock, М. (2007). Schools of Thought. London: Faber. Zinchenko, V.V. (2016). The Education in techno-structures of Society. Studies in Philosophy and Education, Volume «The Culture and Power of Knowledge: Inquiries into Contemporary Societies», 235-240.

The organisation of a conference on "Virginia Carini Dainotti and library politics post world war II" has acted as a stimulus to re-exam a period of recent history of the library profession often noted in a rather summary way. The viewpoint taken by myself is that of professional ethics, a sort of mirror in which we find clearly reflected the key problems that librarians and Italian libraries tried to face at that time - particularly in the Sixties - and that are still relevant today.Virginia Carini Dainotti entered, via her writings, into the debate on the big themes of democracy and freedom, and in particular the right to information, choosing the best minds of the left, from Norberto Bobbio to Lelio Basso, as her debating opposites and targets. Another theme that reoccurs in the writings of Carini Dainotti and in the professional literature of those years is that of the librarian as educator.In her theoretical skirmishes Virginia Carini Dainotti remembered that in practice the librarian will always, inevitably be measured by three adversaries, the authority on which he depends, the community in which he works and its own temptations. According to Virginia Carini Dainotti the only point of reference could be professional standards, in particular where they define the criteria for materials selection, what is acceptable and what is not, and set the limits of the librarian's independence in respect to the political authority.In one of her essays she also published a draft proposal for an articulated code of ethics, inspired essentially by the declaration of principles of the American Library Association (Library bill of rights), even if she presented it as a simple suggestion to the Italian Library Association (AIB).Carini Dainotti was uncompromisingly faithful to these ideas, at least from when, at the start of the Fifties, she concentrated her activities on the problems of the public library and the creation of a nation-wide network of librarian services, that later became the National Reading Service (Servizio nazionale di lettura).These themes were brought up very often by Carini Dainotti at the AIB congresses and at government conferences but in reality remained dead issues: only in 1994, more than twenty years later, the question was taken up by the Association and only in October 1997, at the Congress in Naples, the first Librarian's code of ethics was carried with unanimous approval.As for the theory, Carini Dainotti collected documentation, mainly but not exclusively from the United States, and also reflections on problems such as how to reconcile the freedom of the reader with the selection of books entrusted to the librarian. Emphasis was placed on the refuse of labelling pratices - a problem we have today as well if one considers the debate on rating Internet resources.One of the many merits of the works of Virginia Carini Dainotti is definitely the fact that she tried with all her might to introduce into Italy not only the concept but also the actual expression public library, to denote a library designed to meet the information needs of all members of the community and not, as was usual in Italy, a learned library formally open to all adults. She often argued against the division of libraries and librarians by the governing administrations rather than by the functions of the institutions.The last point of reference to emphasize is the decidedly supranational dimension of the profession. If sometimes the abrupt Americanism of Virginia Carini Dainotti, for example in the debate at the AIB congresses on the question of cataloguing, may seem irritating, one need only remember and acknowledge that on the relevant issues mentioned here there existed at an international level and in more advanced countries a body of practical accomplishment and an acquisition of principles that in our country barely existed.Her interventions constant calls for Italy to remain attached to Unesco and IFLA statements, and therefore to the need to respect and spread in our country the international principles of library policy and library organisation.However, a break in Italian librarianship in the course of the Sixties lead to a certain isolation from the international professional community, after all the efforts made above all in the years immediately preceding and that are generally associated to the name of Renato Pagetti, president of the Italian Library Association.The accounts of the discussions of these themes, often very lively, that cover the second half of the Sixties and the early Seventies are often despairingly provincial and inaccurate. Another characteristic is the lack of a sense of the quantitative dimensions of the problem of public libraries and more generally the lack of a scientific attitude to facts, as regards both planning and evaluation.In the Seventies there was a strong generational and ideological break between Italian librarians. However, the real turning point in the life of the Italian Library Association is to be seen in 1969, with the election of Renato Pagetti. On the other hand, in the actual development of public libraries in the Seventies, due to a political and social push that also involved the local administrations and a new generation of librarians, it is difficult to see original professional contributions. The weak attempts to elaborate a new conception of the public library or new models of service seemed to dry up in a rather vacuous ideological debate on one side and in traditional practices on the other.

The increasing digitalization in the process and the end-result of public service, a phenomenon widely known as e-government, is changing the range and ways of collaboration among governments and their stakeholders. Especially with the pervasive use of social media for knowledge sharing, today's local governments are teaming up with their non-government stakeholders in an unprecedented width and depth to exchange knowledge and resources to build digital public services together. While these collaborative initiatives benefit from the complementation of knowledge and resources that are associated with extensive participation, these initiatives also exist under a shadow of confusion and conflict when organizing the changing range and relationships of stakeholders, aligning technology uses with divergent objectives of knowledge sharing, as well as coordinating different distributions of decision-making power and accountability. To tackle these issues, in this dissertation I develop an understanding of the co-evolution of governance, organizational form of e-government collaboration through the mediation of social media. Here I define governance as the attempts to address the issue of coordination, and organizational form as the structural features of the e-government collaboration. And I define social media as the Internet-based collaborative technologies that are accessible to both government and non-government stakeholders for creating, circulating, sharing and exchanging knowledge. My primary research inquiry is thus how do the governance and organizational form of e-government collaboration occur through the mediation of social media? To pursue this line of inquiry, I further explore the relationship between social media and the governance and organizational form of e-government collaboration. Specifically, I ask: • How does the governance of e-government collaboration occur through the mediation of social media? • How does the organizational form of e-government collaboration occur through the mediation of social media? Conceptually I take an ensemble view to understand the relationship between social media and organizational changes (i.e., governance and organizational form) and argue that while social media has the potential to change social arrangements, these arrangements also influence the use of social media. In particular, I use the technology enactment framework as a conceptual map to identify the embeddedness of technology adoption in institutional, organizational and cognitive arrangements. Furthermore, I complement the framework with the theory of institutional logics, technology frames of references, and temporary organization, to operationalize the understanding of the institutional, organizational as well as cognitive arrangements. I choose e-government in China as the empirical setting to address the research questions for its unique environment, including its recent strong policy push for e-government initiatives and public-private collaboration, its complex public administration environment, as well as the pervasiveness of social media (i.e., WeChat) for work communication in both public and private spheres. Such an environment provides a good number of e-government collaboration cases that are characterized by the heterogeneity of stakeholders, mediation of social media, innovative administration arrangements, and that can be followed and studied from their early stages. The dataset for this dissertation is collected from four cases of e-government collaboration in China. To better understand the development of e-government collaboration through the mediation of social media over time, I conducted a longitudinal study on one of the cases, of which the communication between the stakeholders is primarily mediated through the Chinese social media WeChat. For data collection, I used qualitative methods including interviews, participant observations, as well as document analysis. For the first research question, the findings indicate the key dimensions in the governance of e-government collaboration center around the distribution of decision-making power and accountability between government and non-government stakeholders. And social media, as a knowledge-sharing platform, is crucial for achieving balances as such in an undefined collaboration, as it provides ambiguity between stakeholders' interests and needs, while still allowing stakeholders to develop a sense of consensus and informedness. For the second research question, the findings indicate that e-government collaboration can be organized differently through the mediation of social media. Nevertheless, a long-term examination shows the organizational form of e-government collaboration has to accord with the institutional logics at play. The form changes as the dynamics of institutional logics change. During the transition of these organizational settlements, social media plays an important role as a sandbox for experimenting with configurations of organizational structures, as well as a repository for shared knowledge and experiences. This dissertation makes three central contributions: First, it contributes to the conceptualization of governance in the era of e-government by highlighting the role of social media and its enactment in the occurrence of governance, and proposing an empirically driven typology of adaptive governance. Second, it contributes to the understanding of the organizational form of e-government collaboration by identifying the social media mediated hybridization process, and the characteristics of a social media enabled organizational form. Third, the findings extend the understanding of social media adoption in the context of e-government collaboration by providing a longitudinal account of social media enactment, and insights in the relationship between social media and government transformation.

2015 Volume 18 Number 6 Special Edition 21 December 2015 Editorial At a juncture in time when two decades have passed since the establishment of a constitutional democracy in South Africa and almost twenty years since the commencement of the South African Schools Act, this special issue reflects on the interrelationship between Education and the Law. This compilation of ten articles includes a historic look at Education Law as a field of study and reflects on a range of topical issues such as safeguarding learners against exposure to pornography, promoting safety in youth sport, the essentiality of ensuring open deliberative democratic practices during school elections, the role of educator "prosecutors" in disciplinary hearings of learners, pluralism as overriding consideration by the courts, as well as the rights to freedom of expression and life in relation to education. In many respects the multicultural plurality in most educational institutions depicts the coalface of the South African society. Legal disputes and conflicting interests in schools about equal access to quality education, promotion of African languages and non-diminishment of Afrikaans in the face of English hegemony and the accommodation of religious diversity echo the realities of life in South Africa. Johan Beckmann's personal account provides a historic look at the beginnings of Education Law as a field of study in South Africa expresses the hope that more South African universities will become involved in studying the field of Education Law and that a joint partnership between educationists and jurists might develop in future. Stuart Woolman's insightful article contends that the constitutional aim to promote pluralism as the grundnorm in South Africa explains some seemingly anomalous judgments in the education context. This plausible explanation leaves much food for thought, but also raises an array of questions. Should the paradigmatic notion of pluralism trump all other legal principles in a constitutional democracy? Are the principles of legality, justice and fairness not as important? Should pluralism underlie the adjudication process of balancing of rights and freedoms according to contextual circumstances in spite of unreasonable or unlawful state action? Have the courts not merely shown deference to an external political schema as arbiter of what "the good life" should be? The criminalisation of exposing children or learners to pornography is particularly relevant in schools in this era of ready access to the internet and social media and is aptly explained by Susan Coetzee. Marius Smit appositely combines legal analysis of provincial regulations with qualitative research, in keeping with the methodology of social sciences, to provide evidence of undemocratic conditions and features as well as shortcomings in the system of school governing body elections. Greenfield et alia contend that a detailed and textured approach to coach education, coupled with a more nuanced judicial appreciation of the importance of sport to society (and schools) and a positive interpretation of the 'prevailing circumstances', may help prevent widespread expansion of liability in both rugby and sport more generally. Michael Laubscher and Willie van Vollenhoven suggest that South Africa should take cognisance of the legislative and judicial measures that have been taken in the United States and Canada to deal with the dilemmas posed by cyber bullying in schools. Erica Serfontein explores the nexus between the right to life and education in laying a foundation for the development of learners' talents and capabilities, advancing democracy, combating unfair discrimination and eradicating of poverty in view of the essential role that the law plays to uphold these rights to attain quality of life. Based on qualitative data, Willie van Vollenhoven contends that student-educators are not able to internalise or apply the right to freedom of expression in practice. He warns that our school system is failing to develop learners as critical thinkers in the marketplace of ideas. Elda de Waal and Erika Serfontein argue that the neither the State, nor parents or educators are able to independently guide learners to responsible adulthood – a collaborative effort in accordance with the democratic principles of cooperation is required. They caution against the reciprocal tendency of parents and schools to blame each other and encourage parents to participate accountably to address learner misconduct. At times educators are required to fulfil quasi-judicial roles as evidence leaders (prosecutors) when conducting disciplinary hearings of learners. Anthony Smith highlights the difficulties experiences by these "evidence leaders" and recommends the provision of specific training in this regard. It is notable that three contributions to this special issue on Education Law utilised education research methodology, which is grounded in social science paradigms, in conjunction with legal analysis, based on law research methodology. This accentuates the interdisciplinary relationship between education and the law and promotes the epistemological enrichment of legal theory. Although the jurisprudence of the field of Education Law is fairly modest, the implications of court decisions on educational issues have a profound effect on the South African society, firstly because schools are microcosms of society, secondly because democratic (or undemocratic) practices in educational institutions leave indelible imprints on the youth that will eventually find expression in the life of a nation, and finally because the success (or failure) of an education system will ultimately determine the level of progress and economic destiny of the nation. Special Edition Editor Prof Marius Smit

Social acceptance is considered to be a decisive factor for the development of wind energy. Surveys repeatedly show that while people support wind energy in general, specific wind farm projects often cause local opposition. Local resistance against wind energy cannot be explained by singular issues such as simple cost-benefit calculations, the public support for renewable energy sources, the implementation strategy of the developer, the number of wind turbines installed, the intensity of the turbine noise, the protection of local birds and animals, or the "not-in-my-backyard"-effect (Stadlober and Hahn 1998; Warren et al. 2005; Wolsink 2000, 2007a), although a very dominant influence seems to be the specific value of the landscape, the familiar surroundings and the habitat (Wolsink 2007b). Hence, the acceptance of wind energy depends on a complex set of individual and societal indicators, perceptions and preferences rooted in institutional and socio-political arrangements.

The project's approach was based on the concept of social acceptance (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007), which is composed of socio-political, market and community acceptance. Wüstenhagen et al. investigated spatial planning and financial procurement systems to assess socio-political acceptance, market innovation, consumer and investors behaviour to explain market acceptance, procedural and distributional justice and trust to contribute to the understanding of community acceptance. The three levels of acceptance do interact, have main actors associated and are influenced by their interactions and contributing expectations.

We recur to this triangle model because it provides a broad holistic framework widely recognised not only in a scientific but also in a practical context. TransWind established a conceptual and methodological reliable participatory integrated assessment in order to test various factors of social acceptance. On a macro scale the integrated assessment was based on semi-structured interviews, participatory workshops and a group discussion (WorldCafé) with the experts from our stakeholder group, an estimation of the theoretical wind area potential in Austria and a participatory modelling approach to analyse the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). On the community level focus groups, semi-structured interviews and presentations/tests of visualisation tools were conducted. Both the integration of results from the macro analyses to the community scale and the use of a mixed-method design ensured the inter- and transdisciplinary character of TransWind.

This approach is needed to gain new, practical and relevant insights, which could not have been obtained merely from scientific or interdisciplinary sources. The conceptual framework of TransWind therefore aimed at integrating in a systematic way the analytical perspectives of the scientists and their approaches with the preferences and perceptions of the persons concerned about the issue (stakeholders) through establishing a reference group, holding workshops and organising interviews and focus groups. The assessment was complemented by a GIS based modelling tool (Where the wind blows - WTWB), which allowed the participatory assessment of optimal locations for wind power, depending on the spatial distribution of wind resources. Inputs from the reference group were summarized in a criteria catalogue to define three scenarios (min, med and max) for potentially suitable wind turbine sites. These three scenarios were complemented by a fourth scenario that reflects the wind energy potential with suitability zones for wind energy already defined by Austrian federal states. For all potential locations we calculated the levelized cost of energy generation (LCOE) to derive wind energy supply curves for each scenario of potentially suitable wind turbine sites. Under the assumptions of the min scenario, only 3.5TWh of wind energy could be produced at relatively high costs of 96 to 243 € MWh-1. Thus, it would not be possible to meet the wind energy targets of 3GW installed capacity (equivalent to about 6.3TWh assuming current capacity factors) of the Austrian Eco-Electricity-Act 2012. The med and max scenario would allow for further expanding the wind energy share at reasonable cost of about 95 EUR MWh-1 even if electricity demand keeps steadily rising. The modelling results raised our understanding of the related costs and benefits and served as a basis for the case study selection.

In the case studies, TransWind worked with interactive 3D visualisation tools based on latest visualisation developments to provide real-time and realistic visualisations for discussing and assessing different planning strategies and siting processes related to the visual impact on the landscape. Our research on technologies for 3D modelling in the context of Wind turbine visualisations has shown that different concepts and methods exist. The simple image visualisations (static images) are state of the art in planning processes but they are increasingly criticised as there is no easy way to prove their reliability and the number of viewpoints is very limited. From a cost perspective it is still the most efficient technology and the images can be easily shared in reports, presentations or websites. Interactive 3D visualisations allow users to change their viewpoints interactively depending on personal motifs. Therefore, personal fears and expectations can be addressed which may lead to more objective discussions and exchange of opinions during planning processes. During the project, two very new technologies entered the stage: Augmented reality (AR) and Virtual reality (VR) applications. Both are driven by the fast spread of mobile phones and may provide some additional insights in the visual impact of wind turbines. Nevertheless there are still some technological barriers that leads to positioning errors or unrealistic views due to the missing masking of 3D objects by real world objects (in AR) or are lacking quality due to low screen resolutions of mobile phones (in VR).

Through the research in the case studies and the preferences expressed by the stakeholders of the reference group TransWind identified different and sometimes contrasting patterns of social acceptance, which enhanced our understanding about the economical, political, ecological and social feasibility of wind power plants. Our empirical results showed that all interview partners and focus group participants consider vertical and horizontal cooperation and coordination across different political levels and parties (stakeholders; experts; local to regional decision makers; citizens) to be important. The problem is that the process of interaction between these actors is often conflictual. Different factors could be highlighted explaining this divergence. Such factors can be seen in the conflict of interests, rationales and beliefs which strengthen the problems of coordination and cooperation. Furthermore, any wind energy project is characterised by the basic systemic conflict between nature conservation (protection of wildlife, habitat and landscape) and narratives of ecological modernisation (e.g. climate protection or energy transition). These moral concepts (core beliefs) and policy cores (general beliefs and perceptions in a specific policy field like wind energy) of the participants are unlikely to change. Only the so called secondary aspects, which relates to the implementation of a policy (e.g. instruments, concrete actions), are most likely to change and are subject to learning processes.

Solutions for local wind energy projects can only be found in coordinated processes of cooperation taking into account all patterns of social acceptance. In order to ensure acceptance, decision-making processes have to be reformed, justice sustained and thereby both input and output legitimacy enhanced. All of these factors were taken into account when TransWind finally established a guideline for various user audiences interested in handling the acceptance and non-acceptance of wind energy.

In recent years China's military has become not only stronger and more capable, but also in a variety of areas, including the South China Sea and the Taiwan Straits, more assertive. In this light, it is only prudent that the United States remain engaged in the region and, along with its allies, maintains robust military capabilities.At the same time, decisions about where, when and how to respond to the challenge posed by China, and particularly its military capabilities, should rest on a clear and dispassionate understanding of that challenge built on thorough and rigorous analysis. Unfortunately, along too many critical dimensions, such analysis by the U.S. national security community is currently lacking.These shortcomings include the unsettling degree to which assessments of the Chinese military challenge have devoted enormous attention to various Taiwan contingencies and, by comparison, remarkably little attention to the Chinese military's capacity — or lack thereof — to directly conquer or coerce any of the major powers in the region, such as Japan, India, Australia, South Korea, and Indonesia.Worse yet, current assessments have increasingly equated defending Taiwan, and other relatively small nearby economies, with preventing Chinese regional hegemony. In fact, and as I detailed in a recent brief for the Quincy Institute, surprisingly little analytical effort has gone into exploring, let alone convincingly making, this case. Conversely, there is substantial evidence suggesting the enormous difficulties the Chinese military would face in attempting to defeat or coerce other major powers in the region.While the Indo-Pacific today is roughly comparable to Europe during the 20th century in terms of its relative economic importance, it is composed of a far vaster area. Much of the economic power of the region outside of China is separated from that country by seas and ocean often measured in distances of hundreds or even thousands of miles. Advances in technology, including precision-guided munitions, have greatly increased the difficulty — if not essentially eliminated the possibility entirely — of invasion and physical occupation as a plausible means for China to pursue military conquest in at least the distant essentially maritime areas of the region.Moreover, most open-source analysis suggests that Taiwan — a relatively small (in terms of population, wealth, and size) island lying only roughly 100 miles off the coast of mainland China — would, at least with assistance from the U.S. military, likely be able to defeat an attempted seaborne invasion by China, or alternatively, withstand an attempt to coerce Taiwan through blockade or bombardment.If so, it is difficult to credit the Chinese military with the capacity to successfully execute such strategies against, comparably assisted, much larger and wealthier countries in the Western Pacific located many hundreds or thousands of miles from China. It is also worth noting that a major war in Western Pacific would likely pose a serious danger to the Chinese economy — which is hugely dependent on seaborne trade — as well.Of course, not all the major powers in the Indo-Pacific region that might, in theory, fall prey to Chinese military aggression are relatively distant maritime powers. Most obviously, India shares a long land border with China. However, India is largely separated from China by a broad and inhospitable mountain range, has a formidable military, including a substantial nuclear arsenal, and an economy that by 2050 may be as much as three-quarters as large as China's.Perhaps for these reasons, few U.S. assessments of the Chinese military challenge focus on the possibility of such a conflict. And, yet, if China's ability to use its military power to coerce India is, indeed, severely limited, it becomes far more difficult to imagine a realistic scenario in which China is able to use its military power to establish regional hegemony.In short, the Chinese military certainly represents a complex challenge for the United States and its friends and allies in the Indo-Pacific. But the notion that China is on a path to establishing itself as a regional hegemon through military conquest and intimidation, and that Taiwan is the lynchpin in preventing such dominance, rests on a weak analytical foundation.This does not mean that the United States should turn a blind eye to Chinese aggression in the region. There may well be situations in which, for example, the defense of Taiwan or other minor countries in the region, or at least active assistance short of direct military support, represents a prudent choice. But the policy responses chosen should rest on a clear-eyed and dispassionate understanding of the strategic situation, and what is and is not at stake.Unfortunately, at present the conventional wisdom falls well short of supporting U.S. policymakers with such an understanding.

Ethical theories are typically formulated as centrally concerning the concept of right action.  Introductory ethics classes may define competing theories as offering different completions of the sentence: "An act is right iff...".  And that probably works well enough for deontological theories, which are centrally concerned with delineating the boundaries of permissibility and obligation.  But I think it's very misleading to treat consequentialist theories as seeking to answer this question.  (And I expect virtue ethicists would have similar complaints.)If forced into a deontic mould, it's natural to default to maximizing consequentialism: An act is right iff it maximizes value (or, more precisely, produces no less value than any alternative option).  But the concept of rightness has connotations that fit poorly with consequentialism, as many (from Railton to Norcross) have pointed out.  For example:(1) It's natural to assume that knowing failures to act rightly (absent some special excuse) are blameworthy.  But no maximizing consequentialist that I'm aware of has ever held that people are blameworthy for doing slightly less than absolute moral perfection (as we all do literally all the time).  As I suggest in my paper 'Deontic Pluralism and the Right Amount of Good', maximizers are best understood as invoking what we might call "the ought of most reason", or what ideally ought to be done, not what is obligatory in any ordinary sense.  (This helps to bring out that the view cannot possibly be "too demanding", for it makes no demands at all.)(2) It's natural to assume that the boundary between 'right' and 'wrong' must mark some significant moral discontinuity.  But at least for pure consequentialists, there would seem no basis for this, as the difference in value between a permissible act and a marginally impermissible one might be utterly trivial.  (But see my 'Deontic Pluralism' paper for ways that hybrid consequentialists might be able to construct a significant boundary, e.g. by appeal to independent theories of blameworthiness.)(3) It's natural to assume that it's especially important to avoid acting wrongly.  But, even supposing that we're obliged to donate 10% of our income to charity, no utilitarian would think that it's inherently more important to increase your giving from 9% to 10% than from 11% to 12%.So I think Consequentialism is best formulated, at least in its "core" or central form, without invoking deontic threshold concepts such as right (/wrong) or permissible (/impermissible).What's the alternative?  Rather than asking about the criteria for rightness, I think a more neutral starting point would ask: What does the moral theory hold to be most important?  On this approach, importance becomes the central concept of normative ethics, about which different theories may disagree. The standard answers then follow: Deontologists assign primary importance to acting in accordance with duty (with specific theories offering competing accounts of how those obligations are to be specified), virtue ethicists maybe something about acquiring and exemplifying virtues (?), and consequentialists hold that what matters is promoting value, or the realization of better outcomes.I think it's important to start moral inquiry with the right question, because what you ask may have a biasing effect on what answers you reach.  If you work with the ordinary concept of rightness, I expect this would have at least some tendency to push you towards deontological accounts.  (We've already seen that consequentialism fits poorly with the ordinary understanding of rightness, and I think both consequentialist and virtue-ethical criteria for rightness tend to look pretty off-track by ordinary standards.)  But if rightness isn't actually the central concept of normative ethics (properly understood), then this apparent failure needn't be any sort of count against deontology's competitors.By contrast, if we begin with the question of importance front and center, then I think consequentialism (and especially utilitarianism) starts to look a lot more compelling.  Indeed, I've suggested elsewhere that reflecting on what fundamentally matters constitutes the best positive argument for utilitarianism.Reflecting on what's important may also help to illuminate the flaws of consequentialism's competitors. For example, the Parfitian possibility of "virtuous[ly acquired] viciousness" seems to undermine any suggestion that virtue is the most important thing in the world. And the importance of conformity to duty may be undermined by both my moral stunting objection and my new paradox of deontology.So it may well be that other theorists wouldn't be so thrilled about focusing on this question of importance.  But it at least seems advisable for consequentialists!

Abstract. The current linear economic system has been found to be in direct conflict with the framework set by sustainable development. The accelerating growth of the world's population and new masses joining the middle-class are causing an explosive increase in demand for resources and the more dense presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Increasing of production efficiency cannot guarantee the adequacy of natural resources and the preservation of living conditions for future generations, and circular economy has been proposed as a solution. (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2012.) In the transition from the linear to circular economy, economic instruments are needed to accelerate and facilitate the transition. The European Commission has proposed staggering of the VAT system on environmental grounds by reducing the tax rate on repair services. This could potentially promote products to remain in circulation for as long as possible, which is one of the main objectives of the circular economy. (European Commission, 2019.) The thesis aims to examine how the VAT system could be utilized in the transition from a linear economic system to a circular economy. In particular, the study will look at the structure of the current VAT system and its potential, as well as the limitations of its application set by the Directive. The theoretical part is done as a literature review. Based on this theoretical basis, qualitative interviews have been conducted with six VAT experts from the Tax Administration. The interviews have been transliterated and a theory-driven data analysis has been performed. The interviews have been conducted anonymously and the answers of the interviewees do not reflect the policy of the Tax Administration in this regard. The results of the thesis are based on both a theoretical basis and expert interviews. The study revealed that VAT, as an indirect consumption tax, has a significant potential to influence consumer prices and thus consumption habits (Tikkanen et al., 2018). However, this potential is limited by the asymmetric impact of changes in tax rates on consumer prices, the boundary conditions set out in Annex III of the VAT Directive (2006/112 / EC), and the possible increase in administrative costs during the change in tax rates. Different tax rates have also been suspected to be in conflict with the principle of neutrality of the VAT system. (Mirrlees et al., 2011.) The price effect has been found to be weaker when lowering tax rates than when raising them, both in a study based on listed tax and price changes (Benzarti et al., 2020) and in a VAT reduction experiment conducted in Finland in 2007–2011. However, the more environmentally friendly attitudes of the 2020s and the possible deletion of Annex III to the Directive, with the change proposed by the Commission in 2019, give rise to the possibility of a renewed experiment in reducing VAT rates. The thesis could be used as a starting point for a more detailed study of the price effects of reduced VAT rates on repair services from a business perspective.Tiivistelmä. Nykyisen lineaarisen talousjärjestelmän on todettu olevan ristiriidassa kestävän kehityksen asettaman viitekehyksen kanssa. Maailman populaation kiihtyvä kasvu ja ihmisryhmien keskiluokkaistuminen aiheuttavat resurssien kysynnän räjähdysmäisen lisääntymisen ja ilmastonmuutosta edistävien kasvihuonekaasujen tiheämmän esiintymisen ilmakehässä. Pelkällä tuotannon tehostamisella ei voida taata luonnonvarojen riittämistä ja elinolojen säilymistä tuleville sukupolville ja ratkaisuksi on ehdotettu kiertotalousjärjestelmää. (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2012.) Siirtymävaiheessa lineaarisesta järjestelmästä kiertotalouteen tarvitaan siirtymistä nopeuttavia ja helpottavia taloudellisia ohjauskeinoja. Muun muassa Euroopan komissio on ehdottanut arvonlisäverojärjestelmää porrastettavaksi ympäristöperustein siten, että korjauspalveluiden verokantaa alennettaisiin. Tällä tavoin voitaisiin potentiaalisesti edistää tuotteiden pysymistä kierrossa mahdollisimman pitkään, mikä on yksi kiertotalouden päätavoitteista. (Euroopan komissio, 2019.) Tutkielma pyrkii selvittämään, miten arvonlisäverojärjestelmää voitaisiin hyödyntää siirtymävaiheessa lineaarisesta talousjärjestelmästä kiertotalouteen. Tutkimus perehtyy varsinkin nykyisen järjestelmän rakenteeseen ja sen tarjoamaan potentiaaliin sekä direktiivin (2006/112/EC) asettamiin soveltamisrajoituksiin. Teoriaosuus on tehty kirjallisuuskatsauksena. Tähän teoreettiseen pohjaan nojautuen on tehty kvalitatiivisia haastatteluita kuudelle Verohallinnon arvonlisäveroasiantuntijalle. Haastattelut on litteroitu ja tämän datan perusteella on suoritettu teorialähtöinen aineistoanalyysi. Haastattelut on suoritettu anonyymisti ja haastateltavien vastaukset eivät kuvasta Verohallinnon linjausta asiaan liittyen. Tutkielman tulokset perustuvat sekä teoriapohjaan että asiantuntijahaastatteluihin. Tutkimuksessa selvisi, että arvonlisäverolla on välillisenä kulutusverona merkittävä potentiaali vaikuttaa kuluttajien hintoihin ja siten kulutustottumuksiin (Tikkanen et al., 2018). Tätä potentiaalia kuitenkin rajoittaa verokantojen muutosten asymmetrinen vaikutus kuluttajahintoihin, arvonlisäverodirektiivin (2006/112/EC) liitteen III asettamat reunaehdot, sekä mahdollinen hallinnollisten kustannusten lisääntyminen verokantojen muutosvaiheessa. Eriävien verokantojen on myös epäilty olevan ristiriidassa arvonlisäverojärjestelmän neutraaliusperiaatteen kanssa. (Mirrlees et al., 2011.) Hintavaikutuksen on todettu olevan heikompi verokantoja alennettaessa kuin niitä nostettaessa sekä listattuihin vero- ja hintamuutoksiin perustuvassa tutkimuksessa (Benzarti et al., 2020) että Suomessa vuosina 2007–2011 suoritetussa arvonlisäveron alentamiskokeilussa. 2020-luvun ympäristömielisemmät asenteet sekä mahdollinen direktiivin liitteen III poistaminen Komission vuonna 2019 ehdottaman muutoksen myötä antavat kuitenkin aihetta arvonlisäverokantojen alentamiskokeilun uusimiselle. Tutkielmaa voitaisiinkin käyttää lähtökohtana korjauspalveluiden alennettujen arvonlisäverokantojen hintavaikutusten tarkemmalla tutkimiselle yritysperspektiivistä.