Suchergebnisse

Issue 25.4 of the Review for Religious, 1966. ; Life Charter for the Sisters of the Precious Blood by Sisters Angelita and M. Agnes, Ad.PP.S. 557 Practice of the Holy See by Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. 590 The Cloister Grille by Mother Mary Francis, P.G.G. 615 Mystery and Holiness of Community Life b~ Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C. 621 Identity and Change by ~qister M. Howard Dignan, B.V.M. 669 A Paradox of Love by Brother F. Joseph Paulits, F.&C. 678 Meaningful Adaptation by Sister Marie Leonard, LH.M. 684 The Hyphenated Priest by George B. Murray, S.J. 693 Having Nothing by Sister Helen Marie, O.&F. 703 Survey of Roman Documents 714 Views, News, Previews 718' Questions and Answers 726 Book Reviews 732 VOLUM~ 25 NUMBER 4 July 1966 SISTER ANGELITA MYERSCOUGH, Ad.PP.S. SISTER MARY AGNES KURILLA, Ad.PP.S. A Life Charter for. the Sisters Adorers of the Most Precious Blood Vatican II's Decree on the Adaptation and Renewal of Religious Life directs that "constitutions, directories, custom books, books of prayers and ceremonies and such. like be suitably reedited and, obsolete laws being suppressed, be adapted to the decrees of this sacred Synod" (n. 3). These decrees, everyone recognizes, are focused in the mystery of the Church. Vatican II's theol-ogy of the Church clearly lays emphasis on .its dynamic aspect as the People of God joined together in Christ and made' alive in the Spirit. While its institutional character, which has been emphasized in recent cen-turies, is never lost sight of, the stress is. strongly on this prophetic element. ~ The Council's teaching on religious life, too, is un, derstandably influenced by its pastoral ecclesiology. It .is the prophetic element of religious communities, their existential reality as worshiping communities of frater-nal love and. apostolic service, rather than their juridical organization, that is underscored. While no formal theol-ogy of.religious life has been expounded by the Council, certainly Chapter Six of the, Constitution on the Church as' well as the Decree on the Adaptation and Renewal of Religious Life lay evident stress on the dy-namic inner element. It would seem, consequently, that in the revision of documents, this orientation of the Church on the reli-gious life in an ecclesial context must be borne in mind to assure that such revision be truly "adapted to the de-crees of this sacred Synod." At pre.sent, many congregations of 0sisters have a, single Sister Angelita Myerscough, Ad. PP.S., and Sister Mary Agnes Kutilla, Ad.PP~., are sta-tioned at the Pro-vincial Mother-house of the Sisters Adorers of the Most Precious Blood; Ruma (P.O. Red Bud), Illin6is 62278. VOLUME 25, 1966 557 Sisters Angellta and Mary REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 558 basic document, the "constitutions," approved by the Church. Such a document often contains minutiae of practice as well as canonical norms for government, the regulation of the novitiate, of profession, and so on, besides more basic guidelines for living. Frequently the canonical prescriptions of such a document quantita-tively far outweigh the few articles which give genuine guidance and motivation in living the Christian life in the particular spirit of the congregation. For example, many constitutions, theoretically meant to be a guide to holiness, make no reference or only a very meagre ref-erence to the work of the Holy Spirit. Clearly, constitutions structured in this manner were conceived in a framework of ecclesiology which stressed the institutional character of religious life. The ques-tion arises: Should the work of revision not look to-ward a more basic document which would delineate the dynamic plan of religious life in a particular congre-gation within the Church, a document that would sketch the ideal of life in community consecrated to God in the way of the gospel counsels in that particu-lar congregation? Faced with this problem, the American constitution-revision committee of the Sisters Adorers of the Most Precious Blood, working in preparation for their gen-eral chapter (Fall, 1965), explored the possibility of such an approach. After discussion and examination of the-basic principles that should guide such work of renewal in the light of the Council's teaching and its spirit, the committee concluded that revision work should distinguish the different levels of elements in the-present constitution,. It should attempt, in the first place, to draw up a very basic document which would be so structured as to give genuine guidelines for living, defining the life of the sister rooted in. an ecclesial community, sharing the particular charism of the foundress. A secondary document, the committee decided, should be drawn up which would contain the canonical and juridical elements' of a statutory nature, necessary for the functioning of the congregation as an organization, as an institution. Regulations of the more minute practices, inasmuch as they need to be spelled out at all, might well be contained in a third document, readily responsive to continuing adaptation by an internal au-thority of the congregation as a whole or at the provin-cial, or even local, level. Pressured for time, the American constitution-commit-tee prepared a draft of a first basic document, a kind of life charter for the congregation, that stressed its dynamic character. It is this preliminary document--a draft copy needing much further refinement which is printed here as a possible source of help to others. The general-chapter'of the congregauon, meeting in Rome in August and September of 1965, neither d~s-cussed nor approved the work proposed by the American interprovincial ~committee, ,.nor another ~revision, sub-mitted from another part o[ the ,c, ongregation. Instead, the chapter "ffdoPt.ed a plan for '.further work on the revisiofi of constitutioris Under:,the direction of 'an interfiati0nal Committee which is to use as a poiiat of departure the work" already prepared. -- The'f0110wifig life'charter, ~hen; has not been adopted by the congregati6n -' for 'submis~iofi to the competent e~ccles~asucal authority. It does, however, represent an effort at revision of constitutions thatwould give. the sisters a life charter expressing in a manner consonant with the~spiTit of renewal in the Church today the essen-tial "char~icter"'hnd original slSirit,~ of the Congregation of the Sisters' /~dorers "of the Most .Precious Blood [ounded ' in It~ily in 1834 by'Blessed Maria De Mattias. There, is no question of an ~ff6rt to creat a radically new spirit or new way of life, but rhther-a sincere attempt at genuine renewal more faitHful"to the charism of origins than the later, "more juridical' ~onstitutions of 'recent decades. The sisters who have examined this work have re-acted favorably; for they expect revised constitutions to be a norm they can truly live by, motivated inwar~dly, led by the Spirit to faithful response to their Christian vocation in the Church today. On the other hand,° ecclesi-astics whose business it is to examine the revised docu-ments of religious may, at least at first, react unfavor-dbly. Learned as they are in the law and long accustomed to judge constitutions' by their c6nformity to specific canons and general" norrnae~ they may hesitate before this~,kind' of approach, even "though the Whole spirit and work of the Council suggests it. Perhaps'it Will be some time before' i't will become,evident that the s~rvices of theologians, .bib~l~ical scholars, and histori'ans of Chris-tian spirituality are also needed in the work of exiamining p~oposed revisions'or n~w constitutions of religious com-munities. It may take even 10ngdrqor the time to come wheh scholarly religious (even womenl) may be invited 'to" help in the Careful htudy of proposed documents preliminary to the Church's Official approval of l such constitutions~ as ~/" ~ay of life. .' ¯ " '. ' Permission for ~oublication of this tentative effort has been granted by Mother Marciana Heimermann, Ad.PP.S., general superior of.the congregation, who had been a member of the American intetprovincial com-mittee working on this document. Lile;Chart~r ', VOL~UME 25, 1~66 ' 559 Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 560 PART I. THE COMMUNITY OF CONSECRATED LOVE CHAPTER I. THE CONGREGATION IN THE CHURCH God graciously calls Certain persons whom He has brought, into His household through baptism to wit-ness more fully to the paschal mystery by profession of the gospel counsels in a religious congregation. This way of life is a sign of the.Church, called to b~ the community of God's holy people, walking in His presence, living together in the spirit of the beatitudes while awaiting the glorious coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. To be a sister in the Community of Adorers of the Most Precious Blood, founded by Maria De Matfias, is to pledge oneself wholly to the adoring, redeeming love of the Son of God who gives His Precious Blood, chalice of the new and eternal testament, as daily seal of God's covenant with His chosen people. ¯ Thus the Eucharistic celebration is the sum and sum-mit of life in the Community, and the center which draws each member to Christ's compelling love. Let each sister,, then, be the living image of this compelling' !ove, of which the Precious Blood is a sign, an expres. sion, a measure and a pledge,1 offered in filial adoration to the Father, poured out in compassionate redemption of the neighbor. Through the Blood of Christ, each member gives herself wholly to God in consecrated love, for the building up of the Church, the Body of Christ (Eph 4:12). In Him she is to love and be loved; to serve, teach, heal, comfort the distressed; to deal patiently with wrong, so that through her the whole of creation may move toward "that beautiful order Of things which the great Son of God came to establish through Divine Blood." 2 The Sister Adorer looks to Mary, Mother of God and first adorer of the Most Precious Blood, to know the true meaning of her adoring, redeeming vocation: wom-anly surrender to God, and motherly service to others. She sees this reflected in her holy foundress, Maria De Mattias, who was so attracted to the paschal .mystery under sign of the redeeming Blood of the Lamb, that great love for the Church, vivified by the paschal 1 First Constitutions o] the Congregation, 1857, p. iv. ~ Letter of Blessed Maria De Mattias to Bishop Annovazzi, Nov. 13, 1838. presence of Christ, was the source of her apostolic strength. In this, her aim was that which the Church defines as the purpose of all apostolic work: "that all who are made sons of. God. by faith and baptism should come to 'praise God in the .midst. of His Church, to take part in the sacrifice and to eat ttie Lord's supper." 3 The sister sees too how Maria's' love for Mary most holy, gave such boundless depths to her dedication to her neighbor, St. Joseph, St. Gaspar del Bufalo, and St. Francis Xavier are special patrons of this" congregation. In them the paschal mystery has been achieved, for they have suffered and have been glorified with Christ. Now they teach the. sister to draw' all to .the Father through Christ, in the power of the Holy Spirit, thus fulfilling her vocation of adoring, redeeming love,-gloriously trium-phant in the paschal mystery. CHAPTER ~II. P~ERSONA.L GRowTH IN COMMUNITY' 1. Accep,,tance The Community, in receiving a young woman into its midst, accepts responsibility for her. As all of the sisters share in,receiving her, all are to remain aware of this resp6nsibility, pledged to God, to the Church, to the congregation, to all the People of God whose leaven she is to be. ~ God has called this baptized person to dedicate her life to Him in, consecrated love, and has guided her to our cQngregation. The Church takes her into religi6us life ~acc0rding to our cbnstitutions, and during the Eucharistid.sacrifice makes her act an event in salvation history by accepting the young person's public profes-sion of vows as a Sister Adorer of the Most Precious Blood. , Gift for gift, Community and member extend to one another the.,ctiarity Of Christ. For the work she opens herself to do. for God, the Community cares for her and gives her a suitable education so that with her po-tentials unfolding, she might fulfill both herself and her commitment in the lifetime God appoints to her. 2. Initiation Although early education in religious life is desig-nated in successive stages as postulancy, noviceship, and scholasticate, they hre fundamentally one, a unifying growth "forming a personal continuum. It is the way in which the person progressively deepens: her baptismal commitment- as a Christian and reorientates and re- Constitution 'on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 10. + + + LiIe ~,harter VOLUME 25, 1966 ÷ .÷ ÷ Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 562 patterns its, outward expression .as a Sis~ter Adorer.of.the Most Precious Blood. The postulancy,acitudints her with religibus .life;!in general and with our congrtgation in. particular.It tests her~readiness to become a member 6f thd, Community and safeguards her from entering pretipitately on, a way of life. f6r which she may'.bd fundamenfally umuited. In the noviceship, the Director;of Novices assists.her to learn and to live the' life of the ~congregation.by bringing her. first of all to ':a,.'more ,,intensely .shared ~member-ship in the. Church;' and then~,,an understanding of .the vocation of the Sister Adorer, ~ledicated 'to the glory of the :Precious Blood as it manifests' itgelf in the adoring, redeemifig love of the Savior at~ the. present moment in The Director explains to her the.~ principles ~of' reli, gious life in the light of the counsels,,of~ Sacred Scripture, the requisites of the vows as determined,by the Church, and how th~e are lived i~a fourfbld growth: as a reli-gious whose aim is union with God; as member of a reli, gious Community-family i~nt9 which she isinteg~fited through .charity; as' an: apostle,:~ .well.~repared tO give excellent service in the spiri~tiiM ~ahd ~orp'oral workg of mercy; as member of a well=ordered '~Sb'cietyI ~vh0se. in: terests' she. prom6tts thr6ugh tbopetation~and pr'odu~: tivity. Above all the noviceship prepares her 0to be a Sister Adorer of/the Most Precious Bl6~d,'~'d~voted~ ~0 the Church~-.and ready to be at i'her disposal thttiOgh' he~- C~mn~Unity. Then, what the novice has begqn, to live in the noviceship, 'she freely bi~ds~ h~iself ~.~o continue with the profession of. vows: 3. Identification The newly professed sister give~ herself during her scholasticate to her edla~ation., for th~ ~apostolate by deepening her realizati6n 'of the redemptive aspects of the Precious Blood,' by devoting ~herSelf to studie~, and by a.cquiring the skills she will need ~in her future s~r,~- It will b~ her privilege in whatever assignment she may receive, to bring others closer to God, to find Him in the truth, beauty, and goodness of this world, arid to comriaunicate (1 Col 9:22) her discovery to Others', Her purposeis to be°all things to~a.!l:~people, even a~. the Precious Blood is"'all~ 'things to all' members oF the Mystical' Body, to .win "all for Christ, and in Him to restore.all things tothe Fatherr ¯ .~he scholastic sister is to learn' ~aduall~', for all times; and to the extent of her abilities the habit of intellec-tual effort, the strenuous .discipline. of long exacting hours of concentration to master truth and ~o express it in whatever form of science or art it may require. In this she experiences on a n~tural level, a distinctive kind of asceticism which detaches her from the non-essential and channels her efforts toward the essential. That grace may build on a well-founded nature,' her intellectual capacities, her possible artistic bent, her emotional responses, all her human endowments are stimulated and cultivated to enter into the total com-mitment which she has made of herself to God in reli-gious life. Let the sister esteem and strive for every excellence in her perfectible nature, that she may bear witness to the Gospel call: "Be ye perfecL even as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Mt 5:48). The Director of Scholastics and the faculty who work with the young sister are to her an exemplification bf the Adorer's vocation. Let these sisters, therefore, be truly guiding lights, united in mind and heart with one another, giving that selfless devoted service which is inspired in them by the redemptive Blood of the Savior. At the end of the years of scholasticate, the young sis-ter should find herself spontaneously at home in her Community, well identified with her congregation in its adoring, redeeming vocation, its community life, its Christ-like and professionally competent service, its stability as a human organization pledged to a divine purpose, to which she is ready to give herself in works of mercy. 4. Creative Growth In the eternalplan of God, each person is to fill some moment of salvation history in fellowship with others. The sisters will find that the twofold commandment of charity binds them to others in God whose creative love underlies their human and divine relatedness. The apostolate of mercy is the pursuit of this related-ness. Let the sisters be perceptive of another's needs, whether of body or of mind; respectful of his person, no matter of what age or circumstance; gentle and skilled in filling each particular need as it requires to be filled. Thus their service will be truly creative, and in the mutual exchange of giving and receiving helper and helped may witness to the greatest of the beatitudes: "Blessed are the merciful for they shall obtain mercy" (Mt 5:7). Let the sisters regard their assignment to a particular community, place, and work as part of God's arrange-ment in their lives, trusting His word that "to those ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 25, 1966 563 $i~t~r~ Angelita and Mary Agn~s REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 564 who ,love God all things work together unto good" (Rom 8:28). The sisters in the individual houses need to establish themselves in harmony as a community of God's holy people, reflecting the Church and witnessing to the joy of the beatitudes if ~hey are to proclaim the word of God in. sincerity and truth (see 2 Cor 1:12). It is to be expected that weariness, routine, exhaustion [~om physical and mental work, loneliness, misunder-standing and conflicts, emotional disturbances, personal inadequacies, the pressure of time will disturb them frequently. All these form the unique cross each must ~adjust to and carry with whatever natural and super-natural helps she may have a4ailable, without how-ever, unduly inflicting her cares on others. These diffi-cult experiences are her exercises in and test of maturity. Let the sister accept them generously and use them as creatively as she can to make herself that image of God which was meant to be from all ete,rfiity. In a more positive way, let the sisters be open to what-ever is beautiful in their environment and experience. Their feminine graces are God's gift to them and are meant to be cherished and cultivated, to be part of the consecrated love they offer Him. To sustain a ,high level of excellence in their apostolate, the sisters need to remain relevant to their umes, eager to learn through continued in-service educa-tion, to ~.mprove their skills, to deepen their, perceptions, and courageously, confidently try what may be new and unfamiliar in their work. For greater cooperation and efficiency, the sisters are to acquaint themselves with the best methods, procedures, and human skills of admin-istration in their contemporary "world. Moreover, there is pfirticular need that the sister~ do not neglect their civic and social duties in society which needs the moral support and spiritual idealism represented by reli-gious. If God has endowed a sister with "leadership, ability to communicate, and other necessary requisites, let her be of service also in rdligious and secular professional organizations. In her close and frequent contacts with clergy and laity, she is to be aware of her solidarity with them, of the common gifts and needs which unite her to them. Together they all share in the universal call to holiness, "to put on as God's chosen ones, holy and beloved, a heart of mercy, kindness, humility, meekness, patience" (Col 3:12). Together with them, ttie sister "in this temporal service will manifest to all men the love with which God loved the world." 4 Let their mutual relationship with clergy or laity Constitution on the Church, n. 41. be marked by courtesy, genuine concern .and. considera, tion, cooperation and esteem for one another's vocation, fhat in fostering the wholeness and holiness of one another, they may bear witness to one faith, one baptism, and one Father who is over all and above all (see Eph 4:5). " The creative growth of a sister during her years of active service will. continue in a fourfold way to intensify her religious life, to unite her more closely to her Com-munity- family, to extend her apostolic service, and to make her a vital member of her congregation in 15to-moting its welfare. 5. F, ulfillment The life of a.,Sister Adorer is outwardly apostolic and inwardly contemplative in varying proportions. As hard work, illness, and.age take their toll ,of physical ~health and endurance in the sister, she comes face to face with the gradual decline of ,her active service-~ She must sacri-fice the satisfactions of her former ,absorbing outward activities one by one. Perhaps her greatest trial is to feel useless and a burden. This too is part of God's purposes, for it: means that she is entering on a vital and new apostolate, that of prayer and suffering. The contemplative aspects of her lifelong vocation .are now to receive more exclusive attention. She becomes in ever greater measure part of the spiritual vitality of her Community, Her very presence among her sisters, her life spent in prayer and retirement, the Small Services she.can still render, the wisdom, of her years, all are. an in-spiration to the younger members. One of her .great services at this time is her readiness to see her Commu-nity change to meet the needs of the times and her sup-port of this with confidence that the Holy Spirit will guide the Community aright. She gives her Community a deeper faith, a more complete trust in. God, a more selfless devotedness through her prayers and sufferings, her very passiveness in physical weakness, as~ ,the paschal mystery is coming to fulfillment in her life. She accepts death as she ac-cepted her call to the gospel counsels--as a means to union with God. Her final act is one of community, stepping from among her sisters on' earth to the company of her sisters in heaven. Her final achievement is the Christian pass-over through death to glory. CHAPTER III. THE GOSPEL COUNSELS IN COMMUNITY The vows of religious are a covenant with God, made with Him through His Church, drawing all of one's life ÷ + + VOLUME 25, 1966 565 4. 4. Sisters ,4ngelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 566 on earth now into that union with Him which the Son of God mediates in us through His holy word and through the fullness of His paschal mystery for all eternity. Vows are a sacred bond by which a person is to~ally dedicated to God, loved beyond all things. The vows effect, a visible community in the Church, based not on property, nor on marriage, nor on independent self-determination, but on consecrated love. 1. Poverty The Word is made flesh at the Incarnation and in the Eucharist that all material things might receive divine significance through the Body of Christ, presented to the Father in His Resurrection and glbrious Ascension and daily offered ~anew at the Holy Sacrifice. With full appreciation of the goodness of: material things, the sister, too, by her vow of poverty, gives a new significance to things. She surrenders their independent use to the sovereignty of God. Thereafter the whole significance of her poverty lies in her dependence on God in faith. By .her vow of poverty, the Sister Adorer of the Most Precious Blood is a sign in the Church, publicly wit-nessing through consecrated imitation of the poverty of Jesus, to the supremacy of His adoring, redeeming love in her life. Let her commit herself wholeheartedly to the gospel counsel of leaving all things .to follow Christ. With St. Paul, she is able to abound or to be needy (see Phil 4:12), neither condemning the riches of human culture, nor placing her heart's joy. in them for their own sake. Freed from the spirit of dominion over earthly goods, with faith in God and trust in His providence, let the sister cast all her care on the Lord for He has care of her. Let her lay aside all temporal anxiety, to be witness to the beatitude: "Blessed are you poor, the kingdom of heaven is yours" (Mt 5:3). And if the Lord occasionally permits the sister to lack something that is necessary, let her thank Him, realizing that this privation' renders her more like to God who, being Lord of the universe, rendered Himself poor for love of her. Impelled by love for their vow of poverty and in-spired by the spirit of their Mother Foundress to whom the poor were most dear, let the sisters be genuinely concerned with the needs of the poor. "Give special attention to the poor," she tells her sisters, "and try to lead them on to good; send them to confession often, because God wants them for Himself since they have been ransomed by the Precious Blood of His most holy Son." 5 The sister's detachment' foreshadows the life of heaven, echoing, the very life of the Trinity in whom no one per-son Claims anything separately, for all .life is held equally in the common good.of die divine nature. The. religious ~ Community as a whole also has its commitment to,pove'rty, standing before the world as a sign of Christ's all-sharingAove, For all that the congre-gation possesses "is channele6~to the holy People of God who are served¯ through the works of mercy in which the members en~age, ~ ,' As a 'faithful~ steward, the Community administers the~Master's goods 6n~rusted.to it by the Church, that the ~'poor might bed.fed, ttie ,sick healed, the ignorant taught, the needy, visited, aged and orphans cared for; for whatever is done to the least of these, is done to Christ (see Mt 25:40). ' 2. Consec~'ated Virgin(!y The consecrated virgin~ is a covenant~sign of God's union with His holy people; He is one who loves, and can be loved uniquely and personally, universally and perpetually. The sister's life means that ~a ,human being is called to experience God's° personal love and that a human person is called to be .the ,bride of the Lord. She is also a sign of the eternal blessedness of. heaven where one's .love will be open .to all in its utmost intensity. , The Sister Adorer of the Most Precious. Blood,~as~,a Christian virgin is a witness, of. the fullness of God's~.love which called forth all of the Precious Blood on the cross for the Redemption of mankind. The sister's re-sponse to this initiative of God!s infinit.e and ,personal love for her is to identify herself fully with the Church, the one and only bride of Christ, ~to be caught, up ,totally in the life of worship and in t, he fruitfulness,,0L~ the Church as she unfolds her mission in thelworks of mercy. Let the sister's bridal .,relationship with Christ~,be evident in her loving receptivity~ of~the things¯ ofrGod, in her generbsity and interest ~in all ~His °concernS.As Mary:, accepted' the ;role, of universal motherhood at the Incarnation, so the sister,, overshadowed, oby the "Holy Spirit, consecrates her. ~lo~e to God for universal spiritual motherhood. She promises to devote herself to the task of fostering and nourishing the Christ-life in,souls redeemed by the Precious Blood and called to divine sonship in the risen Savior . ¯ The sister is an understandable sign 'of0 the divine love only insofar as she loves as Christ loves, with a * Letter oI Blessed Maria De Mattias to Sister Maria Gaetani, April 5, 1862. ' , + ÷ ÷ VOLUME 25,.11966 567 ÷ ÷ ÷ Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 568 deep, unique personal love. The sister must be willing to take the risk involved in forming deep personal and truly human friendships.with those called to be sons of God through the paschal mystery. Without friend-ship she runs thelopposite risk of becoming selfish, hard, unloving, and ineffective in truly helping others. By. the vow of virginity a sister renounces the intimacy, complementarity, and companionship of a husband as life partner, the satisfying experience of sex, the hope of children of her own flesh, and the delights of a home of her own. She must be careful not to seek .compensation for the lack of these .physical fulfillments by possessive-ness or a need to dominate. Let her find courage in God's personal love for her, and let her dealings with men be a mature sharing and concern for the work of the Church. ~Vhen the heart is not constantly filled with a strong faith and trusting love, virginity can become a burden. The sister's total committment to the apostolate re-quires above all, faith in the kingdom of God which is at hand, the readiness to work, and the willingness to suffer and sacrifice for the attainment of "that beautiful order of th!ngs which the grea~ Son of God came to es-tablish in His Blood." e This purity of heart can take root only when it is founded in deep personal prayer and nourished by spir!tual.reading. Devotion to Mary most holy and a profound humility will safeguard her .fidelity to her divine Spouse, who is continually calling to her: "Arise, my love, my dove, my beautiful one, and come" (Ct 2:10). 3. Obedience Our' Savior Jesus Christ redeemed the world through His obedient love, Himself.becoming a new covenant in His own Blood, to form for the Father a new people to be a communion of love.7 His Spirit who dwells fin their midst draws them powerfully into the current of Christ's obedient love by which the unfolding of God's redeeming plan goes for-ward through space and time. A Sister Adorer of the Most Precious Blood is called by the Father to live wholly within this.~ current of Christ's obedient love pulsing in the Church, and trans-forming the world. Let each sister by her vow of .obedience respond joyfully to this call, for through the vowed religious obedience of all the sisters together, the congregation is constantly renewed by the Father as a Community of o Letter of Blessed Maria De Mattias to Bishop Annovazzi, Nov. 13, 1838. ~ Constitution on the Church, n. 9. (See 1 ~or 11:25.) love pledged to ~arry forward the redeeming mission of Christ. Thus the congregation as a whole becomes a living sign, witnessing to the dynamic presence now of Christ's loving sm'render to the Father, which all are called to share. Thus, too, superiors and sisters together, experienc-ing authority in the bondsof charity, pledge themselves to do the will of God lovingly on earth as it is done in heaven so that the religious Community becomes a sign of the final destiny of the world made wholly conformed to God's loving design. A. What a Sister Vows By her vow of obedience a sister commits herself to be fully obedient~ to the Father's will within the framework of the Congregation of the Sisters Adorers of the' Most Precibus Blood as patterned by its constitutions and statutes. Let the sister surrender her whole person to Christ in the .Church, in and through her religious congrega-tion, thereby placing all her talents and life energies at the service of Christ'S' redeeming mission. Thus she will also be aspiring to the most complete fulfillment possibld of her own unique destiny~ in God's saving designs for her. By her vow of obedience, the sister likewise publicly affirms her decision to forego all individualistic planning of her .life's endeavors and activities in order the more fully to carry out the will of the Father in a Community of redeeming love and service. The' sisters will center their, common life of obedient service in the Eucharist. Here they will renew their self-surrender with Christ in His paschal sacrifice. In joyous fellowship they will find here the humility, power, and love for daily fidelity to the calls of obedience. B. Obedience of Superiors Because the sisters live their life of service in com-munity, in the human condition of a world in process of redemption, it is necessary that some sisters be given the responsibility of directing the service of others. The authority which these sisters bear must be pri-marily an authority, a service, of love to show forth the goodness and kindness of God our Savior, as was the authority which the Father gave to Jesus and which He in turn entrusted to His Church. While the superior must often be an administrator of temporal affairs and a guardian of discipline and ob-servance, her role is primarily to be a leader in charity and service. Hers is a ministry of love to her sisters, in 4, L~I~ VOLUME 25, 569 Sisters Angelita and Mayo Ag~s REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 570 health an~d in,illness, in,,rest, and in work, inall their temporal and spiritual needs. ~ . The sister .who is given the office of superior mustE be first in obedience.It is her task in a very special way. to discern the wil~l of God, .as fa.r as sh~ canl at each time~ point of God's unfolding salvation plan fdr the whole community and for each individ~ual sister in all .the major concerns of life.~andI .ser, vice within th_e,.con.grega- , In~.o~der to discern what God wills for, ~each~ and for all,, let the sister'.charged with the service of superior pray unceasingly for light from the Spirit and .listen~at~ten-tively to His promptings. Let her reflect, study, and enter into dialogue With others,'e~pe6ially with her sis~ ters, remembering with St: Benedict. that "the Lord often reveals what is better :through him who. is younger" (St. Benedict). _ ,Relying on the Spir.it, she can confidently hope to . discern as far as possible within the limits of the human condition, the.manifestations of God's will, first of all in His living word in the Sctiptures.:~nd in the voice of the living Church. She will discern His will throug.h the guidance of the constitutions and statutes, the history and the spirit of .the congregation, bearing willingly the,, burden of inter-preting them in love and prudence according to corn crete circumstances. She will likewise find God's will manifest through the God-given endowments and aspiratigns of the si.sters, through the present needs of the world, and especially the needs of the immediate area of the ~ apostolate. Al-ways her supreme norm in seeking, to ~know God's will for the Community and for each sister, in ,the concrete moment will be the law of Christ which is the law of love. Not only will the superior listen to the Spirit as He speaks through her sisters and others in order to discern God's purposes, but she will also communicate as far as possible to all her sisters her own insights and under-standing of what she.believes,God wishes for the Com-munity and for each sister. Thereby she will better ful-fill her role as leader in love and service°by promoting a thoughtful and mature involvement~ of all the sisters in the common service of the Community in Christ's re-demptive work. For a sister to fulfill the difficult service of superior, it is important that she be a religious who is strong and mature, prudent and, patient, secure befo~'e God, her neighbor, and herself.- She is to manifest a firm trust in her sisters. .She will be watchful not to promote an unworthy subservience among the sisters, nor will she allow those who are more authoritarian to dominate the Commu-nity. She will be alert to discourage all childish obedi-ence. Rather, she will promote a genuine Christian obedi-ence o[ humble faith and love. In this way, she can help each sister continually to develop toward the Spirit-given freedom in God's service which enables each to enter more fully into the current of Christ's loving obedi-ence by which the world is redeemed. Many sisters must necessarily share the responsibility of serving the sisters as superiors at different levels within the entire congregation. The superior general serves the entire congregation, the provincial superior the prov-ince, and the local superior the sisters of her house. It is important that they all respect, love, and support one another in their mutual task of directing the sisters ac-cording to God's will. Each superior at her level of service focuses the unity o[ her sisters in their loving, obedient service. "The Institute of the Most Precious Blood is made up of many individuals, but it must be but one heart and one soul, since there must be but one will, the will of God. and this will is made known to us through holy obedience." s C. Obedience of the Sisters Because the superiors bear the heaviest burden of obedience in the community, it is clear that all the other sisters must seek to have for them above all a strong Christian love and trust. The sisters will manifest this love in many ways, Be-cause "love is kind and patient" (1 Cot 13:4), they will accept the superior as their leader in service with all her human frailty, trying not to demand of her a perfection in life and in discernment to which even the best su-perior can only approximate. They will do their utmost to avoid unkind criticism of the superior and her deci-sions. All the sisters will support the superior by their prayer, especially in their daily covenant renewal in the Eucharist.~ The sisters will wish the superiors to deal with them honestly and frankly. They will expect the superior to direct them firmly, to discuss with them their service in the apostolate and their progress in loving obedience in community, and to correct them in love when neces-sary. s Letter of Blessed Maria De Mattias to Sister Maddalena Capone, April 8, 1850. ~ Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 10. + 4. + Life ¢lmrUr VOLUME 25, 1966 ÷ ÷ Sisters Angelit9 and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 572 The religious obedience of the sisters is not the forma-tive obedience of children toward parents, nor merely the prohibitory or regulatory obedience necessary for good order in any society or community. Rather, by the vow .of obedience each sister commits her life freely and responsibly to the redeeming work of Christ in His Church as it is specified through the religious Con-gregation of the Sisters Adorers of the Most Precious Blood. Hence it should be dear that no individual sister, by appeal to her vow, can shirk mature responsi-bility, for all her actions, since her vowed commitment to Chrigt's obedience makes her all the more fully re-sponsible for freely directing her whole life according to God's will.~ For this reason, each Sister Adorer should always seek to obey with faith, with a ready promptness, intelli-gently and with a sense of personal responsibility; above all, with sincere humility, not only externally and superficially, but with true cooperation of mind and heart. In faithfulness to their vowed obedience the sisters must wish the superior to be as fully right as possible in her discernment of God's will for all and for each. For that reason they should be. willing to give her all possible help in the measure of their own resourcefulness in discerning God's plan according to times and circum-stances and their personal insights. All are responsible for offering to the superior, with prudence, humility, and love, whatever suggestions and information they believe will be helpful to her in her task as superior. At the same time the sisters will be kare-ful not to impqse their point of view unduly, realizing fully that their suggestions sometimes will not be fol-lowed and often cannot be. The sisters will recognize that in many circumstances it is neither desirable nor possible for the superiors to explain decisions made. The sisters will sincerely try to recognize in such decisions a true discernment of God's will and obey in faith and joy. If, however, a sister is humbly convinced that a more serious decision does not truly accord with God's plan in. the given circumstances, it is her responsibility to make known to the superior, with all humility and love, her reasons for so judging. If after reconsidering the matter the superior con-firms the original decision, then a sister will, as far as possible according to her conscience, follow out the directive, trusting in the supporting grace of Christ, who "learned obedience through the things that He suffered" (Heb 5:8j. In so acting, a sister is not blindly yielding to an nn- reasonable command. Rather in faith she seeks its rea-sonableness within the larger framework of her life of obedient love and service in the Church. In rare in-stances when a sister cannot in conscience obey a direc-tive, she must be willing humbly arid with love to bear with Christ the suffering which her decision entails. Indeed, through, her vowed commitment, each sister has freely entered into the depths of the paschal mystery of Christ's loving obedience by which He redeeins the world. She knows that thereby she has pledged herself to a pattern of service which at times will certainly lead her, as it has the saints, to share the anguish and suffering and death of our beloved Savior, "obedient even to the death on the cross" (Phil 2:12). Though she is aware of her own weakness in face of the ultimate demands of religious obedience, she will rely on the power of the Spirit poured forth constantly from the opened Heart of the risen Lord. Through the strength of His love she can confidently renew her vowed pledge to be obedient with Christ through death to glory. Living as she does in a community of love under the sign of the saving Blood of Christ, each sister, whether superior or subject, will find her life of obedience con-stantly thrusting her forward in the current of Christ's redeeming love, more and more fulfilled in her own per-son as she is more wholly given to the service of Christ's redeeming mission from the Father. CHAPTER IV. FELLOWSHIP IN CHRISTIAN LOVE 1. Fellowship The love of Christ has joined the sisters in fellowship with one another as members of the Community given wholly to the glory of the Precious Blood. This fel-lowship has as its sacramental sign and source the holy Eucharist which unites them to one another in Christ at the table of the Lord. From the sacred precincts of the altar each sister car-ries Christ with her to the daily encounters which await her. Let her meetings with her sisters as well as with all others be a recognition of her previous meeting with them through the Eucharist. The sisters are to receive one another as Christ has received each of them, as they have received Christ, in a holy communion. Let them bear one another's burdens and allow each one to be wholly that person and that reflection of God which the Creator has designed her to be from all eternity. Let individuality be tempered with a genuine availability to others in the spirit of the beatitudes. To have time for thi~ availability implies continual simplification of one's personal needs, not with rigid constraint but with a gentle yielding faith. 4- 4- + Lite Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 573 + + ÷ Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 574 Simplicity is found in the free joy of a sister who forsakes obsession with her own needs, her progress or her failures, in order to fix her gaze on the light of Christ.lo Perfect joy is in the laying aside of self in peaceful love; it is wonderment and thankfulness con-tinually renewed in the face of the free giving of Him who grants an abundance of spiritual and material bene-fits. 2. Communication God favors man with the gift of communication that he might come to live in unity and charity. Let the sisters communicate truly then, with God and neighbor, in word and action, in movement and manner, in writing and reading, in sound and in silence, as the need of the moment requires. God communicates His holy word to man in Sacred Scripture; the thoughts of His heart in the sacramental life of His Church; Himself in the Eucharist, His sacred Body, His Precious Blood. Let the sisters in return communicate themselves to Him with loving attention and peace of heart; in out-ward composure and inward silence; in the fellowship of His holy people, whether in the lit.urgy of the Church or in the public worship of the Community or in the solitude of private prayer. Formed thus by the w~rd of God, the sisters will com-municate with one another simply and openly in a way that their word may reflect the gentle word of God. The sister is to listen with care and receive the neigh-bor's word with faith and respect, opening herself to understand the true meaning of what the other is trying to communicate to her. Let each be considerate of the other's need, of one another's time, obligations, free-dom, the pressures of the other's work, so that conversa-tion may be neither pointless nor harried but may be shared with .purpose and with kindliness. Let movement and manner be a witness to the charity, joy, peace, and patience of the Holy Spirit who wishes to act in and .through each sister and for this has chosen her to be a symbol of given-ness in His living Church. Let the sister give herself generously to serve the holy People of God with all that she is and has. Let her word to them convey what the word of God imparts to her in her communion with Him. Writing is the image of one's thoughts; readirig, the reflection of one's interests; listening, .one's openness to sounds of truth and beauty and goodness. All are means 1o "It is in simplicity that one finds wha[ is natural, and the divine is in the natural" Pope John XXIII. to discover, and to serve God, one's neighbor, and~ one-self. Let the sisters also read and listen to the more subtle communications of God that surround them: the lessons of nature, the signs,and circumstances of the times, the needs of others, the quiet day-by-day directives of the Holy Spirit at work among the People of God, so that they may come.~to'know and further the ways ~of God with His creatures. Let their sound disturb no one, their silenc~ make no one anxious. , The sisters are" to cultivate God's manifold gift of communication with careful attention. Let their words be trifly vessels of truth. Let them. use this precious art with modest~ and discretion, with sincerity and good-ness, ~ith all beauty~ that through communication their joy'in~ unit~ and charity may be full. 3. ~'ommo'n Life The sisters are to find in, all community activities-- rest~ repast.; re~creation, common work, or study--a way living the beatitudes. In this they will be a sign of joy and sisterly love among people. "Let the sisters Open themselves to what is human and through their fellowship with the whole people of God they~will ,see all vain desire to look down on the world vanish from 'their hearts. ~ They will be present to their':day and age;' and will adapt themselves to the conditions, of the moment. "Let them give profound affection to their parents, relatives, and friends, and through its quality help them to recognize the absolute' iniperative of a sister's 'voca-tion." .Each meal of ,:the Community is an agape in which sisterly love is manifested in joyfulness and simplicity of heart, whether'the meal be taken in silence, accompanied by spiritual reading, or. cheered with conversation. May Christ .be seated at each table to bless the food which His bounty prgvides, and which loving hands have prepared with care for ,the bodies He has created. May He make of one heart all who share in the breaking of one bread at the Community repast. It is Chris~ who receives .their thanksgiving for the refreshing goodness the meal and of the companionship they have shared with one another at table. It is particularly at recreation that fellowship and communication can unfold that human kindness which nourishes charity. Recreation is a Community experience of the freedom of the children of God. It is an opening n See the Rule of Taiz~ (in French and English), 1961, p. 14. Else-where in this document there are also brief borrowings from or thoughts inspired by the same rule. + + 4- Liye Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 ÷ ÷ ÷ Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 576 of one to another, to all, the confident giving of oneself to the Community~ and the ready acceptance of others just as they are at the moment. Let a sincere desire to please pervade the atmosphere of recreation, no matter what activity fills the time, Consideration for one another will effect that happy me-dium of activity in which all can relax, be refreshed in mind, and strengthened in sisterly affection. The harmony of prayer and recreation in the Com-munity will reflect in the harmony of work by which each sister can prepare to give her best and .most for the spread of the kingdom of God in her apostolate. To do this while living in community requires orderliness: in things, in activities, in the use of time. Let the sisters promote the good order of the house by carefulness in the use of furnishings and equipment, by willing cooper-ation in household work, by a reasonable punctuality in observing the daily schedule. The sisters ,should try to achieve continuity in their work during the hours allotted to it, and they will be careful to allow this same continuity to others. Let each sister know how to give herself to her assign-ments according to the capacities God has given he.r, without comparing herself with others. In true under: standing of membership in the Mystical Body, let her give generously of herself to her Community and to the Church .and find in the variety of services rendered by the members of her Community an expression of the wonderful works of God. 4. The Spirit of the Beatitudes It is in the inner circle of one's Community that the joy of the beatitudes germinates and flourishes for the enrichment of the whole Church. As the first four beatitudes relate the sister to God, the last four relate her to her fellow human beings. To be poor in spirit is to know humility, to be of the "anawim" of God, who live out of His bounty and share His goodness with one another. It is to be aware of one's sinfulness before the holiness of God, but to use the consciousness of sin as a precondition for ttie holiness which God Himself perfects in those who accept all His arrangements in their lives. Meekness is complete suppleness before the designs of God, knowing that God does the decisive work and letting what is decisive rest with Him. It is to see past and through the human factors which are the outward cloud concealing the purposes of His providence. To see the reality .o[ evil as it desecrates the inner temple of God in the soul is to know sorrow, the sorrow and compassion of Christ, suffering servant of Yahweh. it is to unite whatever one has of suffering to the redeem-ing value of the Precious Blood through which evil is overcome by good, sin by grace, hate by love, Satan by God. Hence sadness of heart becomes a beatitude in the ioy of redemption through the paschal mystery. Hunger and thirst for holiness lead all who suffer from their own and others' unholiness to look to the holiness of God, to be open to His action as the dry ground is for rain. It is to find the emptiness of earth's fullness in the face of the fullness of God in whom one day they shall neither hunger nor thirst anymore. To be merciful is to have an open heart for the misery of others, to be ready to help bear their burdens of mind or body. This is the beatitude of love, the deepest mys-tery of Christ and of Christianity. Purity of heart is clarity and simplicity of motive and purpose; it is straightforwardness and honorable frank-ness, for only one who approaches others in trans-parent purity is able to communicate with them truly, and .from this experience know what it means to see and communicate truly with God. When sincere, straightforward communication is lack-ing, good will is weakened; and misunderstandings, strife, chaos abound. God's gift of a peacemaker at this point, one who works for and creates peace, bridges the misunderstanding, reconciles differences, dispels, quar-rels, says the first word to soothe irritations, and brings about that sweet reasonableness which is the root of charity. Lastly, in our imperfect world love can evoke hate for its response. To live as a Christian, and much more as a Sister Adorer of the Most Precious Blood, is to accept without indignation and without retaliation such a negative response. It is to know something of the oppo-sition and persecution which enveloped Christ and which cost Him His Precious Blood. But it is also toknow the humility of the Son of God who, though He was God, gave Himself for the redemption of mankihd by becom-ing their victim. In the end, it is to know also the beati-tude of the Resurrection, the triumph of the paschal sacrifice. PART II. THE coMMUNITY OF ADORING LOVE CHAPTER V. WORSHIP A sister's worship is her whole being's .tribute to God; ¯prayer is her communion with Him. His holy word ex-presses the living bond between Himself and His holy people. As God speaks to the sister in the words of Sacred ÷ + ÷ Lite Charter VOLUME 25, 577 4. Sisters An~elita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Scripture, may she find it her joy to "speak to God through the same inspired words, For the word of God is the great treasure ,hidden among us: for worship, for apostolate, for community. God entrusts this treasure to His Church, which as His faithful householder brings forth from its riches new things and old, as the readiness of the times requires. Let the sister, then, receive each day's bounty of the word of God a.s Holy Mother Church unfolds it in the liturgy--in the Eucharistic celebration; in each of the sacraments; in the DiVine Office by which the whole day is permeated with the presence of God; in private prayer, spiritual reading, and meditation. Let her listen ¯ to the word ofGod with an open, reverent~heart and give herself fully, together with the people of God, to the liturgical celebration of the mystery of redemption. Each Sunday is to "renew the living hope of the Resurrection, that t.riumph of the .Precious Blood re-flected in us first through baptism, then through con-firmation and dedication by vow to the Precious Blood. Let the Lord's day be a day of joy and relief from work.1~ The sisters are to prepare for Sunday and the feastdays of the Church with loving attention to the mystery about to be renewed °and to celebrate the day in com-munity as a sign of the eternal fellowship of heaven. As she faithfUlly renews the sacred seasons each year with Holy Church, she is duly formed by them to that image which her Creator envisioned for her. 1. The Mystery of the Eucharist The title of Adorer of the Most Precious Blood finds its perfect flowering at Holy Mass when this divine Blood renews its ~eternal covenant mission: adoration of God and redemption of mankind. . Let the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass be the very heart of a sister's life, a sacrament of love, a sign of unity, a bond of charity, hei paschal banquet ih which Christ is eaten, her mind is filled with grace, and a pledge of future glory is given to her. The depth and height of her participation in this supreme act is without limit. For in each day's Mass she offers herself anew, together with her fellow sisters, and all .the holy People of Go'd, ~with this day's particular needs. Through Christ, he~ immaculate Victim and her Mediator, she and those with her are drawn day by day more perfectly into union with God. and with each other until God is all in all to them. , Th~ Mass will truly be for the sist~ '~a be~iuty ever ancient ever new if, living her life of prayer closely 578 ~ Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy; n. 106. united to that of the Church in her liturgy, she relives in herself each year the complete cycle of the redemptive mystery. Each day, in rich variety, the word of God forms her anew and prepares her; together with the celebrant and the holy People of God, to offer the Body and Blood of Christ to the eternal Father at the supreme moment of the Mass. The great "Amen" of the Holy Sacrifice associates the sister, her apostolate, her life in community, with Christ, so that in all things the Father is adored, the precious Blood glorified, and all the People of God, redeemed by the Blood of Christ, are made unto Him a kingdom. 2. The Other Sacraments Let each sister come to know the joy of salvation in being redeemed again and again for God's kingdom by the Precious Blood. While the sin of a member marks the whole body, God's forgiveness reestablishes the sin-ner within the community. Let the sister love the sacra-ment of forgiveness and its sacramentals: the acknowl-edgment of, and sorrow for sin as she approaches the Eucharistic sacrifice, the mid-day spiritual renewal, the evening contrition for the day's failures, the chapter of faults. Let her celebrate the paschal fast and other penitential days of the Church or of her Community with voluntary earnestness as circumstances allow, both alone and in community, that the rich graces of baptism and penance might continue their formative work in her. In sickness and physical debility, it is her privilege to be supported by the sacrament of holy anointing. 3. Prayer The sisters are to go with gladness to the hours of Divine Office, to be united to the Son of God, to the whole Church, and to their fellow sisters in. singing the praises of God. For Lauds as morning prayer and Vespers as evening prayer are the two hinges on which turns the Church's daily praise of God.1~ Let them sub-mit lovingly to the discipline of voice and movement which this address to God requires. Let their perfect manner be the vessel in which the incense of their praise as the community of God's holy people is offered. Holy Mother Church has enriched this congregation with the glories of the adoring, redeeming Blood of the Savior. It is most fitting, therefore, that each day, as a community, the sisters join one another in special adora-tion of the Precious Blood. And since all of salvation history is permeated with this Precious Blood, they are Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 89. + ÷ ÷ Liye Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 579 ÷ ÷ + Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 580 to search the Scriptures .diligently and prayerfully for this treasure. In this way their adoration will become more aware, their commitment more complete, and their life in community enriched from this living stream in which they all share,x4 Let there be freedom in private devotions, but let the first of these be friendship with the Son of God in the Eucharist. Here are to be found that necessary support and fulfillment of a life of consecrated love, pledged to God by vows. Here the sister learns to express her unique personal response to God for His goodness to her, her oneness in fellowship with the saints, and her genuine concern for the holy People of God on earth. A life of prayer that is full and sincere is one of hum-ble creative love. It is ready compliance with hard work, the .willing exposure of oneself to pain to be the faithful servant of God. A sister's penance is her daily care for the Church of God, and the incessant outpour-ing of all her energies for its welfare. Let the sisters come to know and to follow Christ in His hidden and public, life among us in the world today; to be ready and open to fellowship in His sufferings; to learn through personal assets or limitations, achieve-ments or frustrations, the power of His Resurrectibn in I.IS. Renewed daily in the Holy Spirit through mental prayer, let the divine presence penetrate all of one's being. The sisters are to foster inward quiet and the outward silence in which communion with God is most surely experienced. Let each give her fellow sis-ters the support of her regard for the other's personal encounter with God; and let her be most careful about disturbing the neighbor by word, manner, or action. Let the sisters Strive for that joyous composure of mind and body which walking in the presence of God will effect in them when whatever they do in word or in work is done in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, giving thanks to the Father through Him in the power of the Holy Spirit. PART III. THE COMMUNITY OF REDEEMING LOVE CHAPTER VI. THE APOSTOLATE The Church presents Christ to the world daily in His ministry of love through her religious who have placed the kingdom of God and its needs above all earthly con-siderations by their vows of poverty, virginity, and obedience. Though not of this world, the faithful of Christ, and First Constitutions o] the Congregation, 1857 (preface). especially religious, are to be the light of the world, to glorify the Father before all men through their life of charity in the apostolate and through their united wor-ship of the Father. An authentic apostolate is the charity. of Christ poured forth into and from our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. Let the Sister Adorer find in the Precious Blood the exemplification and wellspring as well as the vitality and reward of her life of charity in serving the People of God. For the Precious Blood in the Mystical Body of Christ, as the blood hidden safely in the framework of any li~¢ing body, exists by its very nature to be of service: first of all to form and renew itself daily for its mission, and then to nourish and to build, to cleanse and to safe-guard, to heal and restore, to calm and relieve distress, to enhance with wholeness every smallest unit in the entire living body. Let the sisters esteem this infinite treasure and learn from the hidden, self-immolating, life-giving seiwice of the Precious Blood of Christ in His Body, the Church, what their own mission within the Church is to be, as member shares with member in this living stream. Let them find in whatever work of mercy they are serving, some aspect of the Precious Blood for their contempla-tion, love, and imitation. God has given the congregation in its holy foundress, Maria De Mattias, a woman endowed for all times with a profound dedication to the divine Blood, with zealous love for her fellow man redeemed by this Blood, and with intense loyalty to the Church and her needs. Let the sisters carry on the spirit of dedicated apostolic cooperation in the work of redemption bequeathed to them by their foundress and be united in fellowship with one another, ". for no other purpose than the welfare of souls which cost the Son of GOd so much blood, and to promote the glory of His Church by means of this Institute . ,, 1.~ Let the sisters find encouragement and guidance in what Maria regarded as essentials, for the apostolate of her sisters: to be led by holy obedience, to act with purity of intention and with humility, to work with tireless industry, to be united to Christ in loving gener-ous sacrifice for the salvation of souls redeemed with His Precious Blood~ Above all, let the sisters glory in the Eucharistic cele-bration where the Precious Blood becomes trhly present and is shared by all the faithful, both as their light and Letter of Blessed Maria De Mattias to Bishop Annovazzi, May 2, 1838. ÷ ÷ ÷ Life Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 581 strength in the apostolate and as its joyous fulfillment and reward. In the life of the Sister Adorer, it is the triumph of the Precious Blood in herself as well as in those whom she has served, that will give her holiness its unique splendor as the paschal mystery reaches its ful-fillment in her. + + + Sisters Angellta and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 582 I. The Apostolate of Domestic Work Our Blessed Lord prepared for the years of His public life by the quiet, holy years of Nazareth as He worked with His hand.s toward the upkeep of a home. Closest to and most needed by the religious Community for its daily maintenance is the lowly apostolate of domestic work, sanctified by the Holy Family, and exemplified so well for sisters in our Blessed Lady herself who spent her life in the hidden unassuming duties of a home. Every sister has some domestic duties to perform each day; and for some sisters it is a full-time assign-ment, whether that be in a small mission convent, in a hospital, home for the needy, seminary, episcopal resi-dence, or one of the large houses of the congregation. ¯ Let the sisters see in these humble tasks a reflection of the activities in the home of the Son of God at Nazareth. The sisters who have the privilege of working with our Lady in this apostolate create the atmosphere of quiet contentment needed by the sisters to renew themselves physically and spiritually for further work in their re-spective assignments. If the sister, while doing domestic work, has taught herself to do her work lovingly, with some recollection, centering her thoughts now and then on the things of God, she will radiate peace and cheerfulness to her fel-low sisters, so that their reunion in community after the varied scenes of their scattered activities in the apostolate will be a truly welcome Community experi-ence. It should be possible for the sister doing full-time do-mestic work to enrich her life in 'many ways. Some gogd reading, arts, crafts and skills, the creative use of her hands, some share in a form of social apostolate in her environment will give her opportunity to serve others in different ways as well as to broaden her own experience. The sister at work in full-time domestic duties is at the heart and center of the convent home or the institution. Her services, her prayer and concern follow her sisters and those for whom her assigned work is done. What sh~ prepares and does for them endears her to them a hundredfold. If her works of mercy seem limited in scope, they are enriched in depth of meaning: she is a maker of the religious Community-family. 2. Catechesis . °/"'Our life is an ap~st01ic life, to bri~ag the good news to the people . 10 Do all the good you can for those who are waiting for the brehd of Christian doctrine" ~(Ble~sed Maria De Mattias).17 The imparting of Christian doctrine is the work most cherished by Maria De Matfias and 'the cong~egatior~ which she founded. As a member of the Church obedient." to the Holy Spirit; the sister is a witness to the faith that is'in her ag she educates the faithful in the things Of God. °Her greatest requisitd, therefore, is her own' personal holiness,'° fostered' through the sacramental life of the Church who directs her activities: /'Through o!~aptism ~nd ~nfirma~ion all are ~commissioned by the"Lord'Him-self to p~rticipate in the salvific mission of~he Church. Through Holy Eucharist that "charity toward God and man which is the soul of the apostolate is communicated and nodrished." In'fiddlity to the" living Church, the sister is to present Christ who is her message With' all the integrity, clarity, and intensity which her every word and action can con-vey. I.n g~eat charity and with all human competence, she is to adapt the divirle'~mess~g~ to the level of understand-ing of her h~arers, of whateCer age or condition they m,a~, be, ia'nd find,meanifigful' ways for them in which to express tSeir 'resp6.nge in faith, hope, and love to the word of God.' Mindful of the Church's word to her that "the aim and ~object "of"the apoS'tolat~ is that all who are made sons of God by faith and baptism should come together to~ praise God in* the midst of His "Church, to take part in the sacrifice, and t~ eat the Lord'~ supper," ~ the sister will do all ih he~ power to make the worship of God the climax'0f her endeavors. The Community is to use every means and every ef-fort to prepare the sisters well for the teaching of Chris-tian doctrine. Let it be the aim of all in the Comhaunity to be as closely associated as pos.sible with the sublime commission of bringing the light of the gospel and the gifts of the li'tu~gy to all the People. of God. Ttie siste~ is to ~egard it a~ a special i~Hvil~ge to pro-mote and to assist with retreats~ According to the Con-st~ tution 6n ~h~ Church, all' th~ Christian life and to the perfection of charity." ~ to Frequent saying of the foundress. x¢ Letter of Blessed Maria De Mattias to Vincenta Ferri, Oct. 20, 1855. . ~ ~s COnstitution on the Church, n. ~. ~ Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 10. ~ Constitution on the Church, n. 40. + + + Li]e Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 ÷ ÷ ÷ Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 584 Lay retreats for women offer these persons an oppor-tunity to study the!r relationship with God and neigh-bor, to weigh and to measure, and to grow in Mary-likeness to the full stature of Christian womanhood. As a prolongation of the apostolate of Blessed Maria De Mattias, the Sisters Adorers of .the Most Precious Blood welcome these, their sisters in the Mystical Body, and by a joyous serf-giving hospitality provide the leisure they need to walk and to talk with Christ. With great faith, let the sisters give themselves more intensely to prayer and penance at this time so that the retreatants may be receptive to the graces which the Holy Spirit wishes to impart to them. The' sister who shares wholeheartedlyin the retreat work ~ontributes toward the spread of God's kingdom on earth, for a saintly mother is a lamp burning in the sanctuary of the home, a saintly woman in other walks of life is the salt that savors the earth. Both by their kind-ness and goodness exert an apostolic influence; both en-hance the glory of the Most Precious Blood. 3. The Apostolate of Education Because grace builds on nature and all wisdom and knowledge is a reflection of the wisdom and knowledge of God, because the Church has a need of educated mem-bers, because it is the will of God and the desire 0f His people, the sisters are to undertake works of general edu-cation at all levels where they can give competent serv-ice. Let the sisters remember that they are called through their educational commitments to assist the great body of laity in the Church to become her apostles to the secular world, to permeate it with the spirit of Christ in justice, charity, and peace. Moreover, the laity, by their competence in secular training, by their activity ele-vated from within by the grace of Christ, can vigorously contribute their effort so that created goods may be per-fected by human labor, technical skill, and civic cnlture for the benefit of all mankind according to the design of the Creator and the light of His word.2x . As teachers of the laity, the sisters need to be and to remain through continued inservice education in the forefront of knowledge and culture in their generation, if the holy People of God whom they educate are to be helped in carrying out their commission to restore all things in Christ. The sisters are to be well prepared for their work, first of all through a broad cultural education and through whatever specialization of subject matter or Constitution on the Church, n. 36. method they may need in special instances. They are to meet and to maintain, even surpass, the current stand-ards of secular evaluating agencies, ~onsid.ering the greater excellence of the purposes which Catholic educa-tion has over the purely secular. In their association with the laity---children, youth, faculty members with whom they work, lay professors whose classes they attend, parents of the youth whom they teach and counsel, business men and employees-- the sisters are to extend the charity and courtesy of Christ, to give splendid and striking testimony of how the world can be transformed and offered to God through the spirit of the beatitudes32 Encouraged by the spirit of Blessed Maria, let the sisters bear in mind their more immediate aim in edu-cation, "that after having pursued these studies a young person is well trained to go through life holily and with dignity," as well as the ultimate~ divine purpose in this "most extensive field the Lord has confided to us, the fruit of which is the salvation of souls redeemed by the divine Blood." 28 4. Care o[ the Sick Human suffering has always been of deep concern to the Church, for she sees in her stricken members the image of the suffering Savior. From Christ her founder she learns compassion for the afflicted and seeks to al-leviate their need, whether of body or of soul. The Sisters Adorers of the Most Precious Blood, iden-tifying themselves with the Church, share this same com-passionate love. Let the sisters, therefore, whose gifts and training enable them to care directly for the sick per-form their services with the greatest kindness and un-derstanding of the patients' needs. Their professional services are to be of the highest excellence in that they are seeking not only to meet ac-cepted standards of performance, important as these are, but to communicate to their charges, along with pa-tient care, the peace and comforting of Christ. As the opportunity or the need arises, let the sisters convey to the sick a loving solicitude for their spiritual needs, without however undue insistence or pressure, par-ticularly with patients of some other faith. The sisters are to respect the religious convictions of all and in a truly ecumenical spirit be cordial and helpful to minis-ters and rabbis who come to visit and care for the spirit-ual needs of the members of their congregations. Let the sisters associated in any way with services to Constitution on the Church, n. 31. First Constitutions o] the Congregation, 1857, p. 53. ÷ + ÷ Li]~ Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 ÷ ÷ ÷ Sisters Angelita and Mary Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 586 the sick, however lowly and hidden .their tasks may seem to be, realize that they are making important ~con: tributions to the welfare of the whole, and that without their support some. more nearly related activities of pa-tient care would be seriously hindered. In unity and charity alofie can there be that cooperation which en-ables the members of the community, to work harmoni-ousl~ to carry on so complex a work." of the apostolate in a spirit of joyous service. In the numerous inter-related, departments of the health institutions which the sisters operate, care should be taken lest the machinery o[ organization overwhelm the person, and human values and needs be lost in the name of efficiency. On the other hand, it is necessary that each assign~ ment of duty b.e promptly and conscientiousl); fulfilled, since the activities and procedures of the whole institu-tion are so highly inter-related thht °they affect one an-other's operation. The ultimate value involved is the hu-man life' of.a sick person, a life that is 'often dependent on a matter of, minutes for survival through a crisis. 0 The sisters in the hospitals work closely with large numbers of the laity at various levels of authority: doc-tors, nurses, administrators, employees. It may be that at times sisters will have to show a readiness in Christian obedience toward lay persons in authority, Let the sis-ters'be the first to set an example of loyalty and coopera: tion, of diligence and a sense of resp6nsibility for the promotion of the general good. Let the close association of these laity'with the sisters reveal nothing in the latter except the pure charity Christ, evident in the sister's dedication, her gentleness, her courtesy even when she must be.~ finn, her poise in word and manner. Let this also be'evident to'visiting relatives and friends of the sick person. 5. Care of the Aged In their desire to serve the Mystical:Body more com, pletely, the sisters extend their apostolate to the care of the aging, men and women of an older gen.eration who come to,spend their declining year~ in their home for the aged. : ",. The.sisters chosen.lfor this work will deem it a privi-lege to be associated Closely with the aged and infirm, seeing in therh the presence of Christ and reveren~cing them for their wisdom, experience and merits, their sacrg rices and perseverance. They ,will be influenced in their appreciation of theelderly by God's own respect for a long life as exemplified in the beautiful biblical exam-ples of old age. . ; , " , ., In their care for the aged, the sisters, imbu6d' with a humanism based on Christian values, will accept thegn fully as persons, even though their physical, mental, or emotional limitations may ~nake them dependent on others for their needs. Let the sisters be carel~ul to help these people main-tain their sense ot~ personal dignity by utilizing their remaining abilities to the full. Elderly people have a need and a right to freedom in making their own choices and decisions in their life situations. All staff members have the corresponding duty to respect that right and to help the residents use all their resources of personality for as long as possible. It is faith in God and a tender compassionate love for His holy people which enable the sisters to give ,their services generously to the care of the aged. To do so in a competent manner, the sisters are to receive adequate training and preparation for their work. Their cheerfid and encouraging manner toward the aged, their helpful-ness to them, their regard for them as persons beloved of God, will create an atmosphere of peace and contentment in the home. Knowing that their residents are on the threshold of eternity and that for most of them this is their last home on earth, the sisters should make their lives as meaning-ful as possible, encouraging them to love God faithfully and.to look forward to meeting Him in heaven. 6. Care o[ Orphans The love and care of children, so dear to Christ in His earthly life, has a special appeal for the sister. The natu-ral endowments which fit her for motherly care of others is here given expression in a work which has in it the highest supernatural possibilities; Let the sister who is assigned to this work give herself to it with great kindness and sureness. Her first task will be to win the love of the children through the physical care which she gives them so that she will then be. able to carry out the more difficult task of social, moral, and re-ligious training. The sister should try in every way possible to under-stand her charges. Frequently these children have had disturbing experiences which have exposed and deepened certain natural weaknesses in them. Consequently their training will require greater patience and tact in helping them grow into good Christian men and women. Besides a broad generhl education, the sister engaged in this work needs to have some acquaintance with child car~ and child psychology.to enable her to care for prob-lem children. She herself must be emotionally mature and able to withstand and control a great deal of emo-tional irregularity in them. Li]e Charter VOLUME 25, 1966 587 ÷ ÷ ÷ Sisters Angellta end Ma~y Agnes REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 588 Their religious formation is her greatest concern, and it will be the quality of the sister's own religious convic-tions rather than the quantity :of her instructions which will effect the greatest good in them. She will lead them to love the Church through her feasts and celebrations; and as they are able to absorb it the sister will explain to them the meaning of: the great mystery of redemption. She will bring them to love the word of God and to understand the significance of the incidents in salvation history which reveal the greatness and goodness of God to His people. As they grow older, the sister will see to it that the children understand and practice their moral obligations to God, to themselves, and to one another; she will need to acquaint them with the problem of evil-in its many forms and with the Christian's way of dealing with it. Lastly, in a practical way, the older children will have to be prepared to be self-reliant and self-supporting to the best of their abilities. And even after they leave the sisters, it will remain a part of the sister's duty and privi-lege to follow them through the years with her interest; her prayers, and her wise counsel when they return to her periodically. 7. The Apostolate o[ Social Work While social work formally so called is a profession with its own particular requirements of preparation and operation, in its more general meaning social work re-fers to the non-institutionalized form of charity which is open to one and all on an individual to individual basis. The sisters frequently have the opportunity tO bring the charity of Christ to the needy of body and mind in their homes or wherever they may be found. Personal kindness and concern for another is at the heart of this apostolate, and here the sister can experi-ence in a simple basic way what it means to help the neighbor. An institution by its nature has to accept the person on its own terms and fit him into its operation. In the direct apostolate of social work the attention is wholly on the needy person, and the solution of the problem does not come ready made; it calls for the lov-ing initiative of the apostle. Most frequently this apostolate is found among the very poor, the underprivileged, the mentally distressed, whether in large cities or in remote rural areas, Let the sisters who are able to engage in this work do so with humility and simplicity, accepting the needy and their condition with understanding of the ihuman dignity be-hind the impoverished circumstances. With tact and gentleness, let the sisters offer their services as to Christ, remembering that their very pres- ence should speak of faith and confidence in. a loving providence, of love for one's fellow man. Let the sisters be careful not to impose their own standards or preconceived form of charity on whomever they contact, but with sensitive regard for the person fill the need as the person would like to have it filled, as much as possible. This work of mercy frequently rises out of the initia-tive of the sister, who besides fulfilling her duties in her assigned work will find in this added form of charity a way to enrich and motivate her daily routine. It is for her a more direct way to contact Chris( in His needy ones. As she goes about this work, the sister brings the mes-sage of the gospel vividly to people. She .is literally a witness that the kingdom of God is at hand, that the Church is the Church of the poor, that in the charity of Christ there is genuine human concern for the well-being of another, and that each person is precious before God. The sisters should expect rebuffs and opposition on the part of those who have been embittered against re-ligion or who have grown indifferent to it. It will be the sister's cheerful patience with, and genuine goodness to them which will dispel [ear and distrust and open the way for the love of Christ once more to come into their lives. CONCLUSION Through baptism, God has called us out of darkness into His marvelous light. Through the Eucharist-covenant, sealed in His Pre-cious Blood, He has made us a kingdom unto Himself. Within this kingdom we His purchased people, Sis-ters Adorers of the Most Precious Blood, vow to 'Him our consecrated love: In poverty--to use the things of this world as if we used them not; In virginity--for who shall separate us from the love of Christ? (Rom 8:35); In obedience--for He became obedient for us unto death, even to death on the cross (Phil 2:8). Wherefore, redeemed not by silver or gold, but by the Precious Blood of Christ, and in union with His Church, we sing for all time and for eternity, "Come, let us adore the Son of God, who has redeemed us with His Blood." ÷ ÷ VOLUME 25, 1966 589 JOSEPH F. GALLEN, S.J. Practice of the Holy See ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., resides at St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Penn-sylvania 19106. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 590 This article gives; from January 1962, the practical points of the practice of the Holy See concerning the reli-gious life" from rescripts, replies to quinquennial reports, and approvals of changes in articles or of general revi-sions of constitutions. Nature and Federation of Religious Institutes The evident fact that lay religious institutes authentb cally cooperate in the mission of the Church is stated simply in the constitutions of a missionary congregation of sisters: In approving the Congregation and its special end as it is stated in the. Constitutions, the Church gives to the Congrega-tion, and through it to all its members, the mandate of collabo-rating in her missionary apostolate. A no less evident and fundamental principle of the con-tinuation of the apostolate of Christ is reasserted in the same constitutions: "Let the Sisters care with preference for the poor and the outcasts no matterwhat their misery or deficiency may be." The Holy See has approved a closer association of some religious institutes of men and women, as is exemplified in the following approved articles of the constitutions of two missionary congregations of sisters: The Congregation is associated with the Cong3"egation of the. [a Congregation of priests and brothers] in view of the mutual help they will give each other in spiritual matters as well as in missionary activities. Each Congregation, however, shall keep its juridical and financial independence. -- The general purpose of the Congregation is to promote the greater glory of God and the honour of the Blessed Virgih,. by the sanctification of its members and by their co-operation in the apostolic work of the Chur~:h in the Missions, preferably the Missions of the Fathers of . (Cf. REwEw for RELm~oos, 17 [1958], 251-2; Questions on Religious Life, q. 150). The Redemptoristine Nuns, Monastery of St. Alphon-sus; Liguori, Missouri, received permission from the Holy See to resume solemn vows and introduce major papal enclosure. The solemn vows were pronounced on June 27, 1965. The instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious on the apostolic constitution Sponsa Christi stated in number XXIII, 4: "Confederations of regional federa-tions can be allowed if need, or great advantage, or the traditions of the order recommend them" (Bouscaren- O'Connor, Canon Law Digest lor Religious, 351). By ~i decree of January 4, 1964, the Sacred Congregation sup-pressed the confederation of Visitandine Nuns. The federations remain. The pertinent parts of'the decree are: In consideration of the historical'origins of the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary and the. spirit with which its Holy Founders have animated it but more particularly on account of the explicit declarations made by them to prevent the formation of a central government in .the Order, the Con-federation of the Visitation of Holy Mary has been suppressed together with all its canonical effects. On the other hand, in conformity with the original traditions, the entire group of monasteries with their Federations will constitute the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary . The present group.ing bf the monasteries into federations will be revised and a~lapted in a way that will render them more homogeneous, both from a disciplinary and a geographic viewpoint. If necessary, the Sacred Congregation will contemplate the creation of new federations within the present organization. On May 15, 1965, the Mother McAu!ey ConferenCe of the Sisters of Mercy of the Americas unanimously adopted the following resolution: Be it resolved in accordance with the wishes of the' Church as expressed through the propositions on the religious life of the Second Vatican Council, definite steps be taken towards a World Federation of Sisters of Mercy; that as one such step this Mother McAuley Conference be formed into a Federation of the Sisters of Mercy of the Americas; that in such a federation the autonomy of each congregation be preserved. The officers of the federation are Mother M. Thomas Aquinas Carroll, R.S.M., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, presi-dent; Mother Mary Regina Cunningham, R.S.M., Bethesda, Maryland, vice president; Mother Mary Bernard Graham, R.S.M., Merion, Pennsylvania, secre-tary; and Mother Mary Patrick McCallion, R.S.M., North Plainfield, New Jersey, treasurer. The goals or purposes proposed to the McAuley Con-ference were: (a) to promote unity and stability of the institute and preserve the spirit of Mother McAuley; (b) to intensify the spirit of unity in the apostolic labors of the Sisters of Mercy in order to fulfill their mission in the Church; (c) to advance the cause of canonization of Mother McAuley; (d) to draw on the resourcefulness of all members of the institute in order that continuous + + + Practice Holy See VOLUME 25~ 1966 ÷ ÷ + $oseph F. Gallen, $.7. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 599 development and. improvement be made in the works entrusted to the institute; (e) to cooperate in the planning for the promotion of the spiritual, intellectual, profes-sional, and apostolic growth of the sisters in formation, sisters in service, and sisters assigned to the apostolate of prayer. The functions discussed were: (a) to serve as a channel of communication to all member communities; (b) to recommend consultants in specialized areas when re-quested to do so; (c) to provide a source of information for creating in the mind of the major superiors an aware-ness of areas in need of study, necessary adaptations, and changes warranted in keeping with the mind of the Church; (d) to make recommendations that will promote excellence in the works of the institute, project a Mercy corporate image capable of attracting desirable candidates to the institute, and bring about unity without uni-formity in community living, emphasizing the virtues of charity and mercy. Any community of Sisters of Mercy in the United States, Canada, or Latin America may become a member, with formal application to be made after community approval. Active participation was to be had in federa-tion meetings either in the person of the major superiors and assistant major superiors or by proxy. On July 2, 1965, the following petition was addressed to the cardinal prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Religious: The Major Superiors of the Congregations of the Sisters of Mercy of the United States and Newfoundland,. both the in-dependent and those of the Union, have been meeting regu-larly since 1955 as the Mother McAuley Conference for mutual consultation on matters pertaining to their Institutes. At the meeting in Hooksett, New Hampshire in May, 1965, the matter of federation was discussed and accepted in principle. Thereafter major superiors of the Religious Sisters of Mercy, representing approximately 15,000 sisters, with the deliberative vote of their councils, have indicated their desire to federate as the Sisters of Mercy of the Americas and their Missions. May we through the Sacred Congregation of Religious peti-tion the blessing of His Holiness, Pope Paul VI, on this initial step towards greater excellence in our apostolic endeavors? In a letter of August 12, 1965, to the president, Mother M. Thomas Aquinas, R.S.M., the Sacred Congregation replied as follows: This Sacred Congregation is most pleased to have the news which you sent in your letter of July 2, about the desire and intention of the Major Superiors of the Religious Sisters of Mercy of the United States and Newfoundland to federate. This is preminently in line with the views of the Holy See and, as you know, has been the desire of this Sacred Con-gregation for some time. We thank you, Reverend Mother, and all the Major Superiors of the Religious Sisters of Mercy who have been taking part in the meetings, and we express the hope that you will be able to draw up in the near future a workable set of Statutes to govern the Federation, to be submitted to this Sacred Congregation. Sending you a special blessing for all the Major Superiors of the Religious Sisters of Mercy and their subjects . The aim will be to join eventually with federations of the Sisters of Mercy in Australia, Ireland, and so forth, to form a world confederation. A meeting looking towards this end will probably be held in "Pittsburgh in June, 1966. This federation can obviously be of interest to similar institutes, and we have already received inquiries about it. For that reason we have described this federation of the Sisters of Mercy very fully and have also prev.iously submitted the description of the federation to Mother M. Thomas Aquinas for her approval and correction. Members, Precedence, and Titles One congregation of sisters abolished the class, of lay sisters. In a general revision of its constitutions, a con-gregation of sisters omitted the article on precedence. The revision was approved with no animadversion on the omission. Two other sets of constitutions contain the fol-lowing sentences on precedence: In formal assemblies, for the sake of regularity, the follow-ing order shall be observed as to precedence.--The Sisters follow no order of precedence when approaching the Com-munion Table and the Sacrament of Penance. Personality development and fulfillment are obviously not to be attained at the expense of the common good and without regard for the interests of other individuals. Some customs of the religious life can unreasonably obstruct the sense of individuality and the development and fulfillment of the individual. I have often suspected this in the submergence of the family name by that of a saint. I admit that I have not seen any sign whatever of a universal agreement with this opinion. However, a congregation of sisters, in a revision approved May 12, 1964, changed its practice as follows: "The postulants shall wear a plain dress, different from that of the novices. They shall retain, even as professed, their family name." Religious Habit Several congregations of sisters included in a revision of Prmrtice of their constitutions or secured from the Holy See a faculty Holy See of the following tenor: VOLUME 25, 1966 Where the climate or the work of the Sisters may require some modification in the form or the color of the habit,, these 595 ]oseph F. REVIEW FOR RELIGi~)US modifications may be determined by the Superior General with" the consent of her Council. The inclusion of such an article in the constitutions is understandable, but it is to be remembered that the permission of the Holy See is necessary only for a sub-: stantial, permanent, and general change in the color or form of the habit (R~w~w FOR P~LIGIOUS, 18 [1959], 80- I; 13 [1954], 298; 21 [1962], 409). The Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious showed itself more liberal than one congregation by approving a change in the habit, "pro-vided the headband and veil were reduced somewhat." The Sacred Congregation approved a description of the habit~ in the constitutions that leaves a wider field of choice to the particu!ar institute. ,The pertinent articles are: " A habit suitable to the times and conformable to religious dignity, reserve, modesty, and poverty shall be worn by the members of the Congregation. The veil of the professed Sisters' is o.f bl.ack material and light in weight. The veil of the nowces ~s white. The coil is of white material. A rosary is - carried in the, pocket. A cincture of suitable material is worn. , The constitutions of this congregation had formerly stated: "Postulants shall wear a modest black dress dif-ferent from that of the novices." The revised article reads: "Postulants shall wear a becoming dress different from that of the novices." Canon 540, § 2 requires only that the dress of the postulants be modest and different from that of the novices. It may therefore be secular but modest; special and" uniform, but this is not of obliga-tion; religious, but different from that of the novices. Constitutions ordinarily merely state canon 540, § 2 in describing~the dress of the postulants and therefore, as the revised article given above, permit all the variations just listed. The Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith has recently and at least twice approved a descrip-tion of the habit in the constitutions that gives a much wider power to the particular institute. The only article on the habit in one of th~se congregations is the follow-ing: The Sisters wear the religious habit, in order to make~ manifest their total belonging to God, and also to safeguard themselves more easily from the spirit of the world. This religious habit shall be simple in style~ adapted to the climate and the customs of the country, as also to the activities of the Sisters. The veil, the crucifix, and the ring shall be the symbols of their religious consecration. The second congregation has only the two following articles: " The distinctive dress worn by a religious sister identifies her as a woman consecrated to God and belonging t.o a particular religious community. The habit is visible testimony of the sister's response to Christ's elective love and witness to His .presence in the world as One who serves. The religious habit is a reminder to all men of supernatural realities. Accordingly, the sisters shall wear a simple habit and veil expressive of their dedication. For a serious reason they may be excused by the mother general, or in urgent necessity by the local superior. The material in habit and veil shall vary according to the climatic conditions under which the sisters live and must be approved by the mother general with the advice of her council~ Major daanges or modifications of the habit may be made by the general chapter to meet the needs of the times. The habit is to be a symbol or sign of the consecration to Christ. The traditional form of the habit is not a natural sign of this consecration, as smoke is of fire, nor is there anything whatever in revelation on the religious habit. Therefore, the traditional form of the religious habit is a symbol of the consecration to Christ only from use. It follows with equal clarity that other forms of dress and other insignia can by use become expressive of the same consecration. Vatican .Council II stated: The religious habit, as a symbol of consecration, is to be simple and modest, poor yet becoming, and also in keeping with the demands of health and adapted to the circumstances of time and place and to the requirements of the apostolate. The habit of both men and women that does not conform to these norms is to be changed. The council has thus pointed out the obvious fact that the dress of religious men is not exempt from the necessity of adaptation. This very evident fact has often been disregarded in discussions on the religious habit. The council has also given general norms for decisions on the necessity and type of adaptation. There has been constant discussion on the religious habit but it may not be amiss to emphasize again that the retention of the dress and externals of past ages, by religious men or women, can project more of an image of quaintness and even eccentricity and strangeness than of consecration to Christ (Cf. K~wEw for R~i.iGiotJs, 18 [1959], 345; 14 [1955], 315). Dowry ÷ The dowry should ordinarily be actually given before ÷ first profession, since the institute is obliged by canon 549 to invest the dowry after the first profession. How- l'rvxt~e ever, in some recent approvals of constitutions, the Holy See Sacred Congregation of Religious has added that the dowry may be paid in parts, that is, in installments, and without limiting the time within which the installments VOLUME 25, 1966 595 ÷ ÷ ]oseph F. Galgen, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS were to be completed. The pertinent sentences in two sets of constitutions read: The Superior General, with the consent of her Council, may permit for just reasons that the dowry be paid to the Congregation by the family of the postulant in ~nstallments at determined times, o~ even after the death of the parents, proyided that meanwhile the interest is paid.--The dowry must be turned over to the Congregation before the taking of the habit, "or at least its payment must be assured by an act in ~due form valid in civil law, and in this case it shall be paid not later than the first profession. However, the prioress general with the deliberauve vote of her council may grant permission to the aspirant to pay the dowry in installments or after the death of her parents. (And see I~EVIlZW FOR RELIGIOUS) The modern practice of the Holy See in approving con* stitutions is to leave the determination of the amount of the dowry to the general chapter, which can change the amoun~t for different times and also impose a different amount for various countries. The chapter may also delegate the m6ther general with the advice or consent of her council to change the amount when this is judged necessary or advisable, and such a delegation is found in some constitutions. One set of constitutions approved by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in 1964 reads: "Let the aspirants bring the dowry determined in the Provincial Chapter and approved by the Superior General and her Council." The Sacred Congregation of Religious permitted one congregation to abrogate the dowry completely. The rea-sons of this congregation were: a) The amount of money concerned is insignificant; b) in certain countries, the fact of asking for a dowry is not under-stood and very unfavorably interpreted; c) in a few countries, tl~e candidates cannot even pay that small contribution; in other countries, exceptions are not rare, and in these cases, the Province has to make up the amount of the dowry; d) the dowry constitutes a dead capital; e) the sum of money that the parents spend for the education of their daughters constitutes in itself a dowry. " The Holy See has frequently approved constitutions that contain an article of the following type: The higher superior [or mother general or mother provin-cial] with the consent [advice] of her council may remit in whole or in part the dowry of those who lack financial means but possess academic degrees, teachers' or nurses' certificates, or special abilities which can compensate for the dowry and make them especially useful to the congregation. The admissible equivalent for the dowry in such cases is much more widely expressed in many constitutions recently approved by the Holy See. These give the power of remitting the dowry in whole or in part: According to the rules established by the General Chapter --because they lack the means or because of other special reasons--of a candidate who lacks financial means or because of special reasons--those who are unable to furnish it--for just reasons--if the applicant .has an education which, ac-cording to the judgment of the superior general and her council, is useful for the congregation. Finally, one set of constitutions approved in 1964 states simply: "The Superior General with the deliberative vote' of her council can remit, in whole or in part, the dowry of a postulant." Admission of Candidates Recently approved constitutions frequently contain this article: "Only the Holy See or those who have received the faculty from it can dispense from the im-pediments listed in articles . " These are the diriment and merely prohibiting impediment~ of common law to entrance into the noviceship (hat are enacted in canon 542. Bishops and the superiors general of pontifical clerical institutes flow possess the faculty of dispensing from the diriment impediment of canon 542, 10: "Those who have renounced the Catholic faith and joined a non- Catholic sect." Because of this recently granted faculty, a clause has been added to the article of the constitutions on d!spensing fromthe impediments of common law, that is, "or who have received the faculty from it . " Profession and Canonical Examination The canonical examination commanded by canon 552 is proper to religious women and is made by the local ordinary or a priest delegated by him at least thirty days before entrance into the novices.hip, first religious profes-sion, whether temporary or perpetual by privilege, and the final perpetual profession, whether solemn or simple. A congregation of sisters was granted the following indult by the Holy See in 1963: "If necessary, and as an excep-tion, the sisters may take the canonical examination for perpetual vows a few days before the beginning of the retreat." By the law of their constitutions, these sisters make an eight-day retreat before perpetual profession. Anticipated Renewal of Temporary Pro[ession The same sisters have six years of temporary vows divided into three annual and one three-year professions. Accordin~ to the norms of canon law, temporary profes-sions are to be renewed on the anniversary day (August 15, 1965-August 15, 1966) and their renewal may not be anticipated by .more than a month (July 15, 1966). The revised constitutions of this pontifical congregation, ap-proved in 1962, read: 4- 4- Pro~t~e o] Holy See VOLUME 25, 1966 ,597 ÷ ÷ ÷ ]oseph F. Gallen, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS According to an indult of the Holy See the sisters, regard-less of the date of their first profession, renew their temporary profession on the feast of the Epiphany, January 6. It is not permissible to postpone the renewal of profession beyond the day of expiration of the vows. Anticipation of Perpetuai Profession Canon 577, § 2 grants the permission to anticipate the renewal of a temporary profession, but this does not include permission to anticipate perpetual profession nor to abbreviate the time of temporary vows established either by the Code of Canon Law or the particular con-stitutions (R~vmw for RELIGIOUS, 12 [1953], 262--3; 16 [1957], 379-80; Questions on Religious Life, q. 43). The same revised constitutions, however, contain the follow-ing faculty: By virtue of a special induh of the Holy See the superior general can, for just reasons, permit the taking of perpetual v.ows up to thirty days before the legitimate date; this profes-sxon, however, becomes effective only on the sixth anniversary of the first profession; and anticipation for a greater length of time., can take place only with the special permission of the Holy See. Poverty and Civil Will Apparently in an effort to bury the "envelope" system or to prevent its inception or resurgence, a congregation has included the following norm in its constitutions: "No sister may deposit a sum of money, be it great or small, under her own name in the bursar's safe." Since the pradtice of the Sacred Congregation of Religious re-quires that the will commanded by canon 569, § 3 be civilly valid, some congregations are expressing the article on the will substantially in the following form, which is taken from a recently revised set of constitutions: Before profession each novice shall freely dispose by will of all the property she possesses or which may accrue to her. She shall observe, as far as possible, what the civil law requires for the validity of the will; and, if prior ~to her profession she does not yet have the capacity of making a will, she shall make one as soon as possible after profession. (And see REview roa RrL~c~oos, 20 [1961], 222-24.) . Renunciation o] Patrimony An article of the revised constitutions of a congrega-tion of sisters, approved in i961, reads as follows: If there be question of giving away her patrimony or any notable part of it, that is, about one-third, the permission of the Holy See is required. For any amount less thafi one-third of the total, the permission of the superior general is suffi, cient . The permission of the Holy See is also required in case a notable.part of the patrimony of a religious is donated to the Congregation. (And see REv~.w fOR R~L~cxOUS, 12 [1953], 258-9; "16 [1957], ~I1, 21 [1962], 410.) The apostolic delegate has recently received the follow-ing faculty: "to allow a "donatio inter vivos' (e.g. as in the ¯ case of Sisters who wish to donate from their patrimony to the community or their parents)." Vatican Council II has enacted the following: "The constitutions of reli-gious congregations may permit that the members renounce their patrimonial property, whether already acquired or to be acquired in the future." Obedience Several more recently approved constitutions contain the following articles: In virtue of this vow the sisters are obliged to obey under pain of serious sin only when the lawful superior expressly commands anything in virtue of holy obedience in conformity with the Rule and the Constitutions. -- This obligation be-comes grave when the Superior commands in virtue of the vow, in the name of Jesus Christ, in the name. of holy obedience, or with similar expressions. -- This obligation binds under pain of serious sin only when the legitimate Superior expressly commands "in virtue of holy obedience" or ".under formal precept" or by any other equivalent expression. -- The Sisters are bound to obey in virtue of the vow of Obedience whenever a lawful Superior gives an order dealing directly or indirectly with the observance of the Rule and Constitutions: This obligation becomes grave when a Superior ives a formal command in virtue of holy Obedience. -- Bygthe Vow of Obedience the Sisters assume the obligation of obeying all commands of their lawful Superiors in everything that con-cerns, directly or indirectly, the observance of the vows, the Rule, and the Constitutions. A formal precept, which obliges under pain of mortal sin, is given only when the lawful Superiors command expressly in virtue of holy Obedience. Not all constitutions approved by the Sacred Congrega-tion of Religious, even at the same period of time as the above, contain the new wording; nor did I find it in the constitutions recently approved by the Sacred Congrega-tion for the Propagation of the Faith that I have read. The new wording, in congregations that have it, more clearly permits a precept under venial sin to be given by reason of the vow of obedience. Such a power is obviously to be most rarely used. To effect a precept under venial sin, the superior must give a precept that obliges im-mediately under sin, even though he is not required to state that it is in virtue of the vow of obedience. The reason is that the proximate matter of the vow of obedience, that which brings the obligation of the vow into actual existence, demands at least the strict command of a lawful superior. A strict command is the express imposition of an obligation immediately in conscience, immediately under sin, to do something, to omit some-thing, or to fulfill a punishment. The superior must manifest clearly the intention of obliging in conscience, e.g., "I command, order, forbid you in conscience." A VOLUME 25, 1966 599 ÷ Joseph F. G~en, S4. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS strict command is not the mere good pleasure of a superior (It would please), a desire (I would like), a counsel (It would be better), an admonition (Do not do that), or a merely penal precept, that is, a precept obliging only under a punishment for its violation. The superior may oblige under mortal or venial sin in serious matter but only under venial sin in light matter, since such matter does not admit a grave obligation. See Raus, De sacra obedientia, Lyons: Vitte, 1923, nn. 109-11; Ver-meersch, De religiosis institutis et personis, I, ed. 2, Bruges: Beyaert, n. 296; REv~.w for RELIO~OUS, 22 (1963), 586-7. One congregation added the following sentence to its constitutions: In keeping with the ~,irtue, the sisters should be encouraged to discuss with their superiors ideas which they think would contribute to the common good of the institute or further its apostolic work. Such an article obviously does not diminish the authority of the religious superior. Vatican Council II was not lessening the authority of bishops in counseling them: Wherefore, for the sake of greater service to souls, let the bishops call the priests into dialogue, especially about pastoral matters. This they should do not only on a given occasion hut at regularly fixed intervals insofar as this is possible. The council affirmed the same principle with regard to religious superiors: "Superiors should in a suitable manner consult and listen to subjects in matters that con-cern the entire institute." Another statement of the council explicitly safeguards the authority of superiors: Superiors should therefore gladly listen to their subjects and encourage their cooperation for the good of the institute and of the Church, but the authority of superiors to decide and order what is to be done remains undiminished. Penance More recent constitutions have frequently phrased the article on the frequency of confession: "The sisters will usually go to confession at least once a week." The norm in one set of revised constitutions approved by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in 1964 is: "The Sisters will go to confession every week or at least every fortnight . " REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 18 (1959), 161; 16 (1957), 116-7; Questions on Religious Life, q. 90. Divine 01~ce and Spiritual Reading Several congregations of sisters have obtained approval from the Sacred Congregation of Religious of a change to Lauds, Vespers, and Compline of the Divine Office from the recitation of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary. One has Lauds, Sext, Vespers and Compline, another Lauds, Terce or Sext, Vespers 'and Compline of the Divine Office. REwv.w FOR RwLIG~OUS, 24 (1965), 473- 4; 20 (1961), 304-6. On July 27, 1964, the Sacred Congregation of Religious approved a revised article of a congregation according to which the sisters make each day, if possible, and without strict obligation, a short spiritual reading. Once a week all must make a longer spiritual reading in the course of their weekly free half day. A similar article approved in May, 1964 reads: Every day: a part of the Office of the Blessed Virgin for morning and evening prayer, a half hour of mental prayer, holy Mass, spiritual reading, visit to the Blessed Sacrament, particu-lar and general examination of conscience, recitation of ofie third of the rosary. This article does not determine the length of the daily spiritual reading. Another congregation of sisters had fifteen minutes of spiritual reading and another half hour of mental prayer in the afternoon. This was changed by the congregation to the following: ". the sisters shall make a private spiritual reading which will be continued in prayer according to the needs of each. The spiritual reading and prayer shall in all be for an hour." Chapter of Faults One congregation omitted this chapter in its revision as proposed, and the revision as approved contained no correction on this point. Another congregation asked that the frequency of the chapter be reduced from once a week to once a month. The Holy See replied that it was to be held twice a month. Another recently approved set of pontifical constitutions reads as follows: Four times a year, preferably during the Ember Weeks, the local Superior shall hold a chapter of affairs with the members of her Community. At this chapter she shall give public ex-hortations which will help improve the spirit of the house and eliminate abuses which may have crept in; she shall discuss matters of discipline and of the apostolate with all the Sisters of the house; she shall recommend to the prayers of the Sisters the requests of petitioners and the welfare of benefactors. At this chapter, if any Sister should wish to confess an ex-ternal fault against the Rule, Constitutions, and Customs, she may do so. The Superior shall impose a moderate and discreet penance. Separate chapters shall be held for Sisters in the Juniorate and the Novitiate. Cloister: Associated Topics Companion. The Holy See continues to approve con-stitutions stating that sisters are ordinarily not to go out 4. 4, 4- Holy See VOLUME 25, 1966 601 ÷ ÷ ÷ ]oseph F. Gallen, ~, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS go~ without a companion. The Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious approved also the following two forms of the same article: Sisters are permitted to make visits and to leave the house without a companion when, in the judgment of the superior, there is a just cause for doing so. -- No Sister shall go out without the permission of her Superior, who should if possible send~a Sister or some trustworthy person as her companion. The 'Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Eaith approved a wide form of the same article: "Particu-lar circumstances or the customs of a country may require that the Superior assign a companion to the Sister who goes out." Going out at night. One set of constitutions approved by' the Holy See in 1964 enacts: "With permission of the higher superior, the sisters may attend evening meetings and programs of a religious, professional, or educational nature." Excessive remoteness from seculars. The excessive remoteness from conversation and contact with seculars inculcated in many constitutions and customs was the reason that motivated one congregation to request that the italicized words in the following article be deleted. The request was approved by the Sacred Congregation. Finally, in order to observe chastity more perfectly, they shall keep the rules of modesty and enclosure exactly, shun familiarities, abstain from conversation with seculars as much as possible, and frequently pray to God that their hearts, being filled with divine grace, may be kept pure and pleasing unto Him. ' A liberalizing,o[ the following type of custom is evi-dently in accord with reasonable norms of adaptation: The Sisteis are permitted to eat with others when this seems feasible. Sisters from other religious communities may b~ invited to eat within the enclosure. -- If refreshments are offered to visitors, the Sisters shall not eat or drink with them. Mee(ing o[ Discalced Carmelites The superior general of the Dis~alced Carmelites made the following petition to the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious: Many Monasteries of Discalced Carmelite Nuns in the United States have mani[ested the desire o[ an Assembly o[ Prioresses, which would afford them the opportunity of an ex-change of ideas on the more urgent and actual problems of cloistered, Teresian life, especially what refers to the forma-tion of young Religious. In consideration of which and in compliance with the common desire of having the Superiors of the Order to direct the undertaking, the said Superior General requests: 1. authorization for all the Superioresses of the Monasteries of Discalced Carmelite Nuns in the United States to attend the proposed Assembly with a companion, provided such an attendance be freely accepted; 2. authorization for the Superior General to preside over the Assembly personally or by means of a Delegate. The Sacred Congregation replied: In virtue of the faculties granted by His Holiness, the Sacred Congregation for Religious, taking the above into account, benignly grants the favors as requested, provided the Local Ordinaries to whom it pertains have no objection and n. 23 of the "Inter Cetera" is to be observed. The Nuns are to observe the law of enclosure in the place, where they assemble, in as far as possible. Afterwards a report of the proceedings is to be sent to the Sacred Congregation for Reli-gious. Junior Pro[essed The ~ollowing article is pertinent to the frequent dis-cussion on an excessive separation of the junior professed: The junior professed Sisters are under the supervision of a Mistress in a separate section of the house. They are not, how-ever, to be totally segregated from the senior professed Sisters. Indults o[ Secularization The Sacred Congregation of Religious has, in some cases, replied to a petition for dispensation from the vows that an induh of secularization was not expedient, and has substituted an induh of exclaustration, e.g., for one or two years. See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 24 (1965), 475-6. The wording in the latest indults of secularization is the following: "This rescript has no validity if not accepted by the petitioner within ten days from receiving communication of it." And see REWEW VOR REL~GIOt~S, 15 (1956), 231--3. Charitable Subsidy The Sacred Congregation of Religious, is wont to cor-rect the wording on the competent local ordinary in the article on the charitable subsidy to the following: If any professed sister who leaves or is dismissed was received without a dowry or with an insufficient dowry and cannot provide for herself out of her own resources, the congregation is obliged in charity tO give her what is necessary to return safely and becomingly to her home, and to provide her, accord-ing to natural equity, for a certain period with the means of a respectable livelihood. This is to be determined by mutual consent, or in the case of disagreement, by the local ordinary o[ the [ormer religious (cc. 643, § 2; 647, § 2, 5°; 652, § 3). In a congregation that does not impose a dowry, the beginning of this article reads: "If any professed sister who leaves or is dismissed can-not provide for herself out of her own resources, the ÷ Prtwtice of Holy See VOLUME 25, 1966 603 4, 4- Joseph F. Gal/en, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 6O4 congregation . " See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUSi 15 (1956), 253-6. General Chapter Substitutes [or ex officio members of a chapter. While constitutions frequently, especially if more recently ap-proved, prescribe substitutes for the provincial at the general chapter and for the superior of larger houses at the general or provincial chapter, it is not the practice to enact substitutes for other ex officio members, e.g., for a general or' provincial councilor at a general or provin-cial chapter. Such substitution has been approved in one or two constitutions, e.g.: The superior general with the consent of her council shall provide a substitute for an ex officio member other than a general councilor who may be legitimately prevented from attending the general chapter. If there be question of a general councilor, the general council elects her substitute. -- If it should be necessary to replace an ex officio member legitimately prevented from taking part in the[provincial. ].chapter, the provincial superior shall provide a subsutute, w~th the con-sent of her council and the approval of the superior general with the advice of her council. The following article was proposed to the Sacred Con-gregation of Religious in 1965. The Sacred Congregation deleted the part in italics. Should a provincial superior be unable to attend the general chapter her place shall be taken by the first provincial councilor. In the case of any other ex officio member of the general chapter the substitute shall be chosen by the superior general with the consent ol her council. Ex officio membership [or regional superiors. Several congregations have given regional superiors ex officio membership in the general chapter, which to me is an evidently sound and prudent policy (See REvmw fOR RELIGXOUS, 21 [1962], 414). Delegates for six years. One congregation elects its delegates as follows: The delegates are elected for six years, that is, until the next regular meeting of the general chapter for elections. Once elected they remain as delegates for any chapter which may be convoked before the next regular meeting of the general chapter. Number o[ elected delegates. A few congregations foI-low the principle, of equality in number for their provin-cial or general chapter, e.g.: "There shall be as many delegates as there are members who attend the [General] Chapter by right of office." Another congregation has a similar norm: "The number of delegates to the Provin-cial Chapter will be at least one more than the number of members by right." In another revision approved in 1964 there are five elected delegates from each province: The number of delegates to be elected to the General Chapter is two Superiors and three non-Superiors from each province, or in the case of a Vice-Provincial Chapter, one Superior and two non-Superiors from each vice-province. One large congregation Of sisters has an unusual norm for the number of delegates from each province. The provincial chapter is composed of the provincial superior, councilors, secretary, and treasurer and, roughly, one delegate, superior or subject, for every fifty sisters of perpetual vows in the province but, in houses of less than fifty sisters of perpetual vows, one. delegate for every fifty to seventy sisters of perpetual vows. The provincial chapter then elects delegates according to the following norm of a revision approved in 1964: The Provincial Chapter when meeting for electing delegates to the General Chapter, shall elect by relative majority of votes one-third of its number as delegates and two substitute delegates. The Provincial Superior who is an ex officio delegate is not included in this number. The delegates from the provinces and vice-provinces in another change of constitutions approved in 1964 are: 6. Two delegates from each Province and one delegate from each Vice Province. 7. One added delegate for 200 Sisters and fraction of 200 for those Provinces having more than 300 Sisters. 8. Of the principal Superior of the Motherhouse

ORATORICAL NUMBER APRIL, 1901 CONTENTS April 35 The Significance of the Unin-tended 36 Our Democracy 41 The Dream of the Ages 43 The Man with the Hoe 47 War in the Light of the Twen-tieth Century SI International Arbitration to Sat-isfy National Honor 55 John Ruskin—The Man 58 Editorials 62 "The Reign of Law" 63 Exchanges 67 Advertisements 68 FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. For Fine- Printing go to Be X lo Wile Friipliil faff CARLISLE ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. R. M. Elliott Dealer in Hats, Caps, Shoes and. Gents' Furnishing Goods Corner Center Square and Carlisle Street GETTYSBURG, PA. EDGAR 5. MARTIN, ^CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES ^p* ^y*j^ Chambersburz St., Gettysburg Leadership IN THE CLOTHING and MEN'S FURNISHING Business It is strictly here—everybody knows it. Testimony ? The stock itself. The pen suffi-ciently nimble to tell all the good points of our ::::::: FALL AMD WINTER. SUITS AND OVERCOATS has not been found. We will keep you dressed right up-to-date if you buy your Clothing and Furnishings here. : : : : STIINE McPherson Block- No. II BALTIMORE STREET WILLIAM H.HETF.ICK GETTYSBURG COLLEGE PA.UL K1ELFFER FRANKLIN &MARSHAL HOWARD E.SH1MER MUHLENBERG COLLEGE J . W. D OVNEY L E H1G H EDWARD E.KELLEY URSIWU5 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY The Literary Journal of Pennsylvania College Entered at the Postojftce at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. X GETTYSBURG, PA., APRIL, 1901 No. 2 APRIL JOHN KEBLE Lessons sweet of spring returning, Welcome to the thoughtful heart! May I call ye sense or learning, Instinct pure, or heaven-taught art? Be your title what it may, Sweet and lengthening April day, While with you the soul is free, Ranging wild o'er hill and lee; Soft as Memnon's harp at morning, To the inward ear devout, Touched by light with heavenly warning, Your transporting chords ring out. Every leaf in every nook, Every wave in every brook, Chanting with a solemn voice Minds us of our better choice. Needs no show of mountain hoary, Winding shore or deepening glen, Where the landscape in its glory, Teaches truth to wandering men. Give true hearts but earth and sky, And some flowers to bloom and die, Homely scenes and simple views Lowly thoughts may best infuse. 36 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UNINTENDED PATTI. KIEFFER, of Franklin and Marshal [First Prize] '"PHERE is an Eastern fable of three princes contesting in arch- * ery for their father's kingdom. The youngest, regarded as a weakling, after an apparently poor effort, is unable to find his arrow. The elder brothers divide the kingdom, while he is left in ridicule to search for the lost missile. Hedoesso. Traveling many days in the direction of the shot, he comes upon his arrow imbedded in the door of a cavern, whither it has been wafted, mile after mile, by some unseen power. The door opens into the land of the genii, a realm of untold riches; and the youthful archer, now a mighty potentate, returns to receive adulation, where but a short time before he had met with but scorn and ridicule. The story of the princely archer is more than a fable; it is an allegory. The shot from his bow had an unintended and unex-pected result; a similar fate has attended men's efforts in all ages. For it is the universal experience that men aim at one thing and attain another. It has been always thus. Men work and labor and toil, and when it is all over and the work is done, behold, the result is other than that of the original intent. Men build better than they know. So true is this that there would seem to be a law by virtue of which it is characteristic of most of the great and genuine and lasting achievements of man, that they come in an unwonted, unintended and unexpected manner. Great is that which man has sought for and achieved; greater still is that which he has not sought for and has yet achieved. Great is the logic of man; the logic of events is greater. Indirection and unconscious-ness— these have attended the fruitful workings of human handi-craft, of human agency, and of human genius. The great discoveries—how have they come? In their blind-ness, men sought to read their fortunes in the stars, and out of astrology grew the noble science of astronomy. In the black kitchens men spend their lives in the search for the elixir of life, and out of alchemy, chemistry is born. The fall of an apple and the discovery of a universal law are inseparably linked. In the cathedral at Pisa a verger oils a lamp and leaves it swinging to and fro; a youth of eighteen sees it, ponders, and conceives the idea of measuring time. Indirection is the law. Men puzzle them- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 37 selves with problems for years; and then, suddenly, and in some unexpected manner the truth is imparted to some genius and the world moves on a step. New and untried ventures bring strange results. Columbus is sure that he is discovering a new route to the East; the floating seaweed that quells the mutiny on board his ships belongs to a new continent whose discovery renders his name immortal. To-day, four hundred years later, the powerful young nation which has grown up upon this continent has reached the Pacific and is look-ing beyond, and men stand with bated breath as they see her reach-ing across the great ocean to the East. The dream of the Genoese adventurer, after four centuries is about to receive some semblance of fulfillment in a manner of which he little dreamed. A protest against the sale of indulgences is a trifling matter; not so insignifi-cant is the splitting of the Roman Catholic Church and the de-stroying of the Papal supremacy. The little Mayflower bears a small band of men and women seeking religious freedom. After several centuries we look back to the spot upon which they landed, little dreaming of their mission, to see diverging therefrom the rays of light which have illuminated our nation ever since. That was Puritan light that made clear the pathway to Bunker Hill, to Yorktown, and to Appomattox. The colonies are now full grown and the mother country be-comes tyrannical. An unjust stamp tax is imposed and the colo-nists resist. The Boston Tea Party registers opposition to taxation without representation. But the colonists are still loyal. '' From one end of the colonies to the other," says Franklin, "no one is thinking of independence." Then, like a thunderbolt in a clear sky, a bold spirit, raised to a higher plane than his fellows, and catching the first glimpse of a new dawn, cries, "Give me liberty, or give me death!'' The cry of treason is the reply; but the events of a few swift years prove that he has caught a true vision. Resist-ance to a petty stamp tax inspired a revolution, threw off a yoke of oppression, and laid the foundation for the freest, most enlight-ened, most powerful republic in history—while men wondered. The world's battles in all times have been fought out upon forlorn hopes. Gideon sat by the wine-press when he received the call to arms. His three hundred put to flight the hosts of the Midianites. Wilberforce in England and Garrison in America go forth, like Hercules of old, to battle with the hydra-headed slave 33 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY interests. In both continents it is one against a thousand. The one wins and both continents are freed. The world's schools present a strange picture. England's greatest preacher was an uneducated school usher. The temper-ance lecturer is picked out of the gutter. Buu3'an was an infidel. Lincoln was born in a slave state. Paul sat at the feet of Gama-liel. Moses was brought up in Egypt. The poet, the artist—he, too, knows the significance of the unintended. He calls it inspiration. Not a substitute for toil, for years of labor; but the final result comes not in the direct line of work. The painter in his studio sees his work fruitless for years; he is almost in despair; and then one night, as he is taking a moment's rest, in God's great out-of-doors perhaps, his reward comes. Gaspar Becana sits idle by the hearth when the long-awaited message, denied him at his work, is revealed to him in the flame. Years of toil, of unremitting labor; but at the supreme moment, no effort. Small wonder that Schiller exclaimed; "Since creation began All that mortals have wrought All that's God-like in man Comes—the flash of a thought." A scene from our nation's history. Thirty years of growing bitterness have kindled the flame of national discord, and the fiery characters proclaim that slavery is a crime. But at this moment the black slave is forgotten. It is a Federal fort off the southern coast, and it has been fired upon; the national troops have been attacked; states withdraw from the Union; brother takes arms against brother in the horrors of an internecine con-flict. Anti-slavery is swallowed up in a war for the preservation of the Union. Two short, swift years of war, and the voice of the commander-in-chief is heard throughout the land. The words he speaks are those of the Emancipation Proclamation. The slave is free, and that is accomplished by two years of war for another purpose in which thirty years of direct opposition failed. But there is no standing still. History is making. It is thirty years later and another crisis is reached. An oppressed people has lifted its appeal to the great American heart, whose pulsations, imperceptible at times, are none the less sure and true. The world's eyes are directed to Cuba, to the unprecedented ?pec-tacle of a great power wielding the sword in a war for the sake of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 39 humanity. But while the battle is on, what means this other sound, this note ol war from far across the sea? What mean these guns and sound of falling masonry? Has the electric impulse reached from Cuba half-way around the world? Yes. The American flag floats over Manila and the Philippines are ours. "But hold," the people cry, "tofree Cuba is our onhy aim. What have we to do with those far-off islands and a foreign race. New possessions are not part of our intent." Intent? If history can teach; if the experience of the past can furnish lessons for the present and future, this is the very seal and sign and token of the genuineness of your new duty that it was unintended. Then a voice cries, "So be it, America has burst her bonds!" "Imperi-alism!" is the reply and a new conflict is on. The final arbiter, the sovereign will of the people, must decide. But who can doubt the result? Stop our country's growth? Put an end to the national life? The ballot is cast; the people have echoed "So be it," and the seal of ratification is placed upon another great move-ment whose inception was unwitnessed by human eyes. Then, above the conflict of party and the war of words, one can all but hear the genius of the nation: "Here, O America, is thy duty. Whether thou wilt or no, here is thy mission. Thy path is clear. Here or nowhere is thy destiny, work it out therefrom, to the ends of liberty and humanity, of justice and order and peace." And what is the meaning of it all? Is man a creature of blind chance, his fate determined by every gust of wind that blows? Is history wrought out by luck? Are we to doubt the poet, doubt that "through the ages one increasing purpose runs?" Are man's work, his years of toil, his planning, his foresight, his God-given gift of reason—are all these to go for naught? The on-ward march of civilization answers No. The uplifting and better-ing of humanity answer No. The assent of man answers No. The unintended—unintended by whom? Who intended that the sun should shine by day and the moon by night? Who intended that the earth should yield up her fruits and the rain descend from Heaven? While man proposes, God disposes. Eeason,plan, method, purpose,—all these, could man, blind man, but see them. Yes, "there's a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will." It is a dark night at a time of crisis in our nation's history. The 40 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY great captain lies dead at Washington by the hand of the assassin. In the great city of the commonwealth a mob is gathering and its mutterings are terrible in their foreboding. Old wounds gape afresh. The suspense is awful; what the morning will bring no one can tell. Suddenly, above the uproar of the crowd, like the clear note of a trumpet, a voice is heard. It is the voice of a man of the people. The words he speaks are few and simple: "God reigns!" Like the calming of a great storm upon the waters, the crowd disperses and the dawn ushers in a day of peace. May the echo of those words be endless in our country's career! God grant that down her path in times of peaceful well-being, in times of storm and stress, the words of her inspired patriot may ring in the ears of all her sons, "God reigns!" Yes, at her birth-throes He was with her; in the trying times of her infancy and youth He guided her; in her maturity he has blest her. And now, in the full plenitude of her powers, He has sent her a new mission. May He give her strength to fulfill it. May He give her people wis-dom and make her leaders to see the right path: And then, as we turn our eyes towards the future, with senses sharpened by patriotic fervor, we may catch the first glimpse of her shining forth supreme in that glorious company of nations when right shall have become might and the sense of human brotherhood filled all men's souls; and as we strain our ears to listen we may hear, mingled with the triumphal music of might and power, and rising far above it, the clear, pure note of a simple entreaty, the voice of the people lifted on high with that of the poet, to the ' 'God of our fathers, known of old Lord of our far-flung- battle line, Beneath whose awful hand we hold Dominion over palm and pine, Lord God of Hosts be with us yet Lest we forget! Lest we forget!" «9£, "While words of learned length and thundering sound Amazed the gazing rustics round; And still they gazed and still the wonder grew That one small head should carry all he knew." —GOLDSMITH. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 41 OUR DEMOCRACY WM. H. HETEICK, of Gettysburg [Second Prize] YV7E feel honored, as a people, in that good favor and for- " tune which makes us citizens of the American republic. We exult in the privileges which that citizenship affords. We rejoice in the liberty that gives us equal chances with all for the highest and noblest attainments in life. In short, we would be none but Americans. Were we Germans, we might challenge the world for a refor-mation. Were we Frenchmen, we might extol with pride the merits of an eventful revolution. Or, were we Englishmen, we might look with pleasure on a long line of illustrious rulers, or boast of universal dominion over the seas, or of lands on whose soil the sun never goes down. But we are Americans. We hold up but a century and a quarter of history, but where is its equal? Our part in the world movement was the founding of the people. To found the people. What an aim! To vindicate their honor! To make them free! Ours was the revolution on whose fate hung the human race. It was a conflict between man and king—a people in battle against the tyranny of the whole past. Here was born civil liberty that lifts the yoke of oppression from a subju-gated world. Ah! Here on our own battle-field was struck the blow that annihilated slavery, which for fifty centuries darkened civilization with inhuman crime. Our boast is not of territory. The sun sets every evening over our land, but it throws its golden light on a free and independent people, subject to none but their God, and held and maintained by a constitution that receives the approbation of the world. Our exultation is in the principles of our government; our joy in their beneficent results. Democracy is our nation's honor; manhood the integrity of our people. Manhood—the keystone in the arch of our republic. Manhood—that which Rome with all her strength could never develop, nor Greece, with all her depth of thought, conceive. MANHOOD, that gave Germany her refor-mation, but not strong enough to make her free; that once made England a republic, but too weak to give her equal rights. No! Europe could never develop it. The nearest she came to it was the Puritan and him she drove, exiled, beyond the sea. Away 42 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY from custom and the iron grip of centuries; beyond the despotism of monarchs and aristocracies ; on the water-edge of-an unknown continent it found a home, and on that continent it established an ideal government for man, our own republic. We, the people of that republic, sit this day in our own purple, with no master but our conscience, our reason, and our God. Beneath us lies the dark past of conflict, breaking its troubled waters against the mountain of our democracy. The step to a throne has been taken and the destiny of man is sealed. We stand at last where kings have never stood; with no equal in the world; with tyranny at our feet and the eternal sunshine of progress on our heads. In our hands no diamond-studded sceptre; but an in-vincible ballot. On our heads the crown of an inalienable right. Here equality brings the triumph of humanity, the problem of the ages. We give man his rights and in less than two centuries he builds a nation. We make him his own master and he conquers his own self. We give him room for genius and he becomes a Garfield and a Lincoln. Accident and favor no more usurp the place of honor. The wreath of victory is placed on the man who can, be he the favored son of fortune or the poor, obscure peasant from the cabin-home. It is democracy—manhood crowned—that makes us truly great. To destroy that there must be a power greater than the people's and deeper than the soul's. To take away from the people their God-given rights is to make the world an enigma and the hope of man a dream. No! The people rise and with them the world. Creation moves towards its inevitable goal with our own democracy in the lead. One by one the nations fall in line, moving to no martial strain, but to the music of peace, goodwill to mankind. Yonder in the clear light of the future stands the cross of Christ, in which the kingdoms of this world become the kingdoms of the Lord, and around which shall gather the nations all, unfurling their banners "in the Parliament of Man, the Feder-ation of the World." «8^ "The object of oratory alone is not truth, but persuasion. —MaCaulay. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 43 THE DREAM OP THE AGES ARTHUR L. CROSSLEY, of Lafayette [Honorable Mention] 'T'HE centuries roll on and on. Nations come and go. But *■ great principles and truths never cease their onward progress. Slowly and quietly they make their way among the peoples, but surely as the eternal God from whom they spring. Such was the principle of religious liberty, forbidden and restrained by the pre-judices and customs of all the past, the first flame kindled in the heart of Luther, then spread throughout Germany and Europe to England and across the sea. Born of the theses nailed on the church at Wittenberg, grown among such convulsions of war and carnage as even Europe had never known before, the principle at last triumphed and the soul of man stood forth free to worship the God of its choice. Such was the growth of political freedom. We see the first faint gleamings of the dawn in early Greece and Rome. But the stormy clouds of the dark ages sweep before our gaze for a thou-sand years. With Magna Charta comes a rift in the darkness. Strong-hearted Englishmen rise in their might and Albion's Isle is free. But for a hundred years, continental Europe still lay in abject slavery at the feet of despots. Suddenly the terrible storm breaks on the vine-clad hills of France. The reign of terror is abroad in the land. Peasant and regal blood alike flow freely, and every brook and rill runs crimson to the sea. When at last the clouds are cleared away, the divine right of kings is a thing of the past, despotism is forever dead, and already we see across the waters the goddess of liberty, whose scepter shall rule the world. The work of the German monk is done. The task begun by Pym and Hampden is finished. The principles of religious and political freedom are proclaimed throughout the earth. But I think, perchance, I see another great principle at work among the peoples. I hear the great heart of humanity throbbing and beat-ing under its mighty impulse. Implanted in the breast of earliest man, it remained for the present age to see it take root and quicken into life. A spark kindled from the great altar of Truth, it has lain smouldering in the human heart through all the centuries. But the great social principle is at work in the world to-day as never before. It is the great force which is to-day shaping the 44 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY course of events. But little more than a century ago and there was not a nation under heaven in which slavery was forbidden. But, behold, England's air grows too pure for the slave to breathe; the shackles fall from the negroes of the southland; the serfs of Russia walk in freedom. "Tis but the first ripening grains of that harvest which is yet to be. 'Tis but the glimmering stars of the morning which foretell the coming of the sun. Go, read the workings of this great principle in the mighty movements of the past century, in the extended suffrage of our land, in the history of the Rockdale pioneers, in the great secret societies of our age, in the present attitude of the Christian Church, all unite in one mighty strain, the Brotherhood of Man. But as society more fully realizes the great bonds which unite man to man, as the flame of truth grows brighter and brighter, men more clearly see the injustice which surrounds them on every side. The scales fall from their eyes. They behold an age of such marvelous labor-saving inventions as a century ago the boldest imagination would not have dared to dream of. But never has the lot of the toiler been harder. Never have his ranks num-bered so many of the children of our land. They behold a nation groaning beneath the burden of its wealth, whose fields are wav-ing with yellow harvests, whose granaries are bursting with golden grain. Yet in the very midst of these greatest accumula-tions of wealth, there are homes of direst poverty, and children that hunger and freeze. They behold a civilization, the most wonderful of all the aeons of time. But its course is strewn with the wrecks of humanity, its foundation stones are red with the blood of man. But seek a deeper meaning in thy book of truth, in the Utopi-an literature of Bellamy and Morris in the mighty trades-unions with their cry of "labor against capital," in the air ever rife with the curses and threats of the striker; yea, go breathe it in the fra-grance of those flowers that bloom on the graves at Homestead and Lattitner. The great social principle is at work in the world, and has been from Babylon down. But never have its notes of warn-ing sounded so plainly in the ears of all who listen. The silent toilers of the ages have at last begun to know the great wrongs which are being done under the veil of law and necessity, and they are determined to right them, even by that greater wrong, the strike and the riot. The principle is at work in the hearts of THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 45 men. We see it in the struggling, starving masses of our great cities, in the discontented workers in our factories and furnaces. The threatening murmur grows louder and louder, until but a few months ago, the hills and valleys of our own fair state echoed and re-echoed, rumbled and thundered with the angry cry and fearless demand of such an army of toilers, in solid and united ranks, as never before in an industrial crisis, has blocked the wheels of progress. The toilers of earth have at last realized their strength, and they are demanding that which by justice has ever been theirs. They have turned on their oppressor and ask, "Who made thee a task-master over us? Why shall thy children have a plenty and more than enough while our little ones go a-hunger-ing?" The toilers are waiting their answer. The appearance of a new truth or principle among men ever means a change in the great social organization. It is only a question whether society shall gradually and in due time adjust itself, and it shall only be a reformation, or whether it shall repress the changes which the growing principle makes necessary, until they shall suddenly break forth in a revolution. Ambition and power have been repressing the changes in tlae organization of society which this growing social principle has made necessary, and for this cause is labor arrayed against capital, and there are strikes and riots and bloodshed. Build your roads of iron and your bridges of steel. Harness the steam and the mighty Niagara. Delve deep into the heart of earth and search the infinite with thy telescope. Bring forth the atom of matter and circle the globe with thy lightning. But, im-portant as all these are, there is yet a greater task before the American manhood of to-day—to solve the great social problems which are pressing on every hand, to put an end to this fraternal strife which threatens, to stay the floods of discontent which are slowly gathering their mighty waters, to quench the fires of an-archy which are kindling in every city and village, to fell this cruel giant of oppression who is trampling out the souls of men. Is the task too great ? Falter not, for we have in our sling one sure stone, even justice. By this shall we accomplish our mighty work, put an end to this tyranny of man over man, let no longer one man possess that which belongs to all, but recognize the equal rights of every man to the bounties of nature, the free blessings of heaven and the rich heritage of all the past. This is 46 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY what justice demands and the working men of to-day are seeking. And it is because we have trampled on these great principles of right, because the opportunities of life have not been thrown open to all alike, but it has been for some to sow and for others to reap, for this cause are the stormclouds gathering on the horizon of time and the laborers are marshalling their forces. The call comes to finish the work begun by Garrison and Lin-coln, to strike down the oppressor of men and forever loose the bonds of slavery which still linger, to wipe out the stain of that southern legislature's recent action, and to make the pages of our own state yet fairer, to rescue the childhood and daughters of our land from the curse of such lives as that of the factory, that life which to-day, ere the bloom ot youth hath appeared, stamps disease on thin pale faces, hopelessness and ignorance on their young lives, and forever brands vice and immorality on their in-nocent souls. We plead not for the men, they are strong. We plead for the helpless childhood of our land, for the fathers and mothers of the years to come. Shield them from the curses which blight. I,et not the gates of the factory and the depths of the mine shut then* from the opportunities of life. Else in the after years they shall know the great wrong which has been done, their hearts shall grow bitter within, and their lives shall become sources of evil and anarchy. "For the child's sob in the silence curses deeper Than the strong- man in his wrath." Go, conquer the isles of the sea. Carry thy commerce to the uttermost parts of the earth. Gather the riches of the nations in thy garners. Wear thy purple robe, knit with the life threads of youth. Drink thy sparkling wine, tinged with the heart drops of childhood. But remember, our brothers, the toilers, are journeying to meet us among the rock-bound hills of Gilead. Wronged through all the centuries, they have not forgotten that stolen blessing. L,et us not delay, but haste to see that these great labor problems are solved, that justice is done in the land, and that brother is reconciled unto brother. Else, behold, these toilers of earth shall rise up and become a very Samson in our land,—nay, even now they are rising—and in their wrath shall they bow themselves and the pillars of state shall tremble and fall at their might. It needs no Daniel to read God's handwriting on those pages THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 47 of the past. The great social principle must prevail in the end. Whether it come by peace or by a Reign of Terror, whether by the mounts of Gilead where the sons of Isaac met, or by Pharsalia, whether thy brother's anger shall be appeased or he shall rise in his wrath and strike thee down, I know not. But come it will as sure as the fountains of eternal truth and justice. And when at last this great principle shall have prevailed among men, and there shall have been effected in society those changes which the growing light of truth and intelligence has made necessary, when the fertile Canaan of life's opportunities shall have been thrown open to all alike, then and then only will the race of man have taken one more step up the incline of true progress and we shall have come a little nearer to that "Dream of the Ages," that time of which the prophets have foretold, and the poets have sung, that day when the stranger shall see in the stranger his brother, when man shall no longer rise on his fellow-man, but united by the bonds of brotherhood, they shall together mount the heights of progress and achievement. «^ THE MAN WITH THE HOE HOWARD E. SHIMER, of Muhlcuberg- \ RIGHTEOUS discontent has ever been the dynamic force ** making for social uplifting,—the sign manual of progress. It is the men who have been discontented with wrong and oppres-sion that have carried on the great agitations of the world, and have made history. Wilberforce and Howard, Thomas Paine and Samuel Adams, Garrison and Phillips were all men profoundly discontented with the wrongs inflicted upon their fellow men; and from their discontent came the spark that lit the altar-fire of liberty. Were Millet's "Angelus" before us while reading Edwin Markham's "The Man with the Hoe," we would be inclined to revolt against nature's apparent injustice. Millet has painted the man with the hoe in colors; Edwin Markham, in words. He is a digger of the earth, bowing his back and breaking the clods. He stands as a type, the honest and honorable representative of those whose lot it is, and must always be, to perform the hard uninspir-ing and soul-crushing labors of mankind. He was seen of old 48 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY among the brick-makers of Egypt, among the millions who lifted wearily the walls of Ilium; who carved the pillars of Karnak and paved the Appian way. To-day he may be seen with a needle in a New York sweat-shop, with a pick in a West Virginia coal mine, with a hod in a London alley, with a spade on the banks of the Zuyder Zee. The manual laborer of to-day is far more discontented with his environment than were his progenitors. This discontent does not imply that his condition has degenerated. It is rather a sign of progress from the status of the mere burden bearer to that of the thinking and responsible social unit. The leaven of educa-tion has worked through the mass—all too imperfectly it may be —and fermentation is still going on. As the reed, breathed upon by the great god Pan, could become no more "a simple reed by the river," so it is no longer possible for the man with the hoe, into whose soul has come the conception of larger liberties and a wider life, to accept with dull and passive content the lot of his forefathers. Much depends upon the point of view from which this man with the hoe is considered. When beheld through the windows of a Fifth Avenue palace, the objective universe takes on a different aspect to that which it assumes when seen from an East-side tene-ment house. The counting house and the sweatshop generate two distinct philosophies of life. The sympathetic spirit may be aroused by the thrilling tale of the sailor's ship-wreck, the miner's entombment, or the slow starvation of the sweater's slave; but only those who must bear the brunt of these industrial tragedies can realize to the full the horrors of the black waves, the poison of the fire-damp, and the howls of the hungry wolf at the door. Sometimes it is a tyrant, forgetful of this brunt, who oppresses; sometimes it is an aristocracy which gathers in the fruits of power and throws upon the masses the burdens of government; sometimes it is a plutocracy which openly exalts money and debases flesh and blood; but everywhere it is the same brutal spirit which ig-nores the brotherhood of man. He was a veritable Columbus in the world of sociology who made the discovery that there is a good deal of human nature among men. The man with the hoe may justly claim to possess his modicum of human nature. With Shakespeare's usurer, he may exclaim: "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 49 us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die?" The laborer is a man, claiming a man's share of life; and the questions which most directly affect him can be best considered from the standpoint of manhood rather than from that of classhood. But it is this very breadth of vision that is the most difficult of attainment. The increase of the class sense is rapid. Even the constant attrition going on under democratic institutions does not serve to keep it in check. Plato's saying that "every city holds two nations, the rich and the poor," has in it only too much truth. The Optimist, however, sees thatthe standards of humanity are being more and more upheld by the masses, who occupy that social stratum which lies between the dark despair of the Sub-merged Tenth and the gilded idleness of the Elevated Four Hundred. The literary sycophants who strew rhetorical flowers in the pathway of the successful, without inquiring into the methods employed for procuring success, complacently throw the respon-sibility for the present condition of the man with the hoe upon God, or Nature, or the man himself. Is it the fault of God or Nature that children are driven into factories at so early an age that their bodies are stunted, their minds dwarfed and the strength and usefulness of future generations impaired? Is God or Nature responsible for the laws which permit this impairment of the man-power and the woman-power of the nation? The indolent cannot expect plenty under any just form of government; neither can the vicious expect happiness. But, let us see whether something can not be done to alleviate effectually the painful inequalities of the conscientious employee as compared with his employer, and whether philosophy can not be led from the closet and religion from the altar, and made to exert a united, a practical, and an all-powerful influence upon the affairs of men. Give justice to everyone—justice in the making of the laws, justice in the interpretation of the laws, justice in the execution of the laws,—justice first and charity afterward. But questions of detail and method constitute, after all, but a comparatively unimportant part of our problem. The great thing is, that the mass of the community shall be capable of self-govern-ment. Theologies and governments alike are but the replica of the human minds back of them. Michael Augelo may conceive SO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY heaven-reaching lines of grace; but to erect the stately edifice there must be suitable material. So, the question of the industrial welfare of the American laborer merges into the broader question of the triumph or the failures of the democratic idea upon which the American Republic is founded. Political equality and industrial inequality can not long co-exist. In our republican institutions work the ferment of the ages and the leaven of all nations. Kings may prop up their thrones with bayonets; but democracy must rest upon in-telligence. The greatest danger which confronts our republic is the grow-ing antagonism between classes. The poor will never again be the passive sufferers of bygone ages. Their indictment of social injustice is drawn and presented. "Bitter voices say it," writes Ruskin, "voices of battle and famine throughout all the world, which must be heard." The test is at hand which is to prove whether the sneers of Macaulay and Carlyle against the republic were false or founded upon truth. It is easier by far to preach the gospel of rights than to teach the law of the comprehension of duty; for the latter demands a well-disciplined and well-devel-oped intellect. We know that it is said, iu palliation of the restrictive influence of plutocracy, that the condition of the man with the hoe is as good as he deserves. We know that it would be useless and per-nicious to call upon the half-savage and brutalized peasantry by electing them to Congress or the State Legislature. We know that the man with the hoe is unfit for it, that is the very curse of the system. What is it that unfits him? What is it that makes slavish labor, and slavish ignorance, and slavish stupidity his necessary heritage? Does not the same Aryan blood course through his veins? Has he not five senses, the same faculties, the same passions? When every true American realizes that the Almighty knows no class distinctions; when the lessons of truth and purity which have been inculcated in our Christian homes, will be applied to the man with the hoe; when religion and labor will go hand in hand; when none but the bravest and most loyal citizens dare sway the employer's sceptre, all signs of decay will be buried into oblivion and we shall have a nation too noble to crumble, too great to be conquered. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 51 WAR IN THE LIGHT OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY EDWARD E. KELLEY, of Ursinus '-pHE military power of Europe has become a matter ot vital *■ importance. She is virtually arm-crushed. Her armies are devouring her very substance, depleting the national treas-uries, and changing the established social and political con-ditions. With the unsettled state of China, the increase of arma ments and navies and the attitude of a people cursed by taxation and conscription, Europe cannot remain forever a vast, hostile camp. The rivalries of England and Russia and the antipathies of the Frank and the German threaten to "turn loose the dogs of war'' to prey upon humanity for their self aggrandizement. Under existing conditions war must come. Such is the verdict of history as she points the finger of warning to Rome and Carthage. A condition of affairs like this, however, has no place in the midst of the liberty, the intelligence, the happiness and the morality of our age. When war thus threatens to rush the nations headlong into a "roaring conflagration of anarchies," then war disdains the spirit of the age, mocks the God-like reason within man, and becomes "the living and triumphant relic of barbarism." Not only Europe but the civilized world demands that this in-stitution, by which so few rights have been gained, which could not have been achieved without it, be brought before the bar of reason. For this institution has committed the greatest crimes recorded on the pages of history in blasphemy of that which is holiest; in the name of liberty, fraternity and equality, the French Revolution raised a gigantic monument whose brick was the flesh of Frenchmen and whose mortar was the heart's blood ot France. True, some wars have been productive of a lasting good. Europe purchased liberty of mind by the death of six million crusaders; religious liberty was the outgrowth of the Thirty Years' War; the French Revolution broke the iron chains of despotism; this, our own glorious union, had its birth in war. It were a grievous pity, however, if such a blasting institution had not done some good. The most lasting benefit may be the result of the worst evil, and on the other hand, "the purest, holiest and noblest virtue may be devoted to a useless cause." But the blighting and accursed results of war everywhere predominate. Civiliza-tion was retarded one hundred years, as a consequence of the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Thirty Years' war. The civil wars in England and France delayed it for similar periods. Above all, man is to be governed not by material but by moral standards. There is no doctrine more abusive to the human understanding than that we ma}' do evil that good may come. There is another sentiment—"sublime, sacred, insurmountable, indestructible, eternal—the sentiment of right." Let no advocate of war presume on the dead past as a criterion for the breathing, ever living present. Political and economic conditions have changed since George the III; absolutism is a thing of the past; the object of the crusades is now the noble mission of the press. Oh! how incompatible with the age is this institution of war. We, the heirs of all the ages, look with sympathy on the barbaric past, and still we train legions of men to the profession of murder; we speak of a higher civilization amidst the ruin of our home, the shriek of the widow and the cry of the orphan which our cruelty has made. We boast of a common brotherhood of man, and yet we grasp our fellow by the throat and stifle the very life that God gave him! The fact that our own nation recently drove despotism from the shores of this west-ern continent and broke the shackles of an oppressed people is no justification of war. It was a glorious work. And she but made use of a recognized agent which is maintained by the interests and prejudices of powerful nations. The stigma lies not on the noble work of the Republic; but upon the age which upholds this bloody relic of the past in domination over reason; for this age, while it makes the individual abide by a trial of reason, is so inconsistent as to allow the nations, groups of individuals, to be ruled merely by their lust for conquest. Let us not, I beseech you, deceive our-selves. For this institution of war to have a mission, our religion, which teaches love to one's neighbor, must be false; philosophy, which teaches the irrationality of brute force, belies itself, and man, who professes to acknowledge standards of morality and justice, is a base and unworthy hypocrite. Vain and delusive is the theory of the survival of the strongest —of the right of one civilization to crush another out of existence. Our universe is a natural one, and its units can only grow from step to step through the continuous process of natural law. Where-ever nations have attempted to usurp the place of nature by in. troducing untimely changes, inevitable and dreadful reaction has THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 53 followed. History is replete with the baneful results of coercion. Such a theory binds only the jungle. When applied to man, fash-ioned in the Divine image and sweeping onward, ever onward to the realization of his ideal, it prostrates the native dignity of his manhood in the dust. The triumph of the stronger is not the triumph of justice. O, strange Justice, which is ever on the stronger side. "Truth forever on the scaffold, wrong forever on the throne." Tell me, when Poland, noble and heroic Poland, lay crushed and bleeding at the foot of the Muscovite, was the triumph of the stronger the better? Who of us is certain in his heart that force is accomplishing a purpose in South Africa? Read in the history of Ireland another living witness against the iniquity and injustice of war. Truly, justice depends upon reason and not upon the sword, and man, "the sovereign animal of crea-tion," cannot be molded like clay. We have reached that stage in the world's progress when the restriction of force will be conducive to the advancement of civ-ilization; when co-operation must replace destructive competition. Before this growing love of humanity man must acknowledge his fellow as a natural as well as a social and political unit. Before this growing love of humanity war becomes a crime. From amongst the ruin, bloodshed, and carnage of the battle-field, the soul, startled, shrinks from its shattered body to wing its flight heavenward ':o record its destruction. Do you not think that God, the great sovereign of nature, will demand the right of its deviation from that purpose for which the laws of nature and of nature's God created it? By what right do we rush this being, its heart fermenting with evil passions, with curses upon its lips, un-called into the presence of an offended deity? How will we in judgment before the tribunal of the Most High, free ourselves from our responsibility for its condemnation? How will we an-swer the shivered, wrecked and ruined legions—the once glorious and God-like representatives of a mighty universe standing hand to hand .witnesses before the Eternal King against us? Is it through the plea that we desired the territory belonging to another? Is it through the false argument that we wished to substitute our higher civilization for a lower? The rise and fall- of nations means less to God than the loss of this one soul—this soul, which, as Cato says, "secured in her existence, smiles at the drawn dagger and defies its point. The stars shall fade away, the sun himself grow dim S4 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY with age, and nature sink in years, but thou shalt flourish in im-mortal youth, unhurt amidst the war of elements, the wrecks of matter and the crush of worlds." When all is considered we find that man is bound to his fellow not through mere ties of blood, but by the sacred ties of his own divine nature. A condition of affairs like the present which ig-nores this hallowed link of a common Fatherhood strikes at the very vitals of Christian idealism. The maintenance of war, this relic of primitive man, on the plea of its antiquity is unjustifiable. History is a mute witness to the fact that all human institutions have their day, that once they have ceased to be of utility they must either be forgotten or destroyed. "There is no question without an answer; no problem without a solution." War and "man's inhumanity to man has made countless thousands mourn." Man introduced inequalities and wrongs upon this earth; honor de-mands that by him they must be righted. Duty calls to everyone of us to array himself on the side of humanity. Let others sing of the flag and country, I plead for this growing love of humanity which will elevate and purify patriotism. Let others chant the martial music of war, I hear the cries which have risen midst the ruins of the world's battle fields; from the homes of those who have shed the rich, ripe blood of their manhood in behalf of military glory; from the millions who have been robbed of their liberties; from the millions throughout the broad universe who have been ruthlessly sacrificed to the cause of nations. Oh, we have had enough,of bloodshed! Let us blot it from our lives, and I appeal to you, representatives of our civilization, to cast your in-fluence wherever you can, against this hideous relic of barbarism. Remembrance implores you by the sorrow-tensioned chords of memory; from every blood-stained battle-field the commingled ashes of the dead entreat you; humanity cries out to you in the mute persuasion of her fallen greatness, and heaven adjures you in the dying agonizing voice of a crucified God: Thou shalt not plant the brand of Cain upon the brow of man! >*> ««£> " Eloquence is the appropriate organ of the highest personal energy.''—Emerson. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURi 55 ■ INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION TO SATISFY NATIONAL HONOR JAMHS N. DOWNEY, of Lehig-h HPHE establishment of an international tribunal to which all * disputes between nations, that cannot otherwise be adjusted, should be referred has been the dream of philosophers and states-men for ages. That this has not been accomplished, proves that civilization has not advanced sufficiently to enable nations to set-tle their differences except by resort to arms. In the dawn of civilization we find, even in judicial processes, a mixture of forcible contention, showing the transition from a period when rights were regulated by the strong hand. In later years, however, there has been some progress in settling disputes between nations and the principle that human reason is capable of settling differences as well as creating them has been established. The past century was ushered in in the midst of a period of destructive wars and its history contains the records of many bloody conflicts. Nevertheless, it has witnessed the growth of the practice of international arbitration to satisfy '' National Honor." This method has been shown to be broad and far-reach-ing, and while in some instances the award has been set aside or not enforced, in no case have two nations gone to war after hav-ing agreed to arbitrate a difference. The first experience of this nation in settling disputes was the Jay Treaty with Great Britain in 1794. While this treaty was not satisfactory and by no means popular with the American people it is our initial step in the paths of arbitration. Washing-ton alone, while not approving of the treaty, stood up for it and signed it. In so doing he exhibited his firmness of character, good judgment, and foresight. And when he said "My objects are to prevent war, if justice can be obtained by fair and strong representations of the injuries which this country has sustained at the hands of Great Britain," he at once struck the key-note of arbitration. Since the Jay Treaty there have been twenty distinct arbitrations between the two great English speaking nations of the world, Great Britain and the United States, of which the Behring Sea dispute is the latest example. The greatest settle-ment was that of the "Geneva Award" in regard to the Alabama claims and it demonstrated that arbitration between nations was possible. This was a grave question and involved the honor 01 S6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY England and the United States, yet by temperate and wise dis-cussion, it was brought to a peaceful adjustment, and, as has wisely been said, "Two great and powerful nations, gaining in wisdom and self-control and losing nothing in patriotism and self-respect, taught the world that the magnitude of a controversy need not be a bar to its peaceful solution and the maintenance of national honor." When the conference at the Hague was called by the Czar in 1899, the suggestion was greeted with sneers and suspicion on the part of many, with enthusiasm by a few and by most with a shrug of the shoulders. The majority of the delegates attending had vague ideas concerning arbitration and its extent. Russia, the leader of the movement, was the greatest surprise of all. She thought arbitration should be made obligatory except where honor and vital interests were involved. Honor and vital interests are always shadowy things in the hands of the statesmen, and, more-over, can be shown to exist in any dispute that may arise. The conference found the idea of disarmament too fanciful and the limitation of armament to its present strength premature. Dis-armament should follow and not precede arbitration. The real obstacle in the way of arbitration is not so much the lack of efficiency in method as the lack of disposition to try it, and the system of arbitration presupposes that nations desire an amicable adjustment of their differences. Such settlement may be prevented, either by wilful opposition to it, by claims that render argument impossible, or by some covert act on the part of one of those concerned. It is difficult, if not impossible, to con-tend against a situation like this, since the direct tendency and effect is to bring on a collision before arbitrators can intervene. History affords many examples of aggressive wars or wars of ambition where national honor was not concerned; but happily they are now becoming less frequent. The remedy against such wars was suggested in the unratified treaty of arbitration adopted in 1890 by the Pan-American Conference. It was proposed to adopt a principle of international law, and to make it imperative that diplomatic and consular controversies and any disputes what-soever between nations, except cases in which, in the judgment of one of the parties concerned, its independence was at stake, should be settled by arbitration. The object of this was to leave each nation the right of self defense, while forbidding any to - THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 57 commit aggression. Again, at the conference at Hague, these resolutions were revived and vigorously pushed by Great Britain and the United States. Great generals have shown their abhorrence of war. Well-ington said, "Nothing except a battle won can be half so melan-choly as a battle lost." General Grant, speaking of arbitration and national honor, said, "Though I have been trained as a soldier and have taken part in many battles, there was never a time, when in my estimation some way could not have been found to prevent the drawing of the sword." The characters of the men who govern nations and to whom the honor of their country is entrusted, shape the events that fol-low. If they are wise and honorable, then their country will be peaceful and prosperous. If they are impulsive, self-seeking, and unreasonable, then their country will suffer. Our republic, guided and directed by this spirit, has done more for the cause of international arbitration than any other country in the world. Its purpose has been the enlargement of the individual, the advancement of his interests and liberties, and finally, to administer justice to all. The question of peace and the satisfaction of national honor is one which may not be settled for generations. It is one, how-ever, which this and every coming generation will have to deal with, and whatever is done the world looks to the United States as a leader. Appreciating this we may close our minds to our ingenious fault-finding and turning our eyes away to the far horizon, we there see the shadowy images of international law and justice and morality dimly visible among the clouds. k "The prodigies which eloquence often works, in the hands of a single man, upon an entire nation, are perhaps the most shining testimony of the superiority of one man over another." —D''Alemberi. 58 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY JOHN RUSKIN—THE MAN ' WM. L. HESS, of Swarthmore JOHN RUSKIN has said, 'All my theories are summed up in *-* the line of Wordsworth, 'We live by admiration, hope and love.' Not admiration of ourselves, nor hope for ourselves. Love can be only of others; self-love is a contradiction of terms." Truly, a noble utterance from a man of intense earnest-ness and commanding sincerit3r. Search where you will, there can be found no character who commands more genuine respect and whose personality has been more general than that of the practical thinker, the late John Ruskin. His was a life of genius, enthusiasm and self-devotion. To read him is to admire him; and to admire him is to admire that which is sincere, pure and poetic. John Ruskin was born in London, England. Unlike the fathers of many of our celebrities, his father was a man of affluence, his shrewdness in business, that of a wine merchant, being the means of his acquiring a fortune early in life. We are told that the elder Ruskin was of a visionary nature when away from his shop, and that he spent his evenings in reading Shakespeare and in singing. The mother was a woman of great severity. One of the tasks which she imposed upon her son until he was fourteen years of age was that of committing many and long passages from the Bible. The influence of this early teaching was manifold. His writings teem with Biblical quotations and imagery. We do not find in Ruskin's early life any of those amusements which are so common to boyhood. He was not in any way in-dulged, and if he committed a fault the usual penalty was sure to follow. These restrictions made his boyhood unattractive and uninteresting. Yet there was developing in this quiet and reserved child a genius which was destined to astound the world. At the age of eleven years he is discovered successfully copy-ing the etched illustrations by George Cruikshank, to Grimm's '' Fairy Tales." It is true that as an etcher he showed slight pro-ficiency, but this early performance is evidence that he had the power to become mighty in something although it happened not to be in etching. After having received a preparatory training under the direc-tion of tutors, Ruskin was sent to Oxford, where he was graduated at Christ Church College. His college life was uneventful, and of his life at Oxford he relates, "It seemed to me all that was re- I THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 59 quired of me was to say my prayers, go to church, learn my les-sons, obey my parents and enjoy my dinner." Like the unfolding of a beautiful, delicately perfumed flower which gradually opens its petals to God's genial sunshine was the unfolding of the life and character of the nineteenth century prophet, John Ruskin. The tempest of criticism beat about him; the fierce winds of doubt, greed and envy tried by their piercing blasts to cast him to the dust; but, like the flower, he remained steadfast and pure—beautiful in his constancy. He held that 'his mission in life was to proclaim the beauties in the works of others—not his own." Did he fulfill his mission? Ask that stu-dent of art who received his first impressions from Ruskin ! Did he fulfill his mission ? Turn to that student of architecture who owes to Ruskin what skill he possesses, and ask if his master ful-filled his mission ! Ask that lecturer or preacher who uses such choice rhetoric in his discourses, that lecturer or preacher who has read Ruskin ! Ask that social reformer who has studied Rus-kin's ideas and method of reform as he saw them in others but which he idealized and made his own; yes, ask that question of all, and the artist, the architect, the lecturer and preacher, and the social reformer will candidly answer, John Ruskin did fulfill his mission, he did perform those duties which he claimed he would perform; and, sir, the world to-day is better because there has lived in it a man who not only promised, but one who also acted out his promises in word and in deed. Ah! a great and good man has gone out from our midst. The physical form of our lamented Ruskin has left us, but the influence of his Christian life remains. And this influence will remain as long as the world endures, and future generations will appreciate Ruskin as we have failed to do. Criticism will be heard no more; but the melody of his language; his grand prophetic visions will be enjoyed by all! Pre-eminently was Ruskin a nature-worshipper. He loved the flowers, the brook, the mountains, and the fleecy clouds. To him the wayside rose preached more eloquently than words the lessons of purity and simplicity, and to sit for hours watching the fitful changing of the skies was to him a perfect delight. His soul stirred within him, he could exclaim with Shakespeare: 60 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY "Full many a glorious morning have I seen Flatter the mountain-tops with sovereign eye, Kissing with golden face the meadow green, Gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy." We should study Ruskin, for, by so doing, our faculty of appreciation for nature will be opened. We will more deeply value the small things which lie about us on life's pilgrimage. The tiny blade of grass will arouse new thoughts within us. The dainty Quaker-lady will teach us the lesson of humility as it has never before been taught; even the seemingly unsightly stones which are strewn along our path possess a language too deep for words. An editor of note has lately said, "Work is for the worker." To no one does this more aptly apply than to John Ruskin. Many of his well-defined theories for the betterment of the working classes, and for the uplifting of humanity in general may appear to have been as seed sown by the wayside, but the time spent in working out his theories only strengthened him for the practical tasks which he so well performed day by day. That which is put into work is surely that which shall be reaped. Put in envy, and discontent and misery shall be the reward, whereas power is the reward of love and patience! Thus it was a practical test of our teacher when he gathered around him that promiscuous band of workmen and children to teach .them the right way of living. After his arduous labor of thirty long years to undertake such a stupendous work was noth-ing less than heroic. Again must we pay honor to this fearless spirit, who needed only to speak, and the intelligence of the world listened with awe! L,eft a fortune by his father, he lavished it upon his chosen people, ignorant and poverty stricken. The quintessence of art, literature, and science was offered to them; and costly museums were founded for their instruction. And this cost him more than his wealth! He paid the price; they reaped the material reward! His was the loss of peace; theirs was the gain of a new life and happiness! But the enterprise was a failure! Failure, did I say? Yes, but a glorious failure; not shorn of any of its benefits, its fame still lives as a blessing to humanity! In its character this enterprise might seem Utopian, but after all deductions have been made there is no discredit to be cast THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 61 upon the memory of John Ruskin, for, bear in mind, he was merely living what he wrote. With his Bible as his lexicon he followed its teachings; followed them although the whole Christian world laughed him to scorn; aye, followed them even after his project had failed! He wrote, "Religion is a submission, not an aspira-tion; an obedience, not an ambition, of the soul," and he lived that religion. His life was a constant submission, a holy obedi-ence to the will of his God, and our God. In his declining years he was rejected; thrust aside by the busy world; but from out his confinement we still heard him proclaim against the evils of the times. In poor health, yet while life lasted he continued to attack the most alluring vices, and preach those "inner virtues" which he held so sacred. There was something awaiting him beyond which was no vanity; all was radiant before him; and on the twentieth of January of the last year of the nine-teenth century the soul of John Ruskin serenely took its flight. . The character of this great benefactor of the whole human race, what is its message to thinking men and women? Simply this, that truth, knowledge, right living, are the basis of growth in man. But there is a sadness in truth! Knowledge has its sorrow! Right living still continues to have its tragedy! The martyred Lincoln wrote the truth in his Proclamation which freed millions in bondage, and his life was the price! The Seeker after knowledge, a Newton or a Darwin, must drink to the dregs the cup of sorrow! A Christ must be led to a Calvary, and there pay the penalty for his spotless life! Upon the monument of Time one more name should be en-graved, that of John Ruskin, and underneath, I would have traced the words, "Prince of Peace." "Those who speak in public are better heard when they dis-course by a lively genius and ready memory than when they read all they would communicate to their hearers."—Watts. "The business of oratory is to persuade people." —Lord Chesterfield. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Kntertdat the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. X GETTYSBURG, PA., APRIL, 1901 No. 2 K. C. RUBY, '02, Editor-in- Chief R. ST. CLAIR POFFENBARGER,' 02, Business Manager J. F. NEWMAN, '02, Exchange Editor AAssi■s,tant. E»dji,tors Advisor'y Board " , ., 0 ,"" PROF. J. A. HIMES, A. M., LIT. D. MISS ANNIE M. SWARTZ, '02 _ " " " ' "' * . " " ,", PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. A. B. RICHARD,'02 _ . _. _ ' _ PROF. J. W. RICHARD. D. D. Assistant Business Manager CURTIS E. COOK, '03 Published each mouth, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Fifteen Cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS "Mercuri, facande nepos Atlantis." THIS expression from Horace no doubt was used in the prayers of each of the orators who have recently been in our midst and have given us such a delightful treat in oratory. The earnest attention and hearty applause which were given by the audience are sufficient evidences that the efforts of the orators were highly appreciated. Through the kindness of the contestants we are permitted to place before our readers all the orations which were used in the contest, and to the Public Ledger of Philadelphia we owe our grat-itude for the use of the plate in reproducing the photogravure as found on the frontispiece in this issue. We wish to state, how- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 63 ever, that the defects in the frontispiece are due to the condition of the plate and not that of the printer. Time did not permit of any change. • Having opened a new store opposite W. M. R. R. Depot, will be pleased to have you call and examine goods. Picture Framing promptly attended to. Repair Work a Specialty Students' Trade Solicited FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. Spalding's Official League Ball and Athletic Goods Officially adopted by the lead ing Colleges, Schools and Athletic Clubs of the Country Every Requisite for— BAbE BALL FOOT BALL QOLF TENNIS ATHLETICS QVfllNASIUM Spalding's Official League Ball Is the Official Ball of the National League, the princi-pal minor leagues and all the leading college associations Handsome Catalogue of Base Ball arid all Athletic Sports Free to any address Spalding's Offi-cial Base Ball Guide for 1901, edited by Henry Chadwick, ready March 30,1901. Price 10 cents. A. Q. SPALD1NQ & BROS., Incorporated NEW YORK CHICAGO DENVER ROWE, Your Grocer Carries Full Line ol Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc, Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEOE CAMPUS. S. J. CODORI, iM Druggistoe Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J- Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE ST. R. H. GULP PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York Street. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. 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Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs ; The purpose of this review is to canvas policies and, to the extent possible, practices of major multilateral and bilateral development agencies, aimed at including disability in development. Development that includes disability, as referenced in this review, is understood as development in which persons with disabilities participate as both actors and beneficiaries. It can be achieved by disability specific initiatives, by adding disability-specific components to development programs, by fully inclusive programming, designed to include disability concerns into all development processes, or by a combination of these approaches. While this review does not claim to be exhaustive, it does attempt to provide as comprehensive as possible an overview of policies and practices on disability and development (D&D), both within and among the United Nations (UN) system, and among major bilateral development agencies. It should be noted that this is a dynamic issue and thus many development agencies are either in the process of crafting new disability policies or strategies or are currently reviewing their existing approaches with a view to modifying or amending them. Section two of this report reviews the international legal and policy framework pertinent to the consideration of D&D with particular attention to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Section three reviews multilateral agencies and structures, particularly those within the UN system, and reviews their existing policies and/or practices related to D&D. Section four includes coverage of regional structures supporting the inclusion of disability in development. Section five identifies bilateral development agencies that, either as matter of written policy or as evidenced through practice, have taken steps to design and implement programs and practices that are inclusive of disability. Section six provides conclusions.

Doing business in India 2009 is the first country specific subnational report of the doing business series that measures business regulations and their enforcement across India. Doing business in India 2009 covers 10 out of the 12 previously measured cities, and documents their progress. It adds 7 new locations, expanding the study to 17 locations. Comparisons with the rest of the world are based on the indicators in doing business 2009. The indicators in doing business in India 2009 are also comparable with the data in other subnational and regional doing business reports. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where, and why. Other areas that significantly affect business, such as a country's proximity to markets, the quality of infrastructure services (other than services related to the trading across borders indicator), the security of property from theft and looting, the transparency of government procurement, macroeconomic conditions, or the underlying strength of institutions, are not directly studied by doing business.

The Mercury November. 1908 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume, Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. ™?j£r^2l CAPS AND GOWNS lo (Gettysburg Coilege. Lafayette. Lehigh. Dickinson. State College. Univ. of Penn sylvi.ii", Harvard. Tale. Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and tho others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods _. Degrees. Mr. College Man We are already lining up our clients for next Spring. With our National Organization of 12 offices we will need over 2000 college men ror technical, office, sales and teaching positions throughout the United States. We can also use at any time college men who are in the market for a position. Let us explain to you NOW. Write for the "College Mau's Opportunity." It tells how Hapgoods, a great organization built up by college men has placed many thousand youngmen, has raised the standard of college men as a business factor throughout the world. (State age, education, location desired. 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WEAVER ORGAN AND PIAN ) CO., MANUFACTURERS, YORK, PA , U S A. H^^i^S$g;^oKMCSK&t^KC^C^!^S4$^9Ki^^MC;^;^^ ■ I '•t 'V. IT I\v f ■£■ h '■)/ 1\ I•V Students' Headquarters —FOR— HATS, SHOES, AND GENT'S FURNISHING. Sole Agent for WALK-OVER SHOE ECKERT'S STORE. Prices Always Eight lite Lutheran PuMicfltioii Society No 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY 8. BONER, Supt, THE M ERCURY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. Voi. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1908 No. G CONTENTS. THE SPIRIT OF SELF-SACRIFICE, 2 S. SNYDER, '09. I A DEFENSE OF FOOTBALL, 7 H. DOLLMAN, '08. THE IDEAL AMERICAN GOVERNMENT, 10 G. L. KIEFFER, '09. THE DANCE OF DEATH, 11 S. BOWER, '10. OUR LITERARY SOCIETIES—I. PHILO, 16 FRIENDSHIP AND THE STRENUOUS LIFE, 18 PAUL M. MARSHAL, '10. OUR TREATMENT OF AN INFERIOR RACE, SO R. E. BOWERS, '10. THE POWER OF PUBLIC OPINION, 22 MISS VIRGINIA BEARD, '09. WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS BEST FOR CULTURE, 25 O. D. MOSSER, '09. EDITORIALS, 27 BOOK REVIEWS, 29 EXCHANGES, 31 THE MEFCUKY THE SPIRIT OF SELF-SACRIFICE. S. SNYDER, '09. N this age of commercialism and industrialism every man is striving for a position in the world. His high-est aim seems to be that this position should make him prominent in the eyes of his fellow-men. The spirit of the age tends somewhat towards selfishness. Man seems to have lost the dee]) meaning of the term sacrifice. Webster de-fines the term, in the light we wish to consider it, as surrender, or suffer to be lost, for the sake of obtaining some thing; to give up in favor of a higher or more imperative object of duty. Self-sacrifice is then, the sacrificing of one's self, one's interest, for others. Such a spirit we all admire. Every nation immortalizes her heroes and her martyrs. Why is this? Why does the spirit of self-sacrifice fill our minds with the greatest admiration and gratitude? Admiration, because the man who sacrifices is worthy to be admired. Gratitude, because through the efforts and sacrifices of men from age to age, the world stands at the present time more nearly perfect than ever before. Self-sacrifice is an unchangeable law. All around us are il-lustrations of this. It may be traced from man to the far dis-tant beginnings of life in its lowest forms. Below even the or-ganic we find the atom giving itself to the molecule and the molecule giving itself to the crystal, it is prevalent throughout the vegetable and animal kingdoms. In these the weaker are sacrificed to the stronger. It is very evident then, that in the plan of nature the lower was intended as a means to the higher. Naturally then the question arises, if this is an unchangeable law in all the lower ranks of nature, where everything is sacrificed unconsciously or unwillingly, does it stop when it reaches man, the very point when the beauty of morality and the glory of heroism becomes possible? Nay, rather the reverse. Sacrifice in the lower forms simply fortells what it should be when it reaches man, something higher and nobler, because man ] - sesses an intellect—a will. It is then no longer a fixed law. • It-is in the power of the individual to use at bis will. THE MEROUEY. Man realizes the importance and the joyful reward of a life infused with this noble spirit, but in this like many of his other activities, he is unwilling to pay the price. He too willingly gives up his high and noble ideals of self-advancement to his baser and more ignoble passions. As a country grows richer the sacrificial spirit naturally de-clines, but never should it be forgotten. For this spirit has made history. Progress of any kind can be attained only through sacrifice. AVhatever vocation in life one aspires to is attained only by a certain amount of sacrifice upon the part of the aspirant. (Glory and renown will be brought to the seeker and his vocation in proportion as his life is filled with the spirit of sacrifice.) The story of individuals is precisely the same as that of na-tions, it was not an easy task to found the great empires of Greece and Rome. Not simply one sacrifice but a series of sac-rifices accomplished these two great tasks. Greece, lovely Greece, the land of poets, the mother of art and philosophy! How proud she can feel of her illustrious men! Men whose works are still alive and helping to mark destinies. Her governmental found-ers who were so filled with that high sense of honor and right that her history became famous! Her citizens in general, how brave and noble! They were willing to sacrifice their very lives in the pass of Thermopylae and on the plains of Marathon that the honor of their nation might survive. They fondly hoped her influence should go on forever. But alas! All her glory suddenly turned to shame and she fell. Rome, the city of the seven hills, was likewise the seat of a e mighty nation. She was invincible on land and sea. She ruled the world. Her list of illustrious men how wonderful! The very founders of law and government which today we fol-low. But alas! Her death knell, too, was sounded and she fell. "Why did these great nations fall? Simply because they ne-glected to carry out the fundamental principles on which they were founded. Jealous}-, avarice, and debauchery virtually : • ?ed their ruin. Is this not the story of many a lost life? The downfall of Greece and Borne remain a message to every republic in every time. The same enemies of Greece are at WOTk todav. Every nation should be on her guard lest these -4 THE MERCURY, same enemies gnaw at her vitals and place her honored name among the nations that were, but are no more. What is true of nations is likewise true of individuals, because a nation is nothing more than an aggregation of individuals. Who can read the history of that little country, the Nether-lands, that so valiantly defended its religious and civil liberties, without regarding it as one of the noblest examples of self-sac-rifice in all history? Think of the little children crying in the streets at the death of her noble leader, William the Silent. How many children cried in the streets at the news of Napoleon's death? The lives of truly great men are measured by the sac-rifices wherewith they have lifted humanity to a higher stand-ing. Away with the person whose motives are merely for the grati-fication of self. Scott points out the destiny of such an ideal in these words:— "The wretch concentered all in self, Living shall forfeit fair renown, And, doubly dying shall go down To the vile dust from which he sprung Unwept, unhonored, and unsung." Our own country, today the head of all nations, was establish-ed through the glorious spirit of sacrifice. Queen Isabella of Spain gave Columbus her jewels that he might plough through the mighty waters of the untried sea and discover the shores of an unknown world. After the discovery came the colonization of America, and we can but faintly picture the hardships endured by emigrants com-ing to strange shores. Yet they passed through all these trials cheerfully in the hopes that their posterity would fare better. The Revolutionary War which secured national independence to the colonies, shone brilliantly with the noble spirit of self-sacrifice. It was the spirit that moved Patrick Henry, in that memorable Virginia convention, to utter those inspiring words. "Give me liberty or give me death." It was this spirit that prompted Washington to leave his comfortable and peaceful THE JIERCUHY. home at Mt. Vernon to assume the cai-es and duties of command-er- in-chief of the Continental Army. It was this spirit that ciuised Lafayette to leave the sunny clime of France to fight for America's liberty. It was this spirit that caused Nathan Hale to utter those inspiring words, dear to the heart of every loyal American, "All that I regret is that I have but one life to give to my country." It was this spirit that possessed those three patriots, who refused to release their captive prisoner even though offered bribes of gold. Yea, it was this spirit that prompted the thousands of brave heroes to give the very best they had—their very lives—that their country might be free and independent of Great Britain to become the greatest repub-lic the world has ever known. But these are historical facts of many years past. Behold our present surroundings! All around us are the marks of a once bloody struggle. Here on this historic battlefield of Gettysburg-thousands of brave heroes gave their life-blood for the cause they thought to be right. But I woud not hold up before you such examples as those heroes of the Bevolution, nor would I hold before you the heroes of hard fought battlefields as the highest and only types of self- Bacrifice. There is one sacrifice of the battlefield and there is another not of the battlefield. The sacrifice of giving one's life on the battlefield simply shows what man will do when put to the test. In this there is an objective impulse impelling him on- • id. The other type of sacrifice is that type which is working ■secretly, the results of which come out before the world in deeds, not words. That type of sacrifice that sees in the future some noble purpose which will be a benefit to humanity and which dares to stand firm in the presence of opposition. That type which, when wrong is in its presence, dares to hurl against it all the powers of right. Such a spirit of sacrifice has recognized the mutual relations of Sacrifice and Service. True sacrifice should always serve. Patriotic self-sacrifice was known before Christ, and it is known outside of Christendom. That is but saying that Christi-anity interprets the sublime experiences as it supplies the deep-est needs of the human race. This it does by showing human. virtue to he a manifestation of the divine life. 6 THE MERCURY. But sacrifice has done more than mould great nations given to man eternal life. The stories of ancient struggles assume a new significance when read in the light of Christ's life and death. They are but revelations of that life of God in the soul of man which is as universal as humanity. Remove from the Bible the historical interpretation of sacri-fice, and from the Christian hymns the expression of the Chris-tian faith in divine sacrifice; and by that very act the inspiration to self-sacrifice as the consummate flower of the divinity in man and the supreme ethical expression of the highest life is taken away. it has The life of Christ was one of contin-uous sacrifice but the sacrifice of giving His life on the cross that man might be saved far eclipsed all others. But there is another type of sacrifice which is seldom men-tioned and it has done and is still doing more than any other, humanly speaking, to mould characters and to shape destinies. This is the sacrifice of the mother in the home. Of all earth's sacred shrines the home is supreme. What is home without a mother? The sacrifices of a mother are unparalleled. Words can paint no picture of them. To realize their deep significance they must be experienced. We are in a sense what our mothers make us. How many of us would be compelled to write shame upon our foreheads were it not for the sacrifices and guiding hand of mother? She is the colossal figure that towers above •all others. She is the one who solves the many perplexities of the home and radiates it with a brightness and sacredness inde-scribable. She is the essence of love divine. THE MERCURY. A DEFENSE OF FOOTBALL. HARRY DOLLMAN, '08. j OOTBALL has been condemned by many, but mostly by those who know little or nothing about the game itself and the real merits of the game. Now, it is only rea-sonable and fair that football should be judged from an unprejudiced and unbiased point of view. Man is not only unfair to himself, when he forms hasty opinions without having weighed all the facts in the case, but his actions become very ignoble when he endeavors to enforce his ungrounded con-clusions upon others. We will admit that there are some marked evils attached to the game, but we do not believe they belong to the main body of football any more than a wart or a mole is a part of the nor-mal physical organism. They are mere accidents. If we elimi-nate from our sports, which are so essential to keep the body and mind in a normal healthy state, every game that bears some evil fruit, we will be compelled to do away with athletics alto-gether and possibly with all forms of recreation. There is a well-grounded sociological principle which bids us to substitute something positive when we wish to eliminate an evil tendency. This is especially true when the evil tendency attracts the attention of the young. Since the hostile football critics have not been able to offer a substitute, the wise course is not extermination but rather a readjustment of the game so as to suppress the evil effects. Do away with football in college life and you will introduce a series of escapades. Do away with athletics altogether and you will usher in a chaotic state of disorder. All the penned up pas-sions of youth would then be let loose to work havoc and destruc-tion. Football is an exhaust valve through which all the super-fluous energy of mob violence escapes by means of a natural and harmless outlet. You never hear of college eruptions during the football season. College strikes, raids, and the like are un-known when the student body has a common interest at stake in the success of their team. This branch of athletics has also a harmonizing effect upon. 8 THE MERCURY. the students. They gather in mass meetings to arouse enthu-siasm for a common cause. There are no class distinctions. There is no fraternity prejudice. The faculty, the college men. the preparatorians, and the seminarians are on the same level. All have come together in a common hond of fellowship, that each one may contribute his part to the athletic success of ! i - Alma Mater. If this great American game touches I lie emotions of the soul and causes it to overflow with enthusiasm, will these same emo-tions lie dormant when the student goes out in active life? No, he will undertake the great tasks before him with that enthusi-asm which he developed and fostered in college. He will ac-quire that unerring confidence which will enable him to tackle every obstacle and to press forward towards the goal of his life's ambition. Injury of body, a sluggish intellect, and immorality have been associated with football. But here again, the critic is laboring under a false impression. He is judging rather from the excep-tions and not from the broad general effects. Football develops the physical, quickens the intellectual, and disciplines the moral side of man. It only requires a little direct observation to determine how quickly football transforms a slow, awkward, round-shouldered,, anatomy into a spry, supple, square-shouldered organism. It produces in a player a firmness and alertness of step, a strong, graceful movement of the body, and above all, it is the best ex-ercise known to increase the amount of chest expansion. On the other hand, football teaches the participant to think quickly and act quickly. He must be able to comprehend and interpret signals and act instantly. He must learn to size up his opponents' strength, to take into account his own position on the gridiron, to strike the right blow at the right time and at the right place. Many brawny men stand along the side lines because they are not able to use their heads while in a game. Generalship is more important than avoirdupois in gaining a victory on the gridiron. There is no other game in the curriculum of athletics that tones down an explosive temper so well as football. The univer-sal testimony of football men bear witness to this fact. A playeY THK MLERCtniY. ■will very soon learn that be must respect the rights of others. Clean playing wins, while Foul playing carries the ball towards the enemy's go.il. Apart, from all this, the host moral benefit a player receives is the discipline he derives from careful training. I take the liberty of quoting the pledge which forty-three football candi-dates in Gettysburg College have signed: "1st. I do hereby pledge upon my honor to abstain-from the use of tobacco in any form, intoxicating liquors of any kind, to indulge in no licentious acts or conversation, nor willingly listen to or observe the same, to observe proper sleeping hours as or-dered, to lake no part in any gambling (including betting on any contest), to attend promptly every game and practice (un-less excused in advance by the coach), to do all in my power to promote harmony and good feeling among the members of the team, and cheerfully to obey all rules and regulations which may be adopted in the future. "2nd. The fact that I do not win a position on the team will not absolve me from this pledge." Does it mean anything to the moral life of a small institu-tion to have forty-three men adopt such principles in their every day life as are embodied in this document? Does it not also .strengthen the individual to observe these rules rigidly when he is tempted to break them ? Will men be disposed to ignore these principles when.they get out into the real contests of life? There is a price put upon a clean moral life that his mind may be free to act and his body quick to respond. 10 THE MEKCUUY. THE IDEAL AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. Q. L. KIEFFEK, '09. |HEN our forefathers left the sovereign dominions of Europe and settled on the American shores, they sought a tolerance of thought and action. And when the hand of tyranny still persisted in reaching across the seas mi (I grasping them in its despotism, they arose with one accord and declared themselves free and equal. They then set up upon this earth a form of government which they meant to be ideal. Yea, it has even modified the form of every existing government. But its firm establishment was not without a price. The welding of the nation as a world power was amid the din of battle. But not alone by din of battle was this accomplished. Her illustrious sons in her halls of state during peace, also won for her eternal fame. What would she have been but for a Jef-ferson, a John Sherman, a John Hay, or a Boosevelt? Surely their achievements added to those of a Washington, a Lincoln, and a McKinley. But did the establishment of this government alone require the coping with an external world? Ah, no! Internal foes had to be met. There was a time when the curse of slavery threatened the disunion and annihilation of the nation itself. She had met her external foes and had conquered. Was she to perish by her own hand? No. Again mid the din of battle and in her halls of state victories were won. Upon the heights of Gettysburg it was decreed the nation should live. From her halls of state came forth the Emancipation Proclamation and the immortal words of Lincoln at Gettysburg. Such in brief has been our nation's historic past. But let us examine whether the ideal government, of our forefathers' con-ception is today firmly established. Is this ideal being correctly interpreted when it is necessary for the cry to go forth through-out the land : "Shall the people rale?" Is this cry, if the ideal is being correctly carried out, not tautological? Evidently an apathy exists among the American people which necessitates such a cry. The nation is not thinking of her historic past and high ideals. She has permitted her leaders to become the asso- THE MERCURY. 11 ciates of a corrupted few, and the legalizers of a despot which: corrupts her sons and daughters. But this shall not continue. The American people have not forgotten the ideals of their forefathers. They will rule su-preme. From north, from south, from east, from west, there-comes the rumor of her sons uprising to their might of self-gov-ernment. . Down with the betrayers of your confidence and: blighters of your homes. Arise ye true sons of America and save-her from the hands of her enemy. Let the righteous and just rule. God grant that the emblem of our nation shall no longer be a misnomer. May the time come when its stars in the held of" blue shall brightly be the symbol of ripening fields and happy homes; its red, the symbol of the valor and heroism of her sons not vainly manifested; its white, the undeniable symbol of the purity and the true faith of her people. And as the sun makes his daily circuit may this emblem even be found waving before-his path—a symbol of "a government of the people, by the peo-ple and for the people"—which "shall not perish from the earth." A THE DAHCE OF DEATH. S. E. BOWER, '10. T was midnight in the little Canadian town of St Francis. The continuous rattle of many shuttles and. the steady grind of factory wheels had long since died, away. Only the echo of a foot-fall on the stone pave-ment, or the distant barking of a dog across the Walloostook broke the profound silence. Probably none of the villagers were conscious of the superb, beauty of this night. All of them had long since retired—save one man. John Maynard, a bachelor, lived in the upper story of an old mansion which, divested of its former glory, was now used as a kind of apartment house. The court was to meet the-following week and he had been working for several hours on his briefs. His work finished, be folded his papers, and leaned back 12 lUE 11EKCCKY. to relax in his chair. He contemplated retiring but his atten-tion was suddely attracted by the light of the clear moon. He stepped to the window to drink in the beauty of this night. From his position he could look down upon the Walloostook as her shining waters moved along silently. On the ridge yon-der his eye beheld an oak standing in profile against the sky. and near it one pale star caught in the upper branches of a dead pine. On the opposite ridge but a short distance away, the little graveyard stood out in full view where tops of the pine trees were rocking to and fro' in the night breeze and the white stones shone in the moonlight and the long shadows crept silently o • this dwelling place of the dead. For some time Maynard stood silently musing upon the see] '•This is the very witching time of night when the spirits stalk abroad," said he to himself, startled by the sound of his owi voice. Suddenly it flashed through mind that this was the eve of All Saints' Day, the night on which the disembodied spirits returned to visit the scenes of their life on this earth. Just then the town clock struck the half hour after eleven. He hastily threw on his coat, reached for his hat and betook himself to the graveyard. He was a venturesome fellow and de-termined to find out for himself whether this superstition had any foundation in fact. He hurried along at a breathless pace and was soon at the entrance of the cemetery where the rusty gate created an unwelcome greeting as he passed within. For a moment he stood still, hesitating to pursue this adventure, but the sound of the midnight hour from the distant clock spurred him on to quick action. He rushed to a secluded corner of the graveyard and concealed himself beneath a grave-stone. "This is indeed a ghostly scene," thought he, "and I wonder whether my foolhardiness will be rewarded." The echoing ring had not yet died away when the graves be-gan to yawn forth their dead. One after another opened and there floated majestically forth all that was left of that frail form which men and women so often worship here on earth. Others came more slowly as though reluctant to be aroused from their peaceful slumber. Some had but one leg, others but one-arm. Some forms were bowed with a ripe old age, others had' THE MERCURY. 13 the bearing of a knight. Some jaws were set with teeth of gold,. while others had no teeth at all. At first there was heard not a sound to break the awful still-ness, but as the assembly increased in number the spirits began. to seek out each his own friend or relative and soon the conver-sation became general. '"How are you, Brown, I'm glad to see you out again." ■•Hello, Smith, where've you been keeping yourself?" •'And here's our old friend Jones. Jones, we're mighty glad-to see you." "Well, just think of it," grumbled poor old Mrs. Black, "if my old man didn't go and git married again, and buried his second wife within two feet of me. I won't lie there, so I won't. No, I won't." "Oh, dear," sighed old maid Perkins, "nary a hand has teched my grave in twenty years, by the look of it, an' think of the money I had." And thus it continued. Here a young fellow muttering male-diction on a certain young doctor who had made an unsuccessful attempt to remove his appendix; and there an old miser griping two rusty pennies—sole remnants of his earthly store. At length a huge and bony frame, more stately than his fellows, mounted a tomb-stone and addressed the assembly: "My clear fellow spirits: Some of you have been rather tardy in coming forth but I guess we are about all here at last. And now what shall be the manner of our celebration ? You remem-ber last year we scattered about the town on a visit to our old homes and friends; shall we do that again? "Yes, let's us visit the town," said one, "I have but one living relative and I must call on him." "No, let's stay here and have a dance," said another, "I want to get limbered up." "Let's have a good old experience meeting," said a third. "Not much. I had enough of them on earth to satisfy me." A sudden whiff of smoke hid the little assembly for an in-stant and when it cleared away Herr Teufel himself was stand-ing in their midst. He was greeted with an enthusiasm which carried Maynard back to his college days in which he figured in 8 football star and his comment was,. '^^tWB«i^a^tJji(.|§.,mjti 1 GETTYSBURG COLLEGE Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY - 14 THE MERCURY. confined to earth."' .Now the devil persuaded them to celebrate with a dance, explaining that if any relative needed attention he would be glad to look after the matter himself. "We have no instrument," objected one spirit. "Give me a fiddle," shouted the devil. An old musician came forth, through iho crowd and produced a violin which had been buried with him at his request. "This instrument has suffered somewhat from neglect," ob-served his Satanic Majesty, "it has only two strings." But that, however, is not of any circumstance to a good musician. This,. in fact, gives me an opportunity to prove to you thai ! can w\ a bow as expertly as that form of intra-mundane trident that is peculiar to my lordly office. Let's see. Two strings. A and G. "Why, that makes a discord.*' The assembled spirits laughed a hollow laugh at this remark. "Yes, a discord," continued the devil, "the sort of progression not without canon in my tin of music. But enough of this palaver. I'll show you that if necessity is the mother of invention I'm its father." In a I ri he pulled up the A string a half tone to B fiat and began a stir-ring dance in G minor. As the strains of music began to sound shrill and clear on the night air, the shadowy forms snatched each one his partner, whether man or woman, old or young. The many joints, stiff from non-use, began to creak and grind together till the music itself was almost drowned. The practiced violinist became warmed to the fray and brought forth such magical strains that one was reminded of the sacred cremona in the hands of the master. The steps and swing of the dancers increased to the rythm of the music till the dry bones rattled and clattered aa only dry bones can. "They glided past, they glided fast Like travelers through a mist. They mocked the moon in a rigadoon Of delicate turn and tryst. "With mop and mow we saw them go Slim shadows—hand in hand. About, about, in ghostly rout They trod a savaband. THE MERCURY. 21 would require too much space. Let us limit ourselves to the manner in which the American negroes are treated by the people ef the United States, and show why they are considered so in-ferior, how they are treated and the possible remedy for closing the breach between the two races. The negro is here'to stay. It is a case of "visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth gener-ation,'' in a magnified sense. When the old slave-traders were conveying thousands of human beings across the waters, so as to make the men of another race rich and prosperous, little did they think that they would be as free and independent by law as the masters themselves. They brought them here to serve, and they thought that they would naturally serve to the end of time. Born and reared ignorant, degraded, and illiterate, they were brought to this country, where they were often treated as brutes. They were ranked as animals. As animals they received no edu-cation; they had no social intercourse with intelligent people; the}- had no chance for intellectual development, and if they would have had, they did not have the time. As a result, we have the negro of today on our hands. While they receive a much, more human treatment than they did fifty years ago, yet they are counted socially, mentally, morally, and racially inferior to the white man. There are nine millions of negroes in the United States at present. This great mass of humanity must live in some man-ner. As it is now, they must live by serving. They are not per-mitted to hold great social and political positions. They even are not permitted to earn a living as carpenters, plumbers, ma-sons, painters, and the hundred other mechanical trades. A negro can be a fireman on a locomotive, but when he is fit to be an engineer he is turned back. That position is reserved for whitemen only, although a negro may be more capable than many a white engineer. The most responsible positions that the great majority of negroes may hold is to be a bootblack, a barber, a servant, or perhaps a teamster. A great crime has been commit-ted if he becomes a prosperous farmer, or banker, or prosperous-business man. In the South he is even treated more harshly than in the North. There race prejudice exists so firmly that special schools, special hotels, and special conveyances, besides a. THE MERCURY. host of other specials, are required so that th uiv be no ming-ling of the races. We all recognize the fact that the negro is as free as we but when it comes to the point we can never admit him as an equal. Even a negro who stands at the head of his race, and who really is our equal, and possibly superior, is still held, as our inferior. Negroes are undoubtedly advancing in civilization and culture. But the very thought that they may some day be our equals, or even our superiors, is a disagreeable and repulsive thought, I dare say, to every white man and woman in the United States. To remedy these conditions a co-operation of white and I must be formed. Surely we must not retire into the old sysi of the feudalism of the Middle Ages, having the white man as the employer, and the negro as the servant. So in order not to have the feudalism of the races, the negro must be changed and become an equal of the white man. The white man should give the negro the rights of common humanity, the right to better himself, socially and economieallj'. Booker T. Washington sums up very clearly the negro's part in the following statement: "The more I study our conditions and needs, the more I am con-vinced that there is no surer road by which we can reach civic, moral, educational, and religious development, than by laying the foundation in the ownership and cultivation of the soil, the saving of money, commercial growth, and the skillful and con-scientious performance of any duty with which we are intrusted.'" THE POWER OF PUBLIC OPINION. MISS VIRGINIA BEARD, '09. |NE of the most potent factors in the direction or forma-tion of a business enterprise, political campaign, social reform and in many eases even the selection of a life course, is found to be the great motor power of public opinion. Consciously or unconsciously we hold up to this light our undertakings and their possible or probable results, and BR, IMJLLF.U IJV IPTTH.ITITTTS.IIS PICTURE FRAMES 0F AU S0RTS M W ft** * A W «h4U, REPA|R woa|( DQNE pROlwpTLY I WILL ALSO BUY OR EXCHANGE ANY SECOND-HAND FURNITURE NO. 4 CHAMBERSBURG STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA D. J. SWARTZ DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. SHOES REPAIRED —BY— J. ff. QoHep, 115 Baltimore St., near Court House. GOOD WORK GUARANTEED. —TS— J. I JVfUJVTPEfi Your Photographer ? If not, why not? 41 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. 8EFT0N I FLEMING'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place tostay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. BOOMS $1.00 PER DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputation and consequence in 3Pla.ilad.elplaj.a, ModgnLSteamu^dry . . OF YORK . . 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2012/2013 ; There is an increasingly widespread acknowledgement among all active actors in the development co-operation sector that the Public Private Partnership (PPP) can be a new important tool, not only to build important infrastructure (public works) but also to provide services to the citizens at central and local level as well as to have a strategic value in the Cross-Border Co-operation (CBC) in the next future. The European Commission defines PPPs in a rather broad and general way without giving a proper legal definition of this partnership. For the EU PPP is a form of cooperation between public authorities and economic operators concerning design, funding, execution, renovation or exploitation (operation and maintenance) of public infrastructure, or the provision of public utility service. However, there is not a uniform, common definition of this form of partnership. Considering the present global economic and financial crisis affecting almost all the regions of the world and bearing in mind that the public resources destined on development cooperation are decreasing more and more, building partnerships and synergies between these two ranges of actors is not only a great possibility but a compelling necessity in order to continue to sustain the development cooperation sector. This is also a good chance for both public and private sector, not only to mutually reinforce each other but also to learn lessons and best practices from one another. The PPPs, in fact, if applied correctly, enable a reduction in total costs, better distribution of risks, a more rapid execution of public services and activities, as well as a better quality of offered services and implemented activities. Not to mention the fact that the overcoming of the rigid distinction between public and private opens the possibility to find solutions and to respond to questions that the public administration itself is not able to answer independently. In international cooperation and in particular in the cross-border cooperation, more and more public administrations in beneficiary and donor countries are acknowledging the subsidiary role of civil society and private sector in the activities of general interest, and therefore, also in the delivery of public functions and services. Considering the extensive work experience in the international development cooperation sector with the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other International Organizations in different areas in the world, i.e. OSCE, believing on the utility and potentiality of this instrument and directly verified that it could be more utilized in the international cooperation, it was decided to analyse the use of PPPs in this sector with a special focus on IPA CBC Programme. In fact, the scope of the dissertation and of the implementation of its conclusions is steaming from the author interest and working ties. Indeed, the author is living and working in Albania and has a huge experience on it due to the fact that she was the Albania Desk Officer for the Italian Development Cooperation for several years. She is also studying the Albanian language and she is very fascinated from the history of this small country so close, not only geographically speaking, to Italy. The focus on Macedonia as neighbour country is due simply to the fact that to collect information on this IPA CBC Programme was easier than others similar financial instruments. Building on extensive field experience, this dissertation will try to answer the following question: 'Which is the winner strategy to increase the effectiveness of the CBC projects through the use of PPP?'. The thesis overall objective is to identify a set of strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of cross-border cooperation through the use of the PPP instrument, beyond specific cross-border project interventions that until now have mainly been carried out though institutional channels and implemented through European projects and programs. The strategies that the conclusion of the dissertation draws are based on the SWOT analysis of five projects funded by the EU through the IPA CBC Albania – Macedonia during the 2007-2013 programming period and the consequent elaboration of the results. These strategies would hence open up new possibilities for the development of CBC's activities applicable in the ambit of the EU's regional policy 2014-2020, without necessarily relying upon more EU financial means. This is also in line, with the EU auspices for the CBC not to be just another way to access funding but rather to become a model of cross-border cooperation sustainable on its own devise. The dissertation is based on collection and analysis of data available within the existing legal-institutional framework and will make use of the investigative qualitative method with the aim of verifying the hypothesis mentioned above. The thesis envisages a number of working phases chronologically distinct and mutually supportive and it is based on the utilisation of a number of diverse theoretic constructs and methodologies. The dissertation makes use of different sources such as for instance existing literature, statistics, on line documentation available and its content is conducted on the various official documents and projects documentation obtainable. The results are cross referenced and presented based on a SWOT analysis and process of data/results interpretation. As far as the structure of the work is concerned, the first Chapter, after an analysis of the theoretical tools supporting PPP, presents a background and an overview of the PPP in Europe, and the way it is applied in the context of international cooperation and cross-border cooperation; this is to understand how it was established and what its original objectives were, and to explain its evolution up to now. In particular, the chapter after shows that PPP was born in '30s mostly linked to the energetic and mining sectors, it presents that PPPs are growing and are seen as an important instrument of economic and social development also in the international and cross-border cooperation. It is seen that an instrument which opens the way to potential PPPs is the Inter-Municipal Cooperation Instrument (IMC) which permits to bridge the gaps in the municipalities and make them stronger also in applying to donor funds. Through this instrument established by the Council of Europe (CoE) the municipalities can also sub-contract a private company or creating an IMC entity constitutes a viable market attracting private investors. PPP is also encouraged by United Nations (UN) since 1999 through the 'Global Compact' project and different are the example of PPP around the world established by various UN Agencies. It can be affirmed that PPP is considered useful in the public sector also because can contribute in solving difficulties caused from public balance cuts as well as to overcome the bureaucratic and the scarcity of technical and management competencies of the public administration. The PPP is therefore an actual, innovative and complementary instrument to promote development, reforms as well as investments, policies and good practises in different sectors including the development cooperation also at trans-border level. Therefore, thanks to PPP it can be affirmed that the private sector also has become at all its effects a privileged actor of the international development cooperation. The second Chapter of the dissertation analyses the European Policies interconnecting PPP and their related instruments, as well as more in detail how these policies have applied PPPs in the cross-border cooperation as well as how CBC became more explicit in the EU context and in particular in the context of the stabilisation and association processes. In fact, starting from the 1950 Schuman Declaration, the chapter introduces the founding EEC Treaty, examines the Single European Act and analyses the European Cohesion Policy (or Regional Policy). In addition the chapter views the European Enlargement Policy (Pre-accession Policy) analysing the three membership criteria established during the Copenhagen European Council in 1993, the various stages of the membership process and the reasons for further enlargement taking into consideration the historic enlargement of 2004, the different strategic objectives involved in it and its new approach in view of the so-called Arab Spring. In addition, the chapter analyses the European Neighbourhood Policy (Proximity Policy) as well as its related instruments, with regard to both its partner countries and candidate states. Moreover the chapter identifies the possibilities of PPP within the EU's financial instruments that are currently being concluded. Even where those policies do not provide explicitly the adoption of PPP instrument, it is however not excluded. This means that the policies at issue give valuable support to the adoption and use of PPP. The dissertation is interested in to give evidence of the strong points of PPP application, and shows that, when there is a lack of applied PPP framework, as it is the case of the country cases (Albania and Macedonia) under analysed, the CBC component of IPA programme may be due not to give envisaged results to achieve the objectives. After having looked into the European policies intersecting PPPs and CBC, the third Chapter introduces a brief analysis of the concept of border, not only in the physical administrative sense, due to the fact that this concept is a key element to understand the cross-border co-operation processes existing in the EU and in general all over the world. With this aim in mind, after studying the main theoretical approaches on this domain, the analysis focuses on the cross-border co-operation not only in its theoretical dimension but also in its deriving pragmatic aspects. The analysis of the border concept and of the border and peripheral area, as well as the general theory of the system applied to the general theory of boundaries, is essential to anticipate the concept of the cross-border cooperation and its practical application. After this analysis, the chapter describes the legal institutional framework in order to analyse the effectiveness of the various legal instruments that have been put in place to encourage and facilitate forms of cooperative engagement across borders. Starting with the European Outline Convention of Transfrontier Co-operation between territorial communities or authorities (Madrid Convention 1980), a central instrument for the CBC that was born in the frame of CoE, the chapter introduces the three protocols of the Madrid Convention. The additional Protocol essentially gives the possibility to create an organism for cross-border cooperation; the second Protocol (no 2) provides above all a legal framework for the inter-territorial cooperation between the parties; and the third Protocol (no 3) concerns the possibility of forming the ECG by creating the legal status, the institution and the functioning of such Groups. In addition, in view of how cross-border cooperation has acquired more importance through time, the chapter explains the functioning of European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) institution, its modality of action and its fields of applications. The EGTC has come to be a new legal/financial instrument that integrates the Madrid Convention and the relevant Protocols. The chapter also touches upon the various aspects of cross-border co-operation and in particular some milestones from the EU experiences, and presents the European Macro-Regional Strategy and its related legislative framework as an example. In addition the chapter shows the Baltic, the Danube and the Adriatic – Ionian Macro-Region and describes the main differences between EGTs and Macro- Regions. In addition, the chapter considers appropriate to present the steps that have been taken from the EU with regard to the cross-border cooperation which, more particularly, have consisted of making available important financial instruments such as INTERREG that supports from the top to the bottom the Strategy of Macro-Regions. Following the fourth Chapter describes the 2014-2020 EU's Regional Policy as the context of application of the PPP and its change with respect to the 2007-2013 EU's Regional Policy. In particular after introducing the EU programming period 2007-2013 and the changes intervened in the following programming period also having a political/historical nature like the Arab spring and the interests to further develop economic interactions between the EU and the Middle Eastern partners, the chapter analyses the useful instruments for the realization of the cross-border cooperation; especially the European Regional Development Found (ERDF). In addition, this chapter, will identify the possibilities of PPP within the financial instruments that are about to be activated in the new European Programming Cycle. To this regard it is important to mention that, in general, all the EU policies must contribute to the implementation of the Europe 2020 Strategy that in order to fulfil its ambitious objectives identified as key instrument the instrument of partnership, among which that with the private sector. Here it is worth to emphasize that, generally, the overall objectives of the regional policy, both at national and European level, are all of an economic nature, i.e. increasing the national economy by attenuating and eliminating economic disparities between different development levels of the regions. In particular, the European Policies aim to improve the investment climate through public investment in the regions presenting some gaps and to manage the local regional resources in a more efficient way. The dissertation shows how in both cases, PPPs can help in the achievement of these important aims. In addition, the chapter observes that there are changes in various aspects and procedures of the implementation of the new regional policy as well as in the legal frame, and examines the IPA instrument and the ENPI instrument in the two seven-years programming periods because they are closely related to the European Territorial Cooperation (ETC). Between this two latter instruments IPA is a more relevant for this dissertation. For this reason, after on overview of the Albanian context considering some economic, demographic, social and political aspects, including the criteria Albania has to fulfil to receive the candidate status from the EU as well as a brief introduction to the Albanian Law on PPP, the fifth Chapter presents its relations in the region, especially with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and stresses the IPA CBC Albania – FYROM related to 2007-2013 and 2014-2020 programming periods. In addition, the chapter presents the main differences between these two programming periods focussing mainly on the Albanian part. With the aim to focus on the Albanian opportunities in the new programming period, it will be stressed what will change in the next future and which are the positive effects on PPP considering also the concept of Social Corporate Responsibility and the UN Global Compact initiative already mentioned in the first Chapter. All this to introduce the last Chapter which, through the analysis of the methodologies used during the various phases of this work, and especially through the explanation of the SWOT analysis, aims to identify a set of winning strategies to increase the effectiveness of the Cross-border cooperation through the use of the PPP instrument. The first part of the dissertation made use of several documentary sources, most notably and especially in the early stage the work will carry out what it is commonly defined as a secondary analysis, in particular this was articulated through: collection and review of existing literature and of the official documentation and statistics available mainly on-line but also with the Albanian Ministries and national institutes, i.e. the Albanian National Institute of Statistics, as well as with the various donors and international organisation in the Country, and especially with the Delegation of the European Commission to Albania. Instead, the second part of the dissertation focuses on the analysis of the IPA CBC program in general, and IPA CBC Albania - Macedonia in particular. To this end it was decided to proceed with the analysis of specific projects activated in the context of this program to highlight the role of actual or potential PPP projects in developing virtuous CBC. Although the PPP is not explicitly defined among the tools used in the implementation of these projects, it was decided to identify the prodromal factors present in some PPP projects with the end purpose of assessing their potentials, especially in view of the next programming period of the EU (2014-2020). The detailed information on the projects carried out or that are in progress are not publicly available as they are under the 'ownership' of the Delegation of the European Commission in Albania and of the Managing Authority of the program. In order to collect the necessary materials to identify the most relevant projects and, subsequently, to proceed to their analysis, it has proved necessary to proceed through in-depth interviews with qualified actors. Given that, interviews have been conducted with interlocutors, mainly from the European Commission in Albania, the Albanian Ministry of Integration and of Austrian Cooperation. Through these interviews, specific information relating to five concluded projects, in which the instrument of the PPP was present at least in embryonic form, has been added to the data relating to the context and to the program. The information gathered has been structured so as to proceed to a qualitative analysis of the data through the development of a SWOT analysis of these five projects funded by the IPA CBC Albania - FYROM - First Call for Project Proposals. Finally, this work presents the results of this analysis through a process of data interpretation. After this presentation, and before starting the SWOT analysis, the chapter presents the Annual Work Programme for Grants 2009 of the DG Enlargement related to the first Call for Proposals and the Guidelines related to the CBC Programme Albania - FYROM which aims is to facilitate the cooperation between the two countries to improve living conditions in the target area. The Programme in fact, already mentioned in the fifth Chapter, it aims to fostering cross-border economic, environmental and social development and includes three different measures and for each measure a list of potential activities for projects. Furthermore, the chapter analyses - through the SWOT analysis above mentioned - five projects funded by the EU within the IPA I CBC Albania – FYROM first call. In particular, in this dissertation, the SWOT analysis is the tool to identify the strengths (S), weakness (W), opportunities (O) and threats (T) that characterize projects which are analysed in relation to PPPs. In other words, it seeks to identify the strengths and internal resources of projects capably to push the development of PPPs (strengths), as well as the internal project limitations and weaknesses that impede PPP development in the relevant area (weaknesses), the external project opportunities that can be developed to overcome identified weaknesses (opportunities) and external factors that may hamper the future development of PPPs (threats). Considering that there is no project where the applicant is a PPP, although an analysis of the guidelines of the Call for Proposals relative to IPA Albania - FYROM CBC Programme found an explicit reference to PPPs, it has been choose to make a screening of projects in which the instrument of the PPP was present at least in embryonic form, in other words having the private sector as a direct or indirect beneficiary. As already mentioned, Macedonia was chosen as an example because of the availability of information related to projects. So, on these terms, 5 projects were selected out of 15 under review. The projects are the following: • Cross-border shared integrated alternative tourism, • Business without borders, • Cross-border Civil Society Forum, • Promoting business women enterprises in the cross-border area, • Borders without boundaries. The dimensions chosen for the analysis are: • related to the internal context to identify strengths and weaknesses: objectives, actors and target, • related to the external context to identify opportunities and threats: actors, target and expected results. After the SWOT analysis, the chapter finally presents the key results of the dissertation proposing some possible actions that could improve the CBC through the use of the PPP emerged from the initiatives analysed. The conclusion reviews the major points of the dissertation showing the main results such as the strategies, which may result from the conclusions, thus potentially establishing an alternative approach aiming at opening up new possibilities for the development of better, more effective and sustainable CBC project/programs/activities, without necessarily relying upon more EU funds. For what above mentioned and to answer to the question 'Which are the winner strategies to increase the effectiveness of the CBC projects through the use of PPP?', it is possible to affirm that to present more successful projects in the future increasing the effectiveness of the CBC projects through the use of PPP, the development strategies are essentially the enhancement strategy and the overcoming strategy. In particular, to reinforce the internal and external positive aspects and factors in the cross border area and to mitigate and/or dissipate internal negatives as well as to attenuate the external ones, the recommended actions referred to the public and private sectors are: • to organize jointly regular meetings in which they can know each-other, exchange information and best practices in either of the neighbouring countries, so that there can be discussions on the potentials of development and the new economic undertakings and new instruments to be employed, such as the PPP. Tourism can serve as a pilot sector in which it can be started with the actualization of gender policies facilitating in some way the inclusion of women in business activities, • jointly organize awareness campaigns on PPPs and training courses, which could serve to overcome the lack of ability to establish efficient PPPs for both public and private sector, • to organize, for the numerous actors present in the territory, specific courses and/or informative events related to the revision processes of normative policies that could facilitate and reinforce both the cooperation between different stakeholders and the capacity of doing business and create PPPs, • to enhance the existing networks and creates new ones through continuous meetings between different stakeholders with the aim of overcoming the threats considering that the improved and expanded relations between the various actors could bring an improvement in raising needed funds. Finally, it is important to mention that there are also some actions recommended only to the public sector. These are: • (especially at local level) institutions such as the municipalities can organize meetings, inviting the traditional and non-traditional private actors, in order to facilitate communication. Through this communication there could be achieved the introduction between various stakeholders interested in the PPP instrument, by at the same time laying the basis for the foundation of a network. This would be useful for increasing the credibility of each other and also to contributing to the overcoming of the lack of cooperation problem. These meetings could be used for an exchange of best practices in the sectors that are present in the certain areas. By employing a participatory methodology, these meetings could also serve to the construction of a sort of roadmap (lines of action during a defined time) that could enable the definition of the obstacles to be overcome in order to effectively and efficiently realize this type of partnership, • the authorities should first change their national optics and then transform their national policies into regional ones, starting from the cross-border policies with neighbouring countries, in which PPP should be promoted as a development instrument. In addition, when necessary, they should review the legal framework in order to facilitate the establishment of PPP. After this, they should organize meetings between the different stakeholders, and more generally between citizens living in the border areas of the neighbouring countries, with the end objective of promoting the necessary knowledge for overcoming the prejudices and for opening way to partnerships and cooperation activities, • to implement policies for purposes of facilitating investments in diversified sectors, taking an advantage of the actors from different sectors and directing them to training courses to gain knowledge in areas of investment that are different from their traditional ones. ; Vi è un riconoscimento sempre più diffuso tra tutti gli attori attivi nel settore della cooperazione allo sviluppo che il partenariato pubblico privato (PPP) può essere un importante nuovo strumento, non solo per costruire grandi infrastrutture (quindi per il settore dei lavori pubblici), ma anche per offrire servizi ai cittadini sia a livello centrale, sia locale e avere, in un prossimo futuro, un valore strategico nella cooperazione transfrontaliera (CBC). E' stato visto come la Commissione Europea definisca il PPP in un modo piuttosto ampio e generico, senza dare una definizione giuridica adeguata di questo partenariato. Infatti, per l'Unione Europea il PPP è una forma di cooperazione tra le autorità pubbliche e gli operatori economici riguardante la progettazione, il finanziamento, la realizzazione, il rinnovamento o lo sfruttamento (funzionamento e manutenzione) delle infrastrutture pubbliche, così come la fornitura di un servizio di pubblica utilità (CIT). Tuttavia, non vi è un'uniforme, comune definizione di questa forma di partenariato. Considerando che l'attuale crisi economica e finanziaria globale ha colpito quasi tutte le regioni del mondo e tenendo presente che le risorse pubbliche stanno diminuendo sempre più, tra cui soprattutto quelle destinate alla cooperazione allo sviluppo, costruire partenariati e sinergie tra il settore pubblico e privato non è solo una grande possibilità ma una necessità che diventa impellente se si vuole continuare a sostenere gli interventi di cooperazione. Inoltre, questo tipo di partenariato è una buona occasione per entrambi i settori in quanto aiuta non solo a rafforzare i rapporti reciproci, ma anche a scambiare le reciproche esperienze e le migliori pratiche. Si è visto come se applicato correttamente, il PPP consenta una riduzione dei costi totali, una migliore distribuzione dei rischi, un'esecuzione più rapida dei servizi e delle attività pubbliche, nonché una migliore qualità dei servizi offerti e delle attività prodotte. Senza contare che il superamento della rigida distinzione tra pubblico e privato apre la possibilità di trovare soluzioni e di rispondere alle domande a cui la pubblica amministrazione non è in grado di rispondere autonomamente. Si sottolinea come nella cooperazione internazionale ed in particolare nella cooperazione transfrontaliera, sempre più spesso le amministrazioni locali dei paesi beneficiari e donatori stiano riconoscendo il ruolo sussidiario della società civile e del settore privato nelle attività d'interesse generale e quindi anche nell'erogazione di servizi e funzioni pubbliche. Considerando la vasta esperienza di lavoro nel settore della cooperazione allo sviluppo con il Ministero degli Affari Esteri italiano in diverse aree del mondo così come con altre organizzazioni internazionali, da ultimo con l'Organizzazione per la Sicurezza e Cooperazione in Europa (OSCE), credendo sull'utilità e le potenzialità dello strumento del PPP e verificato direttamente che potrebbe essere utilizzato maggiormente nella cooperazione internazionale, l'autore ha deciso di analizzare l'uso di tale partenariato in questo settore focalizzandosi in particolare sul programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia. Infatti, lo scopo di questa tesi e della potenziale applicazione delle sue conclusioni deriva dall'interesse personale e dall'attività lavorativa dell'autore. Infatti, vive e lavora in Albania e ha una grande esperienza del paese perché è stato per diversi anni responsabile per la Cooperazione Italiana dei progetti che questa ha realizzato nello stesso. Inoltre, sta anche studiando la lingua albanese ed è molto affascinato dalla storia di questo piccolo paese così vicino all'Italia, non solo geograficamente parlando. L'attenzione per la Macedonia come paese confinante, invece, è dovuta semplicemente al fatto che è stato più facile reperire informazioni sul programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia rispetto agli strumenti finanziari simili. Sulla base di una ricca esperienza sul campo, questa tesi cercherà di rispondere alla seguente domanda: "Quali sono le strategie vincenti per aumentare l'efficacia dei progetti di cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso del PPP?". L'obiettivo generale della tesi è di individuare, infatti, le strategie che possono migliorare l'efficacia della cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso di tale partenariato, al di là di specifici interventi che fino ad ora sono stati principalmente effettuati attraverso canali istituzionali e attuati attraverso progetti e programmi europei. Le strategie che la conclusione della tesi identifica si basano sull'analisi SWOT di cinque progetti e la conseguente elaborazione dei dati/risultati. Questi cinque progetti sono stati selezionati tra quelli finanziati dall'UE tramite l'IPA I CBC Albania/Macedonia durante il periodo di programmazione 2007 - 2013, in quanto presentanti il PPP almeno in fase embrionale. Tali strategie potrebbero aprire nuove possibilità per lo sviluppo di attività di CBC applicabili nell'ambito della politica regionale 2014 - 2020 dell'Unione Europea, senza necessariamente fare affidamento su ulteriori mezzi finanziari della stessa. Questo è anche in linea con gli auspici dell'UE che crede che la CBC non sia solo un altro modo per accedere ai finanziamenti, ma possa piuttosto diventare un modello di cooperazione sostenibile di per sé. La tesi si basa sulla raccolta e l'analisi dei dati disponibili nell'ambito del quadro giuridico-istituzionale esistente e fa uso del metodo qualitativo di ricerca con l'obiettivo di verificare l'ipotesi di cui sopra. La tesi prevede una serie di fasi di lavoro cronologicamente distinte e reciprocamente sostenibili e si basa sull'utilizzo di diversi costrutti teorici e varie metodologie avvalendosi di diverse fonti come ad esempio la letteratura esistente, le statistiche effettuate e più in generale la documentazione disponibile soprattutto in internet. Il suo contenuto deriva quindi dal reperimento e dall'analisi di varia documentazione ufficiale e di cinque documenti progettuali, così come verrà maggiormente esplicato qui di seguito. Seguendo la struttura della tesi, si può affermare che il primo capitolo presenta il quadro normativo e finanziario dei PPP in Europa, così come il modo in cui questo strumento viene utilizzato nel contesto della cooperazione internazionale e della cooperazione transfrontaliera, al fine di comprendere quando è nato questo tipo di partenariato e quali siano i suoi obiettivi e le evoluzioni che ha avuto fino ad oggi. Nello specifico, il capitolo mostra come il PPP sia nato negli anni '30 soprattutto collegato al settore energetico e minerario e come, pur non avendo ancora una comune definizione a livello europeo, oggi sia in crescita e venga visto come un importante strumento di sviluppo economico e sociale anche nel settore della cooperazione internazionale e transfrontaliera. Il capitolo, inoltre, presenta la cooperazione inter-municipale (IMC) come uno strumento che può aprire buone potenzialità all'applicazione del PPP in quanto permette di colmare le deficienze delle municipalità. Attraverso questo strumento, stabilito in seno al Consiglio d'Europa (CoE), le municipalità possono infatti anche sub-contrattare imprese private o creare un'entità nuova (IMC) per poter attrarre investitori e donatori. Il capitolo inoltre mostra come lo strumento del PPP venga incoraggiato anche dalle Nazioni Unite (UN) fin dal 1999 - anno in cui viene creato il progetto 'Global Compact' - e come vi siano diversi esempi di PPP nel mondo realizzati da Agenzie UN. E' importante sottolineare che il PPP è considerato utile dal settore pubblico anche perché può contribuire a risolvere difficoltà causate dai tagli di bilancio così come dalla burocrazia e dall'insufficiente capacità tecnica e manageriale che spesso caratterizza la pubblica amministrazione. Il PPP è quindi uno strumento attuale, innovativo e anche complementare capace di promuovere sviluppo, riforme ed investimenti oltre a promuovere politiche e buone pratiche in diversi settori tra cui quello della cooperazione allo sviluppo anche a livello transfrontaliero. Grazie al PPP si può quindi affermare che il settore privato è diventato a tutti gli effetti un attore privilegiato della cooperazione allo sviluppo internazionale. Il secondo capitolo della tesi analizza le politiche dell'Unione Europea e i relativi strumenti che presentano una connessione con i PPP. Più nel dettaglio, viene visto come attraverso queste politiche sia stato applicato il partenariato in parola nella cooperazione transfrontaliera e come la stessa sia divenuta più esplicita a livello europeo, soprattutto nel contesto del processo di stabilizzazione ed associazione. Infatti, partendo dalla Dichiarazione di Schumann del 1950, il capitolo introduce il Trattato istitutivo della CEE del 1957, esamina l'Atto Unico Europeo, per poi prendere in considerazione la politica di coesione o regionale. Proseguendo, il capitolo analizza la politica di allargamento o pre-accessione inclusi i tre criteri necessari per l'adesione stabiliti durante il Consiglio Europeo di Copenaghen nel 1993, i vari stadi del processo di adesione e le ragioni per cui l'Unione Europea promuove l'allargamento, considerando le diverse tappe di tale processo tra cui quella storica del 2004 e le sue prossime sfide. Dopo aver inoltre analizzato il quadro delle negoziazioni e gli strumenti previsti in ambito della strategia di pre-adesione, si è finito per affrontare la politica di vicinato o prossimità prendendo in analisi i suoi relativi strumenti, i suoi diversi obiettivi strategici e il suo nuovo approccio in seguito alla primavera araba. Dopo aver identificato come queste politiche presentino un'intersezione con la cooperazione transfrontaliera, è stata analizzata la loro intersezione con il PPP con il risultato di sottolineare che anche laddove tali politiche non prevedono esplicitamente il ricorso a questo tipo di partenariato, non lo escludono. Questo significa quindi che esse forniscono validi supporti all'uso di tale strumento, elemento importante per la tesi che è infatti volta a mettere in evidenza i punti di forza di tali politiche per l'applicazione dei PPP e a mostrare al contempo che vi è una mancanza applicazione degli stessi. Questo verrà evidenziato nel corso della tesi dal caso preso in esame di IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia. Il terzo capitolo presenta come prima cosa il concetto di confine. E' importante sottolineare come questo concetto viene esplicitato non solo da un punto di vista fisico-amministrativo ma in un senso più ampio, tenendo conto di come il concetto di confine sia un elemento chiave per capire la cooperazione transfrontaliera. Infatti, è solo partendo dall'analisi di questo concetto e da questo a quello di frontiera e area periferica, passando anche alla teoria generale dei sistemi applicata alla teoria generale dei confini, che si può pervenire alla nascita del concetto di cooperazione transfrontaliera e della sua applicazione pratica. Per tale motivo si è ritenuto necessario esplicare i concetti sopra menzionati secondo le definizioni di vari studiosi di varie discipline, per poi presentare i principali strumenti legali che regolano e facilitano la cooperazione transfrontaliera a livello europeo così come i meccanismi ad hoc che la implementano. Si è partiti da quelli nati in seno al CoE e precisamente dalla Convenzione di Madrid del 1980, strumento quadro per il tipo di cooperazione oggetto di questa tesi in quanto introduce per la prima volta la possibilità di cooperare e concludere accordi ad enti di Paesi contigui geograficamente. Vengono poi presentati i suoi 3 Protocolli: il Protocollo aggiuntivo, che dà essenzialmente la possibilità di creare un organismo di cooperazione transfrontaliera ad essa preposto, il secondo Protocollo che fissa soprattutto un quadro giuridico della cooperazione interterritoriale tra le parti e il terzo Protocollo che concerne la possibilità di istituire i Gruppi Europei di Cooperazione (GEC) dotati di personalità giuridica. Inoltre, a dimostrazione di come la cooperazione transfrontaliera nel tempo abbia acquistato sempre più importanza, si è ritenuto opportuno illustrare l'istituzione dei Gruppi Europei di Cooperazione Territoriale (GECT), le loro modalità di azione e i loro ambiti di applicazione. Tali Gruppi, che si rivelano quindi essere un nuovo strumento giuridico/finanziario che integra la Convenzione di Madrid ed i relativi Protocolli, sono stati creati al fine di facilitare la cooperazione transfrontaliera e superare gli ostacoli incontrati fino ad allora. Il capitolo continua focalizzandosi sui passi compiuti dall'UE in relazione a questo tipo di cooperazione che in particolare consistono nella messa a disposizione di importanti strumenti finanziari quali per esempio INTERREG. Il terzo capitolo si conclude quindi affrontando anche la Strategia delle Macroregioni che, pur non avendo una loro definizione ufficiale in ambito europeo, forse anche a causa della loro recente istituzione e pratica, si dimostra essere veramente utile nel contribuire a realizzare la politica di coesione e più nello specifico il suo obiettivo n. 3 (Cooperazione Territoriale Europea). Considerando che all'interno di questa politica vi è una programmazione settennale, nel quarto capitolo vengono presentate sia quella appena terminata 2007-2013, sia la nuova 2014 - 2020 per verificarne i cambiamenti nel contesto di applicazione dei PPP. Viene infatti introdotta la programmazione dell'UE 2007-2013 per comprendere maggiormente cosa sarebbe cambiato nel settennio successivo, anche a causa di avvenimenti storico/politici avvenuti durante gli ultimi anni come la cosiddetta primavera araba e l'interesse a sviluppare maggiormente l'integrazione economica tra l'Unione Europea e i partner orientali. Si prosegue con l'analisi più dettagliata degli strumenti utili per la realizzazione della cooperazione transfrontaliera (CBC) nel nuovo settennato e le possibilità di applicazione del PPP all'interno di questi. A tale riguardo è importante sottolineare come in generale tutte le politiche europee, tra cui quella regionale ha un ruolo centrale, dovrebbero contribuire al raggiungimento degli obiettivi della Strategia Europa 2020. Si sottolinea come questa strategia, che ha portato alla definizione della nuova programmazione 2014-2020, sia molto ambiziosa e abbia individuato come uno degli strumenti chiave per la sua realizzazione quello del partenariato, tra cui anche il partenariato con il settore privato. Qui è importante evidenziare che gli obiettivi generali della politica regionale, sia a livello europeo, sia a livello nazionale, sono principalmente di natura socio-economica per es. orientati ad attenuare le disparità esistenti tra regioni aventi diverso livello di sviluppo. In particolare, le politiche europee hanno l'obiettivo di migliorare l'ambiente/contesto per attrarre investimenti al fine di incrementare investimenti in lavori pubblici nelle regioni che presentano maggiori necessità e migliorare la gestione delle risorse regionali locali in maniera più efficiente ed efficace. La tesi mostra come in entrambi i casi, lo strumento del PPP può essere di aiuto nel raggiungere questi importanti obiettivi. Inoltre, il capitolo in parola, dopo aver osservato che nella nuova programmazione settennale vi sono diversi cambiamenti dovuti al nuovo quadro legislativo e alle nuove modalità di attuazione della nuova politica regionale, esamina i due strumenti collegati alla CTE, IPA ed ENPI, nei due settenni di programmazione sopra menzionati. Il quinto capitolo invece, dopo una presentazione generale del contesto Albanese che prende in considerazione alcuni aspetti economici, demografici, sociali e politici del paese, includendo anche i criteri che questo deve soddisfare per poter ricevere lo status di candidato dall'Unione Europea, presenta brevemente la legge albanese sui PPP. In seguito, descrive le relazioni tra l'Albania e la Macedonia e il relativo Programma IPA CBC in relazione ai due periodi di programmazione suddetti 2007 - 2013 e 2014 - 2020 per presentarne le principali differenze. Concentrandosi sulle opportunità che l'Albania potrà avere nel prossimo futuro, viene sottolineato cosa cambia nel nuovo periodo di programmazione e con quali effetti positivi sul PPP, tenendo in considerazione anche il concetto di Responsabilità Sociale e l'iniziativa 'Global Compact' delle Nazioni Unite già menzionata precedentemente. Tutto questo per introdurre l'ultimo capitolo che, attraverso un'analisi della metodologia usata nelle varie fasi di preparazione della presente tesi, tra cui la SWOT analisi, identifica le strategie considerate vincenti per accrescere e migliorare l'efficacia della cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso dello strumento di PPP. Nello specifico, la prima parte della tesi si è avvalsa di diverse fonti documentarie. Specialmente nella sua fase di inizio, il lavoro è stato definito attraverso ciò che è comunemente chiamata 'analisi secondaria'. E' stata effettuata infatti la ricerca e analisi della letteratura esistente e della documentazione ufficiale disponibile on-line e nei Ministeri albanesi così come nell'Istituto Nazionale di Statistica albanese. E' stata inoltre reperita e analizzata la documentazione in possesso di diversi donatori e organismi internazionali presenti nel paese e in particolare della Delegazione della Commissione Europea in Albania. La seconda parte della tesi si è concentrata sull'analisi del programma IPA CBC in generale ed IPA CBC Albania - Macedonia in particolare. A tal fine si è voluto procedere con l'analisi di progetti specifici attivati e conclusi nel contesto di tale programma per evidenziare il ruolo effettivo o potenziale del PPP nello sviluppo virtuoso di progetti di CBC. Sebbene il PPP non venga esplicitamente definito tra gli strumenti utilizzati nell'attuazione di queste iniziative, si è scelto di individuare i fattori prodromici del PPP presenti in alcuni progetti al fine di valutarne le potenzialità soprattutto nell'ottica del prossimo periodo di programmazione europea (2014-2020). Le informazioni dettagliate relative ai progetti realizzati o in fieri non sono pubblicamente disponibili essendo 'proprietà' della Delegazione della Commissione Europea in Albania e dell'Autorità di Gestione del programma. Per raccogliere dunque il materiale necessario ad identificare i progetti più rilevanti e, successivamente, a procedere alla loro analisi si è dimostrato necessario procedere attraverso interviste in profondità con attori qualificati. Sono state così condotte interviste con interlocutori principalmente della Delegazione della Commissione Europea in Albania, del Ministero dell'Integrazione albanese e della Cooperazione Austriaca. Attraverso queste interviste, ai dati relativi al contesto ed al programma si sono quindi aggiunte informazioni specifiche relative a cinque progetti in cui lo strumento del PPP fosse presente almeno in forma embrionale. Le informazioni raccolte sono state strutturate in modo da procedere ad un'analisi qualitativa e ad un incrocio dei dati attraverso lo sviluppo di una SWOT analisi dei suddetti cinque progetti finanziati da IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia al fine di presentare i risultati di tale analisi attraverso un processo di interpretazione dei dati. Prima di iniziare la SWOT analisi, il capitolo presenta anche il programma annuale per i fondi 2009 della Direzione Generale Allargamento dell'Unione Europea che specifica anche gli obiettivi della CBC tra i due paesi presi in esame che consistono essenzialmente nella promozione dell'economia transfrontaliera e dello sviluppo sociale e ambientale. Il quinto capitolo, così come sopra detto, analizza quindi attraverso una SWOT analisi, cinque progetti finanziati dall'UE all'interno del programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia primo bando. In particolare, in questa tesi, la SWOT analisi, è lo strumento che permette di identificare i punti di forza (S), di debolezza (W), di opportunità (O) e di minacce (T) che caratterizzano i progetti che verranno analizzati in relazione al PPP. In altre parole quali sono i punti forza/risorse interne ai progetti che possono favorire lo sviluppo di tale partenariato e quali le loro limitazioni/punti di debolezza che lo possono ostacolare, così come le opportunità/fattori positivi esterni al progetto che possono, del caso, essere sviluppati per superare i punti di debolezza individuati e quali le minacce/fattori negativi esterni che derivano dal contesto locale e che impediscono lo sviluppo del PPP nell'area di interesse. Basandosi sulle informazioni ottenute non essendoci progetti in cui i candidati sono formati da un PPP, anche se da un'analisi delle linee guida del bando ('Call for Proposal') relative al Programma IPA I CBC Albania - Macedonia primo bando, è stato rilevato che non vi è un riferimento esplicito a questi, è stato scelto di fare uno screening dei progetti verificando quelli che nel loro interno presentavano almeno come beneficiari diretti e/o indiretti il settore privato. Così come sopra illustrato, tra i paesi confinanti l'Albania è stata scelta la Macedonia a titolo esemplificativo. Tra i 15 progetti presi in considerazione, i 5 progetti selezionati sono: 1. 'Cross-border shared integrated alternative tourism' (Turismo transfrontaliero alternativo integrato e condiviso), 2. 'Business without borders' (Impresa senza confini), 3. 'Cross-border Civil Society Forum' (Forum transfrontaliero della società civile), 4. 'Promoting business women enterprises in the cross border area' (Promozione dell'impresa femminile nell'area transfrontaliera), 5. 'Borders without boundaries' (Confini senza limiti). Queste le dimensioni scelte e di volta in volta da verificare per ogni progetto selezionato: • relativamente al contesto interno, al fine di identificare i punti di forza e di debolezza, sono obiettivi, attori e beneficiari, • relativamente al contesto esterno, al fine di identificare le opportunità e le minacce, sono attori, beneficiari e risultati attesi. Dopo la SWOT analisi, il capitolo da ultimo presenta i risultati chiave della tesi proponendo le strategie che potrebbero migliorare la cooperazione transfrontaliera attraverso l'uso del PPP. Le considerazioni conclusive della tesi riprenderanno tali strategie ripercorrendo inoltre i punti principali del lavoro svolto. Per rispondere alla domanda che sottende questa tesi, le strategie identificate come approcci alternativi che si possono applicare al fine di consentire ai programmi/progetti di cooperazione transfrontaliera di essere sviluppati in misura maggiore e in maniera più sostenibile, efficace ed efficiente utilizzando lo strumento del PPP e senza usare necessariamente ulteriori strumenti finanziari europei sono quelle cosiddette del 'rafforzamento' e del 'superamento'. In particolare, per rafforzare gli aspetti e i fattori positivi nell'area transfrontaliera e per mitigare e/o dissipare quelli negativi emersi dall'analisi effettuata, le azioni raccomandate sia al settore pubblico, sia al settore privato, possono essere così riassunte: • organizzare congiuntamente degli incontri regolari nei quali i diversi attori possano conoscersi meglio reciprocamente così come scambiare informazioni e migliori pratiche relativamente ai paesi vicini in modo che la discussione possa vertere man mano sul potenziale sviluppo in particolare dell'economia attraverso l'impiego di nuovi strumenti come il PPP, iniziando magari da un settore pilota quale il turismo, • organizzare congiuntamente campagne di informazione sul PPP e corsi di formazione che potrebbero servire al superamento della comune mancanza di capacità di istituire efficienti PPP, • organizzare per i numerosi attori presenti sul territorio dei corsi o eventi finalizzati ad informare sui processi di revisione normativa utile a facilitare e rafforzare la cooperazione tra i diversi attori, la capacità di fare impresa e creare PPP, • rafforzare congiuntamente le reti esistenti e crearne delle nuove attraverso continui incontri capaci di mettere assieme i diversi attori aventi l'obiettivo di superare gli ostacoli/minacce e consideranti il rafforzamento delle relazioni un valore aggiunto atto a migliorare anche la capacità di reperire i fondi necessari. Le azioni invece che si raccomandano solo al settore pubblico sono: • (specialmente a livello locale) gli attori istituzionali quali le municipalità potrebbero organizzare delle riunioni invitando il settore privato, tradizionale e non, al fine di facilitare la comunicazione tra i partecipanti introducendo al contempo il PPP e facilitando l'istituzione di partenariati, • le autorità istituzionali dovrebbero cambiare la loro ottica trasformando le loro politiche nazionali, a partire da quelle transfrontaliere relative ai paesi confinanti, in modo da promuovere il PPP quale strumento di sviluppo agevolandone l'istituzione attraverso le modifiche del quadro normativo laddove necessarie, • realizzare delle politiche aventi l'obiettivo di facilitare gli investimenti diversificando i settori degli stessi e organizzando al contempo dei corsi di formazione professionale per dare l'opportunità alla popolazione in età attiva di diversificare le loro conoscenze e capacità. ; XXIV Ciclo ; 1970

Issue 5.4 of the Review for Religious, 1946. ; RE VOLUME V / J,ULY 15. 1946 " Nu~BE~,~- ' , , CONTENTs "ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION~Cyril VSIlert. S.J. " " 21,7 A TIMELY PAMPHLET . ¢ -.'. . , .' , 228 ~CONCE~NING DISTRACTIONS~ha'rles F. Donovan, S.J, ~ 2;29 IN CASE YOU DON'T KNOW IT~ * 232 "SAINT APPEARED TWICE"--CIem~t J. McNaspy, S.J . 233 ~ PLAN OF SELF-DENIAL WITHIN THE 'REACH OF ALL ~ "Robert B. Eitem S.J . " 239 gP~LS ~ORVOCAT~ONS ., . ~,.~ 2~ SPEAKING' OF NAMES--Claude Kean.O.F.M . DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE . ,249 OUR CONTRIBUTORS " . . TWO HE~RTS--W. H. Hingston S.J '. ~ 251 ANN~N~EMENT . - . ~. ~_. ~-25~ RECEPTION OF SEMINARIANS INTO RELIGIOUS INSTI~UTES~, Adam C, Ellis, S.J . :BOOKS RECEIVED . ' ~ ' 263 /QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ' ,~ 22. Permission to Use G~ld Watch . 23.,Number of Delegates for General Chapter: Soliciting Votes 26~' 24. Use of Income from Special Fees '. . ~. 26~ 25. Religious Candidate Whose Parents Have,Bad Reputation 266~ ~ 26. Going to Confession in Order of Seniority . . ~ . 266 27. Communion Sundays ahd Contests to Promote Frequent Communion 267 28. Order of Precedence in Mdther House " " 268 BOOK REVIEWS-- ' , ~,~ The Mystical Life; Meditatio~ on the Passion: The Catholic Centre: Mission for Samaritans: Forming a Christian Mentality; How to Medi-tate; The Mystical Baldy of Christ: La ~iete Eucharistique: John Henr~ , , . Newman: Centenary Essays; The T h"ird Day Mano'logy: Mast'er and~ - Model: Dove Flights: Kyrie Elei~on:XTh~ P~ychology of Liturgical MU- " sic; The Life,of Father Pro 271 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. ~uly, 1946. Vol. V. No. 4. Pu~lisfied bi-monthly; January, March:May. July, September. and November at the C011ege.Press,4 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas. *by-St. Mary's College. St. Marys, ,~ansas, . with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered' as second class ~atter/~anuar), ~'15, "1942. at the Post O~ce, Topeka, ~Kansas. under the act of March 3:. 1879. EditgrlaL Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J. G, Augustine Ellard. S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider. S.J. " Copyright, 1946, by Adam C. ElliS, Permission is hereby. ~ra~n t e d for- quota't m:"n ~s. of reasonable length, provided due credit "be given this review and the auth6r.' Subscription price:, 2 dollars a year. Printed*ifi ~. Before writln~ to us,,please consult notice on inside 'back over~ ¯ ~' Or~gin~°l ~in ~nd Educa :ion Cyril Vollert, S.J. ~OST OF US who try to keep up with educational ~V~ controversies and discussions have~ become some-what surfeited with reiterated assurances that the one hope of salvaging this creaking world, so near the shoals of disaster, is education. We are told that education can save democracy, resolve the .c~lass struggle~ and confer on man. the good life.- " The striking t~I-iing is, much of this is true. But to realize'these great expectations education must be rightly conceived and rightly directed. It must be true education for man as he actually is; and it must be aimed at the right goal. Most of the. arguing about education is futile, and therefore fruitless, ' because those whd contribute the never~e.nding stream of articles, addresses, and books about education are so'often, unrealisticAn their view of the p.er~son who is to b~educate~d.or are wrong in t~eir idea.of t~e~upshot ofthe educational process. They are trying to stee~la rudderless sh~p throagh an uncharted sea to an unknown port. unless[we are right.in our notion of~the objec-tive to be a.t~ta[ned and of the~p.erson wh9 is to be educated, we are scarcely,.in a position to decide what the ~educational process ought to ~e. , . I,n this article.I s~all not pr3sume to fix the ~ltimate goal of education. Readers of this periodical know very. ~well what it is: ,God, whom we are to possess in the eternal happiness of the beatific vision. Nor shall I rashly attempt to outline an educational program. My purpose will be to describe the beneficiarydr" such a program and to indicate 217 CYRIL VOLLERT ' Reoiew /or t~elipiotts the proximate end to be achieved. The artist cannot pro-duce a masterpiece unless he knows the material he has to work on. Neither can the teacher succeed in transforming an uneducated person into an educated person unless he understands man as he actually is. The raw material of the educational' process is a boy or girl born in original sin, and still suffering the results'~ of original sin. This statement is not naive. It is not a bogy of a bygone day. It is true today and Will remain true for all time. Such a view is the only realistic view. Any other notion is false, or at least inadequate. But even tki'e truth that the person to be educated began life in original sin and still staggers under the burden of the consequences Of origi-nal sin may be distorted. To see the truth, two extremes have to be avoided: a vapid optimism and a groundless pessimism. Clear vision is n~eded, unobstructed either by rose-colored lenses or by smoked glass. The optimistic vie.w, credited by romanticists to the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau but "actually as old as Pel~ag~us in the fifth century and his iritellectual ancestors, is that every man at his origin is wholly good. Let him alone; do not hamper or misdirect the natural play of his thought-processes and appetites; and he is capable of 'ifidefinite growth ingoodnegs. Signs of the break-up of the "electiv~ System" point to th~gradual abandonment of this view. But many. educators still do not know wh~t is to replace this shallow optimism. Rousseau and Eliot are no longer the .leaders to the promised land. Nevertheless the typical modern educator remains a Pelagian. /] The pessimistic view is also hoary with antiquity. Its crudest form, Manichaeism, regards all matter as evil. Therefore man, so far as he is a corporeal being, is evil. He is hopeless till he. gets out of his Body. A less irrational 218 1946 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION variety of this pessimism is the notion, characteristic of uncontaminated early Lutheranism and Protestantism generally, that original sin intrinsically corrupted man, l'eft him forever a sinner ihcapable "of morally good actions, and destroyed his free will. Nothing can really correct the depravity of Lutheran.man. His defilement can be covered up byChrist's merits, but he himself stays a sinful wretch, utterly corrupt. A trace of this idea of man, greatly diluted, is found sometimes among Catholics, even amdng educated Cath-olics and religious. They may have a notion, not very-pre-cisely formulated, that man's nature, though not wholly corrupted by original sin, was inwardly wounded so that his understanding, considered on the purely natural _level, is now intrinsically darkened and his will is intrinsically weakened. Those who harbor such an idea of man may have been Subjected to defective instruction On this point; or they may have failed rightly to grasp what was correctly taught; or they may have had teachers who repre-- se, nted a very small, and practically unimportant,-minority opinion tfiat man actually was thus injured by original sin. But there is no sound theological basis for this per: suasion. The truth is that man, coniidered simply as natural man, is as whole today, in intellect and will, as was man regarded in his purely natural endowment when he came from the creative hand of God. In other words orig-inal sin left man in no worse condition, on the purely human level of his mind and will, than he was before Adam cast his momentous decision against God. What is true in all that we hear about the disastrous effects of Adam's sin is this: the first man deliberately renounced God and thereby lost the supernatura! endow-ments which God had conferred on him for the whole 219 CYRIL VOLLER~. 'human~ race. Adam was created not Reoiew for Religious only in'a state~ of ¯ na.tural:perfecti0n, but .was elevated to.the~sonship of God by sanc._tifying grace,. Mor9o,ver,, to~ complement th!s~divine -gift and to enable Adam to preserve it for0himself and .the entire human family, God added other remarkable.gifts, notably, t_he.~gift of.integrity whereby all hispowers affd faculties were perfectly~subordinated to his. reason and.~.wi11., and the gift of immortality whereby his. body.~asi~sub~, 'jected to his~soul so that it was liberated from the necessity of fa!ling into corruption and death. These inconceivably .great bounties, all of ,,them beyond ,the capacities ,of human na°ture, Adam. received for himselt and for all his,~descend- By:_sinning Adam lost~them all~. He lost originals, jus-tice for himseff 'and fo~ his posteri.ty., His children and his children's children down to the end of time (with the unique)exception, ofo.th~ Bles'sed V4rgin'Mary).were begot-ten in.a-sta:te,.of estrangement from God. Instead' of.being ,bOrn sons. and daughters of God in sancti£ying grace: the,y. were,born.%without that relation to God,,,.the-only Fight relation.to God once God bad,elevated mankind i(in. Ada_m). to:the,supernatural level:~ ~They were born ~in,:the stat&of . ~ ~W.ith the sin inherited from" Adamgo theieffects.of, the sin:loss'[0f,the othe'r accompanying 'gifts, integrity, and im-morgality.:,,. ThereforeAdam's~children,are worse off ~ihan-he~-~ as.,.~ Forthey all come into°the,W.ofld withbut.-the grage of di,v, ine~sonship,, without integrit~y, without immottalit, y: ,Adam s,mn £change mankind for the wors~, ifi!,soul and.in :,, --But Adam's~ sin ,did not wreck his. human nature as. such.' We are no w6rse Off now than we ~oul'd have been if God had never elevated Adam to be His ~ad0pted son, with this exception: we ought to be biafn with sanctifying 220 July, 1946 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION grace, and we are not; find so we are born in a state dis-pleasing to.God, a state of sin. ~l~rue, if we ~compare ourselves with .A'dam as he actually was in Paradis'e, we are far .inferior,,. We are deprived'of the supernatural and.preternatural Preroga~tives¯ that. made him so extraordinarily perfe~t~a man. P~i0r fo baptism we lack the divine sonship he had; and so we come into the world as sinners. And even though.we-.recover tl~e . grace of divine sonshil3 in baptism, we lack the gift of integrity: and so we find in otirselves an unruly mass of conflicting .powers, the 10w~r at odds with the higheL th6 body unsubservient to the soul. We lack the gift of immor-tality,. and so we succumb to illness, wounds, gradual cor-ruption, and death. But if we regard only Adam's nature itself unperfected by any of these gifts, oar own natures ar'e just the same. Adam's-nature, left to itself, ,had the sameelements and equipment as otirs. If he had not had the gift of integrity-he. too w.ould, even without any sin, have experienced the same conflict among his faculties. His senses would have sought their own pro~er objects just as gtubbornly as ours do,-against the will's consent. 'His body .would have been exposed to illness, decant, and death. All this appears, quite reasonable. Our first pgrents, as ,they .actually were, with God's supernatur.al and preter- ' natural gifots added to" their natural make~up, were clearly superior to .tis. Bui if we disregard Whatever is preter-n~ atural arid supernatural, we headily seb th~at they .had the same nature as we their children have. : Only one thought, nagging at our memories of what We have heard and read, keeps thrusting forward an objdc-tion; we have been taught that, as a result.of original sin, ourintellects have been darkened and our wills have been weakened. This ii :the very statement in the elementary 221 (~YRIL VOLLERT Re~oiew for Religious catechis~ most 6f us have studied: "Our natur~ was cor-rupted by tl~e ~in of our fi~st parents, which darkened our understanding, weake.ned our will,.and left in us a strong inclination :to evil." ' ' This brings us to the heart of our discussion:, just what this statement means. It means that, without the gifts of original justice,'-particularly integrity and immortality, our minds are less able to acquir~e truth and our willsare less firm in pursuing good th.a.n if we had those, gifts. I~ does not mean that original sin has .intrinsically harmed our minds and wills so that their natural power to khow and ¯ will has b~en destroyed or i~apaired, ~ The doctrine taught by the familiar catechism of our childhood is of course true. But the trUth.admits of better wording; and the recent revision of this catechism puts the matter more clearly: "The chief punishments of Adam which we inherit through original sin are: death, .suffe)ing, ignorance, and a" strong inclination to sin." What~ever is taught by the ~.hurch about t.h~ darkening of the intellect and the weakenirig of. the~will can be under-stood, and actually is understood by .all great theologians;, in .the sense of a deterioration as compared .with the mind and will of man in the state of c;riginaljustice. .This is easily perceived, in .the °casfi of the will. God ~en~riche, d Adam;s nature, with the'gift of integrity, which lined up .all his powers and passions under, the control of his reason and will so that his animal appetites could not take the initiative in attracting ~him toward evil and could no~ prevail .against the command of'his will., In punish~ ment for his sin, Ad,am lost thisomarvelous gift for him-self and for all of us. We do not possess the gift of integ~ rity, and'so *there is lacking in us the perfect order among. our various powers ~and appetites which that~ gift would have proc~ured. In. other words, we are subject to unruly 222 dulq, 1946. ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION c'oncupiscence, which means simply that each of our .appe-tites seeks its own good heedless of the good. of the whole person. When an attractive object confronts any of our senses, that sense can immediately reach out for the object quite independently of. the will's.consent, and even against the will's command. By that very fact our will is weakened. Concupiscence pulls us toward the tempting object even though we realize that taking it involves sin. We .may "already have reached out to seize it before the mind adverts to what we are doing: And even after the mind does take notice, the enticement still persists, the tug is still felt. We are much less able to resist the allurement than if the Senses were fully under our cohtrol. The will may say, "No!" Sense appetite says, "Yes!" And both will and sense appe- .,.rites. are mine. I am being torn between a higher and a lower good. I can resist, because :my will is still in charge. But often I give up; especially if, the battle is a long one. My will does not resist; I surrender, satisfy my lower craving at the expense of moral good, and so I sin. Adam in the state of original justice would have under-gone no such struggle. His will could simply have said, "No!" The sense appetite would, have straightway obeyed. Indeed, the sense appetite could not have been attracted to the object in the first place without the assent of the will. Therefore'my will is weaker than his; but only because.of the pull of concupiscence. My will, as a natural faculty just in itself, is in no way weakened by original sin. The same is the case with our intellect. Adam had a preternatural gift of infused knowledge. We have not. Therefore our understanding is dark as compared with his, for .his was bathed with divine light. If Adam had not ~inned, he would not have handed on his special, infused gift of knowledge to his descendants. For this knowledge 223 CYRIL VOLLERT Review [or Religious was a personal gift with-vc~ich God eciUipped the~fii~st-man, created.aS he Wasin adulthood in intimate communion with God and with a special office as teacher of the children.he was to beget. ~: ~ ._ ,. ~ - ~ :,~,.- ,~ Adam had, yev other endow, menfs~perfecdnghis intel-lect, Alohg with. the sanctifying grace that~ele~ated him to dupernatural heights went the infused'~virtues, theological and moral. Among these are faith and prudence,., which resided, in his intellect. These'he would h~ve~transmitted: But. he sinhed,~and,so could not. transmit sgnctifying grace and, all 'the:accompanying.gifts. We,~ born without.~sanc-tifying~, grace, begin life deprived of the infused virtues, .includidg " those ,.which would have.equipped ~our minds With a habitual~aptitude for higher truths, In this respect, too, our. minds are defective as com#ared with his before the Eall: . _ ~Bu~-here we must'consider another factor, which is :sel~ dora,well,brought out. In sinning, Adam~ lost, 'besi~h sanctifying grace>~ith its cortege of infused.'virtues, ,th~ preternatural~ gif~s~: of,integrity and immortality. with:~heqos£of, immortality~w_¢nt the loss of impassibility, 6r :immuflitw,.to~sfl.ffering, disease, and death~.,~:~His body was no longer.perfectl~ subject;to his sou.L: ~ ~ From' Adam.weinherit ~bgdies ~bereff of these~ gifts. .Not bnly are we sfibject to 'conCupiscence,~ b6t me-have .,bodies unprot&ted, from ~harm-bythe -g "~ "f t~s~ .:.o.~lm~"m -ortahty and impassibility.,. Ou~. souls are immorthl, ~but tEey ha.re not the' pow&~to i~part., i~mortality to bur bodies. ~us.left ,their nat6ral ~eakness; our bodies easily giveAn, to f~tig~e, .to a thousand different, diseases,',to, the decrepitude of advancing age, .and~:.to dissolution. All. this,,has weighty ~consequences for ~0ur ~no~ledg~ and our (apacity to learn. Obviously~ ,the,pull 0f-c6ncu~iscence,is a tremendous obstacle to the acquisition~of knowledge. Web.have a kin~ 224 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCATION ship for the concrete, the. sensible. Higher truths, especially the truths of theology, ,religion, and metaphysics, hav~ -little charm for most people. They waht to know and experience what is pleasant and easy. Whatever has a sur-face interest excites them. The clang of the fire-engine bell~ upsets the class; not only children in third grade but university students, and the professor himself, feel the urge fo rush to the window. Philosophy is hard put to it to rdsist the seduction of the radio. Mathematics runs a poor ~second to.movies. A game of ball in the nearby playground is. more fun than geography or arithmetic. Shakespeare. and Thackeray have less appeal than the funnies. Another important consideration, is the fatigue that goes with thinking. Continuity is essential to study. But the brain soon wearies and seeks distraction. Even under -the most favorable circumstances, sudh as absolute quidt. freedom from interruption, and robust health, mental con- ¯ centration is extremely hard work. We know how right Aristotle was When he remarked, "Learning is'accompanied by pain[" The experience of students is well formulat,ed in a wise man's saying that has passed into a p~overb.: "Knowledge maketh a bloody entrance." But ideal circumstances are rarely granted to us. Leisure for thinking is a luxury. The very necessity of caring for the bbdy's needs takes up the most valuable portion of our time and eneigies. The majority of mankind must spend half or more of each working day in sheer toil for bread~ What leisure is left is without the freshness of mind required for acti,~e thought. -Even when a person has leisure and opportunityfor learning, his bodily condition is often a deterrent to efficient °study. The eye too soon grows dim, and reading has to be rationed. Hayfeve-r, sinus infection, a cdld in the head, the hundrei:l ills that plague mankind, all. militate against the ¯- 225~ CYRIL VOLLERT ~ Revietu /or Religious attention, correlation, and penetration required for ¯ rained.thinking and for the mastery of but a single province of human kno,wledge. ~f~to such bodily distresses we add the emodonal~bias that s~ems froni concupiscence and ,impedes the disinter-ested pursuit of truth, if we take account of the environ-. mental restrictions that, as in Soviet Russia', block access to th~ sources of truth, and if with allthis we mix in the lying propaganda, rooted in selfishness or in bigotry,, that not only closes off truth but teaches error, we can go very far in explaining the darkening of our under~tandin.g that is a result of original sire , Truly, our ability to gain knowl-edge is grievo.usly inferior to that of Adam when, before he rejected God's grace, he was shielded from all these evils by his preternatural gifts of immunity to concupiscence, suf-f~ iing, and bodily dissolution. But our natural faculty of intellect was in no way intrinsically injured by original sin. Our intellect and our will are the same now, considered as purely natural perfec.-' tions, as they would have been if Adam had handed down to-us original justice instead, of original sin. Our intellec-trialand volitional inferiority results from our lack of the preternatural gifts that would have removed all obstacles to their perfect functioning. Such is the teaching of all front, rank theologians, a teaching based on their study of revelation. The punish-ment of original sin, St. Thomas notes, is restricted to the withholding of the supernatur;il goods gi:anted by God to. our first father-for transmission to his posterity.1 ~ Su;irez agrees with Aquinas: The common and true doctrine is that the powers of man or of his free will, rhgarded from the standpoint of the perfection they would ha~,e had in the state of pure nature, were not diminished in iCompendium Theologiae, 1 226 Julg, 1946 ORIGINAL SIN AND EDUCXTION fallen nature by original sin; they are inferior only when compare~' wxth the strength and integrity conferred on them by original jus-rice. -~ - St. Robert Bellarmine teaches the same doctrine: The corruption of nature resulted not from the lack of any natural gift, nor from the presence of any" evil quality, but from the . sole loss, owing to Ada~'s~sin, Bf the supernatural endowment.8 Thus the raw material of our educational endeavors is ~the boy or girl, the young, man or woman, with intelle'ct and will essentially unimpaired on the natural plaiae. Our aim in education should be to develop this goo,d natural equipment and to transfigure it with all the super-h~ itural ,goods Christ has given to the Church for t.he benefit of His brethren. Revelation, the Church, the sacraments, ~sanctifying grace,'the infused virtues and. actual graces and all that the Church_disp0ses of for building up the body of Christ must raise and0perfect the souli of men together with their" faculties, xspecially their powers of inteIlect and wiff. The proximate purpose of our educational work must be to train.the youth entrusted to us so to master thdmselves that, within ~he. supernatu0ral sphdre to which they have been re-elevated by Christ, they may pumue the Truth which is God, and embrace the Good, which is also God. The closest possible approxim:ition to the original in.tegrity must be the goal to which we lead our limping, students. This is no mean ambition for those whose life'long voca-tion lies in the classroom and on the campus. The same goal.is the one we religious propose to reach in our own self,education. But in addition to the bottom-less treasury of graces open to all Catholics, we enjoy,'in" our ascetical striv~ings, certain freedoms that can bring us much closer to the original freedom Adam had. Our privi-lege js brought home to us by the matchless,champion who ~DO gratia, prol. 4, c. 8, n. 5. 8De gratia primi hominis, . 5. 227 CYRIl., VOLLERT -upheld t~ae greatness of the religiot~s state against pertly attackers of his day~ ¯ The exercise of perfection requires that a person 'd6 away witl~ whate~'er can impede him from directing his affections wholly to God; ¯ for in~this consists the perfection of charity. There are'three obstacles of this sort. T14e first is the desire for external good£ This' is removed by the vow of poverty. The"second is the proclivity for pleasures of sense, among which lustful delight isthe keenest., This is surmounted by the vow ol~ chastity, The third obstacle is the deordination of th~ human will. And this.is corrected by,the,vow of " obedience.4 Thus with intellect and will intrinsically good and unspoiled in their natural soundness by original sin, we C~n with Ggd's grace'overc0me all hindrances and eventually make ou~r .own, in limited degree, the perfection of tl~e sec-. ond Ad:;m, J~sus Christ. We cannot, indeed, ever in this" life attain to the integrity of original justice; Christ did0not ~ restore that extraordinary privilege to redeemed man: ~ BuS as brothers and sisters of the God-man, or truer still, as living members of His body, we can get closer to the second ~dam, and therefore closer to God, 'than the first Adam was ~ in his primeval innocence. And so our last state can .be better ~han the first. ~ '~St.'Thomas, 8umraa, II-Ilae, q. 186, a. 7. A TIMELY PAMPHLET~ ':The Guide Posts of the Almighty to Perma~ient Industrial,Peace" presents a "plea for .the Ten Commandments as the only solid basis for lasting peace, industrial and international. The section which describes the rights and dutie~ of 'labor and management is particularly"excellent. Every emp!oyer and every laborer might well read this with profit. The pamphlet is from the pen of the Most Rev. Richard J. Cushin.g, D.D., Archbishop og Boston, and is published by the Radio Re151ies Press, St. Paul, ,Minnesota. Price: I0 cents. ~ 228 Concerning Dis :ra t:ions Charles F~ Donovan, S.d. THERE is an aspiration which I should like torecom-mend; yet I fear it might be misunderstood. It is: "Jesus, be my distraction." Now distractions are bad, they are sappers of spiritual energy, things to be avoided. And obviouslq we' do not intend to couple the name of Jesus with anything evil. But. there are certain characteristics of distractions which would be worthwhile if transferred to the thought of Our Lord, namely, their persistence, their fascination,.and their seeming ubiquity. It is these qual{- ties ofdistractions I have in mind when I say, '"3esus, be my distraction," which is a brief way of saying, ",lesus, be the magnet of my mind, the channel of my thoughts, the theme of my day from task ~o'task; when dut.y of any sort commands the center of the stage, lurk in the wings of my heart, and the moment I pause, the moment I am free ~et the spotlight of my soul rest on You alone." Every day at Ma~s the priest exhorts us, "'Sursttm corda'" (Lift up your hearts). And we respond,"Habemus ad Dorninurn'" (We have them lifted up to the. Lord). This lifting we reaflifm daily is not our passive elevation by God to the state of grace. When we receive grace,~Christ stoops and does the lifting. Yet even with grace we may remair~ earth-bound and inert. The lifting w~e profess when we say. "'Sursurn corda'" is an active elevation, our cooperation with Christ, an ~ffort to use His grace to meet Him on His own level. As Dora Augustine Baker puts it in the 'vigorous English of Shakespeare's time, we mean the "forced but very facile elevations of the will, that bluntly or blindly heaves itself up towards God." We-heave ourselves in spirit 229 CHARLES F. DONOVAN Review for Religious towards God in hope and love and joy. A distraction-, therefore, is truly a fail--not necessariI~ a fall in the sense of sin, btit a descent from the heights of communion with Christ. If we are habitually distracted we really should answer the priest, "'Habemus ad humum'" (Our hearts are fixed on the earth, on dust, on our own level). There is a fervor, a preoccupation with God which in the face of a present and pressing tluty, like signing checks or making out report cards, could be called a distraction. Some of the saints have been "bothered" by such distrac-tions. Saint Ignatius, 'for instance, sometimes had to be dispensed' from reading the Office because during it he would experience ecstasy and thus be kept from other daily business. Saint Teresa was often afraid to think of God, lest she experience some divine visitation that wquld interfere ~vith her work or embarrass her in public. BUt most of us need have no worry about such piotis distrac-tions. It is not often the thought 6t? God-that makes us' shabby workers. Our trouble is generally not that prayer keeps us from mundane things but that mundane things keep us from prayer. Our mind-wandering tends to be from God to creatures, the kind of distraction to wh{cb that religious referred who complained, with healthy self-criticism, that his new superior conducted-such prolonged ~zisits at chapel after meals that he ran out of distractions and had to' pi~ay. Now if we really have .our hearts lifted ad Dominum, if our habitual tendency and spontaneous impulse is to think of Jesus, then distraction in prayer becomes not impossible, but at least unpleasant and of slight Spiritual d~nger, like a ¯ fly buzzing around our prie-dieu. There are also distractions whicb occur all day !ong even in non-prayer time, but which don't actually keep us from our work. These are, therefore, rather potential thah 230 July, 1946 CONCERNING DIS, TRACTIONSj real distractions. Theyare our worries, our enthusiasms, our pet interests, the things which are just outside the. focus of our attention or just below the surface of consciousness, to whichthe mind tends to revert over and over dttring the day. If these concerns, these potential distractions,-are intense, the person who has them is said to be preoccupied or to "have something on the mind." Wouldn't it be won-derful if we were so intimate with Our Lord that we could be said to have Jesus on our mind? Of course, that is the ambition of all religious, to be so in love with Our Lord that He is our dominfint interest, our hobby, the object of . our ardent enthusiasm, our companion day and l~ight. Finally, there are the distractions which we seek, favor-ire" topics to which we let: our mind lazily turn in moments of relaxation, familiar themes which we find congenial and. particularly helpful when we are trying to get to sleep. The subjects that we choose for such distractions are indicative of our spiritual health. _The old saying, "Tell me~ whom you, go with and I'll tell you what you are," is applicable to mental as well as to persgnal companions. If wespon-taneously- turn to worldly thoughts, then we a.r.e very probabl); worldly ourselves. If our favorite reveries are spiritual, our character is most likely spiritual. Habitual 'and sought distractions, the recurrent musings of our idle moments, can be of tremendous influehce in our - spiritual lives. They not only indicate character; they also form character and spiritual taste. Wl~at we think ofand enjoy thinking of~when we are free, when the rule is not directing us, and the choice of mental occupation is up to ourselves, both manifests and shapes the inner self., These chosen reveries can be the occasion when temptation is most .likely to assail us. They can be little secret escapes from the cloister and from the spirit of religious life. Therefore it is of first importance that we cultivate lofty and holy 231 CH'ARLES F. DONOVAN mental companionships so that our idle moments will be in keeping with the tone of our religi0,us profession and will strengthen rather than dissipate our religious spirit. As ~ Kempis says (Bk.iii, ch.58)~ "That cometh in'to my mind which by custom pleaseth me best to think upon: and where my thought is accustomed to be, there is that which'~I love." What nobler~ theme, what~holief com-panion gould we have for our unpres~ribed and effortless meditations than Our Lord Jesus Christ? Wouldn:t we be in a blissful state of spiritual perfection if~. during the day's work we looked forward eagerly to those moments of rest, especially the moments ~ before sleep, when-we would be able to think easily and lovingly of. ,lesus, and say with the poetess, "I run, I run, I am gathered to thy heart?" In Case You Donq: Know It-- The Catechetical Guild Educational Society publishes a first-class magazine entitled Catholic Youth. $1.50 per year, for ten issues: 15" cents pet"copy; quantity rates to ~chools and churches on r~quest. Write to: CatholicLYouth, 128 E. Tenth Street, Saint Paul. I" Min-nesota. Another Catechetical Guild project is Post-Reporter, Catholic Youth's own newspaper. It is published every second Monday during the school year. $1.00 for full school year; 5 cents for single copies: bulk rates on application. ¯ Address, as above. The Dominicari Fathers~'of the Province of St. Albert tile Great publish The Young Dominican for the benefit of young men~ho aspire, to become Dominican students. The paper is attractive and informative. Copies are sent.on request. Address requests to Brother Bede's Mail Box, Dominican House of Studies, River Forest, Illinois. The Missignar~r 'Sisters of Mother of God recently began publi-cation of The.Ark, "a. monthly periodica, l devdted to ecclesiastical and' cultural affairs, p~rticulaidy Of Eastern Rites." "Subscription: $2.00 per year; 25 cents per copy. 232 Sain : Appeared Clement J. McNaspy, S.J, AM WRITING this just after giving Holy Commumon in.one.0f the.'most favored and sacred spots in our coun-try. It is the nearby convent infirmary. .The com-municant was a lay sister of the Religious of the Sacre'~d Heart. I don't know her name. The convent is .really c~alled the College of the Sacred Heart; it is located in Grind Coteau, Louisiana. If you have never heard of Grand Coteau, let me assure you.that it is one ~f the least worldly villages anywhere. T.here is no motion picture in town. There is not even a chamber of commerce. A stranger would probably~call it a "sleepy" town. Yet few towns in the United States have known such spiritual activity. For one. thing, Grand Coteau boasts a retreat house where the spiritual, exercises are made almost weekly by sizable groups of laymen. There is too a desuit-novitiate within the city limith; and no ridigious need be tol~l that a novitiate can hardly be called a "sleepy" place, especially at recreation time. But Grand ,Cot ea 'u s c.laim to. veneratioo goes far .beyond this. o As you ~drive'along Louisiana. Highway No; 5 toward the. outskirts of the village of Sunset, you are sta~rtled by a garish-(fortunately, somewhat fadi'ng) 'placard: National Shrine, Saint A15peared Twice." ~An'd the sign points to Grand Coteau.,Jhidden beneath pines and oaks and moss, one mile north of the highway. -l~his gives away Grand Coteau's secret. One of the very few first-class miracles performed in the United Sta~es and officially accei0ted by the Church took place th.ere, in ¯ that very infirmary where I w.as just privileged to gi~re 233 CLEMENT J. MCNASPY Review for Religious Holy Communion. No, the miracle didn't happen yester-day. Yet o'nly a few weeks a~o we buried ninety-six year old "Tante Yomme," who when in school at'the convent had been a witness of the miracle, the last surviving wit-ness. Besides, private archives have a way of annihilatink even decades of years; and the kindness of Reverend Mother Superior of th~ College of the Sacred Heart has put into my hands these treasured documents, original affidavits and first hand descriptions. It is engaging to read among them Sister Mary Wil-son's personal account: how she was cured of~a disease diagnosed as incurable. There glo.w warmth and imme-diacy in the young novice'-s story. She hurries along, ingenuously, simply, impatient of conventional syntax and punctuation, not even careful to sound completely consist-ent. Here are her own words, as copied from the document heretofore unpub!ished.1 Tie very next day (December 10, 1866) I was worse than I had ever been before up to that time, all hope of getting better abandoned me; I felt getting weaker and my sufferings were so intolerable that it seemed to me that it was impossible to bear them long--Given up by the Doctor I disposed myself to receive the.Holy Viaticum this was oix the 10th of December and on the llth the Father gave me the - last Plenary Ifidulgence. One of our dear Mothers brought me a picture of Blessed Berch-marts on~the 6th and said that the community was going to make another Novena to Blessed BerchmansI looked at Mother and in my incredulity asked her, if there was any other saint left that they had not already importuned; for my dear Mothers and Sisters had already made so many novenas that I thought neither God nor the Saints were willing to confer any favor upon me ". I do not think I had eaten an, ounce of food for about forty days, during that time I had taken nothing but a little Coffee or ,tea which" for a week before I recovered, I could no longer take; and for two weeks no medicines had been administered--the Doctor said 1To facilitate reading, dashes have been inserted in the text. 1946 "SAINT APPEARED TW~rCE'' it was useless 'to torture me more so he stopped giving me any; the last two days I was unable to swallow even a drop of water . ¯ Owing to the condition of my mouth and fongue it was greatly feared I would not be able to swallow the Sacred Host--the Father therefore gave me but a sm~ill particle~it was with great difficulty that I could receive even this; the Father perceiving it remained b~; my bed,side with ciborium in hand until he had the perfect assurance that I had swallowed it,~this however could only be affected by means of a teaspoonful of water, and attended by. intense palm Being Unable to speak I said in my heart: "Lord, Thou who seest how much I suffer if it .be for your honor and glory, and the salvation of my soul I ask through the intercession of Blessed Berch-mans a little relief and health, otherwise give me patience to suffer to the end, I am resigned"--then placing the. image of Blessed Berch-mans on my mouth, I said: "if it be true that you can work miracles, I wish you would do something for r~e,--if not I will not believe in you. ~I can say without s~cruple or fear of offen'ding God, I heard a voice whisper: '~Open your mouth." I do so as well as I felt some one put as it were their finger on my tongue and immed~ ately I was re|ieved. "I then heard a voice say in a distinct and loud tone: "Sister, you will get the desired habit, be faithful, have confi-dence, fear not!" I had not yet opened my eyes, I did not know who was by my bedside I turned around and said aloud: "but Mother Moran I am well"--then standing by my bedside I saw a figure he held in his hand a cup, and there was some lights burning near him--at this beautiful sight I was afraid--I closed my eyes and asked: "is it Blessed Berchmans", He answered: "Yes, I come by the order of God, your sufferings are over, fear not !" I opened my eyes but he was gone. The Sister infirmarian had gone down to the chapel to receive Holy Communion. I sat up in the bed I felt no pain. I was afraid it was an illusion and that my cure was not real--I turned over and over in the bed but without pain--I then exclaimed: "It is true, Blessed Berchmans has cured me." , The Sister infirmarian soon returned from the Chapel and made her'act of thanksgiving before a little altar in the, infirmary. I did not speak to her: in about three quarters of an hour Mother Superior came in to see me, fearing at the same time to find me in the agonies of death,--but what was not her great surprise when she met my eyes which had not been opened for six days and heard me wish 235 CLEMEN'T J. MCNASPY Review ?or Religious her good morning. Mother in utter amazement drew back and exclaimed: "and what, those eyes!" then s~eing my mouth perfectly healed.she added: "that mouth!" On and on, page after page, Sister Mary Wilson details her dreadful illness, how the doctors had given .up ,hope, and the aftermath of her cure. Equally impressive, also in these archives, are the sworn accounts of D~octors James G. Campbell and Edward Millard, both.of whom certify, in stolid.professional language, to the miraculo~us cure. Dr. Millard concludes in these words: N(~t being able to discoveb any marks of convalescence, but an immediate r'eturr~ to health from a most sever~ and painful illness, I am unable to explain the transition by any ordinary natural laws. I hereby declare under the sanctity of.my oath that the above state-ment, according to the~best of my knowledge and belief is entirely true. (Sig1~ed) Ed. M. Millard. M.D., Grand Coteau, La., Feb. 4th, 1867. Sister Wilson's close friend, Mother Moran, has for-tunately also left ah eyewitness account. Her sisterly sympathy for the young postulant so .eager to receive the habit is felt as we read along: ' Wednesday evening, Miss Wilson asked me if it was night; for her eyes being continually closed, she could not distinguish' between night and day.On hearing my answer, she rejoined: "I never more expect to see the l.ight of day. I cannot pbssibly endure such suffering much longer." - She then with perfect composure gave me several commissions, requesting me t~ attend to their execution after her death; she expressed her lfiappiness in dying at the Sacred Heart (Convent), and entrusted me with the expressing of her thanks for all her Mothers and Sisters from whom, she said, she had received so many p~oofs of affection and tender charity. Her weakness was so great, that-her voice was scarcely audible, and she spoke with such difficulty that it required over an hour to articulate these few" words. Next morning I was surprised to fintl her still living: this day, Thursday,. certainly surpassed all that had preceded, in the intensity-of pain; her half opened mouth displaying a tongue swollen, inflamed and raw, gums and teeth all 'clotted with black corrupted 'blood, 236 "SAINT APPEARED TWICE" excited an involuntary sensation of horror followed by a deeper ,senti-ment of the most. tender compassion in every one. who saw her in this condition. Mother Moran goes on to tell how exulta~ntly Sister Wilson leaped from what was thought her deathbed, and she reports the physician's reaction when he ~ame to visit his dying patient: Not being able to assign any natural ~ause capable of producing such an effect, .he several times repeated: '~Really, Miss Mary, I can-not understand it! But one thing is certain, if you recover, it is cer-tainly' not to medicine or to my care that you are to attribute your cure." - Among other interesting documents from the convent archives are the-sworn testimonies of Fathers Nachon, Benausse, and Serra, all from th~ nearby. Jesuit college, who had assisted the postulan.t with the last sacraments. Each of these Fathers writes in his own hand, in a personal way, with distinct individual touches. As you read along you wonder if they thofight it odd of Blessed John Berchmans to by-pass his own brethren's house to appear in a neigh-bo~ ing community. If they felt sensitive on this point they surely show no-indication of it: in fact, they seem almost proud that the Blessed had chosen one of their spir-itual charges to work perhaps his greatest miracle. More arresting, probalSly because less technical and formal, is a letter from Father Na~hon to a. Miss M~ry Perry, who would seem to be a non-Catholic. Writing enthusiastically just four dfiys filter the miracle, the~Father tells ~f tlqe fl~ry ~tirred up fill around Grarld Coteau~ ~The moral that he draws is~ possibly .l~ss significant in ourbwn. claywhen Loubdes and Fatima are so widely talked about. He writes: You see, child, that the time of miracles is not entirely passed away. There is nothing astonishing for us Catholics, since we know that~the saints are powerf.ul with God and that nothing is impos- 237 CLEMENT J. MCNASPY sible to God. We may rejoice it has happened amongst us because it excites us to devotion, and contributes to. animate our faith. No wonder that the Archbishop of New Orleans immediately started canonical proceedings to investigate the miracle.' Rome moves proverbially slowly, l~ut after tire-less probing and cross-examination the Church was at length satisfied and set its seal of approval on 'the mirac~- lous healing. It was officially accepted for the canonization of the young Blessed; who henceforth is' thought of as peculiarly belonging to Grand Coteau. For generations now the citizens of the little village have simply taken their privilege for granted. They are not at ali surprised that Heaven should have chosen Grand Coteau to break through to earth. And visitors usually make just that comment. For there are visitors to Grand Coteau, even though no one pushes publicity. Thereare the devoted alumnae who return to dear "Coteau" to see favorit~e old teachers or justthe hallowed, tastily land-scaped grounds. Students of the modern college, and academy attract relatives'and friends. And often enough devotees of azaleas, live-oaks, or Acadian lore are drawn to Grand Coteau. All these, quite naturally, spend some time in prayer in the infirmary. Periodically a .group of" retreatants from the retreat house will also come, and once a year the Jesuit novices and scholastics pay a pilgrimage of homage to their young con-frere. "The small room where the apparition took place has been cony6rted iiato a tiny chapel dedicated to St. John Berchmans. Onl~ two quiet mu~al~ and a notice placed where.the Saint stood remind one that this is one of Ameri-ca's treasUred shrines. "° " ,238 , A Pla°n of.Sei -denial Wi!:hin :he Reach of All Robert B. Eiten, S.J~ ~N ~CATHOLIC LIFE the principle of self-denial holds ~an important place. Yet it is a fact known to all that in i?his~ matter of self-denial there is danger of going to extremes--of failing either by defect or by excess. Those :who are too ,easy on themselves practically exclude the likelihood or even the possibility Of their reaching high perfection.; they go against the injunctions of Our Lo~d and the Chur.ch, and they oppose the common teaching .of ascetic writers. On the other hand, those who overstep their powers and go to the other extreme run the risk of broken health, shattered nerves, and even the loss of vocation. These latte} try to follow a special path without a special c,all; with only ordinary g.races at their dispoiaI they try to follow a way of life that is possible only with .e~xtraordinary grace. There havd tJeen, and there are, souls who have a special vocation to continuous heroic mortifica-tion and even vOluntarily-sought sufferings. These souls need" particular guidance; what we say here is not for them. But concerning those souls--whether priests, religious, or lay peoplemwho Seek high perfection with the aid, at least normally, of only ordinary graces, one might ask.: What~measure "of self~denial and mortification is to be expected of~ them? The answer to this question is~ con-tained in the following program. 1. To begin with, a large number of acts qf-self, abnega,ti0n and mortification can be practiced by ca?~fullg observing the Commandments, thelaws of the Church, and 239 ROBERT B. EITEN for Religious the duties of our state of life includiag the rules and customs of_our religious institute; and by patientl~l bearing those sufferings which a life of carff, ul and reasonable fidelity to grace imposes on us. This does not mean that one will never slip here and there;, for to observe peffectt~l over a long period of time the rules of at least some religious insti-tutes requires special graces over and above the ordinar!l or~es.~, It is well for religious to remember that this is no small program; for a careful observance of the rules makes. great demands in the matter.of self-effacement and morti-fication. St. 3ohn Berchmans declared that the common life was his greatest mortification. 2. Many sufferings, hardships, sorrows, and denials come to us in the ordinary pro.vidence of God. Some~times Divine Providence makes great demands. This was the case during Wokld War II when many, besides sufferingth~ loss of dear ones, had to er~dure such things as destruction of property, poor wages, nearly impossible rationing limi-tations, and so on. It is clearly the will of God that we bear such sufferings at least without complaint, and patiently. Sufferings of this kind may come to us from queer, sorts of cau.ses, cond.itions,, a~nd occasions. They~ .m~,ay come from superiqrs.,I from e~quals,, o.r frominferio, rs; from.t,he i~justice and frqm the justic~e of. others; from ,the sins, o.r.even from the generous but tastl~ss cha~rit, y of°others; or from inani-mate. creation, as~ ~n, othe cas~ "of bad Weather, t~ornadoes, floods, and so fbrth. 3: The, well-estab!ish.e~l and reasonable c.onventions, of polite society which make for proper refinement;~etiquette, ci~lture, neatness, and general social decency, algo provide 1Obviously the fact that we might be assisted only by ordinary graces should never be a pretext for carelessness in observing our rules. Thus we must seriously apply ourselves to their observance as far as we can and ask.God for the h~elp needed tO observe them perfectly. 240 _ '." ~JuJv, 194~5 ~ ~ ~ A PLAi~I OF.SELF-DENIAL~ ~ ~_ ~mucb material for self-abnegation and restraint. We, ought -~to respect these conventions" i'n a spirit of love" of the neigh-bor for the love :of,God since-these things make'life more ~ livable. Theie is r;o reason why their observance cannot-be ~upernaturali~ed. Included here are, such-things as table _ .manners, which should be exquisitely delicate but Without _.affectation; deanlinehs and neatness about our person,. office,- and room; .proper restraint in both the quality and.~ oquant~tg of' food; proper deference shown towards certain /persons.by reason of their age, sex, and rank;~ politeness and the avoidance of all vulg~arity; and, in general,, restraint in our conversation. "- Here it is well to include the mortification involved correcting deflects of disposition" and character. These -('&fects make Us deficient and negligent in the performance . our,duties and their are annoying to others. Slipshod .work, absent-mindedness, failure to return things, frequent boast" fulness, sarcastic language, a ~failure to keep appointments, "all are examples of the defects here referred to. In brief, we should always be and act the perfect, cultured Christian~ gentleman. We may well keep in mind St. Anthony'.s saying_that a saint would be-at home in any society. Such. deportment too (to dwell on another point casually) would be an effective means of fostering and getting voca, tions, oY°Ung people would be fascinated by what they. see -in us and would want to share with us that life which seems _to bring with oit, as it should, such refinement, culture, and fine iense .of propriety. ~ 4. Besides the foregoing instances of the cross which, ° wd~might say, are imposed upon us, there still remain mor~ ~tificati0ns and sufferings which we freely impose on our-~ Selves. ~ In other words they are entirety-voluntary, ~vith-" ' out° any obligation of i~recept or necessity~ All founders ROBERT B. EITEN ~-°-~ " ' Reti~ew for Religious; -of tel.i~i6us orders and all great spiritual~ writers, agree that voluntary penances are in some way an essential element of serious" tending towgrds perfection. Besides-the exercise humility and the cross, these v~oluntar~r penances prsvide,.~ for the.exercise of other virtues. o True, these voluntary mortifications must be practiced° prudently .and under the directi6n of the superior or of a goqd spiritua~l director. Norm.ally we should not, orat least need not; wait for them to propose what v61untary mortifications are to be practiced. Usually such things as ¯-spiritual attractions, reading, the insi)irations of gra~e, and~ so forth will suggest to us what might be done. After thiriking over the matter seriously, we propose, to .our. superiors or spiritual directors what vol~untary mortifica~ tions we .would like to practice. We then follow out their directions. This obedience will protect us against excesses ",in ~ith~r direction. Of course.no one needs permission to practice any of the mortifications mentioned or suggested under No. 3~ above.~ In spite of all the safeguards provided,by consulting,, and following the advice of superiors and spiritual diiectors in this matter, there remain sd,me obscurity and uncertainty - as to what and bow much voluntary mortifica.tion should ¯ be undertakenl An excellent practice might be, perhaps~. to,ask God to. send us in His providence those physical and , mental sufferings which are proper to help us reach.tl'iat~ d~gree o~ perfection to which He has called us. Such a request, if it is sincere, includes the firm resolve to conform ~ourselv~s to His will in all sufferings and hardships__w~hich He-may fiend us. ' 5. Fi~nally, it is not too much to expect fervent souls to, have at least the desire to .desire affronts, humiliationk re~'roaches, misunderstandings, and so forth. A better, dis- positidn:wouldbe to d~slre, tolong for, and to love thes~;~: ver~ things just to be like Qbrist and to help Him mo~e~" ~ffectively in the great workof the redemption. : However . ~ofi"hcco~nt of human misery and frailt~ a soul might.not these ~eneroOs dispositions. If' one has, howeqer, the'desire_to desire these things, he is by that very .disp0si-tion ~rep.aring himself for an actual desir~ and love of. :~ffronts, humiii~tions, and.so on. 7 " Here we might add that souls ought to try to mairftain a ~pi~i~ of cheerfulness in all circumstances of life; whether -'these be e'asy to bear Or very tr~ring. S. uch a spirivadds much, me~it ~and abnegation to mortifications alrea'dy practi, ced. 'A~nd how such a c6nstaht cheerfulness impresses others f, or. the better! To be cheerful at all times're~u~ires gr.eat abne-gation- anal perhaps at times a special grace.Well mi.ght We, ask,God to give us this .grace. ,,:o ~ The t~oreg~ing program of self-denied seems to be pos-sible for all. No one-will ~oncede that- it is an easy one; ~and, yet no' one can Say that it is impossible. It is sweetly: r_easonablg, not violent; yet it will make us like Christ ~Crfi~ified and will make us active collaborators with Him in the g.reat work of the redemption. '~?' P~erh£ps someone, may ask why nothing has been said~ ,.~bout gictim souls, that is, souls who offer themselves and their whole lives with all the sufferings, ti:ials, humilia-tions, mortifications, and so forth contained:therein to Gbd ::.~":jus~ as Christ did upon His entrance into the~ world °-(.~f: Hebrews 10: 5-10.) By. way of reply we may say that: souls who feel themselves supernaturally" urged to ~:his kind of offering, may follow si~ch an urge. Obviously tl~e motive for so doin~ may vary. ,It might, for example be to offer self for the' same intentions that .Christ had; or tb fill':up in one own s flesh~ what is wanting in C.hnstos ¯ o - . 243 ~ROBERT B,~ EI~TEN = ,~, ~ pfission~ fOr"~the Church.-- f.~Colos~sians 1 : 24~ 5 : Thi~--- ~victim-life, th~s.3pds(Slgte-of the cross and suffe)~ag; i~ ¯ grand:vocation., It does not, however, n~cessarilg in~olve~. any more moriifica~ions tha~ tBose~ we have ~mentioned,butT only gives special force to the ~o~i)e f6~ beating them:. _ If however there is question of a victim-sohl in the limited sensd that is, of one who_ ~sks for exceptional ~uffe)i.ng, what should be done? .No~ally,~one should~ not ~.permitt~d to makesuch'a request for-sufferi~g,~asq~ -may show a lack of humility and can emily lead to illu- ~s~ons( But if it is clear that an-individaal-has a special vocation for this type of life, then such a one should fi~stbe thoroughly,t~sted. After suNcient p~oof of the call to such a l'ife of ~uffering, the soul may offer itself to God in this very cult vocation. ~ ' "' " Let us hope that the abov~ Pr9grhm wiil clarify -'t}rs,fo~ us and that we.may "by the mercy of God"~present :our '"~odies a living sacrifice, holy, pleasing unto"God; ~0fir] re~sonable service" (Romans 12;, 1).= . ~I am 'much indebted to De Smedt (NOtre vie surnaturelle, volume 2, "pp.~472 252) not only for much of the ~aterial- found here but also in some wag fdi~the i~spiiation to write this article. ~ -~ .APP[AL5 FOR VOCATIONS ~ .~ ~he following vocation folders and pamphlets rely chiefly on excelle~t and well cffosen photographs to make their appeal: Modern Samaritans, from the NoVitiate "df~ the Alexian Brothers. Clayto~. Missouri: How about gou? (an appeal t~pros~ pective ~riest candidates) and Co~e In (an appeal for fay. Brothers), b6th from "~th~ Dominican House of Studies. River Forest, Illinois:'A Life to Give, from th~ Sisters of St. Casimir, 26.01 W. Marquette Road, Chicagq 29, Illinois: Dominican Sisters: St. Marg o~ the Springs, from the Novitiate.-St. Mary 6f tile Springs, Columbus 3. Ohio;Whg a Hospital Sister? by Rev. Dr. L. Rumble. M.S.C., fiom Radio Reply Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. * Our Ladg's Fz, ends, by Rev. Ju~ Senieur, O.F.M.Cap., describes the work t~e R~gina ~leri Society for the spiritual and financial suppprt of priestly and reli-'~ gious vocations. It. is .published by the Catholic Uni4ersity Cofiference of-Clerics and Religmus. C.S.M.G,, Cathohc Umverslty, Washmgtqn 17, D. C.~ . :~ '-- " 244 - "~,HE visitor,~a gray-hai~ed alumnlus of th~ college~, ~was [~, movifi~ about the° crowded recreation room o[ the faculty" friars, greetirig old acquaintances and ~aking new ones. He approached a card table where, over unfin-ish~ ed pinochle, three.~ unfamiliar friars stood awaiting him. "Tom Casey, class of '13," he ~smiled brgadly, hand extended. "Onesimus," .smiled back the first. "Eleuthe[ rius," smiled back the second. "Symphorianus, smiled the third. And albeit no stranger to Franciscan-phenomena. Tom Casey, class of '13, blinked hard and made a que4~r frog-like noise in°theback of his throat. "Where do you peo131e[get those names?'" he dazedly wondered. Here were names not found.~ven in his prayey-book Litany of the~Saints-though .surely there are enough odd ones in that long list! NOr had he ever, iffal[his long years and his wide travels, encountered those names among the living. If~the~y reminded him~of anything~subsolar at all, it:wa~ of Pullman sleeping cars---or of the Latin play in hi~:.4ophbfiiore year:~or of just" plain "printer's pie:' '~ What a downright shame, his meditation concluded, that nbr~ m~il"youhg men, oprobably christened :John, Wflham, Pat-rick; should now have to confront mankind as Oneslmus, "Eleutherlus, Symphorianus! -~ ~" Undoubtedly,~the religious n~mes of many of~us~d6 ~starfli~ the si~cular eai. They may at first hav~ ~tarfiede v~e ~n our ~own. Wi~: i~robably had "h.oped for something, con[ ventio~al; but the superior, with the finality"~of Z~icl-Jar~, siinply ~declared, "This is hi~ (or her)" r/am'e," and uttered bizarre syllables. A'ndothat was'that. Or, if permitted to CLAUDE KEAN Review for Religious choose our names, we probably found the community's nomenclature as depleted as Kresge counters at closing time on Christmas Eve; and what we got was what all earlier customers hadjudiciously foregone. So the names that many ,of us bear are admittedly unusual. Are they, therefore, absurd? Or may it not be that, compared with the proper names of many layfolk (names which were selected from unrestricted possibilities), our abnormal names are actually quite normal? or oub apparently mean-ingless names are at least relatively, fraught with remark-ab, le significance? From stray evidence now and then I have long sus-pected that the answer lies in our favor. From a half-hour of recent research, I now know for certain that it does. The "research" consisted in a mere scanning of proper names in the.telephone book of a representative eastern clty of the United States. Under the A alone, I found a hundred proper names, male and female, much morfi extravagant than any ever imparted to friar or monk or Sister¯ or Brother. ' To be specific, who. of us, even though destine~dot9 teach geography, is named Maryland, .or Virginia,; 6r,Columbia, or Dallas; or St,aten, or~ Reno? O~who of u~, e,ve ~n~th0.u.gh a ngt,ed nature-lover,. ~ . .bears the. name of Fern,~.~,or,Ivy, or Myrtle, or Reed, or. Violet, or, Daisy,~ or Pansy?., ~ Or ,who of .us, e.ven,thgugh avowedly interested in the classic, long,ago," wears toga-like the name of Homer, or Ca.to, or ~.~Virgil, or Caesar, or th~ myrtle-laden name of Phoebe, or Penelope, or Vesta? Or what choleric character among us is openly known as'Hasty?--what phlegmatic as Tranqu.ilisim~?-- what cynical as Burr?mwhat loquacious as Verba or Vow, els? Yet, as the telephone book plainly attests, laymen who possess these given names do walk and breathe, 246 SPEAKING OF NAMES A few names that occur-under theosame letter A savor of surrealism: Bushrod,.Hedgecomb, Hunk, Whip. Others would seem to suggest endearment: A1icebelle, Birdie, Bowie, Dernie, Goldie, Hommey,-Libby," Shorey, Sibbie, Trudie, Wadie. A sizeable percentage looks yearningly,- though uncertainly, towards the glory that,was Rome and the grandeur that was Greece: Aetha, Al"eathea, Cleora, C1evius, Euna, Iola, Lathena, Lesbia, Nova, Orpha, Thea. Several others walk in veiled oriental mystery: Arsinoe, Bayan, Desma, Zelma, Zetta. There is something of a faded Elizabethan charm in Clift, Bourne, Dell, Teare; and something suggestive Of remote constellations yet undiscovered in Arie, Angrous, Elsir, Louv~enia, Norment, Ord, Sigrid. The rest, howeyer symbolic, are not ~iuite clear in their allusions, and must be listed as mere vocables: Alonda, Armeita, Awillda, Beekman, Belva; Buxton," Demleta, Ena, Grice, Kermit, Lola, Lona, Lora, Ponten-ciano, Reta, Rulloda, Velma, Wilda, Worth. Now, it is no concern of mine--apart from the admin-istration of baptismmwhat names people bestow upon 'their offspring. In the exercise' of American freedom of expression, they may even, if they so wish, prefer numbers to names. (Ripley discovered not long ago anAmerican youth with the proper name of "Eleven."). Nor-do I in the least imply that odd names denote odd characters, that "that which we do call a rose by any other word would" not "smell as sweet." My sole contention is that, as mere~ alphabetization, the secular nomenclature equals in singu-larity, and .frequently even excels, the religious. And ~he Bell Telephgn¢ Company is. my star witness. But names are more than vocables: they are symbols. And the modern secular trend in names indicates the com-plete secularization of modern thought. Gone now are 247 CUAUDE KEAN Review/:or .Religious the.days~when~ the-names of~_men-=:as well as of the,ships they° sailed,and the ,new lands they discovered--were drawn from the rich vocabulary ~of Catholk,Faith. Gone,~ too, for the most part, are the days when devout Protestants turned to their Bibes in search of worthy nami~s for their newborn. In an age turned materialistic, men are more and mor'e taking ~their names not from God's great, but~from the:world;s great: from poets and philosophers of, a~cient Rome and Greece;. from~literati~urs of later eras (my tele: phone~ list includes Milton, Addison, Scott, Emerson, Haw-thorne~) ; from .modern scientists, like Burbaiak and Edison, and modern statesmen, like Roose~celt and Churchill. ° In even'.m6re articulate expressionof, th~ materlahstlc spirit if has now b~6m~ th~a~epted prhctice tona~e pkr-s6ns fiot¢.Mte~ other persons~ but affei things hft~r flbra . and:fauna,~ and geograpb~cal~it~s; and '~vefi mechanical objects.~ -This~ ph~ndmenbfi wOuld, to~do:i~'.ju~tlce~ ~req~i~ a Chesterton's~afysis: :.~ut,ev~n'on tge gu~face~ ~4t, to c~!l,~a.gifl ~'Petunia;,)'.;~or a;boy "Ohio", or '~Derrick":. '(and theg~ does.~,exist, a.[.b~y with: that name), is2 nbt]perceptibly ~ny;~more~?ra.tio~al.~,than. to. call ~a ~favorite .p.etuma.~ . Ger-tr~ fle,:5,or~.the stxte of OhiO~"Harold,'' or a~derrick,,,on 4be property', , "~ rl' .~1,~,- .".d" " , ¯ '~ '~ -,-~ ~. - :~ ~TBa'~: be ,to,hea~n, ~he~.figm?s" that we~rehg~ous-bear ar~,the -names obpersons. , ~nd" at"that,~ no ord~narF per-sgns: -Pe~ha~s~hose'p~rs6nshv~d m~the fat-off ~ast. "Per-ha~ little' i~'kfiooh Oaboot-them~x~pt ,tfi~t "a ~N~o or'3 Tr/j~h~r'~fi ,Diocletiah ~Ut th~ to death:; W~rid has not e~n th~"vag~egt memory 6f~the~.~-'rYet~they are the truly gr~at"~of"the 'h6~an race;.and ~God knows them~well., In their :flames ~we have inherited a, lustrous lggacy~ of honor, ~ special tide-to: protection and~aid. And in-.those names~ we h~ve~,6ur~inspiration fovholy living and DECISIONS OI/: THE HoLY SEE. dying--as :Ruskin .words it; . l~ifting hol.y hands without-wraith, and sinking to blessed ~sle~p.withoht fear." So what 6dds if ~the lay-w0rld pities 0r plllor,es us fdr ohr names? 0 What odds if not one person in ten cab pro~ nounc~e those, names fl~uently, and~,,not one in twenty can ~spell them correctly? We know the inner worth of those flames. And as to their ,outward form, well, an occasional glance at the telephone book will afford us unfailing peace hnd satisfaction. ~ .~o~yember'21, 1945:o The Sac~'d P~nite£tiary announced th~/t His " Holiness Pope'Pius XI~i in ari audience granted to the Cardiri~l Pen[- . tenfiary M~jdr ~n Ndve~ber 8, 1~45, h~d gracio~s~ grafit~d t~al indulgence o~ fifty days to the f~thful who devoutly,k~ss the ring of a p~efect apostohc. Th~s ~s t~ same indulgence which the faithful may gain by devoutly k~ss~ng the r~ng of an archbishop or bishop (Pr~es et Pta O~era, n. ~}0). Prefects apostohc are prelates'in m~s~ slon countries who govern a t~rr~tory call~ a prefecture apostohc. Usua!ly they. are not b~s~ops: h~fi~ the special ~r~nt recbunt~d 'abd~. Pemtent,ary answered ~ree questions regarding the p~ous exerc,se of the Way qf the Cross: I. According "to a decred.,dated August 6, 1757, it~ is~provided that for the pious exercise~0f the Way df the Cross, when otherwise a disturbance might be daused, a~priest and two clerics or cantors may ~ake the rounds, pausing at each station and reciting the accustomed prayers, while the faithful ie~ai~ing ia' their places give the responses. Question: Does this de~i~e.~ hold~ .only fgi, th~ ~.bublic~, exercise~ of the Way of the Cross made in a church, o~ does it hold ~hefi this exer-cise is m~de~by religious in their chapels?. - Answer: In the a~rmative to the first part, in the ndgative to the second. II. Questior~: Whether under the circumstances-mentioned in the decrees of Februa~'y 27, 1901, and of May 7, 1902 namely, when 2~49 DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE all the religious cannot go in a body from station to station in their chapel without causing a disturbance be~cause of the smallness of the place they can gain the indulgences connected with the i~ious.exer-cise of~the Way Of the Cros~ i'f only one re, ligious (B~roiher or Sister) makes the rounds f~om station to station and reads aloud ~the accus-tomeffprayers, while'rthe rest remaining in their places rise and genu-flect there.for each station? Answer: In the affirmative. " III. Question: Whether in the same circumstances already de-scribed for religious and following the same method, the faithful who live a common life, as mentioned in canon 929 of the Code of Canbn Law, can gain the indulgences attached to the pious exercise of the Way of the Cross if one man or woman, respectively, makes the rounds of the stations of the Wa.y of the Cross and recites the cus-tomary prayers? Answer: In the affirmative. Questions I and II tell us that in a religious community chapel it is not necessary to have the priest recite the prayers for the Way of the Cross; it suffices for one of the religious, Brother or Sister, to make .the rounds from station to station and to recite the customary pray-ers. ~ This has be~n explained before in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (I, 1942, p. 424; IV, 1945, p. 61). Question III extends the same privilege to communities of the faithful living a common lifb, for instance, nurses in/training in a h~pital, old folks living in a home, orphans, studehts at a boarding school, an~ so forth, so that the group may gai.n the indulgence in the chapel if one of their number, man or woman, makes the round of the stations and says the accus-tomed prayers, while the rest remaining in their places answer the prayers and rise and genuflect at each station. OUR~CONTRIBUTORS o ~LAUDE KEAN is on the faculty of Holy. Name College~ the Franciscan house of studies, Washington. D. ~C. He formerly taught at St. Bonaventure College anc~ served as spiritual director of the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn. W.H. HING-STON is spiritual director at ~lesuit Seminary, Toronto. CHARLES F. DONOVAN has just completed a year of ascetical study at St. Robert's Hall. Pomfret Center, Connecticut. CLEMENT ~1. MCNASPY is a professor of classical languages at St. Charles College, Grand Coteau. Louisiana. ROBERT B. EITEN, a professor at the University of Detroit, is much interested in ascetical subjects. CYRIL VOLLERT and ADaM C. ELLIS are members of the theological faculty at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, K~nsas. 250 Two I-[eart:s* W. H. Hingston, S.J. IN HIS RADIO address at the close of the Fatima jubilee (October 31, 1942) Pope Pius XII consecrated the wsrld to the Immadulate Heart of Mary. In the same year, on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, he pub- -licly repeated this. consecration and ordered that, as a per-petual memory of this solemn consecration, the Feast of the Immaculate Heart of Mary should be celebrated annually in the universal Church. In obedience to this, order the Sacred Congregation ' of Rites had a new Office and Mass com-pose& and these were presented .to the Holy Father for approval on December 10, 1943. A decree of the Congre-gation of Rites, dated May 4, 1944, which incorporated the text of the new Mass and Office, ordered that the feast 15e celebrated annually on the Octave day of the Assump-tion, August 22. ' Despite the fact that the decree promulgating the feast was issued two years ago, this year may be the first Oppor-tunity for many of us to make,~use of the new Mass and Office~. The occasioh seems an apt one for recalling some of the basic thoughtspertinent to the devotion to the Immacu-late Heart of Mary, and particularly for considering the relation of thii devotion to theworship of the Sac'ted Heart of Jes~us. Obviously there is an intimate link between the devo-tion to Mary's Heart and tha(which we render to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The same saint was employed by Provi-dence to initiate simultan, eously both devotions. No hearts *This article appeared in slightly different form-in The Canadian Messenger of the Sacred Heart, December. 1945, pp. 778-782. It is reprinted here with permission. 251 .W.~ H. HINGSTON Review [or Religious were ever so united by resemblance and by affection as those of .Jesus and~ Mary. The very flesh of Jesus came from Mary alone through the power of the Holy Ghost. Yet under,the outward likeness of the two beautiful devotions there are fundamental differences; and it is the purp.ose of this a~rticleto set forth briefly the resemblances and the dif2 ferences as a help toward an und~rst~indirlg piety. ¯ There is an essential 'difference to b~ observed from~the oai'set between the Form fff devotion paid to the Sac}ed Heart of Jesus and that paid ~o the Heart of HiS Moth'~r, .be.cause of the fact that in one instance veneration is ren- "d~red tO a divine Person and in the other t0a human son. Since all devotioh goes to the person whom we invoke or honor, it is e¢ident that there must be an infinite distance in this regard between the cultus of the Heart of the God- ¯ man and the cultus of the Heart of .Mary; between honor shown to God_and that shown to a creature no matter how highly favored. ~ To mark t~is essential distinction it seems pre, ferab, le, when speaking of the~ heart ofMary alone and'apart from the heart of Jesus, to use .the words H61y Heart. 0f.Mary, or Immaculate Heart, or Most"Pure Heart of Mary: rati~r than '"Sacred'" Heart ofeM~ry. That i~s whhtthe~Church d6es. Sh~ employa the.title Sacred Heaitof M~ry onl~ in the combified "title of ihe Sacred "Hearts of 5es~s and Mary. Apart°from t'h!s~ preliminary consideration, which.is of a general nature and recalls that first and most essential dis~ tinction which is never lost sight ofo by Catholics but is s~mply taken for granted, there ale other .important dis-tinctions to be made. They relate to the-three chief way~ in which we can co sider a~ay°devo~iofi, or:t0 tde t fire leading aspects under which a dev6t~on may be stud~ed. These are: i'ts ma.,terial object, its f6~mal obje~ct, it.s sp~dia.l 252 appeal~:-i'Th,ough these.wolds ~ay~ ~ound a bit 'technica),~: ~:.-x.~_~;tlSey-~ire very Useful :and '~ccurate;~ and we have all ::.(~li~rized ~ith them thrs~gh~the explanatiSns ~whidh-~e ~a~e Often~h~eafdof the de~otion to the.S'acred Hea;t Jesus. Now on each of these three fundamental ~eadings, ~;~Which together sum up a devotion, the differences between_ "~he~cultus of the Heart of Jesus and that of the H~art Mary are mgmficant and p~ofound. ¯ ~ -~irst~ then, as to the material object. In both devotigns .~a humafi heard.of flesh is presented forour veneration. Yet " ~t Once,we note a profound difference. ~The hea?t of Jesu.s :~" isin ~tself an object of ~doration. It is adorable because ~ is g~a~t.Bf that ihdividual human gature which the Divine :~ ",W0rd" mbec~0 m"m g " ~ncarnate took to H"~ m s~elf and" made Hi_s .Very own.~ It' is part of Him. Though a created object, ~-t~gfigh-a mgtenal thing, ~hough Buman flesh, .~t ~s ~he.heart ~f the Son of God madeMan. The honor, we kh~w /'~ m~s~inciude ad;ratiom "In contrast to this; iff the --,:~ 2~i~n ~to .the heart of Mary such ~eneration i~ refid~fed as~" ~ay~ be paid to a 5feature, b~t nothing o~ the adoration. ~ t~at belongs to God Mone. - N~vertheless, adoration is not the .principal act in th~ ~Tdevotion ~,t~ .the Sacred Heart. The human h~art.of the ;~Sa~ior is:~resented to us nbt primarily.that, we may r~nder ~-~,adoration~ bui because of what it stands for, the hu~" -heart:being the natural symbol of human love.~ T. he_~ight 6f the heart of Jesus spontaneously calls to mind His human -i~ l~ve,for His Father and for us. Uoiversally the he~r(is ~.,. looked upon .as the organ, or at least the symbol-of,ldve. ~So fiatural_a symbol of love is it, that in every lan~uhge the h~art.of a ~an is taken for his inward dispositions.--Aman" ~:. <" .- who - is generous, kind, sympathetic is spoken o~" as big--. ~,'hearted, ~tender-hearted, and so f~rth; or else; if he m~ni- 253 ,W H HINGSTON , ~ ,7~ * ~ ~Reoteto for Reltgtous ,, fegt no such pleasant~characterlstlcs,~ he is spoken of as hard-., h_eart~d, cold-hearted, heartless.~ - --~ N~w that thes~e preliminary observations .have beeri ~ade, we daft completeour statement regarding the materml - j,obj~ct i~ the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus~an'd,say' F_hat it-is His heart of flesh taken as the natural symbol Of " His hhman lo;¢e. The natural sy.mbolism of the heart p.la~cs a large pii,~t in the devotion, which would not be underitandablewith-.-. out'~t. In the devdtion to Maryls Heart on the contrary, the symbolism of the heart is faint and not at all empha-. sized, ,th~ reason being that it i~ not.so much her~love as her pUrit~y and her fidelity that we consider. Our attentibr; ~alled far more to the purity, htimility: and. Other vir~ue~ of ithat most faithful heart than to the~ qualities of its love., It ts~ riot hard to discover the reason why in the,devotion to t~he Heart of Jesus such emphasis is placed on the natural sym-b01ism of the heart, and why such emphasis, is lacking, from, "the'~correspbn.ding devotion to the Heart of His Mother. This will become still more apparent when we consider the_ ,f, ormal object of each devotion. A first difference between. "the t~vo devotions is thus found evenin the matefial object; which in both devotions is the heart of flesh, but in ~ach t~e~ ~ l~eartfis viewed under a somewhat different asp, ect. ~A setond and more pronounced diffe~rence lies ifi tl'ie~ - .formal object of. each,, d~voti6n. - The formal object of the devotion to Jesus' Heart is His human love for m~n. ,-,, Note in'the first place t.hat it is His human love which is stressed: -~a'ther 'than His divine love. Coeterrial with the FatheY~' '/he Wor& the~Second Person of the m6st adorable,_Trini_ty~, ,has known from ~everlasting and has loved witff an eteriaal love,each one of us. Yet it is not this eternal lovebelonging -to His divine n~ature that we c~nsider in His Sacred Heart:,,~ ~, ' dul~l, 19~ 6 "~ ~ ' ' TWO HEART~. . .~ We~ read-therein His huma~-10k~e. The symbolism of the heartdna.kes this perfectly clear, for tl~ heart i~ the symbol ~ of h~uman love, no~of divine love._ Besides, the love'of ['Jesus is presented to us as a suffering love, andonly the" .human in Him can suffer. " We venerate the human love b_y .which a divine Person loves us. Yet Christ's eternal love 5, belonging to His divine nature, though it is not and cannot properly be symbolized by any .natural symbol," is by no, ,means excluded from this°devotion. -After all, we love that ,Person Himself who loves us and suffers for u , and Him as He is, whole and entire Hisvery self, .the~ one living principle of a lov~ that is both human'and divine. The.Woid having been made flesh, having becorhe P0S- - sessed of a human °nature like ours, now loves-with a love that began only at His Incarnation, that is truly .human,- -xhat is ~harged with all the emotions of man's spiritual will -*and is colored with all those feelings that have their roots -., in- the sensitive part "of man's bodily make-up. Christ, though~a divine Person and not a human person, loves even ¯ in the, manner that human p~rsons love. He experiences, 'tOo, the consequences of human love, even to the suffering ~ Which unrequited love entails. The greater the capacity_ ~-~ .for loving, the greater the capacity for. suffering. The more -. rintense and unselfish theaffection, the ,greater the anguish-when such affection, goes unrecognized .and is not returned: Note in th~ sed6nd place' that it is Jesus" human love ° ~or. men that. is .the formal object, rather than His htiman 10re for His Father. Undoubtedly Christ, in the-human" nature that He had made His own, loved FIis Father with a,_ll the strength Of His human will; yet it is not this lmre -for His.Father that is dwelt upon, but His love for mdn_. '-"Behold the Heart which has so,'loved men," were His words to St. Margaret Mary. In contrast to this we find that in the devotion to the" Most Pure Heart.of Mary the formal object,, insofar ~is it ¯ is love and not fideli.ty, is love for her 3esus and for her _G~d, not her love for ma'nkind, at least not primarily her 10re for.mankind. We do not positively exclude from our-~ thoughts in this devotion the motherly ,love that she bears to all mankind; but our attentiofi is focused on something ¯ ~lse, rlamely, on the complete and unique absence of all self-love, on the absolute fidelity to grace, on the devotedness of-- M~ry's heart to God. . " Thirdly, there is the special appeal to be considered in each of .these two devotions, outwardly so alike. ,Here the contrast is most marked. In the devotion to_ His Sacred Heart, 3esus makes an appeal to us by His very love for to love Him i[~ return. He opens His breast, bares-His'heart - to us, reveals it afire with love for. us, bleeding for us, ~giving itself to uS without holding back anything, even t~o the Cross, even to the Eucharist; He even humbles Himself before us and shows us the wounds thiit our indifference and -. coldness have inflicted upon Him, piercing His v.ery heart. His fs a suffering love, arld.there is an awful pathos in'His hOpeal, t-he appeal of the~ Son of God begging of His crea~ tures the favor of being loved in return. Our Savior appea~l~. ~strongly to our feelings; but it would be a grave mistake 6n_ our.part and a complete misunderstanding of His plea were we to content ourselve~ with~ giving Him in answ~er mere;. ~ pious sentiments. He ga~e us deeds! He pleads for real reparation, exercised not so much in the way that at6nemen~ ~ is usually exercised, ~amely, by works of pe~nance, bfit° rather by works~ of love, especially through the ever more ,perf~ect doing of His Father's will and the perform~ance of acts ofde~votion towards Himself in the Eucharist. In "the devotion to the Most Pure Heart of Mary~ there" duly, 1946 " Two HEART~ -is also an appeal, of course, but it is not an impassioned appeal, nor are we besought to love her. She does not show us the love of her heart for us, as 2esus does, and beg us to love her in return. Unquestionably Mary has loved and actually does love us much, incomparably more than any one, save only her Son, has loved us; but there is nd allusion ~o this in her appeal. Mary's love is also like her Son's, a suffering love; and it is significant that those sufferings by which she shared in the Passion to such an extent that she is deservedly styled Queen of Martyrs were all endured in her sinless heart; for of bodily sufferings we bare no record. It is furthermore a historical fact that c6mpassion for the broken-hearted Mother--so bravely standing beside the.Cross, as St. 2ohn presents her, or with the torn and lifeless-form across he/ lap, as Christian piety has long depicted her first led the faithful into the sanctuary of Mary's suffering, heart. Nevertheless the sorrows 0f Mary form the object of a distinct.and much more ancient devo-tion in the Church; and in the devotion to the Most Pure Heart the thought of compassion is not prominent. The heart of Mary° is usually depicted encircled with fragrant roses to denote the flowers of many virtues, with~ which it is adolried, not with,thorns. The specia! appeal in this devo-tion is reilly a .very ge.ntle and very sweet and persuasiv.e invit~ition to highdr ~hings. ~ It is a call to .lead an interior life and to imitate the Blessed Virgin by purity of,life, ,by perfect.chastity~ of;th~ affectigns .which are to be. dlrect~ed ~ avcay"~ro, m°creatures,wl~oliy tO G~d, by the practice' of all those wrtues that are particularly dear to her Son. 2esus, because He is God, draws us by the cords of Adam to himself, to the Divinity. Mary because she is a creature draws us, not to herself but directly to her Son, to .her God, to Him who is in truth her child, born of her, yet 25.7 W. H. HINGSTON Review for Religious who can say of Himself: "I and the Father are one'.' (John 10:30). "Amen I say'to you, before Abraham was made, I am" (John 8:58). "Philip, he that seeth Me, seeth the Father also" (John 14:9) " The two.devotions closelycorrespondwith'one another, yet each in its own sphere. They are not on the same footing. Devotion to the Heart of Mary is really a beau-tiful pendant to the devotion to the Heart of Jesus. Her heart is, after His, the most beautiful thing in all creation, because in every way the most perfect copy of His. Upon such beauty the angels gaze in rapture. To portray it is beyond the reach of words. Yet in contemplating Mary's loveliness let us guard against the mistake of far~cying that her very greatness keeps her aloof, a sublime but ethereal beauty far removed from us, dwelling above all angels and saints in the court of the Most High. The symbolism of ~tie heart ought to save us frdm. this baneful illusior~ and should impress' upon us that Mary's is a warm and comfbrting loveliness, tender ~and sweet, and constant and motherly. The tho~ught of this should .fill us~ With confidence rather than with awe. Shh can be approached in all our needs and in our every mood. She can comfort as.none other can, for the heart of the Virgin Mother has experienced sorrow of e;cery kind and has ,known such depths of human v~oe tha~ all other anguish compared to hers must seem bearable and light. But, far and above all, tile heart of Mary overflows with joy; and no one can approach her in thought and no( feel happier for it. She takes her children by the hand and leads them straight to the Sacred Heart of Jesus along the way of encduragement, and hopefulness, and holy joy. The resemblanees between the two devotions are man, r and obvious. Reflection and meditation bring out the differences, and with clearer knowledge comes a deeper 258 July, 194i5 TWo HEARTS understanding of both these lovely devotions centered upon two human hearts that beat in unison. What does the devotion to the Most Pure Heart of Mary add to our devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus? It supplies an additional motive for trust in Him. Mary is so approachable, so understanding, so near to us! She is just one of ourselves. 'And withal how close she is to Christ! How dear to His Heart! How worthy by her stainless purity to plead the cause of us poor sinners with Him, who is the fruit of her womb, and to lead us to Him. Besides, a'better realization of the fundamental differ-ences thatexist between the two devotions brings out cer-tain aspects of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of desus which otherwise might never have been so clearly under-stood. In'this sense devotion toMary's Heart is seen to be a complement to the devotion to the Sacred Heart, which ii itself rooted in the mystery of the Incarnation, with which Mary was so intimately associated in the divine plan. But, best of all, there is the encouragement given us by Mary's life to lead an inner life. The attractiveness of . Mary's example is .best studied in its source, her heart. There we can appreciate the exquisiteness of her every action, feel the warmth of her tender affection, and breathe in the entrancing fragrance of her purity, which rises like incense in a pure white cloud from the selfless sanctuary of her immaculate heart. ANNOUNCEMENT It is even more ditScult to get pap~,r now than it was during the war. For this reason we are reducing the size of the REVIEW from seventy-two pages to sixty-four pages. The amount of matter in each number ~ri!l be about the same as we are using more small type than usual. .We shall return to the 72-page issue just as soon as we can get some guarantee of a regular supply of paper. 259 Recept:ion of Seminarians int:o Religious.lnst:it:ut:es Adam C. Ellis, S.3. ON JULY 25:194 l,.the Sacred Congregations of Religious and of Seminaries issued a joint decree regarding the reception of ex-seminarians into a religious institute and the admission of ex-religious into a seminary. This decision was duly" publi.shed in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (1, 1942, p. 71), as was also a private an-swe~ regarding the same given on May 11, 1942 (III, 1944, p: 67). A number of problems have arisen regarding this decree. Recently we received copies of Commehtarium pro Retigiosis which had been delayed by the war. One of these (XXIII, 1942, pp. 226-237) contains an interesting commentary on this decree written by His Eminence, Cardinal La Puma, then Prefect of the S. Congregation of Religious, who died in 1943. Although the Cardinal did not intend to give.an authentic interpretation of the decree but me.rely a pr!vate or doctrinal interpretation, as he himself tells i~s, yet since he was co:author of the decree there is no other person better qualified.to explain it to us; and we are happy to give our readers the substance of his commentary. We shall omit those parts which pertain to the reception of an ex-religious into a seminary, and confine ourselves to the parts which are of interest to-religious the reception of an ex-seminarian into a religious institute. For a better understhnding of the matter, we repeat here that part of the decree which pertains to our special subject: ~ "Likewise, before those who for ahy reason whatever have left a,semlna[y are a'd-miffed fo a religious family, the religious superiors shall have recourse to the S. Con-gregation of Religious, which will inform them of their opinion (;ud;clum) after having cons;dared all the circumstances of the case." The fact that the document issued by both Congregations jointl~r is called a decree should not be_overstressed, since-it provides little more than.a caution and a necessary re~medy to secure the faithful observancd of certain important prescriptions of t_he Codewhich have been treated too lightly. Much less is this document to b'e considered as a general decree, or new law, since it was not prepared in a plenary session, and it was not approved in focma speci~ica by the Holy Father. 260 SEMINARIANS RECEIVED INTO RELIGION The decree does not establish a new impediment to entrance-lnto' religion or into a seminary; nor is previous permission, properly so-called, to be asked from the SS. Congregations to admit a person into a seminary or into a religious institute since this is left to the proper superiors. The SS. Congregations are to be consulted; and after con-sider~ ng tl~e case,, they will give their opinion (iudicium) ; but thereby they'will neither admit nor impede admission, nor defer it, nor render it more difficult. The SS. Congregations had no thought or intention of. granting to Ordinaries, even indirectly, the faculty to oppose the flee entrance of' seminarians into religion except in the cases explicitly mentioned in the Code--that is, in the case of seminarians and other clerics in sa~red orders and even for these only within the strict and well considered circumstances mentioned in canon 542, 2°, first case: Let us now explain the terms of the instruction quoted above. By seminarg is meant an ecclesiastical.college in which those who aspire to the clerical state are,prepared according to the prescriptions of the law, even though a few lay students are admitted. ;A college to which both clerical and lay students are admitted almost indis-criminately chnnot be called a.seminary. To admit to a seminary means to receive a person as a seminarian; to be dismissed from or to leave a seminary supposes that one who has been a seminarian ceases to be an aspirant to the clerical state by reason of dismissal or voluntary withdrawal. To adn~it to a religious f~mitg means to admit one as a true member, that is "to the novitiate, of a religious institute in which pub-lic vows. are taken, but not to a society of men living in common without public vowS. The words "those who for any reason whatever have left ~a seminary" apply to those who are dismissed from a seminary by superiors as well as to those who leave voluntarily, thereby bidding farewell to their vocation to the clerical state, even though they do so unwillingly because of pressure brought to bear upon them from without. The phrase in question does n_ot apply to those who have completed their studies in a seminary and await ordination outside; "nor does it apply to those who have left a seminary in order to fulfill their, military service but intend to return afterwards, and thus do not renounce their vocation. What about those who Ieave a seminary because theg wish to enter religion? An authentic reply of the S. Congrega6on of Religious given to the question on June-25, 1942 says that "the decree does not 261 ADAM (2, ELLIS affect those who leave a seminary or college in order to embrace the life of religious perfection in some religious institute since these are provided for in'canon 544, § 3." Another class of seminarians who are not subject to the decre'e are those who~though they have truly left a seminary, either by reason of dismissal on account of a lack of talent required, for st6dies, or because they thought they were not called to the clerical state now ask to be admitted to the class of lay brothers in a clerical institute or as lag religious in a non-clerical institute. This means that an ex-seminarian in the strict sense of the term may not be admitted to a religious institute as an aspirant to the priesthood. He may, however, be received as a candidate for the lay brotherhood in a clerical insti-tute, or as a Brother in any non-clerical institute. There are some non-clerical institutes in which a few members are promoted to the priesthood while the majority are Brothers. In this case the ex-seminarian could be received as a Brother, but not as a candidate for the priesthood. If a religious superior wishes to receive an ex-seminarian in the strict sense, that is ohe who has been dismissed from a seminary or who has given up his vocation to the priesthood of his own accord, he must have recourse to the S. Congregation of Religious for its opinion on the case before he can admit him to the novitiate as a can-didate ~:or the priesthood. Meanwhile, however, provfded the superior has re~ceived ttie necessary testimonial letters and is morally certain that no impediments exist, he may admit the ex-seminarian in ques-tion to the postulancy or first probation preceding the novitiate while he awaits the opinion of the S. Congregation regarding his admission to the novitiate. In order to avoid useless delay, which may be harmful to voca-tions, the S. Congregation requires the following documents and tes-timonial letters, written or at least signed by the rector of the semi-nary: (1) testimony regarding the moral and intellectual.qualities of the ex-seminarian; (2) testimonials regarding studies made, as well as progress i~i them, and grades obtained in examinations; (3) tes-timony or opinion about the inclination or propensity of the aspirant towards the religious state; (4) finally, testimony regarding the reasons why the candidate left the seminary and the manner of his doing so, namely, whether he was dismissed or left of his own accord, and whether he left after finishing his studies at the end of the scho-lastic year. These dbcuments should accompany the petition of the 262 duly, 1946 '- BOOKS RECEIVED candidate and should be sent to the S. Congregation of Religious by the religious superior together with any other information which may be judged opportune, either in confirmation, or by way of example, or; finally, as a possible refutation of the statements of the rector of the seminary. Books Received (ApriL20 .to June 20) THE NEWMAN BOOK SHOP, Westminster, Ma~iyland. The Sacred Ceremonies of I2ow Mass. 'By Rev: Felix Zualdi. C.M. $2.00, More About' Fatima and the Immacidate Heart of Mary. By Rev. V. Montes de Oca, C.S.Sp. (No price given.) Life of St~ Stephen Harding. By J. B. Dalgairns: $2.50. A Mystic Under Arms. By' Ft. M:-Eugene Boylan, O.Cist.R. (No price given.) The Spirit of Christ. By Father James, O.F.M.Cap. $2.50. Counsels to Confessors. By St. Leonard of Port Maurice. $1.50. FREDERICK PUSTET COMPANY, New York and Cincinnati. Spirit in Darkness. By Rev. Fr. Brice, C.P. $3.50. H. DESSAIN, Malines, Belgium. Caeremoniale: Pars Altera: De Celebrante. Auctc;r~ J. F. Van Der Stappen. (No price given.) THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee. Wisdom /or Welfare. By Sister M. Dolorita, S.S.N.D. mentls in Genere. By Emmanuel Doronzo, O;M.I. $3.75. Shoulder.- By Rev. Thomas J. Hosty. $1.50. $2.00. De Sacra- Straight from the THE MARIAN FOUNDATION, San Antonio. The Golden Thread of Netoman. By ReV. William R. Lamm, S.M. (Paper). $.50 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, New York. St. Paul: Apostle and Martyr. By' Iglno Giordani. $2.50. B. HERDER BOOK ~OMPANY, 'St. Louis. The Mysteries of Christianity. By M. J. Scheeben. $7.50. Christianity: An Outline of Dogmatic Theology for Laymen. By Joseph H. Fichter, S.J. $2.50, JOSEPH F. "WAGNER, INC., New York, Scriptural References for the Baltimore Catechism. By G. H. Guyot, C.M. (No price given.) (No price given.) THE DECLAN X. MCMULLEN COMPANY, New York. Most Worthy of All Praise. By Vincent P. McCorry, S.J. ST. ANTHONY GUILD PRESS, Paterson, New Jersey. Frances Schervier: Mother of.the 'Poor. By Sister Pauline. 263 May a superior grant a Sister with simple vows permls~ion~ fO use a gold watch? A moderate use of an article made of gold is not. in itself, con-trary to the vow of poverty. This is evident from the fact ,that some constitutions approved by" the~HolY See prescribe the wearing of a gold ring. Frequently the constitutions or legitimate custom forbid the use of articles m_ade of gold. In such cases the superior dould not grant permission for the use of a gold watch. But if there is no such prohibition, the, superior may grant the permission, provided that the watch is not so expensive as to cause surprise to the faithful who see th~ religious wearing_it. This element depends upon. local circum. stances and customs. A possible solution for the 'problem involved might be'to have the watch removed from its gold case and put into one of less precious material. ~ 23 Accordln9 to canon law how many delegates are necessary to make up a general chapter representing a community of one thousand Sisters? May delecjafes of the general chapter of a religious communlfy induce other members o{ the chapter, before the election of the mo÷her general has taken place, to vote for a certain group of Sisters whom they wish have fpr council members? Canon 507, § to tells us that "in elections which are made by chapters, the universal.law as set forth in canons 160-182 shall be obsdrved, as well as the constitutions of the institute which are not contrary to this universal lawJ' The Code leaves th.e organization of general chapters of religious institutes entirely to the constitutions. Constitutions approved by the Holy See. usually provide that every house of twelve or more members is represented in the general chapter by the local superior and by at least one delegat~ elected by the mem-bers of the local community. Smaller houses are grouped together to form a unit of from twelve to eighteen members. This group then elects one delegate from among the local superiors and one from amdng the subjects. If the institute requests it, the S. ~ongregation of Religious will allow large communities one delegate for every twelve Sisters. Thus a community of fifty Sisters would be entitled 264 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS to elect four delegates from that community. Paragraph two of canon 507 states explicitly: "All must abstain from seeking votes either directly or indirectly for themselves or for others." This law is dear and needs no explanation. Howe:oct, the constitutions frequently allow the members of the chapter to seek information from other chapter members regarding the qualifications of certain individuals well-known to them. Insuch a case the mem-bers bf the chapter ~hould give the information required, but should abstain from positively urging any member to vote for another mem-ber. Their ~duty should be confined to giving the information requested~ according to the best of their knowledge, in all charity and sincerity. It may be well to note i~ere that 'the delegates elected by the indi-vidual communities sh0uld not be instructed regarding persons to be voted for. This would clearly be contrary to the canon quoted above: The community must have confidence in the good judgment of the delegates ,whom they elect. --24--- A college has regular tuition and board and room charges. Over and above these charges_there are fees in various departments for certain courses, for instance in home economics for food, interior decoration, and s6 forth; in the music department, for the use of musical instruments. In a~ word, these fees are for things used, for materials, instruments, and the llke. Tl~e sum total of fees charged in any department make up the budget of that department. Must such fees be used only as described or may they also be used for the general cjood of the department, for instance to buy supplies, such as records, in the music department; to give the students of that particular department an. outing; to finance a student's trip to-a con-ventlon as a representative of that department? As long as the fees charged to make up the budget of any si'ngle department are used in that dep~rtment~ both justice and Canon Law ate satisfied. ~:~he purchasing Of instruments and stipplies needed for -the laboratory experiments of the department are certainly for the benefit :of the students, and the same inay be said regarding the travel-ing expensesof a representative of the department who is sent to a .convention. And it is perfectly in keeping with the law of,'the Church to use any balance left over at the end of the year to give the students of that department an outing or some other entertainment " to which, payment of the fee for board and tuition gives them no right or cl:aim. 265 QUESTIONS AND ~NSWERS Review for.Religious ' m2Sm, Our constitutions havi~ the following provision regarding candidates for admission: "Their parents must have borne a good reputation; and should these have been under repute of any enormous crime, or have been condemned in any criminal court, the aspirants cannot be received." Does this artlcle of our constitutions oblige us 1o reject an aspirant whose par-enfs are divorced and remarried? Since the constitutions seem to have in mind a crime against the civil law and a condemnation in a civil criminal court, divorce and "remarriage would not come under the prohibition of the constitu-tions. The requirem'ent of a good reputation on the part of the par-ents looks to the edification of th.e faithful. One may say that the parents have lost their good reput~ition if the faithful would be scan-dalized by the admission of their daughter into a religious commun-ity. Hence in our practical case, if the divorce and remarriage are things "of the past, forgotten by most people, there would be no diffi-culty in receiving the aspirant. If they are recent events,, p~udence must dictate whether the reception of the candidate into religion would cause disedification or not. It may be well to note that the constitutions do not positively forbid the reception of the daughter of parents who have a bad reputation, as is the case in the second part of the article quoted. Hence it seems that such a candidate could be admitted even though her parents are divorced and remarried provided her reception would not cause scandal to the faithful. In some instances at least, it might be a cause of great edification: for instance, if it became known that the daughter was entering religion to aton~ for the sins of her parents. --26-- I heard recently of a community of Sisters in ~vhlch custom demands that they go to confession in seniority. Do you know if such a cu'sfom really exists? Would it not be against canon law? It seems to me that confes-sors' might easily recognize their penitents in such circumstances. It is not clear just what is meant here by going to confession "in seniority." If it means "according to seniority groups"---e.g. senior professed, then junior professed, then novices there seems to be nothing particularly harmful about the custom. This arrangement according to groups would simply facilitate good order and could hardl~r be a source of embarrassment to individuals. Very likely our correspondent refers to a case in which indi- 266 Julg, 1946 QUES'~IONS AND ANSWERS Oiduals go according to sepiority. 'We t6o have heard of such a custom, although we do not know of any definite pl_ace where it exists. Strictly speaking, this custom is not against the l'etter of canon law; at, least, we are not aware of any provision of law which forbids it." It'seems to us, however, that such a custom is not in accord with the spirit of canon law. For one thing--as our corre-spondent points Out" it makes it very easy for confes'sors to recog: nize ~oenitents, for if the confessor knows the community at all he will. very likely know something of the order of seniority. This is often embarrassing t6 a confessor and it.is also an obstacle to the perfect liberty of spirit enjoyed by a penitent. At least, many penitents can confess more freely when they are not recognized as individuals. An added inconvenience for the penitent, if individual seniority is insisted on, is the fact. that those who immediately follow her will always know ju,st howlong her confession takes. Also, if she does wish to take a long time, she may be embarrassed at the thought of delaying the others. m27-- What is the mind of the Church on such matters as havln9 contests between 9fades to have the most Communions in a week, and on havln9 compulsory Communion Sundays under those circumstances where the-external pressure on an individual to receive Communion is very 9rear2 The principle for solving questions like this was clearly formu-lated in a reserved instruction issued by. the Congregation of the Sacraments on December 8. 1938. The text of this instruction may be found in The Canon Law Dfgest, II, p. 208. A synopsis of the instruction was printed in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, III, p. 268. The same number of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (III, p. 252) contained the translation of a very thor6ugh commentary on this instruction by Father Emile Bergh, S.3. For an adequate discussion of this impor-tant matter we refer our c~)rrespondent to the text of the instruction and to Father Bergh's article. Answering the question very briefly, we should say: Any prac-tice which induces pressure to receive Holy Communion is wrong and should be changed without delay. If '!spiritual treasuries," contests between classes, Communion Sundays, and so forth, are had at all, they should be conducted in such a way that all indi;ciduals will feel perfect freedom to abstain from Communion if they wish. 267 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Revleto ~or Religious According to our constitutions, .the order of precedenc6 among .the Sisters is as follows: The .superior general always and everywhere precedes all the Sisters including local superiors. Then come: the general council- Ior~ accorcfing to the order of'thelr election; .the secretary general; ~the treasurer general: former superiors general in the mother house (in other houses they follow the local superior); the mistress of novices'. Is this order of precedence to be interpreted as ¯follows? (I) All general officers taEe -precedence over the local superior in pres;ding over the assemblies of~ the mother house community. In other words, in the event .that the superior cjeneral is not i~resent, who presides over the assemblies and exercises of the mother house community? (2) Just what rank and authority, does the Io~al s~perlor of the mother house hold in the mother house? (3) If the mistress of novices is a councillor and the local superior is not, does that fact dispense the mistress of novices from being subject ~o the local supe-rior and excuse her from a chapter presided over by the local superior? (4) Does a councillor stationed in any house other than the m~)ther house take precedence over the local superior? Before answering the specific questions asked above, it may be helpfial to analyze the concept of precedence. Precedence is a sign of g~e~ater honor because of greater e~cellence. It consists in the right to occupy a more honorable place i~a church, in processions, or in assemblies; or in the right to act before others. for instance, to cast a vote ahead of others. This right of precedence supposes-in the person who enjoys it a certain excellence or dignity which places on others the obligation of reverence or obedience to them. Among religious the right of precedence is conferred upon an indi-vidual religious because of th~ office which he holds. Such.an office may or may not have authority over others attached to it. Thus superiors in a religious institute (whether they be general, provincial; or local superiors) have precedence over their subjects by reason of their authority to govern them (canon° 106, 2°). Other officials such as councillors, secretaries, bursars, mistresses of novices, enjoy the right of precedence because of the dignity of their office .even though it does not carry with it any authority over other professed r.eligious. .From the foregoing' it is evident that in assemblies in which no authority is exercised, such as the presence Of a religious community in chapel for the recitation of the office or of othe~ prayers in com-mon, or attendance at meals in the common refectory, it is quite 268 1946 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS r~asonable that-some officials enjoy" pre.cedence over the local superior', even though they-be subject to her in the external discipline of ._the house. They would rank higher in the order of preced.ence~ and would take.a higher.placein the chapel or in the dining room: but .they would not exercise" any, act of authoritg in either place: Such acts "of authority in general:assemMie's belong to superiors only, not to officials who do not enjoy authority over others by reason of their- - office. . The order of precedence in any particular institute is determined by t'he constitutions and by the customs of that institut~e (canon 105, 5°). The common law contains no provisions governing precedence of officials within a .particular institute. According to the present practice Of the S. Congregation,of.Reli-gious, precedence in religious congregations ,is as follows: (1) The superior general precedes all superiors, provincial as well as local, always anti everywhere. (2) The general councillors come next, in the. order, of their election, then the secretary .general and the treasurer general, but only in .the general mother house' in other houses they take their places after the local superior. (3) Former supe~riors gen- ¯ eral come after the treasurer_general, but only in the mother house. Some constitutions give precedence over local s.uperiors to the ~general councillors and to the secretary and treasurer general. Such provisions~ of older con'stitutions would prevail over the piesent practice of the S. Congregation. Any doubts, especially with regard to recently approved constitutions, should be solved according to the pr.esent practice of the S. Congregation. (4) The provincial superior has precedence in all the houses of his province; i~rovincial councillors, provincial secretary and treasurer take precedence but in the provinr cial house only: in other, houses they come after the local sup~erior. Regarding the local superior of the mother house: (1) She gov-erns the community of the mother house just as a local superior ggv-erns a local~ house, that is, in all things pertaining to the community as such,'but subject to (he limitation put upon local superiors by the law of the Church'and by the constitutions. (2) Evidently the superior general takes precedence over the local superior everywhere and at all times; she is not subject to the local S.uperior of the mother house. (3). Unless the constitutions or legitimate "custom~ have exempted higher officers and have made them-directly depend.ent on the superior general, the general councillors, secretary and treasurer ¯ general, exTsuperiors and so forth, are all subject'to the local, s.uperior 269 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS even thotfgh in public assemblies they take a higher place. (4) So,me constitutions provide that the first councillor or any one of the coun-cillors appointed by the superiqb general~ shall be local superior of the mother house. ' The mistress ot: novices and the novices are subject to the local Superior in all matters pertaining to the general discipline of the house (canon 561, § I). The fact that the mistress of novices is also a general couricillor would not change her relations to the local supe-rior of the mother house unless the constitutions or legitimate custom place her direct.ly and immediately under the superior general. In this latter case ~i distinction would have' to be made. In her official capacity as mistress of novices, she would still be under the general authority of the lo.cal superior together.with her novices by reason of the legisla-tion- of the Code; but in her private capacity ~s a general councillor she'would n6t, but: would be directly finder the authority of the. supe-rior general. We are ready- now to answer the questions asked above:. 1. In the absence of the superior general, the local superior of. the mother house presides over .all assemblies of the mother house com-munity. Officials--such as general councillors, the secretary general, the treasurer general--may precede th~ local superior in such assem-blies, that is they may occupy a higher place of honor; bfit they do not fireside, tl'iat is they do not exercise any authority, ianless legiti-mate custom gives them the right so to do. 2. The local superior~ of "the,mother house exercises the same authority over the community as such as does any other local superior over her community. All Officials, the superior genera.1 alone excepted, are subject to her regarding the general discipline of the house, unless -the constitutions or "legitimate custom have exempted higher officials from her authority and have made them subject to the superior gen-eral alone. If the mistress of novices is a councillor and the local superioress. is not, the former wo~uld still :be subject to the local superior in. the chapter of faults presidedover by the local superior, unless the coun-cillors have be~n~explicitly excused from such s.ubjection either by the constitutions or by legitimate custom. , 4. NormaIly a general councillor stationed in another house wh{ch is not the mother house does not take precedence over the.local superior unless the constitutions or legitimate custom explicitly so declare. 270 THE MYSTICAL'LIFE. By Pascal P. Parente, S.T.D., Ph.D., ~J.C.B,.A, s' s o "c,ate Professor of Ascetical Theology,. Catholic University of America. Pp. x ~- 272. B. Herder Boo~( Company, St. Louis, 1946. $2.50. This is the companion volume to the same author's The ~tscet[cat Life, which appear.ed two years ago and contained an announcement of this work. With it Father Parente completes his systematic sur-vey of the spiritual life, and gives us the first study of the kind to ema'nate from an American theologian. Thus it possesses a certain histo'ric~l distinction. In content it is just about what one would expect in a brief intro-duction to mysticism. The first part of it is entitled "General Aspects and Basic Elements of Mysticism," the. second "Mystical State~ in Particular," and the third "Mystical Phenomena."' The last chapter discusses the practical questions of direction for mystics, the perusal of mystical literature, the vocation to the mystical life, °and desire for it: Without saying much about the controversies which have enlivened mystical theology i~i recent years, Father Parente generally steers a middle course between the doctrines of the" extreme schools. \ He is a strong advocate for the distinction between acquired and infused ~onteinplatlon. Rather singularly and originally he pro-poses that the difference is neither specific nor one of degree,-bu.t one of iaianner, of the way in which contemplation comes to one. It is highly uncertain whether St. Teresa, for instance, and others who ha~e experier~ed the diversity, would agree that there is not a greater distinction. In describing the prayer of quiet, the first of the "infra-ecstatic states~,'' the author writes: "As a matter of fact, God by reason of His omnipresence does not enter but simply makes Himself known to the soul" (page 121). Is there any such perception or . experience in" acquired Eontemplation? The vocation to mystical graces is not universal, but, at least practically, restricted to a limited number ofsouls. 'It is rather characteristic of this ~rork that it opens with an inter[ esting account of the ancient pagan mystery cults. It contains rela-tively much from Scripture and also from the Fathers Of the Chfirch that illustrates or supplies analogues to mystical phenomena. The cases botfi of Teresa Neumann and of Padre Pio of Pietralcina, the 271 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Relioious first stigmatized priest, are .treated professedly. ~-G. AuG. ELL/~RD, 8.2. MEDITATION ON THE PASSION. Compiled from Varlou~ Sources, with an Introduction" by the Reverend Reginald Walsh, O.P: Pp. rift ~ 305. The Newman Bookshop, Westm. lnsfer, Maryland, 3946. $3.'/5. "Reaction to a meditation book, especially t'o a book on the P~is-sion, is aft'extremely personal thing. What strikes a responsive chord in one person may prove dull finduninspiring to another. Yet, in spite of the uncertain personal factor; this book is .likely to please and to be helpful to almost anyone who sincer.ely wishes good meditation matter on the Passion. The various chapters treat of the entire Pas-sion'with thoroughness, yet without that meticulousness that makes one nod drearilywhile preparing his meditation. The. points are well planned and gasiiy fixed in the mind. The reflections are sound and agreeably warm. The colloquies--well, it seems that in affy meditation book colloquies have to be taken as "the bitter with the sweet." At least, this reviewer (behold :the personal element!) would be well pleased: if all meditation books dis.pensed with the Ohs .and Abs that give colloquies the fingernail-on:the-blackboard effect. But it is only fair to say ~hat if you like colloquies, you will likethese; and if you do not like them, you can. easily skip them, for they are clearly labeled. The meditations were composed originally by a ~ister who was mistress of novicek for thirty years. The editor has omittedthe parts that applied to ieligious women as such; hence the present edition is useful (decidedly so) to ~ill.--G. KELLY, S.3. THE CATHOLIC CENTRE. By Edward Ingram_ Watkln.Pp. 261. Sheed' and Ward, New YorE, 1945. $3.00.- The republishing of this book Six years after its first appearance is subely, due as much to the book's intrinsic merits as to the fact that Mr. Watkin's more recent Catholic Art and Culture has made his name and w(~rth known to a greater number of readers. This earlier work takes its name from the fact that "Since Catholic Christianity is the supreme :and most complete revelation of religious truth, and the philosophy which it implies the most.balanced and comprehen-sive i.nt~rpretation of human experience, we shall expect to find Catholicism and the philosophy it demands occupying a central position between all extremes and one,sided excesses, reconciling and 272 dulg, 1946 ~ BOOK, REVIEWS balancing[them,by m~aintfiining the p~ositive truth they'contain'~aiad rejecting their~exce~ses and exclusions." The detailed exposition of the ways in which Catholicism is central,~ complemented realistically by the fa~t, that "As. actually~ practiced and understoo& ho.wever, Catholicism is not the perfect oia media, nor do.es .it occupy the exact centre of. human thought and action" because of~human 1.imi-" tations "gives, the author materi:~l for a skillfully integrated., bogk. He~outli~es the ideal, searches out and b~ings under a very uncom~ .plimentary spotlight remediable defections from the ideal; and pro-poses various readjustments by .way of constructive criticism: The attentive reader will not always agree with Mr. Watkin, but he cad hardly fail. to-be,prodded into serious thinkihg oi~ fundamental .questions.--C. DE MUTH, S.,J. MISSION FOR SAMARIT.AN$. By Anna Dengel, M.D. I~p. x -[- 126. The ~,:~ Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 1945. $1.75. Medical rriissions is" a,live subject,in the Catholic' mind. Here we hav~.~short .bier-comprehensive treatment from the pen of a pioneer in the movement. The doctor'and the religious in Mother Dengel speak on every page. Not only is she a skilled practitioner,~but she hfis~studied ~he;history °bf:her :field thoroughly. Her statements,~are carefully~ weighed anff sulS~orted; by c0nvincing~evidence. ceeds in stirring the heart to an.appreciation for her ideal,~the win_ning 6fpagan souls for,Christ by~supplyin~ them with.the expert medical ~a~?e of religious .doctor~ and.nurses. Christ is responsible; :for the Catholic attitude~'towards the s!~ck: He first healed men's bodies and.then won their~souls: Mother Dengel has it ~thiit one purpose of His coming was to. renew the weak.ened h~man"body for.the sake of thesoul. She~ puts before us the response ofthe Church tboChrist's~example and precept. ~ Universal care ,of the si~k and°diseased'has flourished wherever~Christ's Church has~ reache& The lat~er half~ of the book is of intriguing'interest. ~ The medi-c~ il situation of mosto of,our mission~fields, includingeven the,,Negroe.s and white vagrants of America, i~ briefly but chpably described. Tbe picture is indeed pathetic, all the more so because ignorance, super-station, and~lack of facilities i~ccount for so much needless suffering. Mother De_ngel shows us ou~ opportunity: if with complete unselfish-ness we devbte ourselve~to the restoration of pain-wracked bodies, we can be sure that the grace of Christ, working through us,¯will take care of their souls. R.D. HUBER. S.J. ,.273 BOOK REVIEWS FORMING A CHRISTIAN MENTALITY. By the Reverend Killan J. HennHch, O.F.M.Cap. Pp. xll -t- 288. Joseph F. Wagner, Inc., New York, 1945. (No price g~ven.) This book, designed as a companion volume to the :author's Youth Guidance, was written to aid priests, teachers, and parents in their direction of'young people. The work is divided into two parts. The aim of the first is to promote the spirttuahzatlon of individuals in their preparation for married life. The second part continues this project with a description of the Christianization of the famil,~ through the liturgy. Father Hennrich's qualifications for this task are attested by his many years of experience in dealing with'adolescents and by th6 dozen or more books he has written in the past several decades-on various phases of Catholic social activities. The exposition is rather abstract and impersonal, almost wholly unrelieved by graces of style, variety, or sprightliness. But preachers and educators who study the book perseveringly will find that it outlines a sound program for the instruction and religious guidance of young men and women. C. VOLLER'I', S.~I. HOW TO MEDITATE.BY Rev. John P. Roothaan, S.J. Translated by Rev. Louis J. Puhl, S.J. Pp. viii + 72. The Newman Bookshop, Westminster, Maryland, 1945. $1.25. First published in 1837, Father Roothaan's little treatise De Ratione Meditandi has become the classic exposition of the so-called "Ignatian Method'" of prayer. Not that St. Ignatius ever intended that religious and other pious persons should confine themselyes to this.rigidly methodical form of prayer for the rest of their lives. He himself "suggests bther forms in his Spiritual Exercises; but he intended it to serve as an introduction to and foundation for a life of prayer. Hence the translator tells us in his introductory note: "It is an undeniable fact that here even the most unlettered beginner will find a clear, easy, fruitful method of meditation that can easily be adapted., to personal needs and dispositions." Normally the religious who has seriously practiced this funda-mental method of prayer, as explained by Father Roothaan, will in due time pass on to the practice of affective prayer: but even he will find it helpful if not necessary to fall back occasionally upon the method d~scribed by the author. It is always a safe refuge in time of spiritual dryness and affliction. ¯ 274 July, 1946 ,~ BOOK REVIEWS Thi~ little book should b~ in the hands of every novice. Older ¯ religious will 6nd it u~eful reading "to spu'r them on to greater dill-gence in practical .and fruitful prayer, and zeal in the pursuit of per-fection." This reviewer .regrets exceedingly that this English version of Father Rootbaan's classic was not publ.ished ~n pamphlet form so as t6 give it a wider distribution.--A.C. ELLIS, S.J. THE MYSTICAL BODY OF, CHRIST. By Frledrlch Ji~rgensmeler, D.D. Transl,,fed by H. Gardner Curtis. Pp. :~09. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, J945. $3,00. The first section of this book discusses the biblical doctrine.and offers an excellent presentation of the importance and place of the Mystical Body in the divine plan of salvation. The second part develops the author's conviction that this ~ys~ery is the fun~amental~ principle of asceticism. /, The translation from ~bicb this photographic reproduction was ma'de is yery disappointing. After comparing several sections of the book, sections of ten to fifteen pages in length, with the original German, this reviewer was astounded at the many inaccuracies found in the translation. Furthermorel ~t times, phrases, clauses (in fact, sometimes' whole sentences) have been~ omitted. For example, we. read (p. 64) : "The Second Person of the. Godhead u, nited mankind to Himself in a hypostatic union." And, again (p. 81) : "Christ is distinguished from the Father and the Holy~ Ghost by the circum-stance .of His human, existence." .Needless to say, the original Ger-man does not have such ambiguous-(to say.the very least)~ doctrine. The last paragraphs of pages 65~.~66, and sections of pages 69 and 70 are very inaccurately translated. In general, religibus who have not studied theol0gy will find this book too ponderous. Sections, especially the treatment of the Mys: .tical. Body in the ascetical life, will be .helpful. But we cannot ,. recommend the English translation.--M. LA PIETE EUCH,~RISTIOUE By J. F.Ber~ube, s.s.s. Pp. 151. La Libr'-'qrle Eucharls÷ique, 514,.avenue Monf-Royal Est, M<;nfreal 34, 1945. (No '" prlce-given,) The source,, the means, ~nd the end of a11 our life of grace is 2esus Christ. The Holy Eticharist, ~because it c6ntains the whole Christ, must therefore be the source, the means, and.the end of .our spiritual 275 BOOK REVIEWS R~oieto [oF Religidus life. How the Eucharistic Christ, in the ~acrifice of the' Mi~ss, in Holy Communion, in the Real Presence, is the all and all of our tioliness, and fl0w we should respond to these profound truths-- .l~his is the book's important message to the faithful. It is followe.d by two eloquent~ inspiring pronoi~ncements of Pius XII

W artykule przyglądam się temu, jaką edukację polityczną warto rozwijać we współczesnej polskiej szkole i wszędzie tam, gdzie buduje się w ludziach zdolność do wspólnej i niewyalienowanej pracy. Kierunek rozważań wyznaczyła konieczność ustosunkowania się myśli pedagogicznej – i równoległego dostosowania praktyk wychowawczych – do zmian w sposobie koordynacji społeczeństwa, które dokonują się w atmosferze groźby wybuchu wojny. Rozważania te buduję na dotychczasowych badaniach własnych z obszaru uczenia się w ruchach społecznych, analizując trzy porządki zapewniające koordynację społeczeństw (neoliberalizm, nacjonalizm, militaryzm) w kontekście wykluczanych przez nie wartości: dobra wspólnego, samorządu i pokoju. Rezultatem pracy jest matryca przyporządkowująca te kontrwartości różnym typom współpracy (koordynacji, kooperacji i kolaboracji). Matryca pozwala identyfikować specyfikę konkretnych przykładów mobilizacji społecznej, jak i rozpoznawać luki w kształceniu kolektywnych umiejętności współdziałania. Rezultaty analizy pozwalają zoperacjonalizować praktyki oporu pod kątem celów wychowania i stawiają w nowym świetle problemy powiązań i nawarstwiania się wrogich szkole ideologii neoliberalizmu, nacjonalizmu i militaryzmu. ; The paper analyses types of political education worth developing in contemporary Polish schools and in other places dedicated to building human capacity to work together in a non-alienated way. The analysis is based on my own research from the area of learning in social movements. I analyze three orders ensuring social coordination (neoliberalism, nationalism, and militarism) in the context of the values they exclude: the common good, self-government and peace. The result of the work is a matrix assigning these counter-values, accordingly, to coordination, cooperation and collaboration. The matrix allows for identification of the specificity of some examples of social mobilization, as well as identification of gaps in teaching collective interaction skills. The results of the analysis can be used to operationalize the practices of resistance in terms of educational goals. They also put in a new light the problems of connections between and building up of ideologies hostile to schools, that is, neoliberalism, nationalism and militarism. ; satkow@gmail.com ; Uniwersytet Gdański ; Amici, F., & Bietti, L.M. (2015). Coordination , collaboration and cooperation. Interdisciplinary perspectives. Interaction Studies, 16 (3), 7–12. ; Armingeon, K., & Guthmann, K. (2014). Democracy in crisis? The declining support for national democracy in European countries, 2007–2011. European Journal of Political Research, 53 (3), 423–442. ; Bajaj, M. (2014). Pedagogies of resistance and critical peace education praxis. Journal of Peace Education, 12 (2), 154–166. ; Bieler, A., & Jordan, J. 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The thesis provides a complex analysis of the technologies of political marketing in the activities of political parties. Theoretical and methodological basis of research of problem fields are identified and patterns of formation and development of political marketing in political science are defined. The aim of the research was to determine the patterns of political marketing in Ukraine and specifics use of marketing techniques in political parties. The differences of scientific categories «marketing technologies of political party» and «technologies of political marketing» which are using by political parties are highlighted. The marketing technologies of political parties is meant as the totality of methods and means for promoting political products. The technologies of political marketing are defined as a set of practices in creating, maintaining and developing political relations between political actors by using political market products.According to the marketing strategy of positioning the Ukrainian political parties and key party product (ideology / «package of programs» / image ideology) the essence of technologies of political marketing that are used by political parties in their work, namely in design of party image, definition of party people, naming, creating ideological platform, design of party symbols and branding, are singled out in the research. Delimitation between scientific categories «party goods» and «party brand» is proposed. The term «party brand» provides for rooting in the public consciousness, symbolic content, emotional load and is the possibility to combine in itself few political goods. Party brand as result of political marketing is interpreted by the author as a unique offer of specific political party. Acquisition of traits of this unique offer in the marketing party strategy helps to create lasting image and form stable political reputation on the market. The author emphasized that the party proposals are updated by the election campaigns because the main function of political parties is electoral and the essence of parties is defined as organizations designed to gain and exercise of state power. Elections as a concentrated expression of the political market is a mechanism of legitimation of power to political parties. It is proposed the author's synthesis of areas of general marketing principles and Jean Baudrillard's concept of postmodern. It allowed investigating features of political marketing at essentially new level: the change from rational forms of symbolization to branding and sensory-emotional forms of symbolic exchange.It is proved that to the forefront of the political market political product should get, efficiency which is due not so much situational expectations as authentic mental peculiarities of the people combined with the current trends of global political market.The author identified four stages of political marketing in Ukraine that are determined by the characteristics of the party and electoral systems, the level of competition on the political market, the choice of means and methods of party activity:- stage of nucleation of political market (1991–1997);- stage of formation and development of political marketing technologies (1998–2003);- stage of amplification technologizing and virtualization election campaigns (2004–2009);- stage of expansion of technologies and their diversity (from 2010 – till now).It is substantiated that using of technologies of political marketing in the activities of political parties leads to the changes in their form and content, demonstrates successful participation of the same party in three electoral cycles, which is the evidence of party's institutionalization. As a result, specific partypolitical structuring from atomized to systems of almost large parties took place. In this regard, necessity to create brands in the party-political space of modern Ukraine, that driven by the desire of parties to ensure strategic planning for political product in the long term, is argued. The author proved dependence of dynamics of political marketing technologies in the activities of political parties with correlation between the type of party system, electoral law and the polarization of Ukrainian society.In the research, it is stressed that in the election campaigns in the late XX - XXI centuries in Ukraine ideological factor plays less important role than in the elections early 1990s. The current electoral process is not a competition of ideologies but a competition of symbols which main task is to engage to the side of the candidate a significant number of voters. The features of party proposals during parliamentary campaigns 2012, 2014 is analysed. The specific of personal factors and party imaging products in the design of the brand party is revealed. It is emphasized that party products and brands are the carriers of information. For example, names of political parties not only provide for information about specific political party, but about the laws of functioning of the political life in Ukrainian society, political power, the level of political culture.The role of the names and symbols of Ukrainian political parties is found out. It is concluded that by using symbolic form political party decrypts the meaning of the name, identifies itself ideologically, recalls the essence of their programmatic objectives, says the goal of the current campaign and immediate tasks. The content invested in party symbols is revealed. The author analyses its colours, which are powerful way of manipulating the human psyche. It is proved that the party proposals acquire symbolic and cease to carry a meaning and be based on real public demand. Political symbols become tools of manipulation and suggestion of populist ideas. On the one hand, it brings instant benefits to political parties, but on the other - leads to a decline in political culture and civic activity. The research substantiated that for design of effective symbolism must consider the level of political culture of the electorate, traditions, level of political education, voter mentality. It is emphasized that Ukrainian society tend to personalize perception of political power, which reduces the totality of power relations to a figure of specific political leader. The author highlighted that political parties are mass political organizations in which leadership can be distributed among several politicians.It was found that the challenges in 2014 led to new tendencies in the party system in Ukraine, namely the enhancing the process creation of parties, also inclusion in party lists ATO members, civil society activists, journalists, volunteers. It was due to public demand for «new faces», new alliances between political forces. A high level of personalization for Ukrainian politics connected primarily with the fact that most voters are not able to make a political choice, based on their own real interests. Ordinary citizens associate realization their life aspirations and dreams with the active leader of political force who is trying to act as a hero, a saviour. It is accentuated attention that political parties do not compete for the effective implementation of social development programs, but compete for the distribution of power. In their activities, profitable for a narrow circle of persons, but not national interests are dominated. Populism and excessive social orientation of the election programs of political parties are typical characteristics of modern political market in Ukraine.It is concluded that during the current transitional period the domestic party market has not reached a level that would satisfy the needs of society, political goods have not met the expectations and hopes. They are made without targeting consumers and based on stereotypical thinking. The party market does not match a model of «free competition», which makes it difficult to promote party products. Political parties are not associated with specific results of which should be designed to meet the most important values and needs of citizens. The research presents practical recommendations to improve political marketing technologies considering domestic political consumer. ; В исследовании осуществлен комплексный анализ технологий политического маркетинга в деятельности политических партий. Определены теоретико-методологические основы исследования проблемного поля, закономерности становления и развития политического маркетинга в политической науке.Выяснены теоретические основы изучения и использования в политической практике технологий политического маркетинга политическими партиями; обобщены и указано на расхождение содержания научных категорий «технологии политического маркетинга» и «маркетинговые технологии политической партии».Согласно маркетинговой стратегии позиционирования украинских политических партий и ключевого партийного продукта, предложено систематизировать технологии, которые используют политические партии в своей деятельности: конструирование имиджа партии; нейминг (разработка названия политической партии); определение бренд-персон политической партии; создание идеологической платформы и формирования программы партии; разработка дизайна партийной символики и рекламной продукции; партийный брендинг.Предложена целесообразность сочетания основ общего маркетинга и постмодернистской концепции Ж. Бодрийяра, что позволило исследовать особенности технологий политического маркетинга на принципиально новом уровне: замена рациональных форм символизации имиджевыми и чувственно-эмоциональными формами символического обмена.Обосновано, что на первый план партийного рынка должен выйти политический продукт, дееспособность которого обусловливается не столько ситуационными ожиданиями граждан, сколько аутентичными ментальными особенностями народа в сочетании с актуальными тенденциями мирового политического рынка. Указано на различия научных категорий «партийный товар» и «партийный бренд», суть последнего заключается в его укорененности в массовом сознании, символическом наполнении, эмоциональной нагрузке и возможности объединять в себе несколько политических товаров.Выделены четыре этапа динамики украинского политико-партийного рынка в условиях независимости. Обосновано, что использование технологий политического маркетинга в деятельности политических партий приводит к изменению их формы и содержания, демонстрируя успешное выступление одной и той же партийной силы в течение трех электоральных циклов, что свидетельствует о партийной институционализации, и обусловливает определенное партийно-политическое структурирование от авторизированной к системе почти крупных политических партий.Раскрыта специфика персонального фактора и визуализации партийных продуктов в конструировании бренда партии. Проанализированы особенности партийных предложений парламентских кампаний 2012, 2014 гг. Доказано, что в условиях нынешнего переходного периода отечественный партийный рынок не достиг того уровня, который бы удовлетворял потребности общества, политические товары не соответствуют ожиданиям и надеждам, создаются без ориентации на потребителя, базируются на стереотипном мышлении. ; У дослідженні здійснено комплексний аналіз технологій політичного маркетингу в діяльності політичних партій. Визначено теоретико- методологічні засади дослідження проблемного поля, закономірності становлення та розвитку політичного маркетингу в політичній науці. Метою дисертаційного дослідження було з'ясування закономірності розвитку політичного маркетингу в Україні та специфіку використання маркетингових технологій у діяльності політичних партій. Виділено розбіжності змісту наукових категорій: «маркетингові технології політичної партії» і «технології політичного маркетингу», що використовують політичні партії. Під маркетинговими технологіями політичних партій розуміється сукупність прийомів і засобів просування політичних продуктів, а технології політичного маркетингу визначаються як сукупність практик створення, підтримки та розвитку політичних взаємовідносин між акторами політичного ринку за допомогою політичних продуктів.Згідно маркетингової стратегії позиціонування українськими політичними партіями та ключового партійного продукту (ідеологія / «пакет програм» / іміджева ідеологія), у дослідженні виокремлено та розкрито зміст технологій політичного маркетингу, які використовують політичні партії у своїй діяльності, а саме: неймінг, конструювання іміджу партії, визначення партійних персон, створення ідеологічної платформи, розробка дизайну партійної символіки, брендинг. Запропоновано розмежовувати наукові категорії «партійного товару» та «партійного бренду», зміст останнього полягає в його вкоріненості у масовій свідомості, символічному наповненні, емоційному навантаженні та можливості об'єднувати у собі декілька політичних товарів. Партійний бренд, як результат політичного маркетингу, тлумачиться автором як своєрідна унікальна пропозиція конкретної політичної партії. Набуття її ознак в маркетинговій стратегії партії сприяє створенню довготривалого іміджу, формуванню її стабільної репутації на політичному ринку. Автором наголошено, що партійні пропозиції актуалізуються виборчими кампаніями, бо головна функція політичних партій – електоральна – визначається самою сутністю їх як організацій, призначених для завоювання й здійснення державної влади. Саме вибори як концентроване вираження політичного ринку є механізмом легітимації влади для політичної партії.Запропоновано доцільність поєднання основ загального маркетингу та постмодерністської концепції Ж. Бодрійяра, що дозволило дослідити особливості технологій політичного маркетингу на принципово новому рівні: заміна раціональних форм символізації іміджевими та чуттєво- емоційними формами символічного обміну. Доведено, що на перший план партійного ринку повинен вийти політичний продукт, дієздатність якого обумовлюється не стільки ситуаційними очікуваннями громадян, скільки аутентичними ментальними особливостями народу в поєднанні з актуальними тенденціями світового політичного ринку.Виокремлено чотири етапи політичного маркетингу в діяльності політичних партій України, які визначаються особливостями партійної та виборчої систем, рівнем конкуренції на політичному ринку, вибором засобів і методів партійної діяльності:- етап зародження політичного ринку (1991–1997 рр.);- етап формування та розвитку технологій політичного маркетингу (1998–2003 рр.);- етап посилення технологізації та віртуалізації передвиборчих кампаній (2004–2009 рр.);- етап розширення технологій та їх урізноманітнення (з 2010 р. – по теперішній час).Обґрунтовано, що використання технологій політичного маркетингу у діяльності політичних партій призводить до зміни їх форми і змісту, демонструючи успішний виступ однієї і тієї ж партійної сили протягом трьох електоральних циклів, що є свідченням партійної інституціоналізації, та обумовлює певне партійно-політичне структурування: від атомізованої до майже системи крупних партій. Можна говорити про певні перспективи щодо стабілізації української партійної системи: маємо зменшення фрагментації партійної системи у поєднанні зі зростанням ролі партійних організацій. У зв'язку з цим аргументовано необхідність створення брендів у партійно-політичному просторі сучасної Україні, щ обумовлюється прагненням партій до забезпечення стратегічного планування політичного продукту на довгострокову перспективу. Доведена залежність динаміки розвитку технологій політичного маркетингу в діяльності політичних партій від кореляції між типом партійної системи, виборчим законодавством і поляризацією українського суспільства.У роботі підкреслено, що у виборних кампаніях кінця ХХ – початку ХХІ ст. в Україні ідеологічний чинник відіграє менше значення, ніж на виборах початку 1990-х років. Сучасний виборчий процес – це змагання не ідеологій, а символів, основним завданням яких є залучати на сторону кандидата значну кількість виборців. Проаналізовано особливості партійних пропозицій парламентських кампаній 2012, 2014 рр. Розкрито специфіку персонального чиннику та візуалізації партійних продуктів у конструюванні бренду партії. Наголошено, що партійні товари та бренди є носіями інформації. Наприклад, назви політичних партій дають відомості не тільки про конкретну політичну силу, а й про закономірності функціонування політичного життя українського суспільства, політичної влади, рівень політичної культури. З'ясовано роль назви та символіки українських політичних партій. Зроблено висновок, що через символічні форми політична партія розшифровує значення своєї назви, ідеологічно ідентифікує себе, нагадує про суть своїх програмових завдань, заявляє про мету поточної кампанії і найближчі цілі. Розкрито зміст, вкладений в партійну символіку. Аналізується її колірна гама, яка є потужним засобом маніпулювання людської психіки.Доведено, що партійні пропозиції набувають символічності та перестають нести у собі смислове навантаження, спиратися на реальний суспільний попит. Політичні символи стають інструментами маніпулювання та навіювання популістських ідей, що, з одного боку, приносить миттєву вигоду політичним партіям, з іншого – веде до зниження рівня політичної культури та громадської активності. У дослідженні обґрунтовано, що при розробці ефективної символіки необхідно враховувати рівень політичної культури електорату, традиції, рівень політичної освіченості, менталітет виборця.Наголошено, що для українського суспільства притаманне персоніфіковане сприйняття політичної влади, яке редукує всю сукупність владних відносин до фігури конкретного політичного лідера. Підкреслено, що політичні партії – це масові політичні організації, в яких лідерство може бути розподілено серед кількох політиків. З'ясовано, що виклики 2014 р. призвели до нових тенденцій у партійній системі України, а саме активізації процесу партієтворення, включення у партійні списки учасників АТО, громадських активістів, журналістів, волонтерів, що було зумовлено суспільним запитом на «нові обличчя», створення нових союзів між політичними силами. Характерний високий рівень персоніфікації для української політики пов'язується, насамперед, з тим, що більшість не здатна здійснити політичний вибір, що заснований на їх власних реальних інтересах. Пересічні громадяни пов'язують втілення своїх життєвих сподівань та мрій з політичною активністю лідера сили, який намагається виступати в ролі героя, рятівника. Акцентовано увагу, що політичні партії змагаються не за втілення ефективніших програм розвитку суспільства, а за розподіл владних повноважень; у їх діяльності переважають вузькопартійні, а не загальнонаціональні інтереси. Популізм, надмірна соціальна орієнтованість передвиборчих програм політичних партій – типова характеристика сучасного політичного ринку України.Зроблено висновок, що за умов нинішнього перехідного періоду, вітчизняний партійний ринок не досяг того рівня, який би задовольняв потреби суспільства, політичні товари не відповідають очікуванням та надіям, створюються без орієнтації на споживача, базуються на стереотипному мисленні. Партійний ринок не відповідає моделі «вільної конкуренції», що зумовлює труднощі просування на ньому партійних продуктів. Партії не асоціюються з конкретними результатами діяльності, що мають бути спрямовані на задоволення найбільш значимих цінностей, потреб громадян.У роботі запропоновано практичні рекомендації щодо вдосконалення технологій політичного маркетингу з урахуванням споживача вітчизняного політичного товару.

Dieses Kapitel fasst die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse des Forschungsprojekts Stand des Wissens zu Schweizer Tramsystemen im Mischverkehr zusammen. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der Beschreibung der aktuellen Situation der Tramsicherheit in der Schweiz sowie der Sicherheitspraxis und -massnahmen bei den entsprechenden Akteuren. Die Schweizer Regulation mit Relevanz für Tramsysteme ist grundsätzlich funktional, d. h. es werden Sicherheits- respektive Schutzziele vorgegeben, aber nicht, auf welchem Wege oder mit welchen Mitteln diese erfüllt werden müssen. Dabei soll der «Stand der Technik» berücksichtigt werden. Es wird also eher ein Rahmen vorgegeben, anstatt die Regelungen in allen Einzelheiten vorzuschreiben. Es gibt im schweizerischen Recht keine spezifisch auf Tramsysteme ausgerichteten Gesetze und Verordnungen. Trams gelten als Eisenbahnen, weshalb die Eisenbahngesetzgebung zur Anwendung kommt. Da Trams aber im Strassenraum verkehren, spielt auch die Strassenverkehrsgesetzgebung eine Rolle. Das Tram hat in der Schweiz vor allen anderen Strassenverkehrsteilnehmern Vortritt. Dieses Vortrittsrecht kann bei ungenügender Kenntnis anderer Verkehrsteilnehmer zu gefährlichen Situationen führen, beispielsweise bei über das mit dem motorisierten Verkehr geteilte Tramtrassee markierten Fussgängerstreifen ohne Lichtsignalanlage oder nicht signalgesteuerten Kreisverkehrsplätzen mit Tramquerung. Die Verantwortung für die Betriebssicherheit tragen in der Schweiz die Trambetreiber. Die Hersteller sind verantwortlich für die Sicherheit ihrer Produkte. Das Bundesamt für Verkehr überwacht, ob Betreiber und Hersteller diese Verantwortung wahrnehmen. Es gibt diverse verschiedene Quellen für Tramunfalldaten in der Schweiz, die sich hinsichtlich Auflösung, Detailgrad, Abdeckung, Standardisierung und öffentliche Verfügbarkeit stark unterscheiden. Hauptanalysequellen der verschiedenen Akteure sind die Unfalldatenbanken der Betreiber, die Unfalldatenbank des Bundesamtes für Strassen (von der Polizei erfasst Unfälle), die Ereignisdatenbank des Bundesamtes für Verkehr (durch die Betreiber gemeldete Ereignisse) und für Einzelereignisse die Unfalluntersuchungsberichte der Schweizerischen Sicherheitsuntersuchungsstelle. Zum Vergleich von Unfalldaten werden üblicherweise Kennzahlen verwendet. Dazu sind Daten zu Verkehrsleistung, Streckennetzkilometer, Linienlängen, Anzahl Kurse, Rollmaterial usw. notwendig. Für eine angemessen Berücksichtigung des Kontextes werden zudem Daten zu Verkehrsmengen des motorisierten Individualverkehrs und des Langsamverkehrs sowie zur Infrastruktur benötigt. Diese Kontextdaten sind nicht in einer einheitlichen Form verfügbar und ihre Beschaffung ist mit einem erheblichen Aufwand verbunden. Vergleiche der Sicherheitslage, beispielsweise für verschiedene Städte, haben aufgrund der Unterschiede in der Datenerfassung und möglicherweise fehlender Kontextinformationen immer eine begrenzte Aussagekraft. Die vier Tramnetze in der Schweiz weisen deutliche Unterschiede hinsichtlich Bevölkerungsdichte, Netztopologie und Betriebskonzept auf. Trotz dieser Unterschiede differiert die mittlere Streckenbelastung (mittlere Anzahl Trams auf einem Netzabschnitt pro Stunde) nur wenig. Bei den spezifischen Unfallzahlen, also beispielsweise Unfälle pro Kompositions-Kilometer, bestehen grosse Unterschiede zwischen den Netzen. Eine Untersuchung durch Dritte für die Jahre 2010–2012 ergab in Zürich eine deutlich höhere Anzahl schwere Unfälle pro Kompositions-Kilometer als in den anderen Netzen. Basel und Genf wiesen vergleichbare Werte, Bern deutlich die geringsten Werte auf. Die häufigste Ursache von Unfällen mit Trambeteiligung ist die Missachtung des Vortrittsrechts der Strassenbahn (bei etwa einem Drittel der Unfälle). Etwa ein Sechstel der Unfälle wird durch Missachtung von Lichtsignalanlagen verursacht, ein weiteres Sechstel geht auf Fehlverhalten von Fussgängern zurück. Häufigste Verursacher von Unfällen mit Trambeteiligung sind in allen vier Tramsystemen die Personenwagen. An zweiter Stelle finden sich die Fussgänger. Bei den Unfallfolgen sind aber die Fussgänger am stärksten betroffen, da sie im Gegensatz zu Insassen von Personenwagen praktisch ungeschützt sind. Letztere erleiden denn auch nur sehr selten schwere Verletzungen bei Kollisionen mit Trams. Eher wenig auffällig hinsichtlich des Unfallgeschehens sind Velofahrer, was an deren vergleichsweise geringer Anzahl liegen dürfte. Kommt es aber zu einem Unfall, sind die Folgen für Velofahrer ähnlich gravierend wie für Fussgänger. Die vier Tramnetze der Schweiz weisen eine ähnliche Anzahl Kreisverkehrsplätze auf, welche vom Tramtrassee gequert werden; bezogen auf die Netzlänge variiert die Kreisverkehrsdichte hingegen erheblich. Der Anteil der Tramkollisionen bei Kreisverkehrsplätzen an allen Tramkollisionen weist zwischen den Systemen grosse Unterschiede auf. Wird dieser Anteil hingegen ins Verhältnis zur Kreisverkehrsdichte auf dem Tramnetz gesetzt, werden die Unterschiede zwischen den drei Systemen Bern, Basel und Genf sehr viel kleiner. Dies ist interessant vor dem Hintergrund, dass vom Tram gequerte Kreisverkehrsplätze in Genf als grosses Problem wahrgenommen werden, in Bern und Basel hingegen nicht. In Zürich ist die Kreisverkehrsdichte auf dem Tramnetz sehr tief, und auch der Anteil Kreisverkehrs-Tramunfälle bleibt selbst in Relation zur Kreisverkehrsdichte deutlich unterhalb der anderen Systeme. Georeferenzierte Unfalldaten erlauben die räumliche Auswertung von Unfallorten und die Identifikation von Unfallschwerpunkten. Aufgrund der geringen Anzahl Tramunfälle ist es allerdings schwierig, die statistische Signifikanz von ermittelten Schwerpunkten zu überprüfen. Im Rahmen dieses Projektes wurden Daten der Verkehrsunfallstatistik des Bundesamtes für Strassen räumlich ausgewertet. Eine qualitative Analyse der ermittelten Unfallschwerpunkte zeigt, dass diese grösstenteils an vorhersehbaren Stellen liegen: bei Fussgängern in Innenstadtbereichen und Plätzen mit hohem Fussgängeraufkommen, also an Orten mit vielen Querungen der Tramgeleise durch Fussgänger; bei Motorfahrzeugen bei Kreuzungen mit hohem Verkehrsaufkommen und auf Streckenabschnitten mit Abbiegemöglichkeit über die Tramgeleise für den Parallelverkehr. Für die Schwerpunkte von Kollisionen mit Velo/Mofa lassen sich hingegen kaum einfache Erklärungen finden. Ein Vergleich von Unfallcluster-Analysen ohne und mit Gewichtung der Unfallfolgen (mittels Opferäquivalenten) zeigt, dass es sowohl Cluster mit grosser Unfallzahl und vergleichsweise geringen kumulierten Auswirkungen als auch solche mit eher kleiner Unfallzahl und hohen kumulierten Auswirkungen gibt. Daher scheint für Analysen von Unfallclustern die Berücksichtigung der Unfallfolgen angebracht, wobei die Gewichtung mittels Opferäquivalenten eine angemessene Methode ist. Die Aussagekraft der räumlichen Analysen bleibt aufgrund der geringen Unfallzahlen und der Verwendung von Daten aus mehreren Jahren beschränkt. Ergänzend zur Auswertung der Unfalldaten sollten daher immer detaillierte Fallanalysen bei Unfallschwerpunkten durchgeführt werden, welche Rückschlüsse auf tatsächliche Unfallursachen und mögliche Massnahmen erlauben. Es gibt in der Schweiz keine einheitliche Definition des Begriffs Beinaheunfall. Im Allgemeinen wird darunter eine Situation verstanden, in der das Fehlverhalten eines Beteiligten oder mehrerer Beteiligter einen gefährlichen Zustand hervorruft, welcher aber nicht in einen Unfall mündet. Der entsprechende Standort wird demzufolge als gefährlich empfunden, obwohl statistisch keine Unfallschwerpunkte nachzuweisen sind. Die häufigsten Umstände von Beinaheunfällen in der Schweiz sind aus Sicht der Trambetreiber fehlende physische Trennungen bei Eigentrassierungen, Konflikte mit Abbiegern auf Kreuzungen, die Nichtbeachtung der Lichtsignalanlage oder anderer Signale auf Kreuzungen und die Nichtbeachtung des Tramvortritts in Kreisverkehrsplätzen. Die Trambetreiber schliessen fehlerhafte Handlungen des eigenen Fahrpersonals zwar nicht aus, führen als Ursache für gefährliche Situationen und Beinaheunfälle aber hauptsächlich die fehlende Wahrnehmung des Trams seitens der anderen Verkehrsteilnehmer auf. Einerseits spielt der fehlende Sichtkontakt eine wichtige Rolle, andererseits wird insbesondere bei Fussgängern eine starke Tendenz bei der Ablenkung durch elektronische Geräte wie Smartphones oder Tablets (visuelle Ablenkung) und Kopfhörer (auditive Ablenkung) beobachtet. Im Mischverkehr sehen die Betreiber die Hauptverursacher gefährlicher Situationen in Velofahrern und Fussgängern – häufig in Innenstadtbereichen, wo der Langsamverkehr sehr hohe Dichten aufweist. Auf Abschnitten mit Eigentrassierung, wo in der Schweiz oft physische Abgrenzungen fehlen und zahlreiche Kreuzungsmöglichkeiten für andere Strassennutzer bestehen, sehen die Betreiber die Hauptverursacher in motorisierten Strassenfahrzeugen. In solchen Abschnitten werden gefährliche Situationen durch die hohe Geschwindigkeit des Trams verschärft. Die Erfassung von Unfalldaten geschieht in der Schweiz bei schweren Unfällen potenziell durch drei Stellen: den entsprechenden Trambetreiber, die zuständige Polizeibehörde und die Schweizerische Sicherheitsuntersuchungsstelle SUST. Die Erfassung von Ereignissen durch die Betreiber ist nicht vereinheitlicht, und auch bei den Polizeibehörden gibt es in der Praxis Abweichungen bei der Dateneingabe in die nationale MISTRA-Unfalldatenbank des Bundesamtes für Strassen. Durch eine einheitliche Erfassung wären Vergleiche zwischen den Tramnetzen möglich und es könnten trotz der geringen Unfallzahl aussagekräftige Datenanalysen durchgeführt werden. Wichtig erscheint in jedem Fall eine präzise Georeferenzierung der Unfalldaten. Es gibt ungenutzte Möglichkeiten zur Datenerfassung, welche sowohl in der Unfallanalyse als auch in der Prävention eingesetzt werden könnten. Beispiele sind der Einsatz von Frontkameras oder die georeferenzierte Erfassung von Schnellbremsungen. Allerdings gibt es dabei bedeutende rechtliche und technische Hürden. Die vorhandenen Unfalldaten werden vor allem durch die lokalen Polizeibehörden relativ umfassend ausgewertet. Um eine maximale Wirkung dieser Analysen sicherzustellen, ist eine enge Zusammenarbeit der Polizei mit den Trambetreibern und weiteren Akteuren (z. B. Tiefbauamt) von grosser Bedeutung. Der Personalschulung kommt bei der Unfallprävention eine grosse Bedeutung zu – entsprechend geniesst sie bei den Betreibern einen hohen Stellenwert. Nützliche Hilfsmittel sind Fotos und Videoaufnahmen von Unfällen und Beinaheunfällen oder Übersichten über gefährliche Situationen entlang einer Linie. Im Falle eines Unfalls helfen Checklisten und stellen eine einheitliche Handlungsweise sicher. Tramsicherheitskampagnen dienen insbesondere der Bewusstseinsbildung zum allgemeinen Tramvortritt und zu den Eigenschaften des Trams (Bremsweg). Eine klare Zielsetzung und anschliessende Evaluation der Wirkung ist empfehlenswert. Bei der Infrastrukturplanung sollten präventive Sicherheitsmassnahmen eine hohe Priorität geniessen und Teil von gestalterischen Lösungen sein. Dazu sollte die Erfahrung der Trambetreiber systematisch in den Infrastrukturplanungsprozess von Strassenräumen mit Trams einbezogen und adäquat berücksichtigt werden. Ein sicherer Trambetrieb ist stark von nicht direkt durch die Trambetreiber beeinflussbaren Elementen abhängig. Insbesondere haben die Gestaltung des Verkehrsraums und die Steuerung der Verkehrstechnik einen grossen Einfluss auf die Sicherheit. So können übersichtliche Kreuzungen mit klar den jeweiligen Spuren zugeteilten Lichtsignalen viele Probleme mit Abbiegern über das Tramtrassee verhindern. Eine gute Zusammenarbeit aller beteiligten Akteure ist für eine sichere und auch betrieblich geeignete Lösung solcher Situationen von zentraler Bedeutung. Beim Rollmaterial spielt insbesondere das Crashverhalten mit schweren Strassenfahrzeugen (Sicherheit der Traminsassen und insbesondere der Tramführerin) und mit Fussgängern (Sicherheit des Fussgängers) eine grosse Rolle. Wichtig ist, in einer frühen Engineering-Phase bereits sämtliche Schutz- und Sicherheitsfunktionen zu berücksichtigen, damit auf spätere «aufgesetzte» Lösungen verzichtet werden kann. This chapter summarises the main findings of the research project State of the art of Swiss tramways in mixed traffic zones. The focus is on the description of the current safety situation in Switzerland and the safety practices and measures of the relevant stakeholders. Swiss regulation with respect to tram safety is functional, i.e., safety and protection targets are prescribed, but not how they have to be achieved and what means must be used. Thereby, the state of the art of technology must be considered. In summary, regulation rather provides a frame than detailed prescriptions. In Swiss legislation, there are no specific laws or ordinances only concerning tram systems. By law, trams are considered as railways, therefor railway legislation applies. Because trams operate on streets, also road legislation is relevant. In Switzerland, trams have right of way over all other road users. This right of way can lead to dangerous situations in cases where other road are not aware of it. For example, in the case of zebra crossings marked over the tramway that is shared with motorised vehicles, pedestrians might assume that they have right of way over trams because they do have right of way over cars in the exact same location. Another example are roundabouts crossed with tram tracks, where cars do not expect to have to yield while they are on the ring road of the roundabout. Responsibility for operational safety is borne by the tram operators and for product safety by manufacturers in Switzerland. The Federal Office of Transport supervises whether operators and producers perform the associated duties correctly. There are several sources for tram accident data in Switzerland. They differ strongly with respect to resolution, level of detail, coverage, standardisation and public availability. Main data sources for safety analyses are the accident databases of the operators, the accident database of the Federal Roads Office (accidents investigated by the police), the incident database of the Federal Office of Transport (incidents reported by operators), and the investigation reports by the Swiss Transportation Safety Investigation Board (concerning single incidents). To compare accident data, ratio measures are used usually. This requires data on service provided, network length, line length, number of vehicles in operation, type of rolling stock, etc. Furthermore, for adequate consideration of context, data is needed on traffic volumes of both motorised transport and human powered mobility. These context data are not available in standardised form and their acquisition is costly. Comparison of safety situation, e.g., in different cities, have limited validity due to differences in data recording and possibly lack of context information. The four tram networks in Switzerland are considerably different with regard to population density, network topology, and operating concepts. Nevertheless, the average network load (average number of trams on a section per hour) is similar in all networks. Looking at accident ratios, e.g., accidents per tram kilometre, there are large differences between the networks. A study for the years 2010–2012 showed a considerably higher number of severe accidents per tram kilometre in Zurich than in the other three networks. Ratios for Basel and Geneva were similar, while Berne clearly had the lowest value. The most common cause of accidents is disrespect of the tram's right of way (roughly one third of all accidents involving trams). About a sixth of tram accidents are caused by disrespect of traffic lights (by other road users), another sixth by misconducts of pedestrians. The main source of accidents involving trams are, in all four networks, cars. They are followed second by pedestrians. However, if consequences of accidents are considered, pedestrians are affected strongest because they are unprotected. Passengers of cars, on the other hand, only rarely suffer from severe injuries from accidents involving a tram. Accidents involving trams and bicycles are less common, which is mainly due to the smaller number of bicycles in overall street users. In case of accidents involving a tram, the consequences for cyclists are similarly grave as for pedestrians. The four tram networks in Switzerland have a similar number of roundabouts crossed by a tramway. However, relating to tram network length, the roundabout (with tramway) density is very different. The ratio of accidents at roundabouts involving a tram and this roundabout density is similar in Basel, Berne and Geneva. This is interesting given that roundabouts crossed by a tramway are considered a big safety issue in Geneva, but not so much in Basel and Berne. In Zurich, the roundabout density is much lower, as is the number or roundabout-related accidents. Accident data with georeferences allow for the spatial analysis of accident locations and the identification of accident hot spots. However, due to the low number of tram accidents, it is difficult to test for statistical significance of such analyses. In the present project, data form the accident database of the Federal Roads Office have been analysed spatially. The qualitative analysis of the identified accident hot spots shows that they are mostly in predictable locations: in the case of pedestrians, in inner city areas and squares with a high number of pedestrian traffic, thus, in locations with frequent crossings of the tramway by pedestrians; in the case of cars, at intersections with high traffic volumes and on sections where cars cross over tram tracks when turning. Hot spots of accidents with bicycles, on the other hand, cannot be easily explained. A comparison of accident cluster analyses without and with weighting of accident consequences (with victim equivalent values) shows that there are both clusters with high accident numbers and low cumulative consequences and clusters with relatively low accident numbers but high cumulative consequences. Therefore, it seems adequate to use weighting of accident consequences for accident cluster analyses. The explanatory power of spatial accident analyses remains limited due to the small number of accidents and the use of data from several years. Therefore, complementary to the examination of accident data, individual case analyses should be conducted to conclude about accident sources and adequate measures. In Switzerland, there is no standard definition of the term "near accident". Commonly, a near accident is understood to be a situation where the malpractice of one or several involved parties leads to a dangerous state, without this state resulting in an actual accident. The respective location is therefore perceived as dangerous, even though no statistical accident hot spot can be determined. From the perspective of tram operators, the most common circumstances of near accidents in Switzerland are lack of physical separation in sections with reserved tracks, conflicts with turning vehicles on intersections, disrespect of traffic lights or road signs and disrespect of tram right of way in roundabouts. The operators do not rule out the possibility of malpractice by their drivers, but they do see the cause of dangerous situations and near accidents mainly in the lack of tram perception by other road users. On the one hand, this involves insufficient visibility conditions (e.g., caused by obstacles), on the other hand, operators observe an increase in distracted pedestrians, mainly due to electronic equipment such as smartphones or tablets (visual distraction) and headphones (auditory distraction). In mixed traffic, operators see pedestrians and cyclists as the main causers of tram accidents, often in inner city areas with high density of human powered mobility users. On reserved tracks, where there is often no physical separation between the tramway and other road users and many crossing possibility of the latter exist, the operators see car users as the main causers of tram accidents. In such locations, dangerous situations are aggravated due to the high tram speed. The recording of accident data in Switzerland is mainly conducted by three parties: the tram operator, the local police, and the Swiss Transportation Safety Investigation Board (in severe cases). Recording of events by the operators is not standardized, and there are also differences in recording practices of police authorities and their data input into the national road accident database of the Federal Roads Office. A standardised and consistent recording would facilitate comparisons between tram networks and enable more significant analyses. In any case, precise georeference for accident data is crucial for later spatial analyses. There are unused possibilities of data acquisition that could be used for accident analysis as well as prevention. For example, this includes using frontal cameras in tram vehicles or the georeferenced recording of emergency braking manoeuvres. However, there are serious legal and technical barriers to be considered. Existing accident data is analysed in detail mostly by local police authorities. In order to ensure the impact of such analyses, tight cooperation between police authorities, tram operators, and further stakeholders (e.g., civil engineering department of the respective city) is crucial. Drivers' education is highly relevant for accident prevention. Accordingly, operators assign a high priority to it. Useful tools are pictures or videos of accidents or near accidents or overviews of dangerous locations along a line. In the case of an actual accident, check lists help to ensure consistent actions. In infrastructure planning, preventive safety measures should be included from the beginning as part of design solutions and be given a high priority. For this, it is important to include the experience and knowledge of tram operators in respective infrastructure design and planning teams. Safe operation of a tram system depends on many aspects that cannot be influenced directly by tram operators. Particularly, the design of public and road space and traffic operation and management have a high impact on tram safety. For example, clear intersection layouts with unambiguously attributed traffic lights per traffic lane can prevent many problems frequently occurring with cars turning across the tramway. Therefore, tight collaboration between all stakeholders is a key to safe operation of trams that also consider the quality of operation. Concerning rolling stock, the crash behaviour of trams with heavy road vehicles such as trucks (safety of tram passengers and particularly driver) and with pedestrians (safety of pedestrians) is particularly important. Generally, it is crucial to include all safety requirements and targets in an early engineering phase in order to avoid later, "attached" measures.

IntroductionOver the last decade, we have witnessed a number of changes to our welfare state. With the 1996 bi‐partisan‐supported welfare reform legislation (Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act; PRWORA), the federal government devolved much of the responsibility for public assistance to the states, instituted time‐limited assistance, and aimed to curb non‐marital childbirths, encourage marriage, and push welfare recipients to become economically self‐sufficient. After PRWORA, a slew of scholars from multiple academic disciplines sought to understand the implementation and implications of the changes to the welfare system for poor families as well as those agencies, staff, and programs that serve them. In this article, Kissane and Krebs synthesize some major findings from this research on welfare reform and its effects. Courses using such a review might situate the exploration of welfare reform within a larger investigation of America's welfare state, poverty, and/or social policy.Author recommendsBrown, Michael K. 1999. Race, Money and the American Welfare State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Through a detailed examination of social policy from the New Deal through the Reagan administration, Brown explores,'how both race and social class bear on the political development of the American welfare state' (p. xiv). As the title of the books suggests, Brown pays particular attention to taxes, fiscal capacity and spending in his account.DeParle, Jason. 2004. American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York: Penguin Press.DeParle, a New York Times journalist, moves effortlessly between exploring developments in American welfare policy and chronicling the lives of three poor women. He vividly depicts the complexity of the women's lives in the wake of the changes to the welfare system, while also providing fascinating details on the origins and implementation of welfare reform.Edin, Kathryn and Laura Lein. 1997. Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low‐Wage Work. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.This book presents findings from Edin and Lein's comprehensive, multi‐city qualitative study on the monthly budgets of low‐wage workers and welfare‐reliant women, as well as their strategies for making ends meet. They find that both groups rely on their networks for in‐kind and cash assistance, aid from non‐profit organizations, and earnings from informal work to survive. Edin and Lein also investigate the relative costs and benefits (both tangible and intangible) of work versus welfare.Esping‐Andersen, Gøsta. 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.An essential book if one is interested in the development of welfare states across advanced Western societies. Esping‐Andersen delineates three typologies of welfare state regimes (conservative, liberal, and social) and explores the factors that establish the differences in welfare states.Gilens, Martin. 1999. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.In this well‐researched book, Gilens explores public opinion on anti‐poverty policies and the media's role in shaping how the public thinks about welfare. His chapters on the media's representations of poverty and welfare are particularly enlightening.Gordon, Linda. 1994. Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.In this book, Gordon, a social historian, argues that reformers working in the women's movement during the Progressive Era had a significant effect on the development of the welfare state; however, they also helped to cement racial and gender stratification within it and ultimately limit its full development.Hays, Sharon. 2003. Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare Reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.In Flat Broke with Children, Hays, a sociologist, does a wonderful job exploring the cultural values behind welfare reform, detailing the contradictory nature of its requirements and procedures, and situating welfare recipients and their behavior within the larger American cultural context. Through her analysis of data collected from years of fieldwork in welfare offices in two states, Hays also investigates how poor women and welfare staff experience and think about welfare reform.Iceland, John. 2006. Poverty in America: A Handbook. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.This book is an excellent overview of poverty in America. Iceland clearly details views on poverty, how we measure poverty, the characteristics of the poverty population, and the causes of poverty.Katz, Michael B. 2001. The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.In this expansive work, Katz, a social historian, details recent developments across various areas of the American welfare state (although he focuses on anti‐poverty policies), while situating these developments within a larger historical context. In particular, he shows how public social policy in recent decades has shifted around three 'great objectives': (i) to end dependence; (ii) to devolve authority; and (iii) to apply market models to social policy.Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.In this classic, Piven and Cloward advance their theory that 'expansive relief policies are designed to mute civil disorder, and restrictive ones to reinforce work norms' (p. xv). Their book explores a large span of history – from early poor relief in France and England to developments under the Bush administration.Online materials Catholic Campaign for Human Development (CCHD) http://www.nccbuscc.org/cchd/povertyusa/ This website includes some facts about poverty, as well as ideas for educators on ways to generate discussion on poverty. The 'getting involved' section of the website is particularly useful, providing, among other things, a poverty quiz, interactive maps, information on CCHD funded programs, a 'poverty tour' that addresses issues with the federal poverty line, and ways to get involved. Global Rich List http://www.globalrichlist.com/ This website allows you to situate your annual income in the context of the world's population. It is a great little teaching tool to introduce concepts of relative poverty, income inequality, and global poverty to students. Green Book from House Ways and Means Committee
http://www.gpoaccess.gov/wmprints/green/index.html The Green Book is an excellent resource for descriptions and historical data on many U.S. social welfare programs, such as the Social Security, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), Foster Care, Medicaid, and Food Stamp programs. MDRC http://www.mdrc.org/ Known best, perhaps, for its evaluations of welfare policies and programs that incorporate random assignment, MDRC provides detailed information on programs and policies that affect the poor. Among other things, the website includes publications, working papers, policy briefs, and videos detailing research findings. The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) http://www.nccp.org/ The NCCP at Columbia University provides statistical information and fact sheets on poverty and policy issues, often with a focus on the links between family economic security and child development. Individuals might find particularly useful the 'State Profiles' section of the website, which allows one to view demographic information (often in clear charts and graphs), issue areas, and policies for the state of one's choosing. U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov/ The census website provides an extensive array of data on the U.S. population and economy. Besides navigating from the above link, data and reports on poverty can also be found directly at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/poverty.html. The World Bank http://www.worldbank.org/ The World Bank's website provides resources valuable to exploring worldwide poverty and situating the U.S. globally. In particular, the PovertyNet area (http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,menuPK:336998~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:336992,00.html) of the website presents detailed information and data on poverty and related issues that researchers, educators, and practitioners may find useful.Additional online resourcesScores of additional organizations and centers (too many to list) conduct and disseminate research on issues related to the economy, welfare, public policy, and poverty. What follows is a list of some other key organizations and centers, alongside links to their websites:

Brookings Institute (http://www.brookings.edu)
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (http://www.cbpp.org/)
Center for Law and Social Policy (http://www.clasp.org/)
Center for Research on Child Wellbeing (CRCW) (http://crcw.princeton.edu/)
Child Trends (http://www.childtrends.org/)
Heritage Foundation (http://www.heritage.org/)
Institute for Research on Poverty (http://www.irp.wisc.edu/)
Joint Center for Poverty Research (http://www.jcpr.org/)
National Poverty Center (http://www.npc.umich.edu/)
Urban Institute (http://www.urban.org/)

Sample syllabusPoverty, Welfare, and the Safety Net (excerpt from syllabus)Description of courseThe terms 'safety net' and 'welfare state' commonly refer to a range of public and non‐governmental programs and policies that seek to protect individuals and their families from distress and hardship and/or improve the quality of their lives. In this course, we will primarily explore facets of the American welfare state that seek to assuage poverty and its effects. Although we will largely approach this topic from a sociological perspective, this area of inquiry is quite interdisciplinary. Consequently, we will be reading works from other academic disciplines throughout the course.This is an advanced course, designed for students who already have substantial familiarity with the causes and consequences of poverty. In the first third of the course, we will investigate the early development of our nation's welfare state, from poorhouses and outdoor relief to mothers' pensions and the New Deal. We then move to exploring Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and anti‐poverty policies of the 1960s and 1970s. Next, we examine changes in federal welfare policy over the last couple of decades, focusing on the welfare reforms of the 1990s, the consequences of these reforms, and the experiences of poor women since these changes. We end the course by looking in more depth at the private safety net (particularly, secular and faith‐based organizations that serve the poor), public opinion, and future directions for welfare policy.Course outline and reading assignments Week 1. Introduction to poverty and the course Iceland, John. 2006. Chapters 3–5 (pp. 20–97). Poverty in America: A Handbook. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Rank, Mark. 2003. 'As American as Apple Pie: Poverty and Welfare.'Contexts 2(3): 41–46.Optional: Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Poverty and Inequality in the New American City' (pp. 33–56). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Week 2. What is welfare? Why have welfare states? Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'The Invention of Welfare' (pp. 1–8) and 'The American Welfare State' (only pp. 9–17). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Howard, Christopher. 1993. 'The Hidden Side of the American Welfare State.'Political Science Quarterly. 108(3): 403–436 (note: pages 420–433 are optional).T. H. Marshall. 1977. Selection from 'Citizenship and Social Class' in Class, Citizenship, and Social Development: Essays by T.H. Marshall. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.UN Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html) Week 3. Early developments Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. 'Relief, Labor, and Civil Disorder: An Overview' (pp. 3–42). Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Katz, Michael B. 1996. 'The Origins and Failure of the Poorhouse' and 'Outdoor Relief' (pp. 3–59). In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America: Tenth Anniversary Edition. New York, NY: BasicBooks. Week 4. Mothers pensions, the New Deal, and ADC Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. Chapter 2–3 (pp. 45–119). Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Linda Gordon. 1994. Selection from Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Brown, Michael K. 1999. Chapter 2 (pp. 63–96). Race, Money and the American Welfare State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Quadagno, Jill S. 1994. 'Unfinished Democracy' (only pp. 17–25). The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Optional: DeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapter 2 (pp. 20–37). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Week 5. AFDC, welfare rights, and anti‐poverty policies in the 1960s and 1970s Piven, Frances F. and Richard A. Cloward. 1993. Chapters 4 and 6 (pp. 123–146; pp. 183–199). Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (updated edition). New York, NY: Vintage Books.Quadagno, Jill S. 1994. Selection from The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Tilmon, Johnnie. 1972. 'Welfare is a Women's Issue.'Ms. Spring: 2 pages. http://www.msmagazine.com/spring2002/tillmon.aspDeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapters 3 and 5 (pp. 38–57; 85–100). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Weeks 6 and 7. Devolution, the 1980s and 90s, and 'ending welfare as we know it' Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'The Family Support Act' (pp. 71–76); 'Governors as Welfare Reformers' (pp. 77–103); and 'Fighting Poverty 1990s Style' (pp. 293–316). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Hays, Sharon. 2003. Chapter 1 (pp. 3–31). Flat Broke with Children. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.DeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapters 4; 6–9 (pp. 58–81; 101–174). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press.Optional: Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Urban Social Welfare in an Age of Austerity' (pp. 104–136). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Week 8. Assessing welfare reform Kissane, Rebecca Joyce and Richard Krebs. 2007. 'Assessing Welfare Reform, Over a Decade Later.'Sociology Compass 1(2): 789–813. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00029.x.Katz, Michael B. 2001. pp. 328–340 of 'The End of Welfare'The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Weeks 9–11. A closer look at life after welfare reform Hays, Sharon. 2003. Chapters 2–8 (pp. 33–240) Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare Reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.DeParle, Jason. 2004. Chapters 10–18 (pp. 175–322). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Week 12.  The Private Safety Net: Nonprofit, Community‐Based Service Provision Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'The Independent Sector, the Market and the State' (only pp. 137–155 and 162–170). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Kissane, Rebecca Joyce. 2003. 'What's Need Got to Do with It? Why Poor Women Do Not Use Nonprofit Social Services.'Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare. 30(2): 127–148.Kissane, Rebecca Joyce. 2006. 'Responsible but Uninformed? Nonprofit Executive and Program Directors' Knowledge of Welfare Reform.'Social Service Review. 80(2): 322–345.Reread 'Nonprofit organizations and welfare reform' (pp. 802–804) in Kissane, Rebecca Joyce and Richard Krebs. 2007. 'Assessing Welfare Reform, Over a Decade Later.'Sociology Compass 1(2): 789–813. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00029.x.Edin, Kathryn and Laura Lein. 1998. 'The Private Safety Net: The Role of Charitable Organizations in the Lives of the Poor.'Housing Policy Debate. 9(4): 541–573. Week 13. The Private Safety Net, continued: Faith‐based organizations (FBOs) Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Faith, Charity, and Inner Cities' (pp. 155–162). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.Twombly, Eric. 2002. 'Religious Versus Secular Human Service Organizations: Implications for Public Policy.'Social Science Quarterly. 83(4): 847–961.Kissane, Rebecca Joyce. 2007. 'How Do Faith‐Based Organizations Compare to Secular Providers? Nonprofit Directors' and Poor Women's Assessments of FBOs.'Journal of Poverty. 11(4): 91–115.Sherman, A. L. 2003. 'Faith in Communities: A Solid Investment.'Society. 40(2): 19–26.DiIulio Jr., John J. 2007. Selection from Godly Republic: A Centrist Blueprint for America's Faith‐Based Future. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Scott W. Allard. 2007. 'Access and Stability: Comparing Faith‐based and Secular Nonprofit Service Providers.' A paper presented at the National Poverty Center at the University of Michigan 2007 conference, 'The Impact of Religion and Faith‐Based Organizations on the Lives of Low Income Families.'Optional: Smith, Steven Rathgeb and Michael R. Sosin. 2001. 'Varieties of Faith‐Related Agencies.'Public Administration Review. 61(6): 651–670. Week 14. Public Opinion, the Media, and Policy Gilens, Martin. 1999. Chapters 2–3 (pp. 31–79); Chapter 5 (only pp. 111–132); Chapter 6 (pp. 133–153) and Chapter 8 (only pp. 184–203). Why Americans Hate Welfare. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Reingold, David A. and Helen Liu. Forthcoming. 'Do Poverty Attitudes of Social Service Agency Directors Influence Organizational Behavior?'Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly.Optional: Misra, Joya, Stephanie Moller, and Marina Karides. 2003. 'Envisioning Dependency: Changing Media Depictions of Welfare in the 20th Century.'Social Problems. 50(4): 482–504. Week 15. Future directions and course wrap‐up Katz, Michael B. 2001. 'Work, Democracy, and Citizenship' (pp. 341–359). The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.DeParle, Jason. 2004. Epilogue (pp. 323–338). American Dream: Three Women, Ten Kids and a Nation's Drive to End Welfare. New York, NY: Penguin Press.Gilens, Martin. 1999. 'The Politics of the American Welfare State' (pp. 204–216). Why Americans Hate Welfare. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Rector, Robert. 2005. 'Welfare Reform and the Healthy Marriage Initiative.' Statement before the Sub‐committee on Human Resources of the Committee on Ways and Means U.S. House of Representatives. Available at http://www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/tst021005a.cfmCoontz, Stephanie and Nancy Folbre. 2002. 'Marriage, Poverty, and Public Policy: A Discussion Paper from the Council on Contemporary Families.' The American Prospect. March 19, 2002. Available at http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=marriage_poverty_and_public_policyFilms and videosA Day's Work, A Day's Pay (57 min)This documentary, based in New York City, follows three welfare recipients participating in the city's welfare‐to‐work program. The film not only documents the problems with the city jobs that the welfare recipients have to perform, but it also explores how the welfare recipients become social activists.Eating Welfare (57 min)Told through the youth of the community, this documentary investigates welfare reform's effect on Southeast Asian refugee families living in the Bronx. The film highlights problems particular to this population, as well as general issues facing the welfare recipients under workfare.Ending Welfare As We Know It (90 min)Take it From Me: Life After Welfare (75 min)These two documentaries follow welfare families as they deal with the consequences of welfare reform and the complexities of their lives.Poverty Outlaw (1 h)This documentary follows the development of the Kensington Welfare Rights Union (KWRU), 'a multiracial organization of, by and for poor and homeless people' located in Philadelphia (http://www.kwru.org/), as well as the hardships experienced by its members and other individuals living in poverty in America. A subsequent film, Outriders (1999; 1 h), follows KWRU on its New Freedom Bus Tour, in which the organization sought to document economic human rights violations across America.Tempting Faith: Is Charitable Choice Working? (57 min)This documentary explores the Charitable Choice provision of the 1996 welfare reform legislation through an examination of faith‐based programs in Indiana, North Carolina, and Massachusetts. The film includes views on both the pros and cons of faith‐based initiatives.Waging a Living (85 min)This documentary focuses on the lives of four low‐wage workers as they struggle to make ends meet.Welfare Reform: Social Impact (29 min)This program, released shortly after the passage of welfare reform, explores the history of welfare and issues surrounding welfare reform. It includes interviews with Wisconsin Governor Tommy Thompson, Wendell Primus, and Rebecca Blank.Seminar/Project ideas1. This activity uncovers students' misunderstandings regarding poverty and welfare.Early in the semester (usually the first day of class), students take a 'poverty and welfare quiz' in which they answer factual and attitudinal questions on poverty and welfare. Instructors can then use the survey answers as springboards for weekly discussions on topics covered in the course. As the semester progresses, the students usually discover that they held many misconceptions regarding poverty and welfare.2. This activity explores the hidden assumptions and meanings behind the words 'dependent' and 'independent.' Other words or phrases could also be explored in this manner, such as 'deserving' and 'undeserving' poor.Ask the students to list (in separate columns) images, individuals, and/or circumstances that come to mind when they hear the words 'dependent' and 'independent'. Then, as a class or in small groups, discuss and assess the students' lists. How are these lists culturally specific? Do visions of race, ethnicity, class, gender, age and household structure come into play? How? Why do you think certain images come to mind when you hear these words? How do our understandings of 'dependence' and 'independence' relate to our understandings of welfare and poverty? To anti‐poverty policies?3. Among other topics, this activity can be used to launch discussions of deserving versus undeserving poor, universal versus means‐tested transfers, barriers to self‐sufficiency and employment, and notions of 'governmental assistance.'Break the students into small groups and give each group a sheet of paper with about six profiles that cover a variety of individuals and family types. For example, one profile might depict a 30‐year‐old housewife with two children whose husband works. Another might be an unemployed, divorced woman with six children who is clinically depressed, etc. Create profiles in such a way that students will likely consider in their working groups the employment, marital status, age, gender, child‐bearing, physical and mental health, and race and ethnicity of their profiled individuals. Have each group discuss to whom they would give governmental assistance, in what order they would distribute the aid, and what they would give each profiled family. Reconvene the class and compare the groups' decisions. What did the groups' consider 'governmental assistance'? How did they decide how they would distribute the aid? Who was 'worthy' of help? Did they feel as if they needed additional information to make their decisions? What information did they want to have that the profiles did not provide? Why would that information be important to their deliberations?4. This written assignment allows students to investigate a program or policy not covered comprehensively in the course.Each student will choose a program or policy aimed to assuage poverty and/or its effects that we do not cover extensively in this course [e.g., Head Start, Unemployment Insurance, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), public housing programs, etc]. All topics must be approved prior to beginning work on the project. After choosing a topic, students will write a final paper that includes the following components:

An introduction. What is the program? How is it meant to assuage poverty or its consequences? Why should we care about your topic?
A brief review of the history of the policy or program. When was the program started? Why? By whom? What key changes have occurred to the program over the years?
A review of the social science research literature on the program. What data and research are available on your program? What does the empirical research tell us about the program's effectiveness, clientele, take‐up rates, strengths, weaknesses, etc?
Specific policy recommendation(s). How can your program be improved? (Note: your recommendation(s) should be based on the empirical evidence not value‐laden opinions)

Instructors may want to add a final presentation to the above assignment. Having students present as part of a panel may be particularly effective if students' topics cluster around several areas, for example 'educational policy', 'family policy', 'housing policy', etc.

Issue 10.1 of the Review for Religious, 1951. ; JANUARY 15, 1951 o Schools of Spiri÷ualify .o . ° . oG. Augustine Ellard 0BenedictineS. prifid a li÷y ' Bernard A. Sause '~ . .; 2 °,Behol~l This Heart ° ' ' C.-,A. Herbs÷ Quinqubnnial Repor÷ .~.° ." . . . . . . . AdamC. Ellis Minis÷er of ~'he Sacramen÷s . ClarenCe McAullffe How Are Your Eyes? . M. Raymond C!,~sic on HigherPraye~ . ~,. JeromeBreunlcj Destiny" o{ ReligioUS Women . william B. Faher~ Questions and Answers Book Reviews R Vli::::W FOR Ri::LI IO.US VOLUME X JANUARY, 1951 NUMBER CONTENTS SCHOOLS OF SPIRITUALITY~G. Augustine Ellard, S.J .3 ON ACTUAL GRACE . 6 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITYmBernard A. Sause, O.S.B . 7 BEHOLD THIS HEART---C. A. Herbst, S.,I .1.6. OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 19 QUINQUENNIAL REPORT, 1951--Adam C Ellis, S.J .2.0. UNWORTHY MINISTERS OF THE SACRAMENTSm Clarence McAuliffe, S.J .25 NEW APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION . 32 HOW ARE YOUR EYES?--M. Raymond, O.C.S.O .3.3. HOME FOR TUBERCULOUS SISTERS . ' 38 CLASSIC ON HIGHER PRAYER--Jerome Breunig, 8.J .3.9. REPRINT SERIES . " . , ¯ 46 THE DESTINY OF RELIGIOUS WOMEN~WilIiam B Faherty, S.J.47 BOOK REVIEWS-- Meaning of Fatima; Vocation to Love; Graces of Interior Prayer 51 BOOK NOTICES . 52 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 54 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. Voting in Local Chapter . 54 2. Pastor as Confessor for Religious . 55 3. Admittance of Ex-Novice . 55 4 Proper.ty Acquired after Profession . . .55 5. Meaning of "Religious" . . 56 6. Adding to Holy Father's Blessing . 56 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. January, 1951, Vol. X, No. 1. Published bi-monthly : January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Marys College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Jerome Breunig, S.J. Copyright, 1951, By Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. Review ~or Religious Volume X January--December, 1951 Published at THE COLLEGE PRESS Topeka, Kansas Edited by THE JESUIT FATHERS SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE St. Marys, Kansas REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is indexed in the CATHOLIC PERIODICAL INDEX Schools ot: Spiri!:u li :y G. Augustine Ellard,'S.J. IT IS A SIGN of the richness of the Church's spiritual life" that in it there should be "schoolsof spiritu.ality.'" Not even a gre~t saint could well represent that life in all it phases; to illustrate its we~ilth and depth and variety all the saints together would have to be called forth. No individual person nor indeed, any association of them, no matter" how holy and perfect they might be, could ade-quately e:~emplify all the different aspects and facets of the interior life. On the one hand thefecundity of Catholic doctrine is inex-haustible, and on the other the variations among men and women; their needs, providenti~al destinies, potentialities, and sb on, are innumerable. Given these two sources, namely, the fertility of what the "Church offers and the endless dissimilarities among men, it is inevitable that there should be within the Church groups having somewhat diverse conceptions of what pertains. to the spiritual life and then actually carrying them out in corresl~ondingly various ways. As in nature, so aiso in the supernatural order of grace the gifts of God are.most highly variegated. ~'There are ,~arieties of gifts, but the same Spirit. And there are varieties of ministrations, and the same Lord. And there are varieties of workings, but the same God,. who worketh all things in all. But to each is given the manifesta-tion of the Spirit for the general profit." (I Cor. 12:4-7--West-minster Version.) To make up the whole Mystical Body of Christ and keep it functioning in accordance with the divine design.it is necessary th'at there should be different systems of members occupying different places in that great mysterious organism and discharging different forms of activity, even in the cultivation of the interior life and of the love of God. "For as the body is one.and hath many~members~ and all the members of the body, many as they are, form. one bogy; so also it is with Christ. Now ye are the .body of Christ, and.sey-erally his members: - And God bath appointed sundry inthe Church, first apostles, secondly.prophets, thirdly teachers.': (I C0.r. 12: 12, 27-.28-:-'Westminster Version.) As the various.organs Of the body, the heart for instance and the brain, posses~ at the sa~me.time a certain unity and a certain diversity of life, so also the .Mystical.Body of. G. AUGUS~FINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious Christ must have among its numerous members, all sharing in one life, some who specialize, say, in contemplation and others in action, some who emphasize this virtue and others who excel in that. The revelation vouchsafed to us by God in the New Testament is a complete whole, made up of parts, however, which taken by themselves are unmistakably different. Nobody could fail to dis-tinguish the phases of it presented by the Synoptic Evangelists, by St. John, and by St. Paul. Abstractly, a school of spirituality is a distinctive system of doc-trines, theoretical and practical (principles and practices), pertaining ¯ to the pursuit of Christian perfection. Concretely, it is the group of persons who propose or use that system. These schools differ from one another in much the same way, and for much the same reasons, as the saints who typify them differ from one another. The limits of these schools are somewhat indefinite, and not everybody would enumerate them in just the same way. Tanquerey, in The Spirit'uat Life, distinguishes these eight schools in the modern Church: Benedictine, Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit, Carmelite, the School of St. Francis de Sales, the French School of the Seventeenth Century, and the School of St. Alphonsus Liguori (xxxii-xlvi). Influence of Religious Orders From this enumeration one might feel tempted to conclude that the schools of spirituality are about the same as the great religious orders after which most of them are named. 'As a matter of fact the respective orders do occupy a leading position in them. However, the schools themselves are much more extensive and less closely bound together. Thus, for example, presumably most people who are in Franciscan.or Dominican parishes would follow their pastors in their spiritual systems. But also sometimes one who belongs, say to a Redemptorlst parish would be a member of the Third Order of Mt. Carmel, and then very probably his sanctification would for the most part follow the Carmelite pattern. Moreover, all those who read Franciscan or Dominican authors and mold their interior devel-opment predominantljr in accordance with the ideals which they find therein would pertain to these same schools. Being Catholic and orthodox, all schools of spirituality have very much in common. Their essential cores are identical. They all have the same dogmatic basis, the same moral principles, the same general ideal of perfection, namely, total love of God, the same prin-cipal means to realize friar objective, and in general whatever is char- danuarg, 1951 SCHOOLS OF SPIRITUALITY acteristic of the Catholic spirit. Over and above these common and fundamental elements each school has its own distinctive notes. One prefers to seek light and inspiration from certain dogmas and another from others. Thus the French School of the Seventeenth Century shows a very special pre-occupation with the doctrine of the Incarnation. There may be different conceptions of God in the sense that different divine attri-butes or aspects are emphasized: think of .Dominican spirituality and God as Prime Mover in contrast .to the Carmelite and God as the All. The various virtues get various treatments: of all the schools the Franciican gives most attention to poverty. With regard to action and contemplation there are conspicuously different orienta-tions; this divergence is well exemplified by the Carmelites and the Jesuits. In Benedictine asceticism the liturgy plays a most prom-inent role; in that of St. Alphonsus and his sons its place is at least less. Somewhat contrastive attitudes are cultivated toward the sacred humanity of Christ: notice the Franciscan tender devotion to the crib and cross as opposed to Jesuit energetic imitation of Christ in His apostolic activity. In some spiritual groups and their doctrines there has been much of the speculative, element; in others, a mini-mum. A historical example of this opposition in tendency is the Rhenish School of the fourteenth century (Eckhart, Tauler, Suso, Ruysbroeck) and the reaction it provoked in such writers as Thomas ~ Kempis. Tendencies to be Avoided With respect to the divergence between schools of spirituality there are two exaggerated and contrary tendencies that are bad and ought to be avoided. One is to minimize or slur over the differences that really do exist and divide them. A narrow and unintelligent 'zeal for the un, ity of Catholicism leads some people more or less to overlook or deny the variations of form and doctrine that are dis-cernible in the rich interior life of the whole Church.~ There is indeed unity in essentials, but the accidentals are far from uniform-ity. One would as reasonably attempt to cover over the differences that exist between the religious orders and their diversified spirits. Real divergences between systems of spiritual doctrine and practice ought to be acknowledged. Oftentimes they offer new light and stimulation to one's personal religious life. In any case they are part of the yariety and beauty that pertain to the Church as the spouse of Christ. 5 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD The opposite fault is to magnify or overemphasize the distinc-tions and diversities between schools. After a11, these differences, though they are important in certain ways, belong to the accidentals, and leave the essentials unchanged throughout the whole Catholic body. Various phases of dogma are accentuated, but the general dog-matic background is identical. The ideals pursued by all are sub-stantially the same, that is, total love of find collaboration with God, with minor variations to suit special purposes or characters. Some stress this virtue and some that, or they blend them together in differ-ent proportions, but ultimately the great Christian virtues are the same for all. In each of the schools one may recognize the essential family likeness that demonstrates their Catholic origin and nature. Finally, it would be fallacious and unjust to rate one school above another. Human insight is not keen enough to gauge pre-cisely the merits and deficiencies of the various schools as they exist objectively and in the sight of God. But relatively, and as far as we can judge, each one of these schools is best suited and adapted to cer-tain groups of persons within the Church. In most cases Divine Providence gently and naturally and imperceptibly makes us pupils in this or that school. That there may be unity, harmgny, and organic development in one's interior life, it is as a rule advisable to keep fairly well within the limits of some one system. This prin-ciple will not prevent those who are more or less mature in their spiritual growth from availing themselves of whatever is best in all of them. Thus the supernatural life and beauty of the Church will ever become richer and richer. ON ACTUAL GRACE The excellent book, With the Help of Thy Grace, by John V. Matthews, S.J. (REVIEW, Vol. IV, pp. 66-67), is now being published in a revised and enlarged edition under the title, Actual Grace and the Spiritual Life. We are willing to underwrite the comment on the inside jacket: "The lucid appealing style of the author has turned what could be a difficult treatise into a simple, attractive and very helpful exposition of a mighty su.bject." The book is being published in the "Recall to the Spiritual Life Series" by the Mercier Press, Cork and Liverpool, 7/6. 6 Benedic!:ine Spirit:uali!:y Bernard A. Sause, O.S.B. MOST persons likely to be consulted about vocation to monas-ticism would probably consider it wise and discreet to emphasize its gratifying features: the beauty of the monastic home, the traditional love of the liturgy, the dignity and consolation of the work usually assigned to the monks, and especially the guar-antee of peace, security, and tranquility. Although he is often commended for his breadth of vision and prudence in governing,. St. Bene~lict does not belong to this school of,thought. It would be difficult to imagine a more forbidding and chal-lenging reception of an aspirant to the religious life than that which he prescribes in his Rule. "The newcomer is not to be granted easy admittance to the enclosure; he must be tested for four or five days to see whether he bears patiently the harsh treatment offered him and the difficulties of admission; he is placed in the novitiate under a mas-ter skilled in the art of winning souls, but who is made to sound most unpleasantly so;'the poor novice is tried repeatedly in all patience--a phrase that is quite meaningless unless one has lived its interpretation at the hands of an experienced master; the year of trial is devoted to showing him all the hard and rugged things through which we pass on to God; the Rule is read and explain.ed to him under the harsh term of "the law." (See Holy Rule of St. Benedict, Ch. 58.) There is more in the same vein. As one reads this chapter of the. Rule, this thought courses throughthe mind: St. Benedict begins with the assumption that a vocation is the consecration of a life to God's service; and while he willed it to be viewed with all the calmness and imperturbability of a life-long perspective, and was willing to make reasonable allowances, he knew that not a moment was to be wasted. Mortification, sup-pression of sinful man's inclination to evil, and the supreme impor-tance of the sacred obedience which with a distinctive forc.e dominates all monastic effort, are all integral parts of fashioning a character according to "his Rule. In harmony with that plan, which has stood the test of more than fourteen centuries, they can be begun, and con-tinued, only in high seriousness. A Spiritual Famit~l St. Benedict did not found an order in the legal, sense of the word. ¯ He wrote his Rule for an ideal monastery, for one moderately-sized BERNARD A. SAUSE Review for Religious family, governed by an Abbot who is believed to hold the place of Christ. (Ch. 2) Even to this day there is among all the followers of Benedict no more deeply cherished religious principle than the autonomy of the individual abbey. Those who lack more extensive acquaintance with the history of Benedictine effort may think of a number of isolated, relatively small and independent houses as an anachronism in today's widespread tendency toward centralization, but Benedictines know the Rule's provision as the spiritual force that has enabled them to make their worthiest contributions to the spir-itual life of the Church. As a youth the Patriarch of Western Monasticism.had lived for three years in the cave above Subiaco. In the op.ening paragraph of Chapter 1 of the Rule, which was written years Iater, he makes it clear that every trace of the eremitical life has been abandoned: his monastery is a group of sons under the intimate leadership of a father who in all matters pertaining to this distinctive way of life is' believed to hold the place of Christ. Together with the eremitical form of religion, St. Benedict discarded numerous monastic observ-ances and traditions that had been generally kept in the Church until his day (he died March 21, 547). A study of the elements that Benedict rejected is interesting for establishing the positive concept of his way of life. For the excessive bodily severity of the Orientals was substituted a round of carefully regulated practices and ideals that could be adopted by all who were admitted to the monastic family. The individualis~tic and subjective piety that so often had prompted excesses and rigorism was simply prohibited: works of supererogation and mortifications which were not made known to the Abbot and which were undergone without his approval and blessing were imputed to presumption an~d vai~glory. (Ch. 49) Prolonged psalmody and arbitrary additions to the Divine Office were excluded. Prayer was regulated'~ the effort of the entire com-m'unity united under the spiritual leadership of the Abbot. It was thought of as the sanctification of the day's work, and the consecra-tion of the night. The meticulous selection of the Psalms for the different hours, which no one has dared to change in the intervening fourteen centuries, despite numerous changes in the arrangement of the Psalter for all other groups in the Church; the comparatively long night Office; the relatively short day Hours, .emphasize this idea. The centralized organization in the Church, especially in the Pachomian monasteries, was done away with, and the individual danuar~t, 1951 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY monastic family became the self-sustaining, self-governing unit of monasticism. These instances are not to be thought of as exhaustive but are merely of a general pattern that bore the stamp of guidance by the Holy Spirit? and, humanly speaking, the experience of almost a half century of actual observance, most of it*with~the responsibility of guiding others as their Abbot. They result in a balance and har~ mony that is of the essence of the monastic character, and invariably one of its most discernible notes. All this is made to fit into the setting of the ~mall monastic fam-ily. Under the leadership-6f their father, in Christ, the brethren pray together all the hours of the Church's official worship. Together they offer as a body the Sacrifice of the Mass. The consideration of private prayer, recognized by all serious religious as most Valuable, nay indispensable, is limited to one sentence: "If another desireth to pray alone in private, l~t him enter [the oratory of the monastery] with simplicity and pray, not with a loud voice, but with tears and fervor of heart." (Ch. 52) One must be careful not to draw false conclusions from so brief a statement. The importance of private. prayer is in no way .minimized. Quite the contrary is "true, as is exemlSlified in the whole history of monastic endeavor. But it was not the concern of St. Benedict's legislation, which was the life of the monastic family. The bretl, lren work together; they eat in a common refectory. They sleep under one roof. Their whole life centers about the or,a-tory. Ideally the sphere of the activity in which "the Lord's work-man," as Benedict calls the monk in the Prologue to his Rule, is to fulfil the promises he makes to God on profession morning, is small. Before the altar for several hours each day he devotes his efforts to the sacred liturgy, that all-important work of God's glorification and the soul's sanctification to which, in Benedict's plan, nothing is ever to be preferred. The refectory, where he reminds the brethren they are to serve one another in charity, the recreation hall, the infirmary, and, generally speaking, the whole enclosure of the monastery, become the scene of the works of charity, brotherly love, co-opera-tion, and good zeal.2 aSee Pope Pius XI. Apostolic Letter, Unigenitus Dei Filius, March 19, 1924. Acta Apostolicae 8edis, 16 : 133. 2The nature of mofiastic autonomy is dealt with expertly and at length by Butler, Benedictine Monachism. London, Longmans, Green, 1919. Especially p. 200 f. BERNARD A, SAUSE Reoie~ for Religious The Opus Dei ' The constitution of the monastic family has its definite purpose and method of operation. The Master of Montecas~ino calls it a School of the Lord's Service. His followers read into the phrase an objectivity that distinguishes it from other schools of asceticism and striving for personal perfection. Fraternally united in common desires, intentions, efforts directed by; the Abbot, whose outstanding qualification for his office must be a knowledge and love of God's law and zeal and ability in imparting it, the brethren devote themselves to the service of the Lord, Creator and Heavenly Father.The visible expression of their objective is in their social prayer and offering of the Sacrifice, which is the official worship of the Church itself, com-monly designated by St. Benedict with the attractive term, Opus Dei, the Work of God. In this matter the Rule mirrors the Golden Age of the Fathers in their love of the praises ceaselessly offered to the Father in spirit and truth by the Spouse of Christ, the Church. Although this praising of God constitutes neither the purpose of the monk's existence,3 nor his exclusive task, it is certainly his most important, holiest, and noblest of works, as well as the most efficacious in serving the Church and drawing Heaven's blessings upon the faithful. Whatever the pressure of activity, all other efforts remain secondary to this conse-cration to God's glorification; nothing is to be preferred to the Work of God. (Ch. 43) Many factors enter into tl~e complexity of monastic liturgical life, but in all its detail there is no confusion: it is all to be reduced to the simplicity of seeking God's glory in all things.4 It is based on the intelligent creature's conscious dwelling in the divine presence which strives to pour itself out in the humblest praises of the Eternal Goodness. It realizes that whatever perfection is achieved in the ascetical order is the work of God in the human soul. True monks eagerly praise the Lord working in them.~ It is a lifelong giving of aThis question is treated most attractively by one of the Order's outstanding asceti-cal leaders, Dom Germain Morin. Morin, The Ideal of the Monastic Life Found in the Apostolic Age. London, R. ~ T. Washbourne, 1914. Ch. 7, "Liturgical Praqer." 4The Benedictine motto, Ur in omnibus gloriIicetur Deus (usually abbreviated U.I.O.G.D.), That in all things God may be glorified, was early chosen by the saint's followers. While it occurs in the Rule (Ch. 57) in an isolated question dealing with material goods and their disposal, it perfectly expresses the general purpose of the monastic vocation. ~This phrase, taken from the Prologue to the Rule, is a favorite of all the classic commentators, and is accepted as a workable definition of grace. 10 danuar~/, 1951 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY thanks to the Father of Mercies, an unceasing acknowledgment and atonement of imperfection and fault, an ever-renewed plea to be worthy to perform those works which are pleasing in God's sight. The whole effort is carefully regulated, for the liturgy is the solemn, official, public worship of the Church. Whoever would participate in the glorification of God by a monastic choir, or even study its execution of the sacred liturgy, must set aside all concepts of prayer that admit of mediocrity and external-ism. Here the goal is perfection, the absolute best of which men are capable through correspondence with the grace of vocation. Natu-rally, many allowances must be made. All the days of his life the monk will be humiliated in his attempt to offer a worthy praise of God, or, in St. Benedict's favorite phrase, to perform God's work. Although he knows that his effort is unfailingly acceptable .before the Divine Majesty, and that scrupulosity must be avoided at all costs, the religious realizes full well that he will never attain the goal of his desires: as a special gift, importing a most privileged union with God, prayerful love far exceeds all of man~s other abilities. More realistically, the monk knows that he can never wholly set aside the dread of praying unworthily, an offense that would pro-voke the Divine anger. "Cursed be he that doth the work of the Lord deceitfully." (Jeremias, 48:10) By his calling the monk is a professional in the worship of the Church: all his distinctive duties must be thorougMy colored, and even, to an extent, absorbed, by prayer's domination of his life. He devotes several carefully chosen hours each day and night to the chanting of the sacred psalmody--ideally, hours around which all other occupations are made to center, not hours inserted into a crowded schedule after other duties have been granted first considera-tion. He dwells in the monastery (repeatedly St. Benedict calls it the house of God), whose site is carefully chosen to help keep him at a distance from the world's distractions. He is freed from secular concerns in order to be intent solely on giving glory to God and achieving his own spiritual welfare. All the necessities of life are provided for him, so that care for material things may present no problem: in harmony with the whole plan, the virtue of detachment (St. Benedict does not use the word poverty in the sense now uni-versally adopted by religious) is interpreted as implying not so much self-denial as the consecration to God's glory of all they possess by a family of property owners. The works of obedience assigned to 11 BERNARD A. SAUSE Revleu~ [or Religious him are a studied part of the program, not vice versa. The Individual's Progress Understandably, the Rule, composed in the second quarter of the sixth century reflects and interprets the worthiest thought of the Golden Age that had preceded it. Its concept of the Universal Church and of the individual autonomous unit of Christ's Mystical Body, under the headship of him who is firmly believed to hold the place of Christ, is singularly free from the influences of individualism and subjectivism that have so often plagued the Church in subsequent eras. In its unpretentious way--for it deals always with the family, a small unit~it accentuates man's social nature to a degree that may not readily be appreciated today. The choir's prayerfulness; the good zeal exercised within the monastic family (Ch. 72), and by the family in its external works; the spirit of obedience as the pres-ence of Christ in the midst of the brethren rather than a legalistic treatment of the superior's rank and authority; corporateness of vir-tue; love of local tradition--a family trait, certainly; concentration on being rather than the more modern exhortation to action, are trends, attitudes, and ideals which will want long and careful study from today's novice before he can successfully translate them into action. But however helpful attention to his social nature may be in aiding him to be a worthy religious and man of the Church, and however deeply he may have drunk of the doctrine that all good comes to him through his monastic family, whereas all evil befalls him only through separation from the sa.me,6 the monk is soon brought to the realization that he remains an individual. He must also care intensely for this phase of his spiritual formation. The force of the good example of those about him, the spiritual assistance of his companions in religion, the,brotherly word of encouragement, the exhortations, private and public correction of faults, the infinite variety that "the aid of many brethren" (Ch. 1) may assume, are perceived by the individual, primarily. They wield a great force in his moral life. Humilitg St. Benedict has been called, with excellent right, the Church's 6This question is proposed at length in the meditations on stability, the vow of attachment to one's monastic family in: Sause, Bernard A., O.S.B., The School of the Ldrd's 8ert~ice. St. Meinrad, Indiana, Grail Press, 1948. vol. 2, p. 57 f. 12 January, 1951 BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY Doctor of Humility. St. Bernard, St. Thomas, and other ascetical masters, quote his exposition of the virtue at length and without modification. Chapter 7 of St. Benedict's Rule is a spiritual master-piece and commands the attention of any person who would learn humility profoundly. It applies the virtue to every phase of relig!ous striving to serve God--from fearful, conscious dwelling in the Divine presence, to control of laughter and the manner of walking. Obedience The distinctive feature of Benedictine asceticism has always been recognized as the spirit of obedience--which in most of its mani-festations is scarcely distinguishable from Benedict's presentation of humility. Obedience harmonizes and makes powerful the spiritual forces in the life of every follower of Christ. Created to be balanced and mutually helpful in man's nature, in a limited likeness to the per-fect harmony in Jesus Christ, the, mutual aid between intellect and will was destroyed by sin. Even in the new order, under the Second Adam, with the light of faith and the sacramental aids for the will, the struggle continues all the days of man's life on earth. Obedience restores the harmony, and in a vivid sense makes the monk like his Divine Model. In the opening sentence of the Prologue to his Rule, Benedict" calls monasticism "a return to God through the labor of obedience." In a broad sense one may say t.hat every chapter that follows is an unfolding of that statement. Commentators on the Rule delight in referring to St. Bernard's emphasis on the love motive necessary for ideal obedience: "Perfect obedience knows no law. It is bound by no restrictions. It is not content with the limitations of profession, but is drawn by the most powerful impulse of the will, under the influence of grace, into the realms of love. It submits unhesitatingly to all thai is enjoined, with the vigor of a generous and cheerful spirit , . , and heedless of ways and means, is infinite in its liberty. It is willing to embrace even impossible things, and confident of God's help, obeys from love even in such extremes.''7 Ideal Approach St. Benedict's treatment of obedience may serve to focus the attention on a point that may not sufficiently be appreciated in reading any one of the four accepted Rules by the great founders of religious bodies. The Rule stresses ideal obedience. For Benedict Bernard, Liber de pcaeeepto et dispensationeo c. 6. P.L. 182:868. 13 BERNARD A. SAUSE Review for Religious there is no such thing as mediocrity, or mere extern'alsubmission. For him an act of obedience must be "acceptable to God and agree-able to men." (Ch. 5) The virtue permits of "no delay in execu-tion, as if the matter had been commanded by God Himself." (Ibid) The same zealous imitation of Christ out of love of God (Ch. 7, third degree of humility) expresses itself in phrases denoting the quality of the monk's submission, like: "the ready step of obedience," "without hesitation, delay, lukewarmness, murmuring, or com-plaint." (Ch. 5) It is to be performed cheerfully. Benedict never descends from his ideal. In his P~ule he treats only of perfect obedience; other than that he mentions only the punish-ments for disobedience. With him the emphasis is not on what must ' be done to fulfil the law: he takes that for granted. On that assumption he builds. Positive human law is generally concerned with the minimum necessary to preserve an ideal. St. Benedict is intent on the maximum that man can offer his Creator. The thought may be viewed from another angle: the more uni-versal a society, the broader the concessions and the more numerous the provisions of tolerance that must be made for the weaknesses of human nature, the more general and sweeping, and easy-of-acceptance the norms which must be shared by everyone. By contrast, the smaller and more unified the group, the more sharply defined and intensified its ideal. The monastic family for which th~ t~ule is designed is large enough to embody and give expression to the social principles of religious life in common. It is compact and unified enough to preserve the most distinctive features that mark a group of men devotedly seeking God. Tile Lectio Divina An ideal of this kind must constantly be fostered by every means possible: in this case obviously by study, instruction, exhortation, good example. St. Benedict, who drew no distinctions among those who gave acceptable proof of sincerely seeking God, realized the importance of what is today commonly called spiritual reading for monastic formation. He demands several hours a day of this pious exercise which was more a leisurely study and mastering of revealed doctrine than the fretful flitting from page to page that moderns call reading, more an approach to God than an-ostentatious acquaintance with titles, authors' li~¢es and styl~s of writing, rather for spiritual upbuilding (aedi[icatio) than faithfulness in fulfilling a half-hour of the day's horarium. 14 Januarg, 195, I BENEDICTINE SPIRITUALITY Nothing Is to Be Preferred to the Love of Christ If the spirituality of the sons of St. Benedict has a distinguishing mark, it is that it is eminently Christocentric. The Master of Monte-cassinb employs an identical expression three times: Nothing is to be preferred to the love of Christ. Every line o~ the Rule seeks to induce the monks to translate that love into action. In the fourteen and a half centuries of their existence, the reli-gious who have borne the name of the Patriarch of Western Monks have contributed only two insertions into the Roman Ritual: the Sign of St. Maur, imparted ycith a relic of the True Cross and desig-nated with the name of St. Benedict's first disciple only because he first imparted it, and because his name is invoked in the ceremony; ¯ and the blessing of the medal-cross of St. Benedict, which is likewise a manifestation of complete confidence in the Sign of Salvation. Love of Christ underlies Benedict's every appeal. The perfection of obedience is that "for the love of God a man subject himself to a superior in all obedience, imitating the Lord, of whom the Apostle saith, 'He became obedient unto death.' " The love motive for other works, which presupposes the ascent of all the degrees of humility, guarantees the perfect fulfilment of every virtue. As nothing else ever can do, love of Christ leads to the worthiest prayer, the most acceptable offering of the Sacrifice, to intimacy of union with God. Contemplative Nature or: Monasticism As the monk continues to live under the grace-filled inspirations of his professed way of life, and is careful to hold himself ever free from distracting attachments (however good they may be), he dis-covers something of the powerful attraction of recollectedness (he has outgrown insistence on rules of silence--Benedict speaks much more often of judicious and charitable speech than of £ilence), the way of humility, the filial fear, the spirit of compunction that leads to inti-mate union with God. His whole carefully-regulated life, the daily liturgy's richness of thought, the environment of the enclosure, his private prayer, separation from the world, the humble works of obe-dience, the consecration of his whole being to God at the altar, will not allow him to remain silent. Now he must speak to God--no longer only in the prescribed and official prayers, but freely, gener-ously, in his own words unhesitatingly addressed to his FatheL pouring out the protestations of his love. Correspondence with the graces of monasticism bege'ts a love so intense that it informs one's every action: it seeks every possible means to prove itself. When the 15 C. A. HERBST Review for Religfous professed person begins to live on this plane, he realizes that the Father of Mercies, who is never outdone in generosity, has fulfilled all the hopes of profession morning. He has learned the spirituality of Benedict.of Montecassino, Patriarch of the Monks of the West. That, in fact, is the promise of the Master to his every follower. In the concluding paragraph of the Prologue to his Rule, he states: "As we advance in the religious life and faith, we shall run the way of God's commandments with expanded hearts [that is, with an ever increasing generosity] and unspeakable sweetness of love; so that never departing from His guidance, and persevering in the monastery in His doctrine until death, we may by patience share in the sufferings of Christ, and be. found worthy to be coheirs with Him of His kingdom." "Behold This Head:. ." C. A. Herbst, S.J. THERE is a copybook seven by nine inches containing sixty-four pages treasured at Paray-le-Monial in France. It is the life of St. Margaret Mary written in her own hand, an account of her spiritual life and of the dealings of the Sacred Heart with her. Under obedience, with great pain, she wrote this Autobiographg. (Auto-biography: Life of Saint Margaret Marg Alacoque Written bg Her-self, Visitation Library, Roselands, Walmer, Kent, 1930.) From that little book, it seems to me, one can best learn to know, under-stand, and practice devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. We learn there from her whose heart Christ found ready and so like His own, and from Our Lord Himself, the nature and practice of this world devotion which is everybody's devotion. One finds there a statement, a complaint, a request, and a promise. "Behold this Heart, Which has loved men so much, that It has spared nothing, even to exhausting and consuming Itself, in order to testify to them Its love" (.Autobiograpbg, No. 92). This is the " statement. "So much." How much? Love is proved by deeds rather than by words. "He loved me and delivered himself for me" (Gal. 2:20). "He humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death, even to the death of the cross" (Phil. 2:8). Our Lord, our Creator, 16 Januar~/, 1951 BEHOLD TH~S HEART came from eternal life to temporal death for love of us. "Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven; and was in-carnate by the Holy Ghost, of the Virgin Mary; and was made man. He was crucified also for us, suffered under Pontius Pilate, and was buried." All these wonderful feats of love our beloved Champion has done for us to win our love. And yet, in the very same breath with this statement of His love for us must come The complaint. ". and in return I receive from the greater number nothing but ingratitude by reason of their irreverence and sacrileges, and by the coldness and contempt which they show Me in this Sacrament of Love. But what I feel the most keenly is that it is hearts which are consecrated to Me that treat Me thus." (Ibid.) Iwonder who could count the insults and outrages committed against Our Lord in the Holy Eucharist these nineteen hundred years! I wonder who could calculate the amount of ingratitude and irreverence and sacrilege and coldness and contempt shown the Sacred Heart of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament by religious, for these are the "hearts which are consecrated to Me." The deepest wounds and the ones slowest to heal are inflicted by rejected love. Men and women are driven to desperation and to self-destruction by this. Sins against Jesus Christ in the sacrament of His love wound His Sacred Heart very deeply. Sins committed by religious against the Sacred Heart whom they have chosen as their B~loved for life are especially hateft~l to Him. ~ Our Lord's Requests The request Our Lord made is manifold. "In the first place thou shalt receive Me in Holy Communion as often as obedience will per-mit thee, whatever mortification or humiliation it may cause thee, which thou must take as pledges of My love" (ibid.). Love longs for union with the beloved. Our Lord wants us to take His sacred Body and precious Blood in Holy Communion as food because food is most intimately united with us. He wants us to be united with ~he soul as frequently and continuously as possible, too. The mortifi-cation or humiliation frequent Communion might bring St. Mar-garet Mary in 1675, when it could easily be considered the mark of a presumptuous or proud soul is, of course, absent n6w. "Thou shalt, moreover, communicate on the First Friday of each month" (ibid.). The fact gives the clear, strong response to this request. One has but to enter a church on the First Friday and see a whole congregation rise as one man and go to Holy Commun- 17 C. A. HERBST Review [or Religious ion in Order to realize what.a revolution this desire of Our Lord has wrought. One readily notices that this request is more general than the nine consecutive First Fridays in reward fo~ which Christ made the "Great Promise." "Every night between Thursday and Friday I will make thee share in the mortal sadness which I was pleased to feel in the Garden of Olives, and this sadness, without thy being able to understand it, shall reduce thee to a kind of agony harder to endure than death it-self. And in order to bear Me company in the humble prayer that I then offered to My Father, in the midst of My anguish, thou shalt rise between eleven o'clock and midnight, and remain prostrate with Me for an hour, not only to appease the divine anger by begging mercy for sinners, but also which I felt at that time apostles~ which obliged me watch one hour with Me. shall teach thee." (Ibid.) to mitigate in some way thebitterness on finding Myself abandoned by My to repr.oach them for not being able to During that hour thou shalt do what I Each Thursday night Christ invites us to share in the sadness and agony of death He underwent during His Passion. He asks comp'hssion with Him, companionship, prayer for sinners, rep.aration for desertion by His apostles.These things are very consoling to the. Sacred Heart. Feast of the Sacred Heart "Therefore, I ask of thee that the Friday after the Octave of Corpus Christi be set apart for a special Feast to honour My Heart, by communicating on that day and making reparation to It by a solemn act, in order to make amends, for the indignities which It has received during the time it has been exposed on the altars" (ibid., No. 92). This was the climax of the desires of the Sacred . Heart. St. Margaret Mary celebrated this feast in a little way with her novices on St. Margaret's day, July 20, 1685. "This drew upon me, 'and also upon them, many humiliations and mqrtific.ations, for I was accused of wishing to introduce a. new devotion" (ibid., No. 95). It is a long and painful task to bring.into the liturgy the Church a feast founded on a private revelation, and its advocates also trod the way of humiliations and mortifications. But in 1765 the Holy Father Clement XIII approved the Mass and Office of the Sacred Heart. Plus IX extended it to th~ universal Church in 1856. It was raised to the rank of a feast .of the fir.st class with an octave by Plus XI in 1929. The same Sovereign Pontiff ordered that every year on the feast a solemn and specially formuiated act of reparation 18 danuar~, 1951 BEHOLD THIS HEART to the Sacred Heart of ,Jesus be made in all the churches of the world. And since, as the twentieth century dawned; Pope Leo XIII had con-secrated the whole human race to the Sacred Heart, this request of Our Lord was solemnly fulfilled by His spouse, the Church. The promise, too, is manifoldand, as is the way with Christ, the reward far outweighs in richness the required work. "I prom!se thee that My Heart shall expand Itself to shed in abundance the ih-fluence of Its divine love upon tfiose who shall thus honour It, and cause.It to be honoured" (ibid., No. 92). We have to go to St. Mar-garet Mary's letters for more details." "He promises that all those devoted to this Sacred Heart shall never perish and that, as It is the source of all blessings, He will shower them in abundance upon every place where a picture of this Sacred Heart is exposed to be loved and honored. By this means He will restore broken homes. He will help and protect those who are in any necessity. He will spread the sweet unction of His ardent charity upon all religious communities in which a picture of. this Sacred Heart shall be honored. He will turn aside the just anger of God. He will restore souls to His grace when they shall have, fallen from it by sin." (Letter to Mother de Saumaise, August 24, 1685.) . With regard to the,"Great Promise" that the Sacred Heart "will grant to all those who communicate on the first Friday in nine consecutive months, the grace of final perseyerance" let Father Bainvel's remark suffice: "If I am not mistaken, the con-clusion will always be that the 'Great Promise' is something unique." Our Lord told "the beloved disciple .of His Sacred Heart" that He would fulfill these promises in return for the love and repar.at.ion shown Him in the practices He recommended. The ,substance of devotion to the Sacred Heart is love and reparation. His manifold request and .repeated statements and complaints show this clearly. OUR CONTRIBUTORS BERNARD A. SAUSE, the author of The School of the Lord's Service, a three volume set of meditations on the Rule of St. Benedict, is dean df St. Benedict's theological seminary at Atchison, Kansas. CLARENCE MCAULIFFE and C. A. HERBST are members of the' faculty of St. Mary's College, St~ 'Marys, Kansas. M. RAYMOND is a monk at the Abbey of Gethsemani, Trappist, Kentucky. ADAM C. ELLIS, G. AUGUSTINE.ELLARD, and ,JEROME BREUNIG are members'of, the editorial board of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 19. Quinquennial Report:, 1951 Adam C. Ellis, S.3. THE Sacred Co,n, gregation of Religious issued a new decree on 2uly 9, 1947 regarding the quinquennial report to be made by religious orders and congregations, by societies living in com-fiaon, and by kecular institutes." In this decree the obligation was extended to all superiors general ofthe three groups mentioned; and a new questionnaire to be followed in making the report was announced as in preparation. Finally, a new annual report was made obligatory on all the superiors mentioned above. The text of this new decree was printed in the REVIEW for September, 1949, pp. 234- 240, with introduction and comment. When the forms for the new annual report were ready for distri-bution and the.new questionnai.re was available, the late Cardinal Lavitrano (d. August 2, 1950), then Cardinal Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, addressed a circular letter to all superiors general in which he gave some practical instructions for making out both the quinquennial and annual reports. The official English ver-sion of the new questionnaire for the quinquennial report was pub-lished in the REVIEW, 2anuary to September inclusive, 1950. And in the November number, pp. 309-316, under the title "First An-nual Repoort," some practical suggestions for making out this report contained in Cardinal Lavitrano's letter were given, together with some others, in order to help our readers fill out these forms for the annual report for the first lime. The purpose of this final article is to offer helpful directives for drawing up the quinquennial report, and to indicate some practical conclusions to be drawn from the questionnaire itself. General Directives 1) Who must make this report in 19517 (a) All lay congre-gations ofreligious men (Brothers). (b) Likewise'the superiors general of all religious institutes of women in all the countries of America (North, Central, and South America). 2) In what language should the report be whiten? Clerical in-stitutes must answer the questions in Latin; lay institutes, Brothers and Sisters, may use the vernacular, that is, either English or French, 20 QUINQUENN!AL REPORT German, Italian, Portuguese, or Spanish.1 3) May the quinquennial report be t~/ped? It not only may, but should be typed if this can be done. Otherwise, if written by hand, the handwriting must be clear and good ink .used. The report should be typed or written on good bond paper, not too heavy, and not translucent. ' " 4) Must the question be stated before each answer? No, it is not necessary to include the question with the answer, but it suffices to put the number of the question before the answer. 5) What method should be followed in answering the questions? Always answer the question with a complete sentence, never with a mere "yes" or "no." Give briefly and clearly all the information pertinent to the subject. An example or two may help. Question 24 a) reads: "Is the general council at present up to its full member-ship?" The answer might be: "Yes, the generaI council is up to fulI membership at present. One of the councilors died during the year 1950, but another councilor was elected in conformity with the pre-scriptions of our constitutions." Again, question. 190 states: "Was the delivery of the dowry made according to law?" The answer might be simply: "We have no dowry." 6) When must the report be handed in? Any time durin.g the year 1951. But it should cover the five-year period from 1946-1950 inclusive. 7) Must all the councilors sign the report? Yes, all the coun-cilors and the superior general must sign the report. Hence the report, when completed, should be given for a private reading to each of the persons who are obliged to sign it; after they have done so, it should be discussed in a common meeting and corrected or improved, according to circumstances, if that be considered necessary by the majority, before it is signed by all. ~-There are three official Latin texts of the new questionnaire or Elenchus Quaes-tionum: (1) 342 questions for pontifical institutes; (2) 322 questions for diocesan institutes; (3) 171 questions for independent monasteries and houses. However, bnly the first, that for pontifical institutes, has been translated into Eng-lish. Furthermore, in the questionnaire for diocesan religious, there are three ques-tions which do not appear in that for p6ntifical institutes, and in the questionnaire for independent monasteries and religious houses there are fifteen such questions. ThoSe using text two or three, for diocesan institutes and independent monasteries respectively, will have to find their questions in the larger text for pontifical insti-tutes. To facilitate this task, a chart has been drawn up giving the correlation of numbers for the three texts, and on the back of this chart have been printed the additional questions just referred to. A copy of this chart may be had free of charge by" sending a self-addressed, stamped (three cents) envelope, to the author of this article at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. 21 ADAM C. ELLIS Reoieto for Religious 8) What should a councilor do after he has voiced his objections to the superior and to the o[her coimcilors in cbunc[l meeting, but to n6 avail? First of all, he must sign the report along with the others. Then he may, if he wishes to do so, submit his owh judgment to that of the unanimous contrary opinion, and rest satisfied. Finally, if he feels bound in conscience to report the matter to the. Holy See, he may do so in a private letter, being careful to state only objective facts in his minority report. 9) To whom is the report to be sent? Orders, congregations with simple vows, societies living, in common, and secular institutes approved by the Hotel See must send their reports directly to the Sacred Congregation of Religious; address to. Very Rev. Secretary, Congregation of Religious, Pallazzo delle Congregazioni, Piazza S. Callisto, Rome, Italy. All diocesan institutes, independent mon-asteries ~nd houses are to send their report to the local ordinary of their mother house. When he has read it, he will add his comments to the report and then send it on to the Sacre~l Congregation of Reli-gious. If the diocesan congregation, society, or secular institute has houses in other dioceses, the local ordinary of the mother house must send copies of the report to all those local ordinaries as well, and'after receiving their comments, add them to his own before sending the report to the Holy See. 10) In the case of a ponti£cal institute of religious women, who sends the report to the Hol~ See? Is it the local ordinary of the mother house, or the superior general? The decree of the Sacred Congregation of Religious (No. VII) states explicitly that the supe- .riot general is tO send in the report after she has obtained the signa-ture of the local ordinary in conformity with canon 510. 1 1) What is the import of the signature of the local ordinary? Must he read the report?' The local ordinary has no obligation to read the quinquennial report of a pontifical institute. He merely signs it in order to authenticate (subsignare) the signatures of the superior general and her council members. Practical Hints from the New Questionnaire 1) From question 4 for diocesan institutes one draws the con- ¯ clusion that it is the mind of the Holy See that diocesan congrega-tions should apply to the Holy See for the status of a pontifical con-gregation (iuris pontitfcii) when they have developed sufficiently to meet the requirements. 2) Similarly, from question 9 for diocesan congregations it may 22 danttarv, 1951 QUINQUENNIAL REPORT be inferred that they are not to be divided iiato provinces. 3) Religious are not to undertake new works, whether spiritual or temporal, which are beyond the scope of the special end of their. constitutions. Question 5 asks whether this has been done, and by what authority. 4) For the establishment of a new religious house, a written contract should be drawn up in accordance with canon law and with due regard to civil law (question 21). 5) The superior general has the obligation of promulgating decrees and decisions of the general chapter, and of enforcing them (questions 35- 37). 6) The councilors of religious superiors~--gener.al, provincial and local--are to be given due freedom of speech: and the common law as well as the particular law must always be observed in the decisions, appointments, and voting of whatever kind (question 53). 7) Matters in which the common or particular law grants to councilors a deliberative or a consultive vote must be submitted to them for their consideration in common; hence meetings of superiors and their councilors must be held regularly (questions 49-51). 8) Superiors are expected to observe the provisions of .canon law and of the constitutions regarding both the comm6n obligations of religious, and the special obligations of their own office (question 62). 9) It is the desire of the Sacred Congregation of Religious that, where it can be done conveniently, a confessor should be available in the chapel before the reception of Holy Communion (question 85). 10) Superiors are to see to it that religious are allowed a suitable time for preparation for and thanksgiving after Holy Communion (question 85). 11) The administration of the property of a religious institute must be carried on not arbitrarily, but according to the common law and to the constitutions (question 109). 12) When for just reasons the permission of the Holy See is obtained tO engage in business, every semblance bf fraud as well as of avarice is to be diligently avoided, and care must be taken to see that the religious occupied in these business dealings may not suffer spir, itual harm (question 130). '13) The Sacred C~?ngregation of Religious considers it a grave abuse to delay the profession of a novice because the expenses of the postulancy or. novitiate had not been paid (question 164). 23 January, 1951 QUINQUENNIAL REPORT 14) No religious once professed of temporary vows should ever be without vows because of a failure to renew them at the proper time (question 200). 15) The Sacred Congregation of Religious wishes that the use of the telephone and of the radio be regulated by superiors and chap-ters, and that radio programs be censored (questions 214, 215). 16) Religious superiors are to watch over and assist those of their subjects who are pastors (canon 631, §§1-2) and, in case of need, admonish and correct them (question 292). 17) Superiors (a) are strictly obliged to give their subjects ade-quate preparation for their work, whether it be teaching, nursing, or other corporal or spiritual ministry, and (b) they should see to it that their subjects get suitable food and sleep; and (c) that in the exercise of external works the religious life be'fostered, and all moral dangers avoided (questions 301-311). Conclusion We have given a considerable amount of space in the REVIEW to Reports to Rome, both to the new questionnaire for the quinquennial report as well as to the new annual report. At first sight one might conclude that these reports are of interest only to the superiors who have the obligation of making them. But if we examine the ques-tionnaire we shall find "that it contains a very practical and fairly complete statement of the law of the Church regarding religious, with continual references to the canons of the Code of Canon Law which are generally cited,' and with frequent allusions to the decrees, instructions, and jurisprudence of the Holy See. Hence all religious can read the questionnaire with profit. The questionnaire likewise affords a safe norm of action for superiors, consultors, treasurers, and masters of novices since it provides them with a valuable reminder of their duties. Hi~her superiors can find in it direction for govern-ment, and a stimulus to action, since it provides for them matter for the study and examination of their duties and obligations. Finally it provides a safe guide for the visitation of houses inasmuch as it gives the principal points upon which action is to be taken during the visitation. May all religious derive profit from it, and find in it the ideals and standards of the Holy See in their regard, as well as a norm for the solution of many poi.nts which may appear to be obscure or controverted. 24 Unworl:hy h inist:ers ot: !:he Sacramen!:s Clarence McAuliffe, S.3. THE attitude of Catholics towards their priests differs radically from that of Protestants towards their clergymen. The Protestant pastor is expected to possess the social graces. He must keep in good contact with his flock. He should be a good story teller, a hearty hand-shaker, a sinceie sympathizer. He should have a pleasing voice since one of his principal functions is to lead congregational prayers and songs. He must have some preaching ability, but he must be careful on what subjects he exercises it. He is not likely to" be criticized i£ he speaks on government planning or child welfare or home economics even though he forges no link between such subjects and man's salvation. If he deals with reli-gious topics, he must confine himself to a limited number of moral questions or to a few hazy dogmatic generalities. He ought to be an adept organizer, and the more dances, bazaars, dubs, social gatherings he organizes, the more satisfied will his people be. If he is found wanting in too many of these endowments, he is likely to find him-self a pastor with a much diminished congregation, or on pastor besieged by an indignant congregation which will have him ousted from his post. This may not be true of all Protestant denomination~ and parishes, but it certainly holds for many of them. Catholics, too, would like to see their priests gifted with many of the aptitudes demanded of the Protestant clergyman, but they con-sider them as secondary. They expect their priests to be men of God (Protestants also expect good example and a certain righteousness in their spiritual leaders), but even moral deviations do not make the priest unbearable. Catholics realize that the priest, whatever his lack of talent or his delinquen.cies, holds a sacred office. He has been con-secrated eternally to God to do, not his own, but God's work. He may be morose, anti-social. His sermons may have the effect of a mother's lullaby. His singing may be a series of auditory shocks. But the principal work he has to do does not depend on his personal capabilities. He says Mass. He confers the sacraments. 'These are his prime duties. Everything else is secondary. And it is a marvel of God's operation in the faithful that most of them realize that their 25 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Review for Reiigious prie.sts., can administer-beneficial sacraments and celebrate effiicacious Masses even though they are '.'bad priests." Our people are aware that the !~/Iass and the sacraments have a God-given eff~cacy that can-not be frustrated by unworthy ministers. The subjective spiritual condition of the priest cannot impede the divine effects of those reli-gious rites which were instituted by Christ Himself, because they operate automatically. What Are the Reasons? It might be profitable, however, for us to examine the reasons for this. Why is it that a callous sinner can confer a sacrament which will bestow its spiritual effects on a recipient who is properly dis-posed? Why is is that sacramental ministers who do not have even the Catholic faith, such as apostates, rationalists, heretics, schismatics, Jews, pagans, can nevertheless, confer a sacrament or sacraments without interfering with their power to sanctify those who receive them? The facts are certain. Unl~oly ministers and faithless min-isters can do so. But how do we know that Christ Himself wanted His sacraments to operate independently of the holiness and faith of their ministers? Before answering this question, it might be well to insist that in all cases the minister must place the external rite of the sacrament correctly. He must properly unite what we call the "matter" and the "form" of the sacrament. Take the example of Baptism. The minister must always use true natural water. He must so apply this water to the recipient that it touches the skin and flows. He must at the same time pronounce the prescribed formula of words with his lips. Since baptism can be validly administered by any sane adult whatever, no special power deriving from orders is required in its minister. Essentials for Validity/ In all the sacraments except baptism and matrimony, however, the extraordinary spiritual power bestowed by ordination is essential for validity. No matter how holy a minister may be, therefore, his efforts to produce sacramental graces are in vain unless he administers conectly the basic external elements of a sacrament. Even should this be done, no sacramental graces are communicated unless the min-ister is endowed with the unique spiritual power conferred by ordi-nation. Once so much is assumed, we now ask why 'it is that a def~tive spiritual condition of the minister, such as the state of mot- 26 Januarg, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS tal sin or lack of faith, cannot prevent a sacrament from imparting its graces automatically to a person who is sufficiently disposed to receive it fruitfully. It should be observed that reason alone, independent of God's revelation, could not have decided the correct answer to this ques-tion. God surely could have, had He so willed, made the validity of all th~ sacraments contingent on the faith and holiness of their minister. Had He done so, ministers would have had an additional incentix;e to foster their faith and to preserve the state of grace. Fur-thermore, reason left to itself might argue that a ministbr bereft of faith and holiness could not be an active agent in the administration of sacramentsl since these.by their very nature infuse grace and aug-ment the v.irtue of faith. How can one who does not possess the Holy Spirit confer the" Holy Spirit on another? These and other rational considerations cotild be advanced to prove that ministers of sacraments must have faith and at least the state of grace. But although our faith is always reasonable, we hever learn it by having recourse to reason as its main conduit. The object of faith is God's revelation which is proposed to us proximately by the Church. Hence faced by the present problem, we seek the Church's teaching and tra-ditions. But we shall show later on that, even from the rational side, we can advance excellent reason why God made His sacraments independent of the faith and holiness of their ministers. No Rebaptisms It had been the custom in the Church from her earliest days, just as it is a.t p[esent, not to rebaptize heretics when they were converted to the Catholic church. Such heretics had already 'been baptized in their own sects and so by heretical ministers. But if the rite had been properly administered, the Church simply took for granted that such baptisms were valid even though conferred by ministers who rejected, either culpably or inculpably, part of the true faith. Such converts from heresey were obliged merely t6 make a profession of faith and to go to the sacrament of penance. About 220 A.D., Agrippinus, Bishop of Carthage in Africa, began to inveigh against this custom. He declared that such converts should also be rebaptized because their previous baptism was invalid by the very fact that its minister had not possessed the full Catholic faith. The illustrious St. Cyprian, successor to Agrippinus in the See of Carthage, sanctioned the same opinion and insisted on its observance in the dioceses of Africa. When, however, he consulted 27 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Review [or Religious (about 254 A.D.) Pope St. Stephen about the ma~ter, he receipted the following reply: "If, therefore, heretics of any sect whatever come to you, add nothing to the traditional practice of granting them absolution." This decision of St. Stephen's, based as it was on the ancient custom, came to prevail despite temporary opposit'ion in Africa and Asia Mi.nor. Thus we find St. Augustine, looking back on the dis-pute a hundred and some odd years later, declaring: "According to o Blessed Cyprian, his predecessor Agrippinus had been the first to "amend" this most wholesome custom (of not rebaptizing heretics) ; rather should we believe that Agrippinus was the first to corrupt, not to correct it." So, too, St. Vincent of Lerins some years later pro-nounces this judgment .on the dispute: "The antiquity (the custom of not rebaptizing heretics) was retained, the novelty was exploded.'~ Finally the Council of Trent expressly defined the matter as an article of faith against the Protestant innovators of the sixteenth century: "If anyone says that baptism which is conferred in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, with the ifitention of doing what the Church does, is not a true baptism, let him be anathema." It should be noted that this definition is concerned directly with baptism alone. Nevertheless .it is certain that heretical ministers, provided they possess the power and place the matter and form cor-rectly with the intention of doing what the Church does, can ~¢alidly confer any sacrament whatever. All the sacraments are la~ien with. the merits of Christ. That is why they confer grace automatically. If, then, heresy in the minister cannot prevent the spontaneous infu-sion of grace by baptism, neither can it prevent this infusion of grace by the other sacraments. So, a true bishop, even a heretic, can val-idly confirm or ordain. Heretical priests, if validly ordained, can say Mass and administer Extreme Unction. The only ex~ception is the sacrament of penance. For this sacrament not only priestly power. but also ecclesiastical jurisdiction is necessary .for validity. If this jurisdiction is wanting, absolution becomes invalid, but it does not become invalid because the minister is a heretic or an apostate. The invalidity proceeds solely from lack of jurisdiction. It is, therefore, universally true that heresy in the minister does not make any sacra-ment invalid. Moreover, although the controversy of the third century was concerned v~ith heretical ministers only, we know for certain from 28 danuary, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS other sources.that ministers who possess no trace whatever of divine faith, such as rationalists, apostates, pagans, can validly administer baptism. Hence the practice of urging even pagan doctors or nurses to baptize infants, when they are in danger of death and no one else is available should be retained and even spread. The Council of Florence declares, though it does not define as of faith, the following: "In case of necessity not only a priest or deacon, but even a layman or laywoman, yes, even a pagan and a heretic is able to baptize, pro-vided he observes the rites of the Church and intends to do what the Church does." Can Sinners Act Validly? But these arguments do not answer the question whether a sinner also can confer a sacrament validly: Lack of faith is often incul-pable. ¯ A sincere Protestant, for example, even though he does not have the true faith in its fullness, may be in the state of grace. No sin attaches to his incorrect belief because he honestly believes it is correct. Hence a minister deprived of the true faith may be free from sin. On the other hand, a minister may retain the Catholic faith and yet be in the state of mortal sin. Thus a priest might be a sinner because he deliberately violated a grave precept and yet the faith of the priest remains intact. Hence it does not follow as a logical con-clusion that since an unbeliever can validly confer a sacrament, there-fore a sinner can do the same. Nevertheless, if we revert to the third century dispute previously outlined, we shall find that from it we can deduce that sinful min-isters cannot impede the efficacy of baptism. Some, at least, of the heretical ministers who had baptized converts who later were admitted into the Church without a second baptismal ceremony, were not only heretical, but were also formally heretical. They knew they were in error and yet they obstinately persisted in their error. To do this is to sin very seriously. Hence some of these ministers were at the same time heretics and sinners. Yet the validity of their baptisms was never questioned on this second score. St. Cyprian was worried about their unbelief, not about the culpability of that unbelief. Therefore the ability of a sinner to administer baptism validly was not even challenged. It is clear, then, that everybody admitted implicitly that sinners could validly baptize. " Should there be some doubt whether any of these heretical min-isters were culpable of their heresy, we should have to prove our point from a slightly different angle. Even though their heresy may 29 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Reoiew for Religious not have been sinful, this much at least is morally certain: some of those heretical ministers who had performed the baptism of later converts, were guilty of mortal sin of some kind. It would have been a .miracle if none of them during a period of two centuries had been in the state of sin when baptism was administered. Yet the fact remains that when their converts joined the Church, no one even dreamed of investigating the moral state of the heretical ministers who had baptized, them. Everybody, even St. Cyprian and his fol-lowers, realized that the results of such an investigation would have been irrelevant and could have had nothing to do with the validity of the baptisms conferred. Thus even those who denied the validity of baptism when performed by a heretic, implicitly conceded along with the whole Church that the sinfulness of the minister could not affect the sacrament's value. The Council of Trent When heretics such as the Donatists and later on the Waldensians and Albigensians (13th century) and still later the followers of Wycliffe and Huss (15th century)asserted that sinful ministers could not validly confer the sacraments, they were condemned by the Church officially. Finally in the sixteenth century when the leaders of the Protestant Revolt repeated the same falsehood, the Council of Trent proscribed the error as heretical when it declared: "If anyone says tl~at a minister in the state of mortal sin, provided he observes all the essentials which belong to the effecting or conferring of a sac-rament, neither effects or confers the sacrament, let him be anathema." Thus confirmation, extreme unction, confession and the other four sacraments lose none of their power to produce grace in their recipi-ents just because their miniiter happens to be a sinner Sacraments, therefore, truly produce their grace "'ex opere operato,'" not only independently of the merits of the subject, but also independently of the merits of the minister. The latter's deficiency in faith or his moral degradation cannot destroy or even weaken their efficacy. Fittingness of Doctrine Once we know that God has revealed this doctrine, we can find good reasons for His making the essential rites of His Church superior to the weakness of their ministers. In the first place, the minister of a sacrament is in the strictest sense, only a minister. He is not acting in his own name, but in that of Christ. He places rites that were instituted by Christ, not by himself. He places rites that bear within 30 d'anuary, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS themselves the me~its oF Chris't, not his own merits. He is merely an official. Now we all know that officials can act just as efficaciously in performing their official functions regardless of their personal beliefs or delinquencies. A judge may not beIieve in the law he officially upholds, he may be a disgrace to his fellow citizens in his moral conduct, but his decisions do not lose any of their binding force because of them. He acts in the name of the State in rendering judgments, his verdicts are just as binding as those of a judge who believes in the laws and whose private life is blameless. Similarly, the.subjective beliefs and moral vagaries of the minister of sacraments cannot obstruct their grace-producing power as long as the rites are properly placed and conferred. Again, if the sanctifying activity of the sacraments were depend-ent on the faith or holiness of their ministers, the faithful would be beset by endless mental anxiety about their own spiritual welfare. They would wonder if the priest who says Mass is in the state of graceand a true believer. If not, they would get no grace from Holy Communion when he would distribute the Sacrament. Again, a dying sinner wants to confess his sins. His salvation depends on a good confession. But suppose the priest who hears his confession is himself a great sinner and, as a result, his absolution would be invalid? The penit.ent would lose his soul because he did not make an act of perfect .contrition. Anxietq Removed Moreover, the anxiety would be increased by the fact that we cannot know whether a 19erson has faith and is in the state of grace. Faith and holiness are primarily internal qualities. We cannot be certain that the minister of a sacrament has them. Our judgments about the holiness of others are necessarily superficial, since we can-not glimpse the inner workings,of any human soul. As a result of this principIe, we would never know for sure whether any sacrament was fruitful for us, and the entire Church, both clerical and lay, would be in a continual ferment. Such a spiritual condition would hardly be compatible with the reiterated promise of Christ that His followers would enjoy peace of soul. Finally, if the efficacy of the sacraments were contingent on the faith and sanctity of their ministers, certain lines of conduct incom-patible with the teaching of Christ would be almost necessarily engendered. The laity would be suspicious of their priests. They would pry into their private lives. They would be on the watch for 31 danuar~, 1951 UNWORTHY MINISTERS scandalous reports about them. They would misinterpret many of the actions of their priests. They would falsely conclude that a priest was a sinner when he was not. Priests would be reported some-times rightly, oftentimes wrongly, to their bishops. Bitterness, detraction, calumny, suspicion, rash judgments would tear apart the Mystical Body of Christ which on the Word of God Himself should be permeated with that harmony that flourishes between the different organs of a healthy human body. The doctrine, therefore, that the value of the sacraments does not depend on the faith or holiness of their ministers, a doctrine so for-eign to the Protestant mind, is part of our Catholic faith. It is a most consoling doctrine. Ou~ sanctity depends upon ourselves. This is true not only of our meritorious works, but even of that sanctity which results from reception of the sacrameni:s. Sacraments work ex opere operato. They produce their grace independently of the spiritual condition of their ministers. These ministers are expected to keep in the state of grace. They are obliged under pain of mortal sin not to administer a sacrament unless they are in this stale. But if they fail to observe this precept, they harm only themselves. They cannot harm thos~ who receive the sacraments from their hands. The recipient need worry only about himself and his own preparation. If .this preparation is substantially suff~dent, he himself will receive grace ex oiotre optrato and no human being cart prevent this Qod-given' effect. NEW APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION Pope Plus XII has recefitly issued a new Apostolic Constitution Sponsa Christi. This document regulates the cloister or enclosure of nuns in such a way as to make it 15ossible for the nuns in postwar Europe and elsewhere tosupport themselves since r~any contemplative monasteries have lost all their endowments and are receiving relatively few vocations. The strictly papal cloister of canons 600-604 is limited to that part of the house in which the nuns habitually dwell (cells, dor-mitories, refectory, community room, private garden, and the like) under the title of major papal ~loister, while the rest of tl~e house and grounds within the monas-tic compound where the labors for the support of the community are carried on are called minor papal enclosure. The Apostolic Constitution also treats of Federations of Independent Monasteries and recommends them by pointing out their advantages without, however, making them of obligation. We hope to give our readers more information on this Apostolic Indult and on the subsequent Instruction of the Sacred Congregation ,of Religious. 32 I-low Are Your I::yes? M. Raymond, O.C.S.O. CARYLL HOUSELANDER claims that are like clouds of wind-blown seed," that within them lies the mysterious secret power that seeds have to brit~g forth life.'" I turned from her article to my mail. Three letters, so brief they are more fittingly called "notes," showed me that Caryll had been most conservative. She could have claimed more than seminal pow-ers for words. She could have said that there are occasions when they have all the might we now know lies in certain atoms. I was living one of those occasions. Let me tell you about it. The first letter I lifted told how an Archbishop, in a public address, had infqrmed his audience that the Trappistines in Wrent-ham, Massachusetts, had received more than four hundred applica-tions this past year. "Half of them," he added, "were from dissatis-fied religious.'" That word "dissatisfied" set me thinking. After a little while I wanted to write to the Archbishop and tell him the longer we live in religion, the more dissatisfied we grow. Not with our vocations. No! Not with our rules and constitutions. Indeed no! Not with our work or our fellow-workers. Daily our love for these grows. But we know a gnawing dissatisfaction which is nothing but a loneliness for heaven and a longing for the face of God. I could have given His Excellency example after example not only of middle-aged religious, but of diocesan priests, who have come to me thi~ past year with eyes turned avidly toward Gethsemani. Why? Because of that divin.e restlessness so aptly described by Augustine when he exclaimed: "Our hearts were made for Thee, O God, and they shall never know rest until . . ." Yes, the longer we live, the lonelier we grow for the sight of God and the sharper becomes our dissatisfaction with life on earth. I did not write that letter. For the longer I pondered the matter, the clearer I saw that there is another kind of dissatisfaction in the lives of some religious and I feared the Archbishop might have been referring to that. I know it should never be there. Occasionally I am puzzled beyond the telling to find it deeply ingrainedin indi-viduals, who have greyed in religion. I meditated and mused on this matter for days, not only because of what' the Archbishop had said, 33 M.~RAYMOND Reoieto ~:or Religions but because of two other letters in the same mail. A mother general had written: "The appointments were placed in the mail last evening, and I am glad to know they are accompanied by your prayers." A sister superior had written: "The Annual Thin Letters just came in, so pray . . ." You can see how those two sentences kept me thinking along the lines in which the Archbishop's remark had set my mind. I believe they will have the same effect on all who entered religion before we begin to ~peak and spell the way they print the Ordo, that is, before any woman was known as a ~4"AC, any girl as a ~VAVE, or any boy as just another GI 3oe. For the most part the thoughts conjured up are pleasant. For it is always refreshing to find real religion in religious, .Christ in Christians, and self-forgetfulness in selfish human beings. But as we go on thinking, it will be clear to all that both Mother General and Sister Superior had only one prayer in mind. They wanted me to pray: "'ut videant--that they might see.'" For while anyone who has celebrated a silver jubilee in reli-gion can tell tale after tale of actual heroism brought forth by.the few words these "annual thin letters~" or their equivalents Carr~ , they will also have memories of a few human tragedies brought on-- not by the "letters" mind you, but by the eyes that read them. There's the point: it is the eyes that read them. This fact that not only our happiness here on earth, the proper development of our characters and personalities as religious, and our genuine progress in the spiritual life, but in very truth our ultimate sanctity and consequently our eternity in heaven or hell depends entirely on our vision has been so deeply impressed on me by a series of happenings which began with what I have already narrated, that I feel I would be untrue to God and His grace did I not ask you: "How are youc eyes?" First, there was the nun who had just received her "thin letter" and was starry-eyed. I had to think that I was looking on one who was radiating the same wonder, awe, and joy that must have rippled out from Bernardette after a vision of "the Lady" and from Mar-garet Mary after a session with the Sacred Heart. Her letter told her she was to spend the next few years, and perhaps the rest of her life, in India. She was tremulous with happiness, for she realized she had been specially chosen for a special task, that a high commission had come from the High Command. And while she was not blind to the trials that lay ahead for her as a human, she was wihe enough 34 ¯ Januar~j, 1951 How ARE YOUR EYES ? to focus her gaze on the trust that had been placed in her by the Divine. Her only request was: "Pray that my family see it as I do." Then there was an older nun whose ~yes held a different light, whose tongue told a different tale. She had not been changed. No "thin letter" or its equivalent had come to liberate her, as she said, from her "misery." I spoke to her as earnestly as I could about Divine Providence and the wisdom of God, insisting that He gives us the one environ-ment in which we can best grow. It did not take. I spoke of supe-riors as representatives of Christ, striving with all my might to stir up faith and have her thrill to the truth that in hearing them, we hear Him. She did not respond. I appealed then to what has always appealed most to me, showing how obedience is the touchstone Of our loyalty to God and the grandest tribute of our love. I made very little impression. She lifted eyes that were lusterless and dull, eyes that seemed to hold in their deeper depths some slowly pulsing pain, and said: "Oh, if I could only see it that way!" The contrast struck me forcibly. All too vividly did it make me realize that there is such a thing as .spiritual myopia and very real astigmatism of the inner eye, the eye of the soul. I tried hard to excogitate some corrective for this faulty vision and some sure cure for an eye-ailment so serious that it can ruin a life. Recently, when I was in the hospital for a check-up of my "wild cells," the supervisor of surgery invited me to a tour of her depart-ment. I went. I had heard exceptionally high praise of the arrange-ments in this particular hospital. I soon saw that there was firm foundation for that praise. Sister showed me through sixteen or eighteen splendidly-equipped operating rooms, opened glass cases that held so many skillfully-shaped instruments that I was open-mouthed in marvel at the ingenuity of man and the thqroughness of the sci-ence of surgery. Then she had a nurse show me what a specialist would use in a lobotomy and explain the entire technique. I was speechless in admiration of the daring of these modern doctors. But it was not until Sister had led me into the smallest room on the whole floor that I saw why God had planned this particular visit at this particular time. "This is where they do the eyes," she said, as she opened a case and dazzled me with a display of shining steel scalpels more delicate than any I could have dreamed existed. Then she told me of the "eye-bank," revealing one of the greatest marvels of modern surgery. .35 M. RAYMOND Review for Religious It seems that specialists can take the cornea from the eye of a dead man, stretch it over the blind eye of one who is alive, and have him see. You can readily understand ,why my meditations and musings for the next few days were on the possibilities of some similar sur-gery for the eyes of the soul. If we priests, I thought, who so often have to use what we may well call spiritual scalpels, could only take the cornea from the eye of Calvary's dead Christ and stretch it across the blinded eyes of. Then it burst on me! What I had been dreaming of as a possi-bility, what I had been turning in my mind as a bit of fond fancy and a fetching analogy, I suddenly realized was actual fact. Baptism has done for the eyes of our spirits what these master surgeons are now doing for the bodily eye~ of the blind. Has it not, by subtlest sacramental surgery, inserted us into the Mystical Body of Christ? Has it not made us His members? Of course. But where are the eyes in any body? Are they not in the head? Does it not follow then, that so long as we act as His members, we will see things through His eyes? The musings and meditations of these few days had led me where meditations and musings of the past ten or twelve years have almost invariably led me--to the doctrine of the Mystical Body of, Christ. Think along with me now and see whether this doctrine, properly understood and rightly applied, does not allow us to diag-nose the diseases we have mentioned, isolate the very germs that cause them, ~nd proffer the infallible cure. That sounds hopeful, doesn't it? Almost too hopeful. But let us see. At baptism we were made Christ, but we did not cease to be ourselves. Hence, while the sacrament effected much ex opere opecato, it left almost as much to be accomplished ex opere operantis. For while those waters and words, plus the proper intention on the part of the minister, sufficed to incorporate us into the God-Man; to transform us into Him not only our own 'intention will be required, but along with it what may. well be water--our sweat and tears-- and what most certainly will be works. Limiting ourselves to this matter of vision, can it not be said in all sincerity that in baptism we received a sort of supernatural trans-plant, giving us a second lens, so that now we can look on all things either through the lenses that are human, or the stronger ones that are divine? Is it not true that we Christians, and especially we reli- 36 ~anuaql, 1951 How ARE You~ EYES gious, have double-vision ? that we are able to view things either with the eyes of man or with the eyes of the God-Man? that on every-thing which impinges in any way on our consciousness we can foolishly limit our sight at secondary causes or have it pierce through to see Him who is the First and" the only Uncause'd Cause? Is there, anything in our days or nights, .anything in the entire sweep of our lives, that cannot be looked upon in practically the same way we look upon a consecrated Host? The "species" are there. The "thin letters" of which I spoke came from a definite address, passed through the ordinary channels of the mails, bore the signature of a human being. But to the Christian conscious of his or her Christhood, to the religious fully aware of his or her dignity as His member, to the soul sensitive to reality, these things are but "species," mere accidents: the substance lies beneath. Why is it, then, that we do not always see things this way? Simply because we do not look through the divine lens. The trouble is not in our minds; it is in our wills. Our eyes must be directed. If we set them looking through the cornea we received from the First Adam, we shail see as human beings. That is what happened to Felicit~ Lamennais, once his writings had been condemned by Rome. His friend and fellow-worker, Lacordaire, was wiser. He looked through the cornea given by the Second .Adam, and saw truth. The deathbeds of these two men might well haunt all of us, for they con-- tain the greatest lesson for anyone's life. One used the eyes given him at birth and died a reprobate. The other employed the vision given at rebirth and died as we all want to live and die--in the arms of Mother Church, which are also the arms of Him who is our Head. But I don't have to go to that extreme to show you the practi-cality of looking at things as members of His Body. I can limit my-self to the question of temporal happiness, that quiet of mind and peace of soul we all crage, and prove that this doctrine is the panacea. Oculists will tell you that many a headache comes from using improper lenses. I will tell you that in the spiritual order many a heartache comes from the same cause. If we want happiness every hour of the day, if we want an easy pillow at night, if we want a conscience that will approve us and.our actions at every examen, one thing alone is necessary, to direct the gaze of our minds through the . lenses given us by the God-Man and see always and in everything exactly what He saw, the Will of the Father. Simple, isn't it? But let me tell you it will make life sublime. 37 M. RAYMOND Review for Religious L~t me say that I can safely paraphrase St. Alphonstis Liguori and claim that "what distinguishes perfect from imperfect religious is the' use of the divine lens." Or I can borrow from St. Teresa of Avila and say that you can be assured that the devil has no better device to keep us from the heights than to have us look through the cornea we had when we came from our mother's womb, neglecting the one, gained by being born again of water and the Holy Ghost. What an example Peter Claver gives us of all this. He had de-voted himself to the slaves at Cartagena. Alr'eady he had baptized more than a quarter of a million when word came from his superior: "Stop baptizing." I think most of us would have answered that command the way Peter answered the command of the high priest: "We must obey God rather than man." But Peter Claver stopped baptizing. The saint had been holding public devotions to the pal-pable spiritual profit of the poor benighted slaves. His rector told him to put an end to them. Claver could have looked, as many of us would have looked, and seen the hand of the calumnious and the enviou~ in this mandate. He didn't. He put an, end to the devo-tions immediately. But the campaign of hostility went on. Small-souled criticism won from superiors the injunction that Claver change his whole manner of instructing. Now remember this man had been as effective in his milieu as Xavier had been in the Indies. What would you have done in the circumstances? What would I have done? Claver changed his entire manner of instructing. But still: the opposition was not satisfied. It did not rest until it had obtained from higher authority the complete removal of this man from this glorious work. Claver went to his new assignment with all the cheer with which a newly ordained priest goes to the altar. How could he do it? By using the divine lens, acting as a member of the Mystical Body of Cl~rist and seeing superiors through the eyes of the Head°of that Body and hearing in their voice the voice of God the Father. Now who w~uldn't thrill to hear His voice? Who would not leap to obey His command with a happiness--but I had better stop there, lest what,seems lyrical prove a humiliating expos~ of our own short-sightedness. HOME FOR TUBERCULOUS SISTERS An entire wing of private rooms (twenty-eight) in Sa~,ta Teresita Sanatoriuin is being reserved for tuberculous Sisters. The Sanatorium is cared for by Carmelite Sisters of the Third Order. Address Santa Teresita Sanatorium, 819 S. Buena Vista Road, Duarte, California. 38 Classic on I-ligh'er Prayer Jerome Breunig, S.J. [The book reviewed in this article was not controversial in purpose though the theoretical position of Poulain is now controverted. Thus he holds that mysticism in his' special sense is outside the normal development of the Christian life. The book is reviewed independently of its controversial stand because of its unique value for spiritual direction and for its descriptions of mystical experiences.--ED.] AUGUSTIN POULAIN'S The Graces of Interior Prau. er1 is a ¯ great book. It is unquestionably one of the most important and influential books ever written on the science of prayer. It is not new, but it has been out-of-print for so long that it may be new to many of our readers. Because of this and of its importance for many religious as well as of its special timeliness today, it seems necessary to review at greater length this reprint of the classic work. Poulain's book was first published fifty years ago. Ten years later the first English edition appeared. The present volume from Herder is all the more valuable because it includes an introduction by J. V. Bainvel. This introduction gives a thorough, competent review of the book, adds an occasional needed qualification and clarification, and presents a brief picture of the impact .the book ha~t on mystical studies. As far as the present reviewer knows, Bainvel's introduc-tion, a book in itself, is here appearing for the first time in English. Written primarily for spiritual directors and then for mystics and budding mystics, Poulain's book will also be helpful for anyone interested in God's extraordinary communing with souls." The secondary title of the book is "A Treatise on Mystical The-ology." It is necessary to note from the beginning and to remember that Poulain, unlike most spiritual writers of the present day, uses the term mystical in a very restricted sense. Today there is much evidence of interest in mystical theology and in the supernatural phenomena which are its object bf study. Numerous Manresa and otl~er study clubs are investigating ascetical and mystical problems. .N~ew periodicals devoted to spiritual sub-jedts have appeared in recen~t years. Thomas Merton's books have found a wide reading public~. The number of vocations to the con-templative life has increasedI Another example of and a contribution to the g~owing interest is E. Allison Peers' standard edition of the 1See the "Book Review" section, ~. 52 for details on publisher, price, etc. 39 JEROME BREUNIG Religious works of St. Teresa of.Avila and St. John of the Cross. In fact, books on 'the theory, of mysticism, biographies of mystics, anthologies of such writings,' books of private revelations have multiplied in the past few years. But interest and concern is by no means limited to the academic realm of books. The press has given extensive pub-licity to some of the stigmatics of the present day. Keports of appari-tions have become well known throughout the world. While remaining deeply respectful before God's special dealing with chosen souls and deriving spiritual benefit from them, there is always need for caution and guidance in order not to espouse every claim of super-natural "intervention. Helpfulness of Book In this milieu Poulain's work has a special timeliness. For people who would like to evaluate private revelations, cases of visions, stigmata, etc., this is the book. The book is helpful on the level of practical judgment of publicized supernatural phenomena and on the level of theoretical study of mystical theology. In Graces of Interior Prager the interested priest, religious, or lay Catholic, as well as the non-Catholic, the scientist and the non-scientist can find a rather complete, systematic, and factual study of extraordinary supernatural phenomena. The book should help clarify an outlook, perhaps modify misguided enthusiasm. At any rate, it will foster a more reserved and prudent, point of view. For instance, Poulain showsA that even among the saints there were false visions and even in true visions false human alloy sometimes became mingled with the divine. Those interested in the problems of mystical theology should welcome this volume because it is a good counterbalance to the the-oretical ~pproach that is now being emphasized. Poulain follc;ws the descriptive rather than the speculative school which endeavors, as he described in his pre.face, "to systematize' all facts theologically by connecting them with the study of grace, of man's faculties, of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, etc." R. Garrigou-Lagrange's The Three Ages of the Spiritual Life is a good example of the speculative school. From the Author's Preface Poulain clarifies his purpose at the outset. "I wishec~ as far as possible to give very clear and accurate descriptions as well as v~ry plain rules of conduct." His purpose, then, is descriptive and pre-scriptive. He continues: "If I do not associate myself with the specu-lative school it is not from contempt. It deals .with many high and interesting questions. But the readers I have in view do not desire 4O January, 19~ 1 CLASSIC ON these things.(I am writing especially for those souls who are beginning to receive the mystic gr.aces and who do not know how to find their way in this new world. And I address myself to those also who are drawing near and who have entered into the adjacent states. Now such persons requir.e,something really practical. They wish for exact pictures--I was about to say photographs--in which they can recognize themselves immediately. They also require rules of conduct reduced to a few striking formulae, easy to ~emember and to apply.i~ He fbresees an objection. "Certain theologians would require more than this. They will perhaps see in this little book a mere manual, resembling those treatises on practical medicine which do not lose themselves in high biological theory~ but merely teach us how to make a rapid diagnosis of each disease and lay down the proper treatment. But I confess that I should think myself very happy to have attained such a difficult end." ~. The author's precautions which seem applicable to most works by mystics or on mysticism are the following. They are also in his preface. "The mystic" graces do not h"f t t:he soul out of the or"dmary.~b~¢~t~ conditions of,Christian life, or free it from the necessity of aiming perfection." ~,~Mystical graces are not sanctity but merely powerful~ means of sanctification; they mu,~st be received with humility and co~. responded-to with generosity."~ To pass our time in dreaming of the mystic ways is a dangero~uus error." Finally, "for all spiritualc~a~.~ ~ questions it is necessary to have a director. The more extraordinary)~I/~e~ the ways by which the soul is led the greater, as a rule is the Unlike most writers on the subject of prayer, Poulain's purpose is not primarily inspirational but rather Scientifically descriptive and prescriptive. The object of .the study, of course, of its very nature . has inspirational value. Nor does Poulain exclude this for he ends his preface: "I pray God that this book may accomplish the only end that I bad in view: the good of souls. (May" it awaken within them-~ {an attraction for prayeO'and the need f'o unite themselves with the divine Maste~.). ~May the souls raised to the fruitful joys of the mystic life become more and more numerous in the Church, especially amongst those who have been consecrated to God.:~ Send forth spirit., and Thou shalt renew the face of the earth.'~ Teacher and Scientist Poulain was a teacher and a scientist. As a good teacher he took 4i JEROME BREUNIG Review for Religious pains to be clear. He had been a p~ofessor of mathematics for many years, and the reader suspects that he was adept at the use of the bl_ackboard. In hi.s early years be wrote a book which he playfully called the"Poor Man's Ge,ometry." In this book he used all his inven-tive genius to simplify the theorems for the slowest boy in the class. In Graces ot: Interior Prancer, "with its short phrases, its explana-tions simple sometimes almost to the point of na~vet~, its clear divl-siofis, its many paragraphs, its clever typographical devices" (Bain-vel's description of Poulain's style, page xxxvi), we find the same gracious teacher eager to bring the difficult subject matter within his pupil's wave length. As a scientist in the best modern traditions Poulaln endeavors to support his statements by factual data. He has so arranged the book that after each chapter he gives evidence to support the previous dex~el-opment. The basis for his treatment of interior experience is the writing of the mystics. In many instances he has also drawn from his own experience with mystics of his own time. Poulain himself said: "In thirty years I have come to know thirty-three persons who seem to have real supernatural graces, and nine who have false visions" (p. xxxv). The scientific treatment should commend the book to all. Incidentally, the book should help non-Catholic doc-tors, psychiatrists, and others who wish an introduction to mystical phenomena but would find a purely speculative treatment based on the unseen realities held by faith alone relatively unintelligible. The Table ot: Contents Poulain has divided his treatise into six parts: (1) Preliminary questions which give principal definitions and explain ordinary prayer; (2) General ideas about the mystic unlon;(3) A study of the degrees'separately; (4) Revelations and visions; (5) Trials of contemplatives; and (6) Supplementary questions. Herder's present volume adds to the appendices of' the original work an appendix on the question of acquired and infused contemplation and another on the discernment of spirits. The latter includes the Rules of St. Igna-tius, Counsels of St. Teresa on Temptations, ~ind Illusions and Marks to Discern the Si3irit of God, according to St. Margaret Mary. The author begins his work by making a clear-cut distinction between ordinary prayer and extraordinary or mystical prayer. To clear the ground for the distinction he first points out four degrees of ordinary prayer, namely, vocal, meditative, affective, and simplified prayer; next he notes the progression and describes at some length 42 January, 1951 CLASSIC ON PRAYER affective praye.r and especially the prayer of simplicity. According'to Poulain, the prayer of simplicity, though close to mystical prayer, does not" contain a,ny mystical element. The prayer of simplicity is still the result of human~efforts. All kinds of prayer, of course, require grace. He confines the hse of the word mystic to "supernatural acts or states which our own industry is powerless to produce, even in a low degree, even momentarily" (p. 1). The author then points out four degrees of the mystical union: 1) incomplete union (prayer of quiet) ; 2) full union (prayer of union) ; 3) ecstatic union (ecstasy) : 4) transforming union (spiritual marriage). Always the teacher and scientist, he distinguishes each successive degree by a new discernible fact. In the prayer of quiet the union between God and the soul is incomplete, for the imagination is free and distractions are possible. In the prayer of union the imagination is no longer free, but the action of the senses is not suspended, com-munication with others and withdrawal from prayer are possible. In ecstasy all sensation and voluntary movement are suspended. In turn, spiritual marriage is distinguished as a stable and constant state. "'To explain mysticism in an hour's time" After this general division of the higher supernatural states, the author attempts to describe what constitutes this higher state. He realizes the ground is holy and the task is difficult, but hear the ear-nest. sympathetic teacher: "The ordinary man prefers speed to every-thing else. Details do not usually interest him, but only the main lines . . . He seems to say: Try in an hour to make me understand exactly what mysticism is. This can be done" (p. 64). The fun-damental nature of the mystic union Poulain describes as God's presence felt. He states this in two propositions which he calls theses, The first thesis affirms the fact, the second uses the analogue of sensa-tions to enlarge on the experiential presence. After this he gives ten secondary characteristics of the mystic, union. Because of the special importance, the two theses describing the fundamental nature of the higher state will be given in the author's own words. The first thesis: "The mystic states which have God for their object attract attention at the outset by the impression of recollection and union which they cause us to experience. Hence the name of mystic union. Their real point of difference from the recollection of 43 JEROME BREUNIG Rew'e~v [or Religious ordinary prayer is this: that in the mystic state, God is not satisfied merely to help us to think of Him and to remind us of His presence: He gives us an experimental, intellectual knowledge of this presence. In a word, He makes us feel that we really enter into communication with Him. In the lower degrees, however (prayer of quiet), God only does this in a somewhat obscure manner. The manifestation increases in distinctness as the union becomes of a higher order" (pp. '64-65). In the explan'ation that follows immediately Poulain says: "There is a profound difference between thinking of a person and feeling him near us. And so when we feel that someone is near us, we say that we have an experimental knowledge of his presence. In ordinary prayer we have only an abstract knowledge of God's presence" (Ibid.). This %xperience of God" is obtained through quasi-se.nses in the spiritual order. His second thesis brings this out. "In ~he states inferior to ecstasy we cannot say that God is seen save in exceptional cases. We are not instinctively led to translate our experiences by the word sight. On the other hand, that which constitutes the com-q~ X.mon basis of all the various degrees of the mystic union is that~he. spiritual impression by which God makes known His presence, mam-fests Him in the manner, as it were, of something interior which penetrates the soul; it is a sensation of saturation, of fusion, of im-mersion. For the sake of greater clearness, we can depict what is felt by describing the sensation by the name Of interior touch" (pp.90- 91).) Poulain that mark 2) 3) 4) 6) 7) The Secondarg Characteristics of Mgstic Union gives (p. 114) the following ten secondary characteristics the mystic union: The mystic union does not depend upon our own will; The knowledge of God accompanying it is obscure and confhsed; The mode of communication is partially incomprehensible; The union is produced neither by reasonings, nor by the consideration of creatures, nor by sensible images; It varies incessantly in intensity; It demands less effort than meditation; It is accompanied ~by sentiments of love,' of repose, of .pleasure, and often of suffering; 44 danuar~], 1951 CLASSIC ON PRAYER /) "~_ 8) It inclines the soul o,f, itself and very eflicach3usly, to the~ " 9) It acts upon the body and is a" cted ~ I0) " " It ~mpedes to a greater or less extent the production of cer-tain interior acts; this is what is called the l,igature. In the third part of I~is book, Poulain studies each of the degrees of the mystic union s~parately. His explanation of the Two Nights of the Soul pointed out by St. John of the Cross is enlightening. TheNight of the Senses is a preliminary state, "the borderland of the mystic state," while the Night of the Soul, which precedes the trans-forming union, comprises the three lower states of mystic union u~ader their fiegative aspect. In his treatment of revelations and visions Poulain continues .the descriptive-prescriptive method, especially noting the possibility of false visions and of the false mingling with the true. He also gives rules-of-thumb for directors and for recipients of the heavenly favors. The section on trials.to contemplatives is brief, but brings out ¯ that contemplatives must be cut in the heroic mold of the Crucified. In his final section on supplementary questions of mysticism, the author treats in the same.scientific manner of topics such as the desire for mystic union, quietism, and frequency of the mystic states. Concluding Tribute What Cardinal Steinhuber wrote of the first edition forty-five years ago still stands. "It is with real satisfaction that I have read your Reverence's book on The Graces of Interior Prager. I cannot resist the desire to congratulate you with all my heart upon this fine and useful work. Directors of souls and the masters of the spiritual life will draw from it abundant supplies of enlightenment and the counsels necessary to enable them to solve the many complicated questions that they will encounter. What pleases me is the sim-plicity, the clearness, and the precision of your exposition, and still more, the solidity of the teaching. I can say the same for the care that you have taken to rely upon the old and approved masters who have written on the subject of mysticism. You dispel their obscuri-ties, you reconcile their apparent contradictions, and you .give their language the turn that the spirit of modern times demand." 45 Reprint Series The following groups of articles are now available in 50-page booklets, with paper cover: NUMBER 1: Father Eltard "On Difficulties in Meditation--I"--Vol. VI, p. 5. "On Difficulties in Meditation--II"--Vol. VI, p. 98. "Affective Prayer"--Vol. VII, p. 113. "Contemplation, the Terminus of Mental Prayer"--Vol. p. 225. VII, NUMBER 2: Father Ellis The "Gifts to Religious" series: "The Simple Vow of Poverty,"-~Vol. VI, p. 65. "Common Life and Peculium"~Vol. VII, p. 33. "Personal Versus Community Property"~Vol. VII, p. 79. "Some Practical Cases"~Vol. VII, p. 195. NUMBER 3: Father Kelly "The Particular Friendship"--Vol. V, p. 93. "Remedies for the Particular Friendship"~Vol. V, p. 179. "Emotional Maturity"--Vol. VII, p. 3. "More About Maturity"--Vol. VII, p. 63. "Vocational Counseling"--Vol. VII, p. 145. Prices Please note that we cannot accept orders for less than ten copies of any of these booklets. The following scale of prices applies to each of the booklets: 10 to 49 copies . 30 cents each. 50 or more copies . 25 cents each. Instructions for Orderlncj 1. Order according to the Number printed above: e.g., 10 copies of Number 1 ; 10 copies of Number 2; and so forth. 2. Send payment with order; calculating the price for each order according to the scale of prices printed ,above. 3. Make checks or money orders payable to Review for Religious. 4. Address your order to: The I:dltors, Review for Religious, St. Mary's College, SL Marys, Kansas. 46 The Des :iny of Religious Women William B. Faherty, S.J.1 ACURSORY PERUSAL of Our HolyFather Pius XII's speeches on woman's role in modern life might well lead one to the hasty conclusion that they contained little direction for reli-gious women. He spoke of motherhood as "the sphere of woman." He set down a great challenge for women today--to rebuild family life,--and as the first means towards this objective he wanted them to restore the aura of honor and dignity that should surround a mother's place there. The Religious Sisters, on the other hand, have renounced the pos-sibilities of motherhood in the home to consecrate their lives to Christ's service. Are they therefore on the periphery of the great so-cial reform work to which Pope Plus XII called modern women? The only answer that can justly be given after a careful study of the papal teaching is a round "No." Some readers have drawn too many hasty and unfounded conclusions from the Pope's words. They have not read all his speeches on the general subject. (He has addressed groups of women nine distinct times on various aspects of their lives and work.) They have accorded too much attention to the Pope's more novel and sensational statements, such as his pro-claiming the unmarried lay state a "vocation," and his urging women to vote and seek public office. When the full picture of the Holy Father's teaching is seen, the important place of religious women comes sharply into focus. In his most publicized speech of October 21, 1945, Pope Plus XII did state: "The sphere of woman, her manner of life, her native bent is motherhood. Every woman is made to be a mother . . . For this purpose the Creator organized the whole characteristic makeup of woman." Immediately, however, he clarified the issue that he was speaking of motherhood "not only in the physical sense," but also in the "spiritual and more exalted, but no less real" sense. This was consistent with the general tenor of his teaching. In a speech2 g!ven four years previously, entitled, "Guiding Christ's Little 1Father Faherty of Regis College, Denver, is the author of The Desting of Modern Woman in the Light of Papal Teaching, which is reviewed in this issue. (See page 52). The present article is based on a section of the book. ~Copies of this inspiring address can be obtained at a very low cost from the Nat. Council of Catholic Women, 1312 Massachusetts Ave., N. W., Washington 5,D.C. 47 WILLIAM B. FAHERTY Review for Religious Ones," the Pope had spoken more explicitly on this two-fold motherhood. Addressing the mothers in his audience, the Holy Father remarked: "Our words have been addressed principally to you, Christian mothers. But with you we see around us today a .gathering of nuns, teachers and others engaged in the work of Chris-tian education. They are mothers, too, not by nature or by blood but by the love they bear the young." Then turning directly to this latter group, he continued: "Yes, you too are mothers; you work side by side with Christian mothers in the work of education; for you have a mother's heart, burning with charity . . . You are truly a sisterhood of spiritual mothers whose offspring is the pure flower of youth." Such were the Holy Father's beautiful words on "spiritual motherhood." Praise of the Religious Life Pope Pius XII's remarks on religious life came not as a separate statement but as part of the full teaching on woman's role in the modern world. In his address of October 21, 1945, he discussed all three "vocations" open to young women today: marriage, the un-married lay state, and the life of the' consecrated religious. About the religious life, he stated: "For nigh onto twenty cen-turies, in every generation, thousands and thousands of men and women from among the best in order to follow the counsels of Christ" have left the "world" to devote their lives to His service. "Look at these men and women," he continued, "See them dedicated to prayer and penance, intent on the iiastruction and education of the young and ignorant, leaning over the pillow of the sick and dying, ope~l-hearted for all their miseries and all their weakness, in order to relieve them, ease theml lighten them and sanctify thm." "When one thinks of young girls and women," he concluded, "who willingly renounce matrimony in order to consecrate them-selves to a higher life of contemplation, sacrifice, and charity, there comes at once to the lips the word that explains it: vocation. It is the only word that describe so lofty a sentiment." The Pope finished this passage with ~he explanation that the call of God may come either as an overpowering summons or as a gentle impulse, sd diverse are the modulations of His voice. Addressing the representatives of Italian Youth Organizations in 1943, he spoke at length on the great need 0f vocations in these times, especially in the fields of education, organized charity, and danuar~, 1951 DESTINY OF RELIGIOUS WOMEN foreign missions. After extolling the value of religious life in fos-tering the Church's mission and mentioning the great solicitude of the Church today for the life of consecrated service--a solicitude rarely equalled, he insisted, in the long annals of Christian history-- the Holy Father concluded, "Let her accept it who can, taking Christ's words in "the sense of an invitation and encouragement." As a fitting crown to this speech, he made the memorable statement, "Christian virginity is the triumph of civilization." The Challenge to Modern Woman When the Pope challenged modern woman to work for the restoration of family llfe, he realized that many would very justly wonder why the Church continued to encourage the call to the reli-gious Sisterhoods. Why not lay less emphasis on this vocation for a decade or so? After all, where Catholic family life is strong, reli-gious vocations abound. Anticipating this reasonable objection, the Pope forestalled it by an immediate and thorough answer. "Is the common good of the people and the Church perhaps jeopardized by this (the encourage-ment of the religious vocation) ?" he asked. "On the contrary, these generous souls recognize the union of the two sexes in matrimony as a good of high order. But if they abandon the ordinary way and leave the beaten track, they do not desert it, but rather consecrate themselves to the service of mankind with a complete disregard for themselves and thei~ own interests by an act incomparably broader in its scope, more all-embracing and universal." They have given up the possibility of children of their own, yet they" teach the children of others the way to Christ. They help mothers in the care of their youngsters by establishing day nurseries. They substitute for the mother in conducting orphanages. They care for the sick members of all families. They protect the unity and sanctity of the family, furthermore, in a hidden but very influential way. While those intent on de.stroying the foundations of Christian civilization advise infidelity within the marriage bond and "free love" outside, the Church points with paternal pride to thousands upon thousands who have gone beyond the command of God and have accepted His free call to do something even greater. Because of this sacrifice, hundreds and hun-dreds of married people can ask themselves in the midst of ditficulties: "Can I not live up to the high requirements of my state of life, when 49 WILLIAM B. F!KI~ERTY so many of my fellow human beings live up to the more exacting demands of a higher state?" Renewal of Familg When the Pope suggests means to effect the renewal of the mod-ern family, the great part religious Sisters can play becomes even more evident. The foundation of all work for the restoration of the fam-ily, the Holy Father remarked, is a solid personal spiritual life. The first goal is to be the restoration of the honor and dignity that should be the Mother's in the home. Who are in a more strategic position to build a solid spirituality and proper attitudes toward home life in the mothers of tomorrow than the Religious Sisters who teach them in the schools and colleges today? Nor are Sisters engaged in other apostolic activities on the periphery of this great work. Those who conduct hospitals, retreat houses, and the like, have a part that is perhaps less obvious but equally important in thi~ work of family restoration to which their Holy Father challenges them. Conclusions Certain profitable conclusions for the individual lives of the Sis-ters suggest themselves from the words of Pius XII which have been briefly considered here. If religious Sisters are to look on their'life as a spiritual motherhood, the qualities that mark a true. Christian mother's relationship with her children--the qualities that marked Our Lady's relationship with her Divine Son--will be the aim of the religious Sister. This will counteract any influences which in these days of standardizing agencies and statistical social service might lead an occasional individual toward a depersonalized goal of expertness in nursing, teaching, or other profession. Secondly, the v6cation of most young women to be the mother of a family in the home could receive much more stress in high school and college instruction, equal in quantity even to the attention most Sisters very justly bestow on their own high type of vocation. Above all, the Holy Father's words should be an encouragement and an inspiration in these apocalyptic times which he himself has called "perhaps the greatest religious crisis humanity has gone through since the origin of Christianity." 50 Book Reviews THE MEANING OF FATIMA. By C. C. Marfindale, S.J. Pp. 183. P. J. Kened¥ and Sons, New York, 1950. This is not just another book about Fatima. It gives a brief, dear description of the Blessed Virgin's appearances; but tO that it adds a frank appraisal of the difficulties and inconsistencies in the account of the Fatima happenings, and a sensible, penetrating expla-nation of these problems. Fr. Martindale's treatment is marked by a fine balance. He is objective, almost scientific in his approach; yet sympathetic and sensi-tive to the human dements involved. He is very, discerning in his evaluations of the testimony given by the witnesses, parti.cularly the three children; yet there is never a ting~of debunking. Add to this reverent, straightforward attitude the fact that the author is inti-mately acquainted with Fatima and with the previous writings about the subject, and it is hard not to accept his judgment on the appari-tions. Special attention should be drawn tothe introduction, which is the key to Ft. Martindale's treatment of the Fatima narrative. In a few pages, the author gives a brief but dear explanation of the Cath-olic Church's attitude towards private revelations. His analysis of the psychology of the "visionary" is particularly valuable. This in-troductory section alone would be enough to make the book worth reading, and the remainder of the book fulfills the promise of the troduction.--BERNARD COOKE, S.J. VOCATION TO LOVE. By Dorfhy Dohen. Pp. ;x-k 169. Sheed and Ward, New York, 19S0. $2.50. Aiming at high ideals, the lay apostle is often handicapped by all-too reaIistic obstacIes. Writing from a layman's viewpoint, Miss Doben gives the reader a deep insight into some practical ways of ~etaining spiritual idealism. Religious will find in Vocation to Lo~e a refreshing newness clothing old principles, and may blush at the evident bigb aspirations of "people in the world." After a comparatively long and somewhat disconnected intro-ductory chapter, the author develops ten unified chapters on pene-trating studies of important consequences of tooe. The reader ad-vances through increasingly more interesting and satisfying topics. Outstanding for their simplicity and depth are four chapters on 51 BOOK ANNOUCEMENTS Reoietu for Religious detachment, prayer, loneliness, and f~ustration. The clear and descr.iigtive style throughout is captivating. Religious and laity alike, who ambition great deeds for Christ, should profit from these fifteen-minute excursions into refreshingly modern answers to the old problems f.acing the zealous apostle in making reality approach the ideal.---ROBERT P. NEENAN, S.J. THE GRACES OF INTERIOR PRAYER (Les Graces D'Oralson): A Treatise on Mystical Theology. By A. Poulain, S.J. Translated from the sixth edition by Leonora L. Yorke Smith and corrected to accord with the tenth French edition with an introduction by J. V. Balnvel and an appendix on the discernment of spirits. Pp. cxli q- 665. B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis, Mo., 1950. $6.50. For the review of this book see Father Breunig's article, "Classic on Higher Prayer;" pp. 39-45. BOOK NOTICES Another tribute to. the present Age of Mary is F. J. Sheed's THE MARY BOOK which gives a biography-anthology of the best Marian. literature published by Sheed and Ward during the past quarter- ~ century. The reader will find a vast variety of subject matter plus diversity of presentation by great-name authors--Chesterton, House-lander, Claudel, Von Hildebrand, Martindale, Lund, to name only a few. Those eager to read more exhaustively on the subjects will find the sources of the selections listed in the back of the book. Besides the prose, beautiful poems on Mary, these not limited to the last twenty-five years, enrich the collection. Thirteen illustrations, four of them in color, of famous statues and paintings, contribute the final artistic touch to this little library on things Marian. (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1950. Pp. xii -f- 411. $4.00.) THE DESTINY OF MODE

The purpose of this handbook is to provide policy makers with a framework to assess a tax system in its entirety, measure its various parameters and how it is administered, and defines best practices for tax policy and administration that will yield a tax system that is simple and predictable and does not create an undue burden on private enterprise. This handbook is primarily designed for policy makers and tax practitioners. The goal is to analyze the impact of income tax, the value added tax (VAT), and other local taxes that are imposed on business. This handbook does not analyze the effects of trade and labor taxes such as social security. The administration of the customs duty is unique and has been addressed extensively in the literature on customs modernization. Labor taxes primarily imposed on salaried individuals are not covered by this handbook, even though their incidence affects business. VAT has been included even though it is a tax on consumption because the administrative burden to comply with it is primarily on business.

In the past decade, Tanzania has experienced high economic growth and it is in the global limelight as a recent success story in Africa. A variety of factors have contributed to this success, including liberalized policies and reforms, infusion of external capital from development partners and the private sector, debt cancellation, and a strong performance by emerging sectors such as mining, tourism, and fisheries. Its social policies, largely influenced by the First President Julius Kambarage Nyerere, including a single national language and relative political stability have contributed to a strong sense of nationhood, which sets it apart from many of its neighbors and has provided an unusual degree of stability that has facilitated major economic transformation without a significant social backlash.

Issue 53.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1994. ; Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-535-3048 ¯ Fax: 314-535-0601 Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ° St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ P.O. Box 29260 ¯ V~rashington, DC 20017. POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ° P.O. Box 6070 ° Duluth, MN 55806. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1994 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library, clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. MI copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Joann Wolski Conn PhD Mary Margaret Johanning SSND Iris Ann Ledden SSND Edmundo Rodriguez SJ David Werthmann CSSR Suzanne Zuercher OSB Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1994 ¯ VOLUME53 ¯ NUMBER5 contents living gospel values 646 Inculturation 658 Timothy Radcliffe OP faces us with the challenge of inculturating the gospel not only in countries aod cultures not our own hut also in our local home situation. Second-Stage Inculturation: Six Principles of the American Mind J.J. Mueller SJ presents the tensions caused for Americans formed by principles embedded in their culture and the ways of thinking and acting which are a part of the Vatican culture. leadership and authority 675 The Challenge of Priestly Leadership J. Peter Sartain reflects on the ministry of leadership entrusted to priests which is at the heart of their call to holiness. 694 Election: A Call to Service Catherine M. Harmer MMS considers the ele'ments involved in an election process in religious congregations for selecting leadership. 703 Authority: An Imitative Charisln A. Paul Dominic SJ examines the authority exercised by Jesus in order to understand the kind of authority we in the church should imitate. continuing formation 711 A Tale of Two Synods: Laity and Clergy Formation Robert L Kinast examines the formation of laity and clergy proposed in recent synods and suggests ways of furthering the relational process between them. 724 Religious Formation and Ecumenical Formation Ernest R. Falardeau SSS reports on the National Ecumenical Consultation for men and women religious which met in April 1994 at Narragansett, Rhode Island. 642 Review for Religious 728 744 751 prayer and growth Contemplative Prayer among Apostolic Religious Women Jeanne Knoerle SP assesses the contemplative attitude in the tradition of apostolic religious women. Shame, Mystical Writers, and a Spirituality of Self James J. Magee DSW clarifies the restorative influence that the Christian mystical tradition can provide for shame-bound religious. The Ought of the Ignatian Quest John P. Mossi SJ examines.the life experience of Ignatius Loyola as a paradigm for searching out God's will for our individual lives. 761 768 774 faith experience Reflection on the Solitary Life Theresa Mancuso explores the richness of the solitary life as living in the hollow of God's hand. My Faith Journey M. Gemma Victorino PI)DM recalls a most important moment of a parent's death for the deepening of a vocational commitment. A Rock to Build On Vincent Hovley SJ challenges us to enter more dynamically into a Eucharistic way of living. departments 644 Prisms 781 Canonical Counsel: The Contemplative Dimension of Religious Life 787 Book Reviews Septentber-October 1994 643 prisms One of my favorite sayings is that the church is as healthy as religious life is healthy. I believe that is true. Of course, we may also say that the church is as healthy as the laity are healthy, or as healthy as the bish-ops, priests, and deacons are healthy. St. Paul was the first to reflect about the church in terms of a healthy body. "The eye cannot say to the hand, 'I do not need you,' any more than the head can say to the feet, 'I do not need you'" (1 Cor 12:21). He says directly, "If one member suf-fers, all the members suffer with it; if one member is hon-ored, all the members share its joy" (1 Cor 12:26). Although Vatican Council II took a major step for-ward in our theological understanding of ourselves as church in its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen gentium), it seems that we now stand poised for further theological development. Perhaps the synod on consecrated life will provide an occasion to explore more adequately the interrelationships of the hierarchical and charismatic elements integral to the church. The synod may at least be a stimulus for raising questions about the centrality of holiness and the role of a significant group of members, identified by a form of Christian life called con-secrated, in the healthy life of the church. Such church members, commonly grouped under the term religious life, are identified as keepers of the spiritual heritages of the Body of Christ. Holiness is God's gift to all members of Christ's Body, but in God's providence it is meant to shine through the Body more brightly because of God's action in calling forth religious life. Religious life is not created or manufactured by human ingenuity; it is not modeled on a guru tradition of pre-Christian reli- 644 Review for Religious gions. It is not legislated into existence by a bishop's decree. Just as God in Jesus and in the Spirit bestows upon the church various hierarchic and charismatic gifts, so the same Lord gifts the church with certain members, both women and men, called and con-firmed in their following of Jesus through evangelical counsels. As with any gift, the church can only receive gratefully--and then care for and make use of--God's graciousness. The synod serves as an example of members of the hierarchy exercising their proper care and reverence for God's gift present in other members. For its part, then, religious life does bear a heightened respon-sibility for the healthiness of the church--not in terms of mis-sionary activity, not in terms of educational or social services, not in terms of leadership, but primarily and expressly in terms of spirituality, a life of holiness. Although "I want to be holy" sounds too simple to explain the myriad forms of the religious follow-ing of Christ through the ages, it is the grounding of the response to the gospel imperative "go, sell, come, follow." Evangelical counsels can too quickly come to be defined by a threefold identity of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The monas-tic beginnings of religious life clearly indicate that the imitation of Christ by evangelical counsels is far broader and deeper. The Spirit continues to raise up religious groups marked by the total dedication of evangelical counsels. But such a consecration takes shape, as it did in the first monastic groups, through various expressions consonant with a specific gospel inspiration, but dif-ferent from the venerable though limited way of the three vows of medieval spirituality. Healthy holiness in our day may find the church recognizing many forms of religious life not by the three traditional vows, but still by ~h.e norm of evangelical counsels in imitation of Jesus. Religious life has often been described as a troublesome or meddlesome element in the church. Yes, the head or hand of the Body might wonder whether life would be easier without this member. But one cannot dictate the kind of gift one receives; one cannot control the Giver. If the holiness of God in Christ today seeks to shine thoughout the Body in ever new prismatic ways through the gift of women .and men religious, people should respond not by complaint, but by asking in gratitude for more of such a gift. For we as a church strive to be healthy by becoming ever more God's holy people. David L. Fleming SJ September-October 1994 645 TIMOTHY RADCLIFFE Inculturation living gospel values It is a great pleasure for me to have been here these last few days, listening to this debate on Inculturation in Religious Life and Formation. I want to share a few very si~nple reflections on the throne but with great hesitation, since I am becoming one of the least inculturated people I know. I move so rapidly from one country to another that I have to look out of the window when I get up to remember where I am: "There are coconut trees, and so it cannot be London." In fact when I was in Chicago, one person thought from my accent that I was Irish and another that I was Australian. Here one of my own broth-ers has the idea that I am American. I am starting to get worried! Secondly, I have no expertise in this area. At the General Chapter of Mexico we talked much about incul-turation and acculturation and deculturation and inter-culturation. At the end I swore to myself that I would never again say anything about such matters. But the first lesson I have learned as Master of the Order is that of obedience, and so here goes. The last time that I was in England I had lunch with an aunt, and she asked me what I thought of Hans Kfing. Timothy Radcliffe OP serves as Master General of the Order of Preachers. He delivered this address to the Second Joint Conference of Dominican major superiors and formators at Nagpur, India, on 21 October 1993. It was published in Dominican Ashram 12, no. 4 (December 1993): 149-159. Father Radcliffe may be addressed at Convento Santa Sabina; Piazza Pietro d'Illiria, Aventino; 00153 Rome, Italy. 646 Review for Religious So I started to explain what I thought were his strengths and weaknesses. After five minutes she stopped me and said: "My dear, all I want to know is this: Is he good or is he ba'd?" And let's face it, in most theological debate that is what people wish to know! And if my aunt were here today, I would say to her: Yes, incul-turation is a good thing. In fact, there can be no good theology which is not inculturated. One problem in the church is that peo-ple often think that whereas one might find inculturated theology in India or Africa, where they live, whether it is Rome or Munich, no such contextualization is necessary. But I would like to add three points: 1. The Gospel should both embrace and transform any cul-ture in which it is planted. 2. No culture is pure and static. Every culture is in a con-stant process of evolution, creating new meaning; other-wise it is dead. The Gospel should meet a culture where it is most creative and fresh, like a bee seeking out the nectar of the flower. 3. Inculturation is always painful, like any process of com-ing to birth. And we can only engage in it if we are pre-pared to experiment and sometimes fail. This requires great mutual trust. There are many other things that I would like to add, such as the need for prayer and for study if inculturation is to have depth, but those comments will have to wait for another time. The Gospel Both Embraces and Criticizes Any Culture It Encounters As Father Thomas Aykara CMI said, the fundamental event of inculturation is the Incarnation. God, the source of all, becomes a squealing, crying, Jewish baby who needed to have his nappies changed and who had to learn to walk and speak like any other child. Often people fear that inculturation might fragment the universal church and divide us from each other, and yet the one in whom we are united, the one who overthrows the boundaries of division, is this first-century Jewish man. You cannot get more inculturated than that. At the same time one must say that Jesus was one who threatened Jewish identity, who challenged the Law and who welcomed the Samaritan'. He was utterly Jewish, and yet he was perceived as a threat to Sep~mber-O~ober1994 647 Radcliffe ¯ Inculturation A culture is not only defined by whom it excludes, but by what it shuts out, by its perceptions of reality, its underlying philosophy. Jewish identity. And this must surely always be so in .every moment of incuituration. Every culture builds a home in which the Gospel may be welcomed. But every home excludes a stranger who must be welcomed and whose presence is perceived as threatening. Every culture has its Harijans [outcasts]. A culture is not only defined by whom it excludes, but by what it shuts out, by its perceptions of reality, its underlying phi-losophy. These too are challenged by the Gospel. We can see the same process at work when Christianity embraces the Roman world. We adopt the language of the Romans and speak Latin; we still build our church on the basis of their halls, even here at Nagpur; the priest wears a distant descendant of Roman clothes; we accepted much of the vision of Roman law. And yet Christianity reached out beyond the boundaries of the Empire to e~nbrace the stranger, for example, the Irish! The foreigner is made at home. Every culture is both wel-comed and transformed. The Spirit is dike yeast which transforms what it meets. In France grapes become wine; in England hops become the loveliest beer; in Scotland grain becomes whiskey; in Japan rice beco~nes saki. And this reflects that founding act of Christ who performed that utterly Jewish act of celebrating the Passover, the feast of the home, and yet used it to found a com-munity in which everyone had a place: the betrayer like Judas, the denier like Peter, and all the disciples who would run away and leave their savior alone. It is the home in which anyone can belong. During my travels around the Order this first year I have seen how in every continent, inculturation poses this same question: Who is the stranger whom we must welcome? In Africa, for exam-ple, where tribal identity is strong, and where the Order is per-ceived as a tribe, the challenge is to make at home the members of another tribe, to be a tribe beyond tribalism. I went to Rwanda which has been deeply divided by conflicts between two tribes. 648 Review for Religious Here our Vicariate of Rwanda and Burundi is a sign of the Gospel, for members of both tribes live together as brothers. This is an incarnation of the Gospel, in which our identity as human beings is prized, open, stretched and transformed. When I went to Zaire in February it was in a state of near civil war between tribal groups. You could see how the church was trying to enter the extraordinary richness of that culture and be truly Zairean. The liturgy was wonderfully African, alive and beautiful. But we also had to challenge the tribal identities and invite people to find themselves in Christ. In Guatemala, the strangers are perhaps above all the indige-nous people living in the mountains. Here we have a wonderful experiment of inculturation in which the Dominican sisters and the brothers are cooperating. At Coban in the mountains of Alta Vera Paz, the sisters are accepting many indigenous vocations and seeking to evolve a way of being a Dominican that respects their customs, their lovely songs, their ways of dressing and being human. The brethren have built a study center nearby, which is in contact with the brethren working in the indigenous villages, collecting information about their rituals and customs, so that we can find a way of evolving an indigenous way of being Dominican for both the men and the women. The stranger is made welcome. But what is the challenge that we must put to them? A priest who worked with the Masai in Kenya wished to have a truly inculturated Eucharist, and so he tried to make it as African as possible. When he turned up to preside he found that gath-ered around the table were only the men. The women were not to be seen. So he asked: "Where are the women?" And the men replied: "It is not our custom to eat with the women." Is that inculturation or a betrayal of the Gospel? No prizes for the cor-rect answer! In the discussion group in which I have participated at this conference we found similar questions posed in the context of Asia. On the one hand, we saw that there was' much to learn from the Indian understanding of the gztrlt, the master. We were reminded that becoming a master demanded real asceticism, real renunciation, a real poverty and simplicity of life. [I was not, I might say, taking all of this personally.] Do we, who are regarded as gurus, really make that deep apprenticeship of silence and asceti-cism? Do the religious of Hinduism and Buddhism put us to shame? VVhere might one find Dominic in India if he walked the Septe~ttber-O~ober 1994 649 Radcliffe * Inculturation roads today? Would we meet him walking the roads with a beg-ging bowl, like a Jain holy man? Does not this culture challenge us to rediscover our own ascetic and mendicant tradition? Yet at the same time we foun'd that we wished to challenge some aspects of the Asian understanding of the guru. We do not expect the dis-ciple to submit to the master in blind obedience. As the provin-cial of the Philippines said: "The master must teach the disciple to learn to learn, to learn creativity, originality. If he stands on the master's shoulders it is to see farther." I think that Western culture poses particular problems with regard to.inculturation. You do not find theologians demanding that we be inculturated and adopt the norms of our society; yet that is often what is happening. I think that this is partially because it has become not just one culture among the cultures of the world. Since the fall of communism, it has become the one global culture which threatens to suck in and absorb all others in its vast stomach. Western consumerist capitalism is the culture which simultaneously embraces nearly everyone and excludes the vast majority. It touches most of humanity and shuts it out from its promised land. It sells everyone a TV so that they may see par-adise and then forbids them to enter. For me a symbol of this was a visit to Soweto a couple of years ago. I wandered about this sad and exuberant place, this great township of some two million African people, which was not until recently even marked on South African maps. I came across a school and ambled in. The children ran to me shouting what I thought was some obscure African word, "ninja." It turned out to refer to some strange turtles that are the heroes of the then latest TV series in the United States. They had cups and T shirts and even shoes covered with pictures of these ninja turtles. These children were offered the culture of American TV and told they could never belong. I think also of the endless queues of people waiting in Moscow to buy a McDonald's hamburger, a week's wages for this "holy wafer" of Western culture. Do'we Dominicans wish to be radically inculturated into this culture? Will this add new riches to our religious life? This is a culture of wealth, not just of wealthy people but of the glory of money. Perhaps more radically than in any other society, the poor cannot properly belong, since they are by definition those who have failed. Their fate is invisibility. Of course, I do not for one moment deny the wonderful things that this culture has produced 650 Review for Religious and its real inventiveness, its tolerance for human difference, its love of human rights, and so on. But I would still suggest that we religious must resist inculturation here and be with those who do not belong. But do we? This is a question I put to the superiors of the Dominican Leadership Conference in the United States last week. Even the language we use suggests we are sucked into an alien view of the world. The Prior Provincial becomes part of "the Administration," a sort of chief executive; the brethren become personnel, and instead of a love of poverty we have end-less discussions of budgets. Maybe the vows of our religious life are in such radical contradiction with the values of the consumerist West that we can thrive as religious only if we opt out, become out-culturated! Chastity seems puerile, poverty absurd, and obe-dience infantile. I also think that it is interesting that this matter of poverty illustrates the ambiguity of the relationship of the Gospel and culture. In India there is precisely a religiou~ tradition which respects poverty and which invites us to embrace it; in the West there is a culture of wealth which we are invited to refuse. Inculturation is then both an embrace and a challenge. And it must be so for the identity to which we are called as Christians is beyond our naming. Who we are is a mystery hidden in God. For, as St. John says: "My children, we know that we are God's children now, but we do not know what we are to be. We know that when Christ appears, we shall be like him" (1 Jn 3:2). Inculturation and Creativity I was fascinated by the argument between professors Pawar and Mataji the first evening. As a good Dominican, I love an argu-ment. It was wonderful to hear someone challenge our assumption that inculturation was a good thing. We seemed to be faced with a dilemma: to inculturate and risk assimilation or to stick to our own traditions and culture and go on being foreigners. Do you do what the Buddhists do or follow the Roman rubrics? What a sticky spot to be in! It is my own view that this is a false dilemma, for it only faces us if we make the mistake of thinking of culture as something frozen, stuck, immobile, like a pure white ice cream in a cultural deep freeze. Here you have some set and eternal thing which is Indian culture, whose practices you either adopt or remain a foreigner. Septentber-October 1994 651 Radcliffe ¯ Inculturation Perhaps the magic of Indian culture for me is precisely its complexity and fluidity, forever old and new. This is symbolized by what I have heard from the window of my room. In the evening I heard the sound of the music of some Hindu festivals; maybe it was for the festival of the goddess. Mixed with the beat of the drums was the rhythm of one of those endless trains on that net-work of railway lines holding the subcontinent together. In the early hours I have heard another train, whose hooter strangely resonated with the early morning call to prayer of the mosque, perhaps played on a tape recorder. Every culture is alive in a con-stant state of transformation, of meeting other cultures and absorbing or rejecting them, of remembering old ways and invent-ing new ones. Any culture which is worthy of the name is complex and fertile. Think of Jewish culture. The whole history of that culture is one of interaction, of the absorption and rejection and transfor-mation of ideas from Egypt, Canaan, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome. There never was a pure Jewish culture which you could pop into the deep freeze, any more than there is a pure English or Indian or Japanese culture. If there were, they would be brain dead. They bubble away like Irish stews, constantly evolving. How does the incarnation, that epitome of inculturation, take place? It is through the most acutely creative moment of human life, in the conception of a child. God pitches his tent among us by meeting us in our most deeply creative moment. God becomes one of us at the moment that we make something new, present in the fertility of a woman. And it is always so in any true moment of inculturation, for a culture is most alive, most itself, where it is most creative, just as a tree is most alive at the tips of its branches. The challenge of inculturation is to be there, sharing in its inventiveness, sharing its exploration. The choice is not to adopt a given Buddhist or Hindu ceremony or carry on with a Roman one: "Do we say the rosary or sing a mantra?" We enter it as it makes things new, for then something may be born which is utterly Indian and utterly Christian. The most wonderful example of that was given to us in the Indian dance of the life of Jesus that we saw the other night. I think that this was more than a synthesis of the Indian and the Christian. It was mating which brought to birth a child which was completely of both its parents. What it meant to be Indian was extended and deepened in that dance, and what it meant to be 652 Review for Relig4ous Christian was expanded. Such moments make us more Catholic. When I saw those wonderful finger movements I understand what it might mean to celebrate that the "finger of God is upon us." Never have l seen the mystery of the resurrection so beautifully evoked. Afterwards I asked myself why. Why was I so touched? I think that it is because for us the resurrection is the resur-rection of the body, and so it is most radiantly evoked in the dance of the bodies, expressed in the stretching of our bodiliness. The dancers said that their dance is prayer. One might say that our bodiliness is made prayerful. V~rhat better way to evoke the Resurrection in which the Body of Christ is utterly transformed into per-fect praise? Let me give you another example. Everywhere I went in Central America earlier this year I was struck by the thriving popular culture. Our Dominican students wrote poems, painted, composed music. When I asked the pre-novices in E1 Salvador to tell me about their society, they spontaneously composed five little plays, including one about the visitation of a contemplative monastery of Dominican nuns by the Mother General, Mother Timotea. Here one could imagine an incultur-ation of the Gospel, because here there was the fertility of doing something new. The example 1 loved most was that of a Haitian cross, painted by a peasant in our parish in the central moun-tains. It made the cross into a via crucis, along which walked a peasant, walking the way that all Haitian peasants must go, a path of suffering. But at the center of this cross was a flowering palm tree; the dead wood bore fruit. And behind the hills one could see the glimmerings of a new dawn. Here was a symbol so old and so new, the glorious and beautiful cross, pointing one back to the flowering crosses of the Middle Ages and earlier, and yet so Think of Jewish culture. The whole history of that culture is one of interaction, of the absorption and rejection and transformation of ideas from Egypt, Canaan, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome. September-October 1994 653 Radcliffe ¯ In~dturation new and so of just-this-moment-and-culture. Yesterday we saw the flowering cross in the philosophy house of the Carmelites of Mary Immaculate. In theology one could think of Thomas Aquinas grasping and transforming Aristotle and giving us a the-ology which is utterly Aristotelian and utterly Christian. Surely it belongs to our Dominican way to love what is simul-taneously so traditional and so fresh, this beauty "so ancient and so new--the ever fertile tradition. As Matagi said, quoting a Chinese proverb: "Find your roots and then fly." The Enlightenment, because it rejected tradition, drove a wedge between our feet and our wings. So the challenge of inculturation is surely to be there where the action is, there where there is intellectual and artistic cre-ativity, so that we may make something which is both utterly our own and which belongs to the culture. In any culture we must seek out the thinkers, the artists, the explorers and sit at their feet so that they can help us to make something new. It does not even matter whether they are believers are not. And this involves courage and trust. We must let people exper-iment, try things out and sometimes fail. We have the liberty to make mistakes. ~re must not fear failure. One famous theologian, I forget whom, said that one cannot contribute a single theolog-ical insight unless you make a hundred mistakes. There can be no creativity if you are afraid to play a bit--homo h~dens, playful humanity. And you cfinnot play around if you are afraid of falling on your face. You cannot dance if you are always afraid of stand-ing on another's feet. An interesting question to ask is this: Do we dare to accept young men and women who might wish to venture a bit into the unknown? What do we look for in vocations? Do we wish them to be nice and safe, people who will not rock the boat? Do we dare accept the rather difficult ones, who will certainly be a prob-lem but who might, just might, be saints? It is good to imagine how we might have reacted if some of our great predecessors had applied to join our province. What would we have written about them after their novitiates. St. Thomas Aquinas: "Eats and thinks too much. ~Refuses to join in communal sport and play basket-ball." Jordan of Saxony: "Always writing to a Sister Diana; he will have problems with chastity." Catherine of Siena: "Too fond of the brethren and thinks she hears voices. Bad start." Fr~ Angelico: "We cannot afford the paint." Savonarola: "We cannot afford the 654 Review for Religious books; he keeps burning them." Las Casas: "He stirs things up too much." Martin de Porres: "His obsession with people at the door upsets community life. No sense of obedience and said that it was less important than charity. Troublemaker." And what would we have said of Dominic? Would we have let him in? Would we? You might think that we Dominicans who so care for the truth should above all fear error. On the contrary, it is because we believe that the Holy Spirit is poured upon the people of God that we can dare to risk getting it wrong, for the church will tell us when we do. History suggests that sometimes it may say that we are wrong when we are not. That is the pain of bringing about the new. The point is that we can play with confidence. I can play with ideas and search and experiment because it does not all depend upon me. It seems to me that the adventure of inculturation is inseparable from that strong sense of our wider belonging in the Order and the church. It is because we belong that we dare to be free. If we are neurotic about making mistakes, as religious often are, then it suggests we do not believe in Pentecost. Look at St. Peter, our rock. He hardly ever got it right, and the church did not collapse. The challenge of inculturation is surely to be there where the action is, there where there is intellectual and artistic creativity, so that we may make something which is both utterly our own and which belongs to the culture. Let Us Talk to One Another The sort of process that I am envisaging, of being creative and imaginative, of experiment and taking risks, will, of course, be painful and disturbing. It will create moments of conflict and uncertainty. One person's inculturation is another person's betrayal. Just think of sexual ethics. Do the official sexual ethics of the church represent a refusal to enter the modern world, as Septonber-October 1994 655 Radcliffe ¯ Inculturation most of my young friends seem to think, or a prophetic stance against a degradation of the body? Should we inculturate and have lots more sex and make many of the young feel more at home or be a counter-culture which might exclude the young for whom this is incomprehensible, but be a witness to the Gospel? Another example: when I was a Dominican student in Paris twenty years ago, the brave and prophetic thing to do seemed to be to give up the habit, live in an ordinary, fiat and get a job. Today it looks rather boringly conformist. Any experimentation, any creativity, will involve painful dis-agreements, dissension, mutual puzzlement. "This is not the Order I joined, some may say. And so it has always been, ever since the beginning, ever since Peter confronted Jesus when he began to walk on the way to Jerusalem; ever since Paul confronted Peter at Antioch for refusing to eat with the Gentiles. There is nothing new in such conflicts. ~,~hat matters is whether they are fertile, fruitful. Do they lead us to truth? I. believe that we should never embark on such a course of experimentation, of incultura-tion, if we do not dare to talk to one another. And do we, do we dare to talk and listen? One of things that has most struck me during this last year of wandering about the world is just how much our church is marked by silence. It is not the meditative rich silence that Matagi can teach us. It is not the silence of our contemplative nuns but the silence that comes of fear. I believe that what most afflicts us is a fear of debate. It is not that people do not make statements; there are statements about dissident theologians and statements by dis-sident theologians. The papers are full of denunciations and counter accusations, but this does not add up to much of a con-versation. Surely we should be among those who, as at a dreadful tea party, try to get the dialogue going! We are one of the largest and most diverse religious families in the church. Where else could one find such a diversity of peo-ple, brethren and sisters and nuns and laity, contemplatives and actives, academics and pastoral people, progressives and conser-vatives? If we cannot take the risk of talking, then who will? And yet sometimes at the heart even of our own communities, where three or four are gathered together in Dominic's name, there may be silence in the midst of them. As I endlessly repeat as I wander around the world: we do have a tradition of dialogue, of disputa-tion. And, as you can see in St. Thomas, this is not founded on 656 Review for Religious ham~nering your opponent into the ground, but arguing with hi~n so as to learn frmn him or her. Central to our tradition is the belief that you might argue with someone precisely because you dare to hope that he or she may teach you something. Who was that holy man who grabbed his opponent and said: "I will not let you go until you teach me something"? We should wrestle with the other as Jacob wrestled with the angel, so that we may demand a blessing. We must dare to raise the question of truth. It is our motto. In much of modern Western culture, this is a word which one may hardly breathe. To question the truth of another's utterance, is to put them into question, is to question their value, their right to be. If someone tells you that he/she is really a Martian who has come from outer space, then you must merely reply: "Honey, if you are comfortable with that idea, then it's fine by me." But we Dominicans ought to dare to raise the question of truth not because we know it all, but because we hope that together we may discover it, and so we respect the other enough to say some-times: "I believe you to be wrong." It is not worth saying to any-one: "I think that you are wrong," unless you believe that it matters what they think. It is too easy to say in ecumenical discussions that we all believe the same thing deep down. There would be no point in dialogue if it were so obviously true. The first stage of friendship is discovering how ~nuch you are alike. The second is daring to see how much you differ. The third may be the revelation that in the hidden heart of the unspeakable God, we are indeed one. And so, to conclude, I would suggest, indeed I would argue, that if inculturation is not just selecting items off some cultural supermarket shelf--"1 will have a Hindi bhaja,1, one item of Buddhist meditation and a Christian Eucharist, please"--if it is a thoroughly creative business, then it asks of us a twofold courage: the. courage to experiment, to play, to risk failure and mistakes. But there is also the equally deep courage of talking to one another, in the pursuit of truth that transcends us all. Do we dare? September-October 1994 657 J.J. MUELLER Second-Stage Inculturation: Six Principles of the American Mind Anew day has dawned in the understanding of the rela-tionship between the gospel message and culture. Vatican II officially used the word culture for the first time as a theolog-ical category in the process of evangelization.' Soon after the council, the word mculturation became widely accepted to describe bringing the gospel into a culture. Simply said, culture described the human fashioning, working, and making of an environment wherein and whereby people survived, lived, and developed val-ues and meaning in their lives. Languages, symbols, institutions, and rituals were integral components of every, culture. The church recognized that people could hear the Good News only in the light of their own cultural ambient. As a result, culture tended to be dealt with as the world out there, synonymous with an observable society, and could be examined empirically. This was the first stage of our thinking about inculturation. A new day has dawned and shines its light upon a second stage. Two features characterize this second stage. First, we are now moving from a world "out there" to a world "in here," that is, we understand culture to impact the nonobservable world where our thoughts, feelings, presuppositions, and assumptions about life take shape. Secondly, we are not talking about the gospel J.J. Mueller SJ, associate professor of theology, at Saint Louis University., is the author of Practical Discipleship: A United States Christology (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1992). His address is Department of Theological Studies; Saint Louis University; 3634 Lindell Blvd; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. 658 Review for Religious coming to a pagan land, but about believers talking to believers across cultures. Regarding the world "in here," the first great missionary Paul expressed it well when he said that the gospel penetrates like "a two-edged sword that cuts between bone and marrow." ~re can add to Paul's words that the gospel cuts between our spirit and the culture through which we must express ourselves. Not only can no human being enter this world without simultaneously being born into a culture, but also the mind of every person can understand, judge, and decide only through a culture. The formative culture of the mind, then, is a domain where the gospel must enter. The new stage of inculturation is not talking about the gospel encoun-tering a non-Christian culture, but about Christian believers speaking to each other out of their respective cultures. One unasked-for consequence can be misunderstanding, with tension as its sign. Because we use the same words, communication is not necessarily clear, and different meanings are given and received. As an African proverb says, "We see with the same eyes but not with the same mind." While it is apparent that cultures differ, we seem to have operated as if minds were the same. They are not. The principles, assumptions, and expectations set up by the incul-turated mind differ from culture to culture, and it is here that the source of many tensions exist in theo Catholic church today. This article will present the culture of the mind I know best: the American mind. By using American I am referring to a person of the United States, knowing full well that it also refers to peo-ple of two continents. I am doing so simply because no other ade-quate adjective of United States people exists. Although the American mind is my example, I hope to make clear that the method used in this article is not limited to only one culture but is applicable to any other culture. The American mind, as with any mind, is principally formed by the society in which it lives. The word society is often used interchangeably with culture because a society is the largest and clearest designation of the common particularities that bind peo-ple together in a common identity. We do not say we are "Western" culture but "American" culture. Within the American culture exist dynamics of binding and formative influence. The principles of democracy as lived in the United States form the basic social culture of the American mind. This type of democracy is not identical to democracy anywhere else in the world, because September-October 1994 659 The word democracy has had a stormy ecclesial history due to differing contexts about what it means. it has a particular history and experience unlike any other. Nevertheless the principles that undergird this democracy are clear and found in the Constitution oft& United States and the first ten amendments to the constitution, the Bill of Rights. Six prin-ciples clearly operate in the American mind which, although not exhaustive, present adequately the tensions of intellectual incul-turation with which the American church is faced. I will present each one in turn by providing an explanation of what the prin-ciple means and then follow it by the events which have given rise to the spe-cific tensions within the American church, thereby forming a kind of profile of the American mind by the end of this study. Each of the six sections will proceed in two parts. The first part is an explana-tion of the principles, expectations, and assumptions that operate in the American mind. The second part begins with a ten-sion between the Catholic American mind and with decisions made by the Vatican. The tension with the Vatican mind is obvi-ously an important relationship to examine because it brings to the surface a series of misunderstandings that are deeper than a lack of knowledge, whose source lies at the cultural difference forming and filtering each mindset. It therefore focuses the dis-cussion so that people of other cultures can understand what is happening. In addition, the examples are international in char-acter and clearly represent cross-cultural exchanges that offer the clearest test cases for examining the workings of the American mind. The process, however, could be done also through exam-pies from other cultures, for example, American and Asian minds, or from dioceses and parishes located on East Coast and West Coast, or women and men's religious orders, in the case of an international group like Jesuits and how they actually interpret their religious life in different cultures. Most probably, the reader will see other applications. This article is not about championing American culture. That would be to impose one culture on another. My concern is much deeper, because if we are to find out how to be authentic and 660 Review for Religious responsible disciples of Jesus Christ we must come to grips with those unconscious yet dynamically present principles by which we filter all information, even religious. Therefore, in order to become more modest about our cultural limits--not to foist them upon others and to avoid any reverse American "cultural imperi-alism"-- we must shine the spotlight upon the culture of the American mind. Democracy The principle of democracy is central to the American mind and gathers the other principles together to make a distinctive unity. The American people express their principles of demo-cratic governance in the Constitution of the United States; today we are the longest-lasting and oldest democratic country still run by its original constitution. This longevity points to perduring cur-rents that are continually renewing themselves and that run deep in the American mentality. So too is it with Catholics, who came mostly as Europeans, thinking as Europeans; they gradually yielded this identity to a new American one. So goes the process of culture. The demo-cratic way of governance thereby became commonly accepted to the point of being taken for granted and, even more, growingly appreciated for its way of ordering the commonweal. As early as 1784, the first bishop of the United States, John Carroll, saw this process happening and made the prophetic statement that the religious revolution in America was "more extraordinary" than the political.2 Bishop Carroll argued with Rome for the indepen-dence of the fledgling church, but he was unsuccessful; the American church had only "mission" status under the Roman congregation Propaganda Fide until 1908. Democracy was not won or shaped easily in its two-hundred-year history. The cost was often war and bloodshed, with Catholics fighting and dying for democracy 'in every war. Mistakes were made, but Americans really do not disagree about the freedoms that democracy offers. Hence, the emotions of American people run deep on this subject. It is a form of governance and a princi-ple in which the Christian message can flourish. Tension: The word democracy has had a stormy ecclesial his-tory due to differing contexts about what it means. The main rea-son is that the European (and one must includ~ the Vatican) mind Septentber-October 1994 661 has interpreted democracy through the tragic and chaotic events surrounding the French Revolution, beginning in 1789 where the church suffered grievously; even the pope was imprisoned by Napoleon. The French Revolution became an example of the bankruptcy of the principles undergirding the "Modern World." In 1794 at the Synod of Pistoia Pius VI condemned this rage for "furious democracy" (Auctorem fidei). A century later, the Vatican warned against the so-called "Americanist heresy," again finding democracy an unacceptable way of operating. The twist this time was that the Vatican thought that democracy was inappropriate for ecclesial governance. The filter for the Vatican was again European democracy, especially as it was being proposed in France. It must be remembered that even such an extraordinary person as Pius IX, who dominated and determined the papacy in the 19th century, never left the papal states in his lifetime! In fact, the "Americanist heresy" was started in France, not in the United States, with the French mis-interpretation of Isaac Hecker. The bishops in America were con-fused by the 1899 papal letter Testem benevolentiae, and some objected that such a "description" did not find its place in the United States. Of far greater consequence, however, is the present turn to democracy by many countries in the world. The forms of democ-racy are not necessarily in the American vein, but are their own specialized types that belong to the same trunk of the tree. Nevertheless, the 19th-century lesson needs to be laid to rest. With the end ,of the Cold War, while a wave of "democracy" is going around the world, the Vatican continues to warn people in an antiquated way that "the church is not a democracy," a fre-quent but confusing ecclesial response given to Americans and others who raise concerns about undecided and open-ended issues, especially as they particularize themselves in each culture. This can hardly be called a "cultural imperialism" but a holding to Vatican II's clarion call to evangelize each culture. What, Americans ask, is the alternative procedure? A monarchical form of government, historically embedded in the European tradition? The question is not one of winners and losers, but one of where is God and the kingdom of God in all this. While Americans understand and even agree with the Vatican's underlying objection that religious truth is not up for a vote, nev-ertheless Americans are confused because many of the roles of 662 Review for Religious governance could be participatory. After all, is it not true that the Catholic Church has found fertile ground here, unlike anywhere else in the modern world, through the protection of democracy? "Why," the American asks, "would people want to keep and con-tinue with ways of governance that created problems like reli-gious wars, intolerance, and harsh judgments that lead to oppressing one religious group at the expense of another?" Americans founded a type of governance where these European traits were left behind. Something new and in contrast to Europe was established on these shores. Our experience of democracy raises serious questions that the uni-versal church has to address; it is not simply an American phenomenon nor an American triumphalism, but a search to value difference in what might be a non-Eurocentric model. The marvelous success story of the American church and its vitality, is related to democracy where rights, freedoms, and opportunities offer peo-ple the chance to participate in their own destiny as believers. Hence, fianericans have a graced expe-rience that says the principles of democracy are not antithetical to ecclesial governance. The outstanding German theologian Karl Rahner wrote years ago that, granted the church was not a democ-racy, nevertheless ecclesial decisions and ways of proceeding could be done democratically. It is a legitimate way of proceeding within the church. Most important for our consideration, one must remember that there is no other way for Americans to think than the way they have learned through their culture. What is the case in America is also the case elsewhere; a tension results when cul-turally foreign and intellectually alien forms of governance are imposed upon a people. The answer is complex and not one that I wish to address here, but it comes down to this: To remain truly Catholic is to be "universal" and thereby to grant to others the legitimate and welcomed influence of culture upon my/our faith. My point, however, is to examine the unexamined starting point Americans have a graced experience that says the principles of democracy are not antithetical to ecclesial governance. September-October 1994 663 of our mental culture: If the gospel is to be truly inculturated, the question of democracy as the beginning point of under-standing the gospel message must be taken on clearly and with respect. 664 Due Process If everyone is to be treated as an equal who has rights before law and society, then Americans expect that the manner of pro-ceeding is honest and fair to all concerned. This means attention must be given to the various forms of due process. The Asnerican Revolution of 1776 was ignited because of British abuse of power which taxed the colonists without representation. In response to a painful lesson learned from. being oppressed, the U.S. Constitution included principles in determined opposition to any authoritarian and totalitarian governance and in so doing accepted the principle of due process. Hence fairness for everyone was guaranteed by law, including the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty, to be tried by a' jury of one's peers, to know one's accuser, and to be represented by counsel in a court of law. Above all, fairness included the right to information, freedom of speech, and the power both to elect judicious officials who would uphold these rights and to remove any official who violated them. Whether a president or a pauper, every citizen is equal before the law. These protections are human acts of a culture that seeks to guarantee as far as possible that truth prevails. Above all, it is fair to everyone, and no one can claim a hidden truth or secret agenda of a special process. Because the process is common and follows the same rules, the innocent and powerless are protected while the powerful and privileged are not allowed unfair advantage or tyran-nical sway over citizens. Tension: Because Americans operated on the non-European principle that peopl~ are innocent until proved guilty, Americans regard ecclesiastical censuring as a serious judgment that requires due process to be observed. If due process is violated, then the act is considered authoritarian in the most arbitrary sense of the word. Americans recognize that people of goodwill have differences of judgment and actions, but, if the truth will prevail, every person has the right to explain and defend his or her actions. All per-sons deserve this basic dignity, and so does the community from Reviezv for Religion,s which they spring. It is too easy to bash Banerica for individual-ism and not see the heroic, countercultural struggle of kanerican Catholics to form communities. And certainly, when it comes to something as important as faith, Americans assume that any eccle-siastical censure would be at least as respectful of persons as their culture is. Americans, painfully and confusedly, have found decisions from Rome violating due process. A few examples that have angered Americans are these: the censuring of Archbishop Hunthausen of Seattle; the silencing of creation-centered the-ologian Matthew Fox; the removal of Charles Curran from his teaching position even though the allegations date over a twenty-five year period (the formal investigation began in July 1979) and he had not taught in the area of sexual ethics for fifteen years; and the requiring of a "mandate" for teachers of theology, which puts the entire Catholic university in jeopardy. (Ironically an act the enemies of Catholicism could not do for over two centuries might become a reality through the imposition of European Vatican principles on the American context.) In these cases, accusers remained anonymous, secret letter campaigns to the Vatican held disproportional power, actions and judgments fol-lowed in secret, and unilateral silencing for a year was imposed on theologians as a test and act of obedience; and quite beyond the demands of faith an additional test of loyalty such as an oath was required of theologians as if the sacrament of baptism were not enough for faith. An~ericans find such actions heavy-handed, clash-ing with the deepest rights to which peoples are entitled. "Fairness" is multifaceted and certainly indicative of the gospel message. American Catholics feel their own integrity is violated when a basic human right and clearly a gospel requirement, a spiritual and human boundary deep in the inculturated psyche, has been disregarded. Certainly a gospel-oriented church is not looking to squelch such rights, yet the outrage is there. Attention to the culture of the mind is the place where any movement for-ward can be made. In front of the American public and on front pages of news-papers, the church unfortunately seems to be cast in a role where it is more guilty of human-rights abuses than secular society. American Catholics feel compromised in their witness to the gospel because of such action. My purpose is not to put blame anywhere or defend one side or the other but to point out the September-October 1994 665 tension and the culture of the mind that has to be dealt with if we are to enter into a deeper encounter with Christ. A new dawn requires the examination of how the gospel is received, judged, and preached in a culture. Equal Rights ~qlile everyone is not created equal in talents and opportu-nity., everyone shares in equality, of personal rights before the law. For example, that people are born into a social class (lower, mid-dle, upper class) should neither reward nor condemn them. Persons can seek their own pursuits of life, liberty, and happi-ness. As a result, Americans ensure opportunities such as manda-tory education to level the mountain of privilege and fill in the pit of poverty, to create a playing field of possibility based on merit. Hence, openness to the future, new possibilities, and change are characteristically strong Mnerican attributes. American children are raised with encouraging dreams such as "X~rork hard and you will be a success; . Make something of yourself; . Be all that you can be;" "You too can grow up to be president of the United States." Still, we are not naive about these dreams. We have learned that within our country upward possibilities have down-side problems, even unsurmountable for some, and that in our foreign policies we have failed to grasp the different cultural struc-tures of meanings and values. The principle, nevertheless, remains that people are equal and that the future can be shaped by our human decisions. The question remains: Who will decide? Aanericans do not want it done by the tyrannical few. Americans have faithfully championed this position and insisted on it for two centuries. American Catholics helped shape this ideal. A long-standing and troubling conflict about equality has been the gender issue. I do not think it is possible to understand the gender issue in the United States without understanding some-thing of the racial issues which are part of the same cloth. With respect to the race issue, the bloody and soul-searing Civil War (1861-1865) resolved the legal question of slavery in favor of emancipation. The painful legal struggles afterward led the Supreme Court in 1896 to the divisive "separate but equal" clause that allowed over a half century of civil racism. It was finally reversed by the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Americans "know this history and are being 666 Review for Religious increasingly sensitized to the racism at work deep in the fabric of society. The gender issue has become a connected issue where the lack of equality has been a reality that cannot be ignored. The equality of women is a world revolution that, in America, predates the founding of the United States. In the 17th century, New England's Anne Hutchinson explained religious experience through a woman's experience and was forced to flee. Two cen-turies of women's advocacy has culminated in recognition of women's equal rights. Today, equal-rights legislation dominates business, education, government, and every facet of personal rela-tionships, including new laws against sexual harassment in the workplace. Notwithstanding the many personal sexual prefer-ences that the law must deal with, the legal principle in the gen-der issue is clear: Gender is not to be a barrier in freedoms and the opportunities to exercise one's talents. Now even little girls can be all that they can be and dream of becoming president. Tension: In the search for basic equality, Americans find priv-ilege based on race or gender an inequitable, unjust principle upon which to make distinctions. Catholic life, unfortunately, not only reflected but supporte'd many of these unjust positions. The list includes the discouragement of indigenous vocations to priest-hood and religious life, and "separate but equal" racial policies where congregations were racially segregated, even by pews. These historical realities are not just a bligh't on the history of the American mentality; they make us more sensitive to our sin-ful past. The feminist movement is another case in point. Why women could not be altar servers, and crossbearers, have their fe(t washed at Holy Thursday liturgy, preach, or enter into ordained min-istries of diaconate and priesthood, bishop or pope, simply because of their gender, is not clear to Americans who want to under-stand. American Catholics, while perhaps agreeing with the con-clusion, find arguments based on gender not only unconvincing but sexist, and not gospel. This point of tension is awkward and difficult for everyone, as we all know. For the American mind, it is not, therefore, a way of proceeding to declare topics' on women "nondiscussable." Truth demands, Americans think, that such top-ics should be discussable to proceed forward and arrive at an understanding of the truth. Equality implies that women's expe-rience, like racial experience, be listened to as they encounter the living, loving God, even if it is awkward and uncomfortable for Septentber-October 1994 667 women or men. Otherwise, Americans cannot help but see the ecclesial policies as acts of unilateral power and authority, to con-trol others, not principles of service and truth to free people to encounter the risen Lord. In the church we cannot trivialize the difficulties of equal rights, whether racial or gender, or unas-sumingly accept any solution where there are racial or gender winners and losers. Then everyone loses and the gospel is lost. We have to find another way out while holding on to equality of the rights of believers in the community of believers. The Right to Choose Americans value the right to choose as an important exercise of their maturity and responsibility. The right of self-determina-tion is not necessarily individualistic or selfish; one can commit one's self to community, the common good, relationships, and religion. It even respects the right to .make decisions and be wrong. The first experience of American Catholics was their choice of religion. Catholics fought for their right to belong to their religion, form organizations, and associate with whomever . they wished. The right to choose is a most powerful belief in the goodness and willingness of a citizen to contribute to the common good. Tension: Here is one of the truly difficult tensions for con-temporary American Catholics. Take the example of birth con-trol. On the one hand, the Vatican that told people that they were spiritually mature enough to form and follow their consciences has, on the other hand, seemingly reversed itself by telling peo-ple what their conclusion and decision should be. I am not speak-ing about the arguments about birth control, or making any judgment about it; my aim is to shed light on why there is a ten-sion for Americans. People cannot be given the right to choose and then told they have no right to choose. Their reaction, pre-dictably, is confusion over the double messages being given. Americans are no strangers to disagreement, but they expect open discussion of the problems and the marshaling of all the data (his-torical, anthropological, theological, and so forth). When differ-ent choices are possible, people have the freedom to make them to the best of thei.r consciences. One other example which is not in the ethical sphere is the selection of bishops for dioceses and priests for parishes. Without 668 Review for Religious local participation by the people, the choices often seem capri-cious, whimsical, punitive, or mysteriously rewarding. Giving rea-sons for the selection, even asking for consultation in the process where it concerns a parish or diocese, seems proper. If people are not consulted in their own affairs, then their conclusion is that someone has something to hide or that such decisions are simply autocratic and arbitrary, something to be disregarded as irrelevant because the decisions speak for only few decision makers. This is not a request for democracy, say American Catholics. If, as the Catholic Church teaches, the Holy Spirit resides in all believers, then why act as if it belonged only to a few? The challenge is how to give voice to people open to the Holy Spirit. Americans desire to con-tribute their.understanding of the Spirit to the entire church and to listen to other cultures' under-standing and contribution. At the same time Americans recognize legitimate authority in the pope and bishops to make decisions with necessary knowledge and perspec-tive. It would seem some cooperation of the two ways of pro-ceeding might be a way to go forward with mutual dignity and trust. It would be, moreover, a beacon of trustworthy light to our dialogue with other' Christian and non-Christian ecumenical groups. In the church we cannot trivialize the difficulties of equal rights, whether racial or gender, or unassumingly accept any solution where there are racial or gender winners and losers. Voluntary Participation Americans reject forced participation and prefer the freedom to participate in the types and varieties of work that they choose. Voluntary participation by i;avitation has always been part of the American Catholic church and is one of its most distinctive but unheralded trademarks. In his first pastoral letter (1792) Bishop John Carroll wrote that voluntary support had to be asked of the faithful because there was no tradition of civil support, an unusual Sept~nber-Octobcr 1994 669 circumstance but a reality continuing to this day. The reasons for a voluntary church are easy to understand. Nations like France, Spain, and Portugal were responsible for the support and evan-gelization of their new mission territories. Rome had little say, and policies were actually up to the nations to enforce. The result was financial support that made evangelization dependent upon the secular nations. No such relation ~xisted in the "Protestant" colonies in America controlled by the Church of England. The Catholic church was not allowed to operate openly, and people had to take oaths to uphold the monarch as the sovereign head of the church. It was an easy way to keep pesty Catholics out of the colonies, especially "papist" priests. As a result, finances were held in the name of lay people who paid for the support of both the church and clergy. This situation, incidentally, spawned the first great crisis in the American church, the problem of lay trusteeism where laity held the property and appointed pastors. The bishops broke this system in the 1830s, and the trend to centralized power in the episcopacy began) The virtue ofvoluntarism, nevertheless, gave rise to unparalleled accomplishments with hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, educational institutions, and charitable organiza-tions of every kind. Most often, religious orders provided the people to start and maintain these institutions. Initially most of these religious came from Europe, with American-born religious gradually taking their place. This story is one of the greatest con-tributions to American Catholicism. Tension: American Catholics know from their cultural condi-tioning that money is power, given in support of those appeals, needs, and cases that one deems desirable. Americans feel, how-ever, that the church operates with a double standard, namely that it is only too ready to accept their money but not their expe-rience. A growing tension occurs, then, if people feel their finan-cial support is either mismanaged or used against them. For example, the recent international financial scandals Of the Vatican by Bishop Marcinkus hit Americans doubly hard. First, Americans saw that this trusted Vatican official seemed to use church money more like a Wall Street broker than a churchman. How could this be allowed? Some call the lure of holding the purse strings the curse of the "Judas touch." Secondly, Mnericans were out.raged ¯ that it was an American bishop who was in charge. Whereas Americans have trusted the papacy, bishops, and pastors with the 670 Review for Religious disposal of money, such scandals only reinforce the idea that the clergy, as financial overseers, are naive, even irresponsible, about money. Unfortunately, too many examples abound to support their judgment. Because Americans consider their voluntary finan-cial support as an important act that demands fiscal responsibil-ity, they demand fiscal expertise, management, disclosure, accountability, and even consultation about its use. That means sharing power. Is the Vatican ready to do this with the laity? How are we to configure such cooperation? At the same time, if Americans feel the money is used against them, then they will refuse to give. For example, women have a seldom-mentioned illustrious and even heroic history of voluntary generosity in this country. If women feel sexist policies against them, they will likely refuse to give not only their time but also their money to support such a situation. Americans, unlike a state that supports a church, give voluntarily and expect to be treated with respect in every phase of their lives, not just in the financial area. If there is only a financial regard, as many American lay people in the parish have concluded, then Americans bristle because it is only their money that church governance wants. To an American this message would be one of utter disrespect and manipulation, totally against the gospel, whose message the peo-ple asking for money are supposed to be upholding. Thus, in the voluntary American system, the littlest person giving and not the bulging pocketbook has to be respected. If the dignity of the vol-untary gift and the person giving are to be upheld across cultures, then the two cultures of the mind, kanerican and Vatican, need to address the implications and meanings involved from both sides. Tolerance and Plurality United States Americans live in a pluralistic culture that accepts the principle of tolerance, not as an end in itself but as a precondition for moving forward and presenting the truth. Catholics of Maryland and New York were instrumental in shap-ing the original type of toleration that was later adopted in the U.S. Constitution. It meant a separation of church and state, but it accentuated the belief that people could converse with one another and at the same time live their lives according to their own beliefs without fear. This principle of toleration, while born and bred in/Mnerica, achieved universal church recognition only September-October 1994 671 after one hundred years of continual restatement, when it was finally accepted in the Vatican II document "Declaration on Religious Liberty." But even here John Courtney Murray, the architect of the document, cautioned believers that the document applied to people outside the church, not inside it (emphasis mine). This article argues for the beginnings of the discussion inside the church, especially from the view of the particular American cul-ture from which this society works. This principle of toleration recognizes that there is a cultural diversity within th~ United States which still remains the most ambitious experiment in diversity by any nation in the world. If it works, itis because the principle of toleration and the gover-nance by democracy has allowed it to work. Tension: Americans know that, despite the best of intentions, relationships fall apart. The question is whether to look back-wards to the past and try to assign blame, or to look to the future in building the kingdom for the future. The factors are compli-cated and complex, and judgments that punish people for trying to find solutions are not acceptable. For people trying their best, tolerance of their decisions before God may be the most Christian response possible. Americans clearly want lifelong commitments, not shallow, expedient ones; but if they do not work out, then people are encouraged to pick up the pieces and do their best. Roman canon law, which is certainly not kanerican law, holds to principles of the unbreakable relationship in marriage and priest-hood. This is good and one side of the human hope. But rela-tionships change and do not always last forever. In annulment cases many Americans find it a violation of their integrity to have to adnfit that a first marriage did not exist. It did exist and they did their best; it did not work, despite their desires that it would be forever. People can live in the past or the present. Americans fol-low Christ by picking up our lives and by trying to be the best lov-ing people we can be, now and in the future. Too often many Americans decide not even to go through an annulment pro-ceeding; others simply stop practicing because they feel judged and condemned in trying to uphold Catholic principles, kanericans ask the question: Could there not be other ways of dealing with these good ends from both sides? With regard to priesthood, a priest who asks to be laicized and who has faithfially served the people of God for twenty-five years must admit that he really did not have a vocation. For many 672 Review for Religious priests who have left, even to sign such a statement is at the cost of personal integrity. It is not true that they did not have a voca-tion to serve as a priest those many years. IA~hen married men become deacons, they do not renounce their married vocation. Cannot, Americans say, vocations be not eternal but changeable calls from God to be and go in other directions? If not, where would Abraham be? Francis of Assisi? Ignatius of Loyola? Mother Teresa? In a related issue of confusion, Americans ask why mar-ried Anglican priests who are trained and lived years in another tradition can become married Roman Catholic priests, while faith-ful Roman Catholic priests who live and love the Catholic tradi-tion want to marry but cannot? Is it necessary because of law to pursue and establish blame such that one person is a "winner" at the expense of another as a "loser"? Americans recognize that vocations can be forever, and people desire this; but life and rela-tionships change. When they do, the conflict for the Vatican becomes maintaining a principle of life commitment, while the conflict for Americans is to recognize change that they might not understand and yet not judge but encourage the person to find God in these changed circumstances. When faithful people's integrity is violated, there might be other ways to understand and deal with these issues. To understand where God is may require learning the culture of the mind. Conclusion These six principles are not meant to exhaust the profile of the American mind. They are, however, six principles that operate within the culture and are formative in how Americans think, live the gospel message, and act in the public domain. A new day has dawned as the second stage of inculturation is taking shape. It is a stage that focuses upon the inner world of culture which forms and filters our understanding. There is no other way for Americans to live. To be in a culture is to be fundamentally influ-enced by it, and Americans are trying to be faithful to the total demands of the gospel message. The way people think, therefore, is not the end point but a starting point. It is only by examining our mental culture that we can truly understand the gospel mes-sage and neither impose one culture upon another nor assume that we are all the same. We will be able to hear the voice of Jesus calling in its many inculturated expressions. Septonber-October 1994 673 Mueller . Se~ Nevertheless, tensions will continue. In this second stage of inculturation, two areas of concern will figure prominently, and I will use the American mind as the example. First, American cul-ture has an identity separate from Europe, just as other coun-tries, even with democracies, differ from America. Thus principles, assumptions, and presuppositions are bound to be different. If this is the case with cultures united in the larger Western main-stream, then how much more challenging will it be for cultures in Africa, India, Asia, and China? Secondly, and this follows from the 'first, the church may find itself in a double bind: The Vatican governs by one set of principles and the culture by another; this often results in strong tension or even opposition. The one goal for everyone is to be the best disciple that one can be. The church is now in a second stage of inculturation, begun at Vatican II, where it must listen to the Holy Spirit through inculturated believers and find ways to bring forth God's work in new cultural wineskins. While we do not have a crystal ball to see into the future, we do see that the future depends upon a cross-cultural contribution that respects the differences in the culturally conditioned mind. We must struggle to be sure that, in Africa, India, ~s'ia, Europe, and America, though we do not look the same exteriorly or express ourselves in identical terms interiorly, we share the same discipleship in the Holy Spirit. In order to find this necessary unity of the church, then, we must make the turn to the interior culture: the inculturated mind. Notes ~ Certainly, it raises questions about the inculturation going on within the Vatican mind. See the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et spes), The Documents of Vatican H, ed. Walter Abbott SJ (New York: America Press, 1966), chapter 2, paragraphs 53- 62, pp. 259-270. 2 James Hennesey SJ, ~'Catholicism in an American Environment: The Early Years," Theological Studies 50 (1989): 664. 3 James Hennesey SJ, "American Catholics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 93-100. 674. Review for Religious J. PETER SARTAIN The Challenge of Priestly Leadership I went through the seminary when it was not yet con-sidered necessary to teach administration and manage-ment skills to future priests. It was not that such skills were considered unimportant, for in fact some of the sem-inary faculty were excellent mentors in administration. There was simply no formal course in the administrative aspects of priestly ministry; I suppose it was assumed that we would eventually learn what we needed to know by observation and imitation--perhaps by osmosis! Even now, while I am a strong proponent of formal training in administrative skills for seminarians, I do not expect that such training will completely prepare them for the task; facility in management will come only with experience in managing. Moreover, I have come to realize that the fun-damental issue to be addressed in seminary formation is not administration or management, but leadership. When I was first assigned to a primarily administrative position some years ago, I was often frightened and bewil-dered with certain sensitive tasks. I am diplomatic by nature, but that was not enough. In a directed retreat one year I sensed God calling me to develop my own style of leadership, one that was both consistent with my person-ality and integral to my priestly vocation. The retreat experience confirmed my belief that there should be some-thing unique about the way a priest goes about being a leader. J. Peter Sartain is pastor of Saint Louis parish in Memphis and serves as vicar general of the diocese. His address is Saint Louis Church; 203 S. V~rhite Station Road; Memphis, Tennessee 38117. leadership and authority September-October 1994 675 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership During the years I ministered primarily in administrative positions I was often asked, "Do you think you will ever get back into pastoral work?" This article is a reflection on the ministry of leadership entrusted to priests, since their leadership role is at the heart of their call to holiness. Excellent resources are available to improve administrative skills--just treatment of church employees, man-agement principles, techniques for conflict resolution, and the like. I know the value and importance of such resources, and I assume that insofar as a priest is called to administrative leader-ship he will make proper use of them. Some insights into priestly leadership I have gained through the years have challenged me to grow in holiness. I will add a few practical exhortations gleaned from experience. Seminarians would benefit best-from the study of parish administration were it considered in the broader context of leader-ship. Whatever the particular ministry a priest is called to exer-cise, he is a leader. At times his leadership will occur in a parish setting, with its concomitant administrative responsibilities; at other times he might be appointed to a primarily administrative position. No matter what the job, the priest's leadership should always be rooted in prayer and sacramental ministry, especially the Eucharist. The question always struck me as misguided. Perhaps the questioner intended to ask, "Do you think you will ever get back into parish work?" But even then the unspoken implication was that only parish work is truly "pastoral" or, more fundamentally, "priestly." As pastor I have discovered a clear continuity with my years as a church administrator; there are not two priesthoods, two leaderships, but one. First I am a priest. I am a man called to accept the grace of holiness, to pray and preach and celebrate the sacraments with devotion and a clean heart. I am also called to be a manager of people and departments, a strategic planner, a creator of budgetsi' and a convener of meetings. This type of work has provided a 676 Review for Religious unique setting for nay growth as a priest, my ongoing conversion of life, and my love for the vocation I have accepted. That is not to downplay the tedium and frustration that are part of every vocation; but I see clearly that the task before me each day is to approach my work with a priestly heart. Although I will make frequent mention of challenges and problems, I do not wish to give the impression that they are the constant lot of the church leader. Most colleagues work as part of a team, striving to put their faith into practice. Most are sup-portive, enthusiastic, and competent. At the same time, problem areas exist, and they bear the potential of trying the morale of the priest whose responsibility it is to address them. Challenges to the Aspiring Leader Church leadership today presents a number of unique chal-lenges, one of which is the rampant confusion between power/ authority and leadership. Christian leadership is not defined in terms of power, yet many people view it only that way. The con-fusion is most evident in some discussions about the nature of ordained ministry, but it is also present in the daily business of the church. I was caught off guard when a brother priest once asked me, "Do you realize how much power you have?" He was refer-ring to the decisions placed in my hands. What caught my atten-tion was not his suggestion that what I did affected other people's lives, but his implication that perhaps I had not yet come to that realization myself. Insofar as what I do affects the lives of oth-ers, one could say that I have "power"; in that case I pray it is the power of wisdom, prudence, and compassion. If I have "authority," I hope it is like the authority of Jesus, in whom there was no contradiction betw.een word and deed. I am profoundly aware that what I do affects peoples' lives; as a consequence I must rely first and foremost on the grace of God to guide ~ne in exercising the church leadership with which he has invested me. It is more difficult to exercise genuine leadership than to wield power; but it is, liberating for the priest to realize that the grace of ordination involves the promise of God's continued guidance. Thus the priest will not lead unless he prays, unless he is steeped in the Word of God, unless he is one with the Eucharistic Christ, unless he is striving for ongoing conversion of life. He will not lead until his heart is centered on serving God's people in the September-October 1994 677 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership person of Christ. The priest does not lead by giving directions, by pointing this way or that; he can point only in the direction he himself is going. He leads by following Christ, and he follows Christ by leading God's people. Priestly ministry is often defined in terms of "function" (what do you do all day?); the priest then becomes the coordinator of other functions in the church, analogous to the conductor of an orchestra. Such an analogy is flawed from the outset, for the priest is someone grounded interiorly, finding his vocation and his peace not in power or in function, but in a Person, the Lord Jesus, in whose priesthood he has been invited to share. In an egalitarian society which highly values equality, some people become suspicious of peers who accept positions of lead-ership. They are assumed to have sold out to power and status and to have forgotten the daily lot of the common person. Several years ago I scheduled a luncheon meeting with a psychologist who had been working with one of our priests; as Vicar for Clergy it is my responsibility to act as liaison with the bishop in such cases. Although we had spoken by telephone several times, the psychologist and I had not met until the luncheon. Toward the end of our time together he told me that he had "checked me out" with some Catholic friends. They reported that I was friendly and caring, a nice guy; several added that for that very reason they were puzzled about why I had my job! I was amused both by his need to check me out and by the comments he received. I learned once again that some people simply do not expect "nice guys" to be in positions of authority, even in the church. Moreover, some are hesitant to accept church leadership posi-tions or to support leaders precisely because of misconceptions about authority figures. My own hesitation early in the priest-hood continues to remind me that as a priest I am to be a com-passionate, just, and humble leader. At times, others will conveniently appeal to our authority in search of the legitimation of a decision they have made. When coworkers lack confidence in their own leadership or authority, they appeal to mine. When they are uncomfortable accepting responsibility for a decision, they will add, "and Fr. Sartain agrees with it." Such posturing once annoyed me; now it reminds me that when I delegate a decision I promise to claim it as my own. Most challenging are the controversies that permeate the atmosphere for many who choose to minister in the church: the- 678 Rbview for Religious ological conflict, feelings of oppression, disenchantment, burnout, and anger. The causes of these sore spots are legion, and those who would reduce them to a single cause miss the mark in under-standing human nature. It is a dangerous temptation to believe that they exist only in the church; they are present in every orga-nization and workplace. They are particularly challenging when pow-erfully present but unspoken or unconscious. Unconscious anger is frequently directed toward the nearest leader, identified as the "authority figure." The leader must learn to deal with both the angry person and the issue at hand. The person demands more energy than the issue, and the temp-tation to frustratedly dismiss both person and issue is great. It is eas-ier to deal with someone who is angry with me, rather than with someone who is just "angry." Once when I made a decision unpopular with a religious sister, she subse-quently felt the need to arrange a meeting to tell me she was angry, "but not with you--with the church." The truth was that she was indeed angry with me, but her anger had its roots in dealings with other priests and prior situ-ations unrelated to me; nonetheless it affected our working rela-tionship. I had to be aware of that fact, whether or not she was. Am I prepared to deal with the unresolved anger that seems to grip many in the church, today? Am I willing to accept the fact that the anger will often be directed toward me as an ordained minister of the church? Will I make the effort to address issues even when the attendant anger is unreflective and misdirected? In a five-part work entitled On Consideration, a major portion of which is devoted to advice on sound administration, St. Bernard of Clairvaux writes to Pope Eugene III, a fellow monk who had been elected pope. At one point, while referring to the type of circumstances I have ou.tlined, he writes, "it is not the face of the scorpion that you should fear, he stings with his tail!" (On Consideration, 4.4.9.). The priest does not lead by giving directions, by pointing this way or that; he can point only in the direction he himself is going. Septentber-October 1994 679 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership The church leader must make fair decisions based on facts. However, our sensitivity to people makes us keenly aware that the network of staff members has its own version of whatever issue is currently on the table. They may be influenced by the behind-the-scenes subterfuge of colleagues, including fellow priests or religious. Because of the nature of the discussion we may not be free to offer a public rebuttal. When we discover such duplicity, will we let anger sour our disposition and provoke us to biased decisions? Will we be able to face the possibility that oth-ers have made judgments about us and our motivations? Will we begin to pin labels on certain segments of'the church? Will we ask to be removed prematurely from a job simply because it is not worth today's hassle? Will we lead? A final word about today's pervasive anger. As a healthy step toward growth many people have trained in techniques for assertiveness. That can be a good thing. However, :all too many settle for being assertive; rather than entering forthright conver-sation and working toward resolution of a conflict, they merely assert themselves, leaving in their wake the debris of their hostility. Unless assertiveness is marked by openness, desire for reconcili-ation and a willingness to forgive, it is just another way of push-ing people around. We are called to go beyond assertiveness to achieve understanding and forgiveness. When. I uncover assertive-ness within myself, I must pose this question: do I consciously or unconsciously abuse or manipulate people? The era of political correctness has witnessed the creation of a unique body of church jargon; it appears in mission statements, correspondence, minutes of meetings, and hallway conversation. There is nothing bad about that in itself; every profession devel, ops its own jargon. I find, however, that some church profes-sionals use "correct" words they do not fully understand. Collaboration and justice stand out in particular. Nothing is more healthful, respectful of persons, and theo-logically valid than striving for collaboration. It builds morale, insures ownership of a common mission, and promotes vitality in the. church. The gifts of the Spirit are for the common good, and the Spirit intends that we work together. However, there are kinds and times of confidential decision making which require a unilateral decision on the part of the leader or leadership group. Even in a system characterized as collaborative in usual circum-stances, some decisions must be made by leaders alone. In the 680 Review for Religious face of allegations of "lack of collaboration," the leader must nonetheless continue to lead. That a certain decision was of neces-sity made behind closed doors does not indicate that it was not made for the common good. Another popular charge is injustice. True injustice in church settings is deplorable, and leaders have a responsibility, to act justly. In the best of circumstances the exercise of justice is a formidable task. However, I have often heard the word unjust applied to sit-uations when it would have been more honest for the protester to have said, "I didn't agree with so-and-so's decision." The priest leader will recognize that at times he cannot win; sometimes the leader stands alone. He must have the resolute-ness not to rescind a good decision when faced with charges of lack of collaboration, poor communication, bad judgment, and stubbornness. He must also have the humility to be flexible when he realizes he has made a mistake. The Challenge to Generosity To be a leader in the church today is a daunting challenge, due in part to the characterizations I have listed above. Each dio-cese, parish, institution, or school is stamped with its own per-sonality and its own distinctive staff and clientele. It is an exciting time to be a leader in the church, with singular opportunities for growth in holiness. I begin this section with a series of questions every seminarian and priest could pose to himself. 1. Will I kiss the altar every day? Each day every priest bows to the altar at which he is to offer Mass, as an act of reverence for Christ, who is symbolized by the altar. The altar is a sacred symbol, whetheroit be made of stone or wood, or whether it stands in a magnificent cathedral or on a bloody battlefield. Its sacred meaning is so powerful that none of us should ever pass an altar without bowing to Christ present there. But the priest also kisses the altar. This is a very public gesture, made in the presence of those gathered for the Eucharist; it is at the same time an intensely private gesture, an act of affection, an act of submission, an act of love and trust. Even more to the point, the priest's kiss of the altar is an act of identification. He is pro-claiming to Christ, to himself, and to those assembled that it is Christ the Priest who makes him who he is. He kisses the altar which symbolizes the Lord himself, the sacrifice of Calvary, and September-October 1994 681 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership the table of the Last Supper. Everything he does flows from the altar and back to it. The kiss symbolizes his daily embrace of the sacrifice of Christ as his way of life, for on the day of his ordina-tion he was totally and irrevocably joined in character to Christ. Some days it is quite easy to kiss the altar. At his first Mass, the new priest knows the sheer joy of experiencing the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at the hands of the bishop, the wonder at God's goodness in calling him to the priesthood. Who would not joy-fully kiss the sacred altar in gratitude for such undeserved blessing? Again and again the priest kisses the altar in celebration of the Sunday parish Mass, of weddings and anniversaries, of others' ordinations and gatherings of the church. He stands behind the altar, not because he i~ better than others but because he bears the identity of Christ, the only true Priest, who came not to be served but to serve. In reality, standing behind the altar is an act of humil-ity, a stance of service. There are also sad occasions at which the priest kisses the altar, when he leads God's people in prayer with Christ the con-soler, the one who knows our pain and the grief of death, the one who announced "Peace!" when he found his apostles gathered in fear after his resurrection from the dead. Av those times the priest stands with Christ, the giver of hope, who in times of difficulty trusted wholeheartedly in the providence of his Father. Sometimes when the priest kisses the altar only he himself knows the nature of the cross he bears. Perhaps he is keenly pained by the weight of his sinfulness, so his kiss symbolizes his need for Christ's mercy. Perhaps at other times his kiss is an act of the will and a prayer that Christ will help him understand the challenges he faces as a priest. Perhaps it is at times a simple act of love: "I love you, Christ, my Lord." At any time, and in any circumstance, the priest kisses the altar as a dramatic reminder of who he is and who he is called to imitate. Will I kiss the altar every day? 2. Am I willing to be led? The first and primary commitment of the priest is to pray. Whether we consider ourselves seasoned pray-ers is not the point. Help is available in the form of good reading material and spiri-tual direction, and it is never too late to begin. Any priest who dares to take on a responsibility in the name of God and the church without a simultaneous commitment to daily prayer will soon find that he is an empty well. If I am a steward, how can I 682 Review for Religious give what I do not take the tittle to receive? If I am a preacher of the word of God, how can I speak of what I do not take the time to hear? If I want to lead in the ways of God, how can I do so without assuring I am first being led? Concern for a particular style of prayer likewise sidesteps the point; God works with me as I am. But I must begin (again?), and if I have not yet begun, I should begin today. Karl Rahner once told seminarians at the University of Innsbruck that if we wait until we feel like praying, we will rarely pray. As Bernard writes to Eugene about his duties as pope, he is very aware of the hazards of his friend's busy office. Eugene has been taken from his monastic milieu and placed at the head of the church's administration. His temptation is to give himself so completely to his new duties that he has no time for himself and no time for God. He is new enough at the job to still feel uncomfortable with the hectic pace of his life; Bernard's fear is that Eugene will settle into his heavy schedule and become so calloused and habituated to an unreflective life that he will no longer realize that his acceptance of relentless busyness is not a sign of inner peace, but of hardness of heart. "It is not the virtue of patience to permit yourself to be enslaved when you can be free . Are you less a slave because you serve not one but all. ? [1.4.5.] I praise your devotion to humanity, but only if it be complete. Now, how can it be complete when you have excluded yourself?. You too are human . You also should drink from the waters of your well . If you are a stranger to yourself, to whom are you not?" [On Consideration, 1.5.6]~ In prayer we discover who we are. In prayer God nourishes us with food of real substance and changes us in ways hidden even to ourselves. In prayer we return over and again to the source of our vocation and gradually begin to take on the likeness of Christ who is our true self. We will ask for guidance in specific circum-stances; but true discernment takes place not when I demand of God, "Tell me what to do!" but when in openness of heart and generosity of spirit I simply allow myself to be led by the Holy Spirit, with no expectation or goal other than to become his instrument in all things. 3. Am I willing to be a leader? This question is more complex than it first sounds, for it goes beyond one's willingness to take on a job, to be in charge, or one's capacity to accept or claim responsibility. More fundamentally, September-October 1994 683 Sartain * The Challenge of Priestly Leadership it means "am I willing to give of myself to this endeavor, this parish, this school--knowing that I am also accepting a great bur-den-- because I believe in its mission, value its growth, and love its people? .Am I willing to be a leader when it is fun and when it is painful? .Am I willing to take time and effort to communi-cate, to care, to consult, to weigh tough choices, and to decide?" "Am I willing to take a firm stand when necessary, knowing that the opposition may be fierce? . Am I willing to abide the mistrust and misunderstanding of authority prevalent in our society, and in the church? . Am I willing to admit my mistakes? . Am I willing to admit that as a leader I am a public person and thus a frequent topic of discussion?" When a newly ordained priest begins to realize that he is regarded as a leader, he notices that people relate to him in a new way, particularly if he is the final word on a decision. He is star-tled that some people, are suspicious of him, even coworkers and friends with whom he has previously worked. His protestations to the contrary, some will insist that he has changed simply because he has been ordained to the priesthood. Often p~ople project upon leaders whatever unpleasant experiences they have had with authority figures. The leader becomes the embodiment of all that made them angry or distrustful in the past; I become the cranky pastor, the mean nun from grade school, the unfair principal from high school, or the uncaring coach. Such projection is blatantly unfair and unmerited, and in reaction we strive to alleviate the suspicion of authority by our efforts at good Christian leader-ship. Unfortunately, we must accept the fact that such efforts will not always work. %then we assume a position of leadership, some will relate to us in a strained, unsettling way. Are we willing to live with such change, or will we constantly frustrate ourselves by try-ing to change others' attitudes,~over which ultimately we have no control? Experience tells me that most people are supportive day-to-day. However, some tend to forget that leaders are people, too. We have feelings, anxieties, needs, just like everyone else; but angry parents or anonymous letter writers ignore our feelings and are unconcerned about our preoccupations. They have something to say, and they want us to listen, period. The father of a sixth grader can enter my office, deposit his anger and complaints at my feet, and leave. If the meeting has not resolved all of his con-cerns, he has the satisfaction of knowing that he has lobbed the 684 Review for Religious bomb in the appropriate direction! But what about me? After I close the rectory door, I am left to myself in the midst of his rub-ble. Such experiences give me pause to consider my motivation for accepting the leadership role: Was it the prestige of the job? Was it to be well thought of?. Was it to be congratulated on hav-ing attained an exalted position? If so, the first onslaught of criticism will be devastating. Did I assume this position only because my bishop appointed me to it? At some point I must claim it as mine or I am doomed to misery and resentment. Priests are public property. We are delighted when parishioners remem-ber our birthdays and anniversaries, but we are chagrined to learn that they also know the license plate number of our cars, the name of the restaurant where we dined two weeks ago (as well as the names of our companions), and the gist of the disagreement we are rumored to have had with the sacristan last month. Our whereabouts on Friday evenings and during vaca-tions are the topics of conversation at coffee klatches; most of the time the conversations are harmless, but sometimes they are malicious. Thus one of the major adjustments facing the newly ordained priest is the experience of our fishbowl lifestyle. Priestly leadership is not anonymous but public, and we cannot expect to disappear into the woodwork once ordained. The challenge is to create the balance of privacy which rejuvenates us for the public nature of our ministry. It should not surprise us that people talk about us, nor should it surprise us when we occasionally discover those who are preoccupied with us. 4. Am I willing to see this work as constitutive of my call to holiness? Am I willing to view my particular ministry not just as what God wants me to do (the assignment God has given me!), but as the very means he will use to make me holy? When I begin to see my work as the very context in which Godwill make me holy, whatever challenges and frustrations I experience along the way take on a new meaning. They are no longer obstacles to happiness "Am I willing to admit that as a leader I am a public person and thus a frequent topic of discussion ?" September-October 1994 685 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership but means to growth; they are no longer occasions for exposure of my dark side but God's hopeful call to conversion. There is a flip side to this series of questions: For whom am I doing this work? For myself? For others? Or for God? My answer to that question will in large measure determine my suc-cess and sense of well-being in carrying out the work. If I am doing it for any reason other than the love of God and his peo-ple, I will never know joy in the work, and the work will never be a means of growth in holiness for me. Until I embrace the truth that God has called me to this leadership role, I will not enjoy the fullness of his grace and the love that he shows me through the work. Our motives are rarely pure; we are a mix of motivations and hidden agenda. We need not be surprised at our duplicity, for from the midst of our mixed motives God calls us to contin-ually refocus our attention on his love and his people. St. Augustine begins his Sermon on Pastors with the follow-ing words: I must distinguish "carefully between two aspects of the role the Lord has given me, a role that demands a rigorous accountability, a role based on the Lord's greatness rather than on my own merit. The first aspect is that I am a Christian; the second, that I am a leader. I am a Christian for my own sake, whereas I am a leader for your sake; the fact that I am a Christian is to nay own advantage, but I am a leader for your advantage. Many persons come to God as Christians but not as leaders. Perhaps they travel by an easier road and are less hindered since they bear a lighter burden. In addition to the fact that I am a Christian and must give God an account of my life, I as a leader must give him an account of my stewardship as well (Sermon 46, 1-2). ". I am a leader for your sake." God uses priests as his instrument in dealing with others in particular circumstances. That is a cause for humility, not pride, for the role is based on the Lord's greatness rather than on our merit. Priestly leadership is a function of stewardship, the stewardship of a disciple, a servant. I have something to give--but what I have to contribute is itself God's gift to 'me. As Paul wrote, "Name something you have that you did not receive" (1 Cor 4,7). Moreover, as Rabbi Abraham Heschel observed, "What we own, we owe."" I am a steward. Vocations are often viewed in terms of "giving up." One "gives up" this or that in light of a higher good. There is a danger in dwelling on that perspective, for if I focus on what I am giving up, 686 Review for Religious I will eventually succumb to anger and resentment. If I were preparing to be married and announced to my fiancee, "I'm giv-ing up a lot for you, but you're worth it," she would be justified in saying, "then. keep it!" If a priest says the same to God, God would be justified to reply, "Come back when you've forgotten about giving up and are ready to give." My response to God's call is my willingness to give completely of myself, in response to his goodness to me. Is that not what Jesus did? Did he not recognize that he too was a steward of the Father's gifts, of the Father's will? Every Christian vocation is a reflection of the gratuitous self-giving of God; only a commit-ment that is consciously made, sure and focused, can be a limpid mirror, an image of the Invisible. It is precisely here that the church Fathers saw the true mean-ing of martyrdom and sacrifice. A sacrifice is some treasure which I remove irrevocably from my use and offer to God as a sign of my inner gift of self. In burning the first fruits or the choicest animals, I give them away with no strings attached. This is conscious and voluntary giving and not giving up; the sacrifice of Jesus was his conscious and voluntary gift of himself to the Father for our sake. It is difficult to give without expecting anything in return, but it is that giving to which we are called. Another gauge of my vocation is the following question: 7b vabom am I giving myself completely? Until I have a firm grasp on the answer to that question, I will remain a bag of mixed motives, and I will measure my successes by the wrong yardstick. I will add a postscript to this section. While we must be care-ful not to focus on what we have given up in accepting our cur-rent role in the church, we should be cognizant of any giving up that our lay coworkers have done in accepting the tasks of min-istry; we recognize their sacrifice and thank both them and God for it. God is grateful for our gifts, and we are stewards of his gratitude as well. 5. ~lm I ~villing to work through my inevitable disenchantment? Our vocation is lived in the real world, where Christian val-ues and the gospel itself are often compromised, or at least imper-fectly incarnated in people like [~s. Life is not perfect, and I must come to terms with imperfection--that of the church, of my supe-riors and co-workers, and my own. Most of us who work with the church go through experiences of disenchantment. We have high ideals and lofty goals; we love our September-October 1994 687 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership work. We are enchanted by the mystery and beauty of the mission we have accepted. What happens when I see the clay feet of the church, when I confront the difficulty of living out God's call? Disenchantment can occasion some unsettlingoquestions. Why should I try at all? No one else seems to be trying. V~as my ide-alism childish illusion? Those who are asking me to do a job are making it difficult for me to accomplish the task! I may be dis-tressed by the behavior of my superiors or coworkers or by my own behavior. At such times I am called to recommit myself to the ideals of the gospel and to practice mercy, one of the more diffi-cult virtues. Anger is often justified, and disillusionment under-standable, but of what value are they if not used for go~d? Disenchantment can be transformed into renewed commit-ment, a deepened self-giving. It is a tangible way to enter into the sacrifice God made in taking on human form, for in our own disenchantment we touch the embarrassing humility~of God, who was willing to embody his perfect love in our imperfect nature, The "self-emptying" of the Son of God of which Paul wrote to the Philippians, is the voluntary "disenchantment of God," who took on our nature conscious of what fragile and misshapen vessels we are., In our disenchantment we are reminded of the profound humility of God and our absolute dependence on his grace. There but for God's grace go we--for we may be the cause of another's disenchantment. Are our hearts big enough, to embrace the humility of God? Some Practical Exl~ortations i. Always rentain consciously and practically rooted in the founda-tions of the priesthood: the Word of God and the Eucharist. Recent years have witnessed the evolution of specializations in almost every field of endeavor. On the one hand, such a phenomenon is the positive by-product of explosive developments in science and medicine; on the other hand, when seen in the priesthood it can become a tempting trap. The priest who is preoccupied with seek-ing his "niche" in the church--his specialization--may very well forget who he is. The priest is ontologically and irrevocably linked to Christ and the church; thus he is the one who prays, serves, sacrifices, cel-ebrates the Eucharist, absolves, heals--lives!--in the person of Christ. That is "who he is." His ministry may take a very partic- 688 Review for Religious ular direction--one that may last a lifetime or one that may change frequently; but any job he undertakes, any niche he dis-covers, is secondary to who he is in Christ. A pastor may wish to develop new and innovative programs for his parish, programs that fill in the gaps and address newly-discovered needs. But if he does not at the same time consciously identify himself with the Eucharistic Christ, he loses the depth and richness of his min-istry; and his people are deprived of the church's fundamental gifts. The priest is consecrated for his specialty, his niche, at ordi-nation; his speciality is his Christ-identity. 2. Remember that sloppy management and procrastination hurt people. Every morning more mail arrives to be piled on the stack already on my desk; there is yet another form to fill out, another phone call to return, statistical research to undertake for the chancery (the sins of nay past have returned to haunt me!). For many priests, such tasks are repulsive because they seem to bear no relation to ministry. They are unrelated to the real-life situa-tions of flesh-and-blood parishioners. At times I have been careless in responding to these tasks, only to discover that ultimately my laxity hurt someone. Perhaps the form I was remiss in completing was a job reference; or the phone call I procrastinated in returning was related to a com-plaint unfairly registere'd about a coworker, and my tardiness meant that his or her reputation needlessly suffered. Perhaps the research requested of me was crucial to a grant proposal for a new ministry in the diocese. At some point I began to attach human faces to the tedium, which reminded me that such tasks would ultimately help persons (in most cases, at least!). Now my motivation is stronger to com-plete tasks at the proper time. 3. Don't give someone a difficult job but make it difficult to com-plete. I have purposely posed a positive principle in a negative fash-ion in order to emphasize a point. When I delegate a difficult task---for example, I ask the principal to develop a balanced school budget--I do not release myself of the responsibility to make it work. I have observed church administrators establish an adver-sarial relationship with those to whom they had delegated a diffi-cult job. When I delegate I am not abdicating responsibility; on the contrary, I am pledging cooperation and understanding, and I may be acknowledging that I do not possess the skills required to com-plete the task. We demoralize parishioners and coworkers when we ~eptember-October 1994 689 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership make requests of them and then place unreasonable restrictions on their performance. We also demoralize others when we assign them a task that is simply impossible to complete. 4. Don't give someone a job you know the person will shirk; then you get angry when the job isn't done. Chuang Tzu, a Taoist philoso-pher of the 3rd century B.C., understood this truth. One of the most famous of all Chuang Tzu's "principles" is that called "three in the morning," from the story of the monkeys whose keeper planned to give them three mea-sures of chestnuts in the morning and four in the evening but, when they complained, changed his plan and gave them four in the morning and three in the evening. What does the story mean? Simply that the monkeys were foolish and that the keeper cynically outsmarted them? Quite the contrary. The point is rather that the keeper had enough sense to recognize that the monkeys had irrational reasons of their own for wanting four measures of chesmuts in the morning, and did not stubbornly insist on his original arrangement. He was not totally indifferent, and yet he saw that an acci-dental difference did not affect the substance of his arrange-ment. Nor did he waste time demanding that the monkeys try to be "more reasonable" about it when monkeys are not expected to be reasonable in the first place. It is when we insist most firmly on everyone else being "reasonable" that we become, ourselves, unreasonable? It is unfair to ask someone to undertake a task for which the per-son is unsuited. A good leader matches task to talent. 5. Say "yes" when you mean "yes" and "no" when you mean "no." There is no substitute for clarity in communication with cowork-ers and parishioners. If I speak in circles out of reluctance to deal with conflict or my fear of taking a stand, it will o~nly serve to confuse others. Eventually they will be angry with me, and their anger is justified. I will have led them nowhere. 6. Don't harbor unrealistic expectations of superiors. Leaders have superiors, and priests deal with senior priests, pastors, deans, vicars, and bishops; we owe them the accommodation and open-mindedness we expect fi'om others. 7. Don't take it personally. Some things will inevitably go awry, but seldom are mishaps directed intentionally at us. Life simply does not always work out the way we wish it would. When we meet failure it is important to remember that there is no clan-destine plot to make us miserable. Moreover, we may frequently deal with people at their worst, 690 Review for Religious and from time to time may find ourselves walking into a mael-strom of anger. Anger directed at us is often displaced anxiety about what is happening at home, a sense of powerlessness over a difficult child, a troubled marriage, or a lost job. Don't take it personally! We may be the object of the anger, but we are prob-ably not its root cause. Such experiences can be channeled as a means of growth in compassion; a discerning ear and heart can help heal at the root. 8. Nurture in your heart a deliberate commitment to human respect. After God, people come first. Are you willing to learn to love? The highest value to a leader is the human person: the neighbor, the brother, the sister. Spend time with the people with whom you work. Take time to console a grieving friend. Slow down to listen to the one who needs to talk. Be big enough to forgive, let go of grudges. Be first to extend a hand in friendship and last to judge. Be attentive to the little things in others' lives. Be mindful of birth-days and anniversaries, family tragedy, illness and hardship. Learn compassion and foster reconciliation. When reading the newspaper, notice first the names of people, then the statistics. Joyfully embrace sacrifice, faith, family, friends, and the one in need. 9. Temper all things. Priests are called both to challenge oth-ers to a better way of life and to reflect God's mercy when they fail. If we make the challenge needlessly harsh, it will discour-age; if we confuse mercy with permissiveness, it will encourage stagnation. The Rule of St. Benedict offers wise counsel to abbots in this regard: Therefore, drawing on . . . examples of discretion, the mother of all virtues, he must so temper all things that the strong may have something to strive for, and the weak noth-ing to dismay them (RB 64,19). 10. Recognize that as a priest you are also a leader within the pres-byterate. No priest is a free agent; by virtue of ordination we form phrt of a presbyterate and share in the pastoral role of our bishop. This article has been primarily concerned with the priest's leadership role in day-to=day ministry; what has not yet been said Priests are called both to challenge others to a better way of life and to reflect God's mercy when they fail. September-October 1994 691 Sartain ¯ The Challenge of Priestly Leadership is that we undertake the tasks of ministry in union with the pres-byterate. That is not simply a theological truth;' it is also a practi-cal challenge to strive for unity with our bishop and brother priests. It is more important for me to live in union with the pres-byterium than to be alone and absorbed in my work.4 But there is something more to add to this reflection. It has been my assumption that every priest is a leader; it is equally important to remember that every priest is a leader within the presbyterate. Dioceses and religious communities have devised structures to address the pastoral ministry and care of priests; there are pres-byteral councils, personnel boards, vicars for clergy, mentors, and the like. However, it is a great mistake to assume that only those who hold elected or appointed positions are leaders within the presbyterate. The most important leadership within the pres-byterate is that which springs spontaneously from fraternal love, the care of priest for priest. Some Final Considerations St. Bernard's second book On Consideration was written for Pope Eugene after the failure of the second crusade, for which Bernard himself had preached at the pope's behest. Bernard is aware that people will blame them for this dis-aster. He says he did what he thought was right., and he is willing to take the blame rather than have people murmur against God (2.1-1-4). He says this from the standpoint of one who does not need to be successful at every turn. A career is not the end all and be all of life: Virtues are more important than honors or results (2.7.14)'. "Plant, water, be concerned, and you have done your part" (4.2.2)~s Our daily tasks are the invisible path to holiness; but in the end, they are all God's work. When I was named Chancellor/Moderator of the Curia of my diocese, a fellow priest presented me with an essay entitled "The Penalty of Leadership," which first appeared in the Saturday Evening Post 2 January 1915, as an advertisement for Cadillac Motor Car Company. It begins: 692 Review for Religious In eve~ field of human endeavor, he that is first must per-petually live in the white light of publicity. Whether the leadership be vested in a man or in a manufactured product, emulation and envy. are ever at work. In art, in literature, in music, in industry, the reward and the punishment are always the same. The reward is widespread recognition; the punishment, fierce denial and detraction. Its author, Theodore MacManus, explains that the leader coura-geously upholds an enduring standard against the outcry of those who cannot comprehend lasting value. That is part of the penalty of leadership. Every priest finds that he is faced with similar chal-lenges; but for him leadership is worth its penalty., for he sees his position as a vocation, and he knows how profoundly he relies on the grace of God. Genuine leadership is determined neither by market share, nor by publicity, nor by power, nor by Gallup poll, but by the quality. of the heart. It is understood only by those willing to learn the meaning of the word sacrifice. Jesus did not tell his disciples not to aspire to leadership; rather, he said, "if you aspire to be leaders, then learn to serve." Learn great skills, make great plans, strive to improve. Butat the same time, learn to serve, to sacrifice for some-thing greater than yourself, for someone other than yourself. In the final analysis there is no penalty in leadership for the one who loves God and neighbor. The one who loves knows that loving is its own reward. And the one who struggles to love as Jesus loved will find unimagined fulfillment. And the church will gather courage and hope and grace from that kind of priestly leadership. Notes ~ Hugh Feiss OSB, "The Spirituality. of St. Bernard for Managers," Cistercian Studies XXV, no. 4, 1990: 271. 2 Abraham Joshua Heschel, Who is Man? (Stanford University Press, 1965), p. 112. 3 Thomas Merton, The Way of Chuang Tzu (New York: Ne~v Directions, 1969), p. 32. 4 Gisbert Greshake, The Meaning of Christian Priesthood (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1988), p. 167 [quotatiou from "Instead of an epilogue: Ten principles for a priest's life pattern," proposed by Prof. Dr. ~,~. Breuning and Bishop Dr. KI. Hemmerle]. s Feiss, p. 273. September-October 1994 693 CATHERINE M. HARMER Election: A Call to Service One of the elements of apostolic religious life which has :hanged since the renewal period following Vatican Council II is the selection of leadership. Prior to the council most positions of leadership were appointed, the exceptions being supe-riors general, their councillors, and chapter delegates. Even when provincial chapters elected provincial superiors it was, in many cases, more accurately a nomination to be confirmed by the gen-eral council. Regional superiors and local superiors were appointed, with little if any input from the membership. Today many leadership positions are filled through election by the members, even when a confirmation is needed at another level. This movement toward greater participation of the members in the choice of their leadership has had both positive and nega-tive aspects associated with it. Most of the dire predictions about the decline in quality of the leaders chosen have not come to pass. There are, however, some unpredicted difficulties which continue to cause problems. In this article I will look at some of the back-ground of those problems and suggest a helpful discernment model. Even a cursory analysis of constitutions and directories of congregations shows that many more positions of leadership are now elected, often directly by the members. Thus, local, area or regional leaders, provincials and their councillors, and in a few cases generals and their councillors are directly elected by the Catherine M. Harmer MMS has worked as a consultant and facilitator for various religious congregations' chapters. Her address is Medical Mission Sisters; 300 W. Wellens Street; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19120. 694 Review for Religious members. Where direct election is not the case, there are strong nominating processes which are considered seriously by chapters or other electoral bodies. What is more interesting than the number of positions open to direct election is the increased openness about elections. In the past many of those who were the formal electors in fact held discussions among themselves and with the members about the potential leaders. This was informal, and when done responsibly, a way for the electors to broaden their own knowledge of the potential candidates. When done with less responsibility it had some of the characteristics of the "smoke-filled rooms" of the old American political system. Now, it is generally the practice to have the members involved in the selection process by means of suggestion or nominating lists. In some cases these suggestions are connected to predetermined criteria or to rationales given for a nomination. While there are definite values in this openness, a fear of "campaigning" has arisen. Some members are reluctant to be named in a process that might require them to submit to ques-tioning or to present a personal position regarding the office. Another growing concern is the reality that many elections are held with the majority of those who were nominated removing their names from the list prior to the election. I would like to address several of these problem areas in more detail, then look in a new way at the nature of election in religious congregations, and finally make some suggestions concerning the whole nature and the processes involved in election by members. Areas of Concern One current problem also existed in the time of limited involvement of the members. It is the connection in the minds of some religious between being chosen or not chosen and their own self-image. Even today at the time of election of chapter del-egates there are those who suffer a sense of not being appreci-ated because they are not chosen. In the business world one often measures one's self worth by salary and position within the com-pany. To be passed over is often a sign that it is t