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Argues that the law is empirically valid only under distinctive behavioural, organizational and institutional conditions. It is a special case in a broader theory reconstructing the interaction between constituencies, intra-party politics and party competition. (Abstract amended)

Descriptive characterization in terms of history, organization, operations, partisanship and interparty relationships; analysis of relative concentration or dispersion of the overall vote among them, shifts in the vote at the various general elections, and competition among the parties.

Cuts in education expenditure would be more effective if designed to increase efficiency from teaching staff. Competition between teachers to attract fees at full market rates would do more to save money than any simple budget cut.

There has been a resurgence of interest across multiple jurisdictions in greater regulation by nation-states of aspects of the structure, conduct and performance of digital platforms. This has been driven by: growing concerns about the economic and other forms of power exercised by the largest platform companies in the digital economy; a series of 'public shocks' related to the misuse of such power and digital reach; pervasive community concerns about privacy, security, the misuse of personal data, and the erosion of rights in a digital age; and a policy shift from a 'rights' discourse that dominated early debates about internet governance towards one focused upon potential risks and online harms. While there are similar factors across nations promoting questions about why greater regulation of digital platforms should occur, there is less consensus about how it should be undertaken. This report seeks to map the issues raised and policies recommended, identifying the issues as arising across the fields of competition policy, content policy and digital rights. Undertaking an initial environmental scan of 65 public enquiries, the authors undertook a textual and thematic analysis of a subset of 20 public inquiries, across seven countries, the European Union, and the United Nations. The approach taken parallels that of Kretschmer, Furgal and Schlesinger in their mapping of the emergence of a new regulatory field of platform governance in the United Kingdom (Kretschmer et al., 2021). In terms of policy recommendations, it was found that with regards to competition, access to data, competition in digital markets, the future of the news industry, and platform regulation were common themes across the enquiries. The main drive for content regulation has been perceived online harms, and the main themes identified include the role of digital platforms, in disseminating or restricting access to harmful content, support for civil society organisations monitoring misinformation and online harms, development of ...

El artículo propone un estudio comparado de dos concursos cuyo relato y desenlace revelan su carácter premonitorio en la evolución de la arquitectura de la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Surgidos ambos por iniciativa pública, traslucen dos ambiciones urbanas, programáticas y políticas distintas. La formulación de estas dos promesas arquitectónicas por sus autores en concursos anónimos, sufre a lo largo de sus procesos de realización numerosos ajustes y transformaciones que más allá de su condición coyuntural ofrecen argumentos de reflexión sobre la importancia del procedimiento en la conformación de la arquitectura. El tránsito arquitectónico al que se ven sometidos, permite interrogarse sobre la propia condición y estructura del proyecto arquitectónico que adquiere una nueva dimensión. La trascendencia de ambas obras en el debate disciplinar y social del momento consolida el concurso como camino para la realización de la obra pública. Sus silencios y contradicciones nos hablan sin embargo de la resolución de un dilema imposible y califican la propia condición del arquitecto. ; This article proposes a comparative study of two competitions whose story and outcome reveal their premonitory character in the evolution of architecture in the second half of the twentieth century. Both arose through public initiatives and reveal two different urban, programmatic and political ambitions. The formulation of these architectural promises by their authors in anonymous competitions suffered numerous adjustments and transformations throughout their realization processes which, beyond their temporary condition, offer arguments of reflection on the importance of the process in shaping the architecture. The architectural transition to which they were subjected allows examination of the status and structure of the architectural project itself, which acquires a new dimension. The importance of both works in the disciplinary and social debate of the time consolidates the competition as a way to carry out public works. However, their silences and contradictions speak of the resolution of an impossible dilemma and describe the architect's own condition.

RESUMEN El artículo propone un estudio comparado de dos concursos cuyo relato y desenlace revelan su carácter premonitorio en la evolución de la arquitectura de la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Surgidos ambos por iniciativa pública, traslucen dos ambiciones urbanas, programáticas y políticas distintas. La formulación de estas dos promesas arquitectónicas por sus autores en concursos anónimos, sufre a lo largo de sus procesos de realización numerosos ajustes y transformaciones que más allá de su condición coyuntural ofrecen argumentos de reflexión sobre la importancia del procedimiento en la conformación de la arquitectura. El tránsito arquitectónico al que se ven sometidos, permite interrogarse sobre la propia condición y estructura del proyecto arquitectónico que adquiere una nueva dimensión. La trascendencia de ambas obras en el debate disciplinar y social del momento consolida el concurso como camino para la realización de la obra pública. Sus silencios y contradicciones nos hablan sin embargo de la resolución de un dilema imposible y califican la propia condición del arquitecto.SUMMARY This article proposes a comparative study of two competitions whose story and outcome reveal their premonitory character in the evolution of architecture in the second half of the twentieth century. Both arose through public initiatives and reveal two different urban, programmatic and political ambitions. The formulation of these architectural promises by their authors in anonymous competitions suffered numerous adjustments and transformations throughout their realization processes which, beyond their temporary condition, offer arguments of reflection on the importance of the process in shaping the architecture. The architectural transition to which they were subjected allows examination of the status and structure of the architectural project itself, which acquires a new dimension. The importance of both works in the disciplinary and social debate of the time consolidates the competition as a way to carry out public works. However, their silences and contradictions speak of the resolution of an impossible dilemma and describe the architect's own condition.

This study aims at assessing the impacts of different approaches to IPPC implementation on competitiveness of companies in two industrial sectors (electric steelmaking and domestic glass production). As the provisions of the IPPC Directive allow a certain flexibility for Member States to set permit conditions and to apply the concept of Best Available Techniques (BAT), the implementation of the IPPC Directive is likely to differ across the EU. Furthermore, the Directive does not contain any detailed requirements concerning later stages of the regulatory cycleʺ like monitoring and inspections which also may influence competitiveness. Therefore, while differences in implementation of the IPPC Directive across the EU might be justified due to specific circumstances, this may result in distortion of competition and an influence on the competitiveness of certain production sites and industry sectors within and across Member States. There may also be competitiveness impacts relative to non-EU competitors.

Статья посвящена описанию направлений государственной политики, обеспечивающих возможности создания конкурентных отношений между физкультурно-спортивными организациями с целью повышения экономической эффективности оказания услуг физической культуры и спорта в условиях рыночно-ориентированной экономики. Выявленные условия существования физ-культурно-спортивных организаций и виды конкуренции между ними, с учетом действий участников рынка и государственных структур, должны сформировать необходимую институциональную среду для развития физической культуры и спорта. ; The article describes the state policy directions providing the possibilities of creating a competitive relationship between sports organizations in order to increase the economic efficiency of services of physical culture and sports in the conditions of market-oriented economy. Identified conditions of existence of sports organizations, and types of competition between them, taking into account the active actions of market participants and government agencies should create the necessary institutional environment for the development of the sphere ofphysical culture and sports.

Das Konzept von Patentpools, als praktisches Beispiel des Spannungsverhältnisses zwischen Immaterialgüterrechten und Wettbewerbsrecht, war dem Autor Anlass, dieses Instrument aus den Blickwinkeln des momentanen Rechtsrahmens zu beurteilen. Patentpools ermöglichen es den Unternehmen, die Verwertung von Patenten zu erzielen, Wettbewerb aufrecht zu erhalten und/oder ihn sogar zu fördern; dennoch führen sie zu einer Reihe von Wettbewerbsproblemen. Einerseits werden in der Arbeit Patentpools aus einer praxisorientierten Sichtweise beurteilt und andererseits dadurch Fehlstellungen des gültigen Kartellrechts, welche neben der erschwerten Gestaltung von Patentpools auch innovationshemmende Bedeutung haben, identifiziert. Dabei werden die primären Ziele in der Bündelung relevanter Patente gerade bei Standardisierungsfällen genauestens analysiert. Da die einzelnen Gruppenfreistellungsvoraussetzungen und die dazugehörigen Leitlinien den Unternehmen nur eine minimale Hilfestellung in der grundlegenden Beurteilung von Pools geben, vertritt der Autor die Meinung, dass ein Genehmigungsverfahren eingeführt werden muss, und beschäftigt sich mit der Gestaltung dessen."Patent pools. A Contribution to the Correction of Misalignments in Competition Law": The concept of patent pools, as an example of the tension between intellectual property rights and competition law, was the occasion to assess this instrument from the perspective of the current legal framework. In the book, patent pools are assessed from a practice-oriented point of view and thus misalignments of the current antitrust law are identified, which, in addition to making patent pools more difficult to set up, also have an innovation-inhibiting effect. The author argues that an ex-ante control procedure should be introduced and how it should be designed

Hospital markets are often characterised by price regulation and the existence of different ownership types. Using a Hotelling framework, this paper analyses the effect of heterogeneous objectives of the hospitals on quality differentiation, profits, and overall welfare in a price regulated duopoly with exogenous symmetric locations. In contrast to other studies on mixed duopolies, this paper shows that in this framework privatisation of the public hospital may increase overall welfare. This holds if the public hospital is similar to the private hospital or less efficient and competition is low. The main driving force is the single regulated price which induces under-(over-)provision of quality of the more (less) efficient hospital compared to the first-best. However, if the public hospital is sufficiently more efficient and competition is fierce, a mixed duopoly outperforms both a private and a public duopoly due to an equilibrium price below (above) the price of the private (public) duopoly. This medium price discourages overprovision of quality of the less efficient hospital and - together with the non-profit objective - encourages an increase in quality of the more efficient public hospital.

Esta dissertação visa analisar o Direito à Portabilidade de Dados recentemente positivado no RGPD e como este pode alterar a dinâmica da concorrência em especial nas plataformas digitais. Começo assim por fazer um enquadramento sobre o contexto da privacidade de dados, demonstrando a sua evolução e crescente relevância no quadro nacional e internacional. O terceiro capítulo foca-se na evolução da portabilidade de dados que, embora recente, foi desenvolvida desde 2012 pela Comissão Europeia e pelo Parlamento Europeu1 até à versão que temos hoje no Regulamento europeu e que foi transposta para a lei nacional2. Após este enquadramento, é necessário analisar a estrutura da norma e como se aplica, sendo seguida pelo capítulo que versa sobre a concorrência nas plataformas online e como a portabilidade modifica os efeitos de rede e os custos de transação. Relativamente à concorrência e abuso de mercado, é apresentada uma solução baseada na doutrina sobre as infraestruturas essenciais, demonstrando que a nova economia digital deve passar pelas questões da portabilidade como forma de desbloquear os problemas atuais de concorrência e de controlo de dados pessoais, sendo que este trabalho estará mais focado nos primeiros, através da análise de jurisprudência internacional. Em forma de conclusão, será abordada a interoperabilidade como o futuro do artigo 20º que segundo os considerandos teria esta questão como verdadeiro objetivo final. ; This dissertation aims to analyze the recently Right to Data Portability in GDPR and how it can change the dynamics of competition especially in digital platforms. I begin with the context of data privacy, showing its evolution and increasing relevance in the national and international framework. The third chapter focuses on the evolution of data portability, which, although recent, has been developed since 2012 by the European Commission, and the European Parliament to the version we have today in the European Regulation and which has been transposed into national law. After this framework, it is necessary to analyze the structure and how it applies, followed by the chapter that deals with competition in online platforms and how portability modifies network effects and transaction costs. Regarding competition and market abuse, a solution based on the doctrine on essential facilities is presented, demonstrating that the new digital economy must go through portability issues as a way of unlocking the current problems of competition and control of personal data, according to the analysis of international case law. In conclusion, interoperability will be addressed as the future of Article 20, which according to the recitals would have this issue as the final goal.

Since opening its economy to the outside world in late 1978, China has experienced a massive, protracted, and unexpected economic upsurge, which has attracted the attention of a large and diverse group of researchers. China's three-decade economic reforms have reshaped the economic structure from plan to market, through a variety of policy actions, such as openness to foreign investment and efforts to build economic zones. Economic growth and potential technology transfer are indeed the main rationale behind the Chinese government's aggressive efforts over the past three decades to enhance openness and to increase domestic competition. This dissertation consists of three chapters. All chapters study firm behavior and their policy implications. However, the focus of each chapter is different. The first chapter (coauthored with Ann Harrison and Gary Jefferson) studies how institutions affect productivity spillovers from foreign direct investment (FDI) to China's domestic industrial enterprises. The second chapter separates the effect of agglomeration economies on firm performance (measured by total factor productivity) from the impact of competition and better transport infrastructure. The third chapter (coauthored with Philippe Aghion, Mathias Dewatripont, Ann Harrison, Patrick Legros) tests for the complementarity between competition and industrial policy.The first Chapter (co-authored with Ann Harrison and Gary Jefferson) investigates how institutions affect productivity spillovers from foreign direct investment (FDI) to China's domestic industrial enterprises during 1998-2007. We examine three institutional features that comprise aspects of China's "special characteristics": (1) the different sources of FDI, where FDI is nearly evenly divided between mostly Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and Hong Kong (SAR of China), Taiwan (China), and Macau (SAR of China); (2) China's heterogeneous ownership structure, involving state- (SOEs) and non-state owned (non-SOEs) enterprises, firms with foreign equity participation, and non-SOE, domestic firms; and (3) industrial promotion via tariffs or through tax holidays to foreign direct investment. We also explore how productivity spillovers from FDI changed with China's entry into the WTO in late 2001. We find robust positive and significant spillovers to domestic firms via backward linkages (the contacts between foreign buyers and local suppliers). Our results suggest varied success with industrial promotion policies. Final goods tariffs as well as input tariffs are negatively associated with firm-level productivity. However, we find that productivity spillovers were higher from foreign firms that paid less than the statutory corporate tax rate. The second chapter separates the effect of agglomeration economies on firm performance (measured by total factor productivity) from the impact of competition and better transport infrastructure. Consequently, this paper primarily addresses the problem of omitted variable bias in estimating the impact of agglomeration economies on firm performance. The results suggest that firm productivity is improved only by the presence of other firms in the same sector (localization economies). The inclusion of information on road construction does not affect the importance of pure localization economies. However, including a measure of competition in the estimation significantly reduces the importance of localization externalities. The results also suggest that both road-building and competition are positively associated with productivity growth. The results for sub-samples indicate that exporting firms and firms financed by foreign investment benefit more from localization externalities than do their non-exporting and domestically-financed counterparts. The third chapter (co-authored with Philippe Aghion, Ann Harrison, Mathias Dewatripont, and Patrick Legros) argues that sectoral state aid tends to foster productivity, productivity growth, and product innovation to a larger extent when it targets more competitive sectors and when it is not concentrated on one or a small number of firms in the sector. A main implication from our analysis is that the debate on industrial policy should no longer be for or against having such a policy. As it turns out, sectoral policies are being implemented in one form or another by a large number of countries worldwide, starting with China. Rather, the issue should be on how to design and govern sectoral policies in order to make them more competition-friendly and therefore more growth-enhancing. Our analysis suggests that proper selection criteria together with good guidelines for governing sectoral support can make a significant difference in terms of growth and innovation performance. Yet the issue remains of how to minimize the scope for influence activities by sectoral interests when a sectoral state aid policy is to be implemented. One answer is that the less concentrated and more competition-compatible the allocation of state aid to a sector, the less firms in that sector will lobby for that aid as they will anticipate lower profits from it. In other words, political economy considerations should reinforce the interaction between competition and the efficiency of sectoral state aid. A comprehensive analysis of the optimal governance of sectoral policies still awaits further research.

Background: Nowadays, scientists not only need to be creative, resourceful, and inventive regarding their research questions and need to understand their field and research methods, but also need to know how to teach, how to catalog, how to fill out proposal forms, and much more. The main goal of this study was to investigate and compare science interest profiles of different groups of students, focusing both on successful participants in science competitions and on possible gender differences. We expected that successful participants in science competitions would generally have greater interests in scientific activities than non-participants but were especially interested in such areas we expect from successful scientists today, thereby helping us judge the design of successful enrichment measures. Results: Significant mean differences in interest in science activities between participants and non-participants of science competitions were found on six of seven dimensions as well as regarding in-school activities, activities in enrichment measures, and vocational interests. The differences were especially large concerning investigative, social, enterprising, and networking activities. Moreover, we found differences between girls and boys on the social and artistic dimensions, meaning that girls were significantly more interested in science activities which also had an artistic and creative aspect such as drawing or a social aspect such as teaching. Conclusions: We not only found overall differences to-be-expected favoring the participants, but also could also identify specific profiles. Especially large differences were consistently found in those areas which could be regarded as especially important for most researchers. Our findings might help developing measures and activities to foster the interest in science activities for "regular" students as well as for especially talented students.

We evaluate the duration of the China trade shock and its impact on a wide range of outcomes over the period 2000 to 2019. The shock plateaued in 2010, enabling analysis of its effects for nearly a decade past its culmination. Adverse impacts of import competition on manufacturing employment, overall employment-population ratios, and income per capita in more trade-exposed U.S. commuting zones are present out to 2019. Over the full study period, greater import competition implies a reduction in the manufacturing employment-population ratio of 1.54 percentage points, which is 55% of the observed change in the value, and the absorption of 86% of this net job loss via a corresponding decrease in the overall employment rate. Reductions in population headcounts, which indicate net out-migration, register only for foreign-born workers and the native-born 25-39 years old, implying that exit from work is a primary means of adjustment to trade-induced contractions in labor demand. More negatively affected regions see modest increases in the uptake of government transfers, but these transfers primarily take the form of Social Security and Medicare benefits. Adverse outcomes are more acute in regions that initially had fewer college-educated workers and were more industrially specialized. Impacts are qualitatively—but not quantitatively—similar to those caused by the decline of employment in coal production since the 1980s, indicating that the China trade shock holds lessons for other episodes of localized job loss. Import competition from China induced changes in income per capita across local labor markets that are much larger than the spatial heterogeneity of income effects predicted by standard quantitative trade models. Even using higher-end estimates of the consumer benefits of rising trade with China, a substantial fraction of commuting zones appears to have suffered absolute declines in average real incomes.

El objetivo de este trabajo de investigación fue realizar un análisis filosófico hermenéutico a la política de la competencia en Colombia y la intervención de sus autoridades, evento que se examina desde el análisis de contenido a textos jurídicos como leyes, jurisprudencias y textos doctrinales; La unidad de análisis fue Establecer de qué manera ha influido la Superindustria en los procesos jurídicos-legales en materia de competitividad en nuestro país, luego de que la carta política de 1991 entró a regir y como variables tenemos: Indagar como ha transcurrido la política de la competición en este país latinoamericano y en el derecho comparado; Examinar las condiciones que generan obligación a cumplir con la normatividad respecto al derecho a la competición y realizar un estudio de contenido sobre la política de la competencia y la intervención de sus autoridades en Colombia. La investigación que se llevó a cabo es jurídica pura y básica. El método que se aplicó fue el analítico. Como fuentes primarias se utilizó la ficha bibliográfica y el análisis se hizo a través del análisis de contenido de las leyes, jurisprudencias y doctrina examinadas. Como resultados tenemos que la actual Ley de la Competencia tiene un amparo poco seguro de los establecimientos de comercio y de los estipendios de los compradores colombianos, debido a las normas nacional y local que se han creado para tal fin, porque lo que han logrado es llevar a cabo la facilitación de prácticas anticompetitivas porque no se ha reducido la intensidad de las malas prácticas de la competencia entre empresas, lo que ha dado como resultado en una baja productividad en el país, lo que hace que los mercados sean ineficiente porque hay pocas empresas sofisticadas, poco cambio productivo, los productos tienen precios altos y son de baja calidad; lo anterior afecta a los consumidores de escasos recursos, por lo que las conclusiones son que la política pública de reglamentación de las prácticas anticompetitivas, necesita nuevas reformas institucionales para tener un país productivo ; The objective of this research work was to conduct a hermeneutical philosophical analysis of competition policy in Colombia and the intervention of its authorities, an event that is examined from content analysis to legal texts such as laws, jurisprudence and doctrinal texts; The unit of analysis was to establish how the Super industry has influenced legal-legal processes in terms of competitiveness in our country, after the 1991 political letter came into force and as variables we have: To inquire how the policy of competition in this Latin American country and in comparative law; Examine the conditions that generate obligation to comply with the regulations regarding the right to competition and conduct a content study on competition policy and the intervention of its authorities in Colombia. The investigation that was carried out is pure and basic legal. The method that was applied was the analytical one. The bibliographic record was used as primary sources and the analysis was done through the content analysis of the laws, jurisprudence and doctrine examined. As a result we have that the current Competition Law has an unsafe protection of commercial establishments and stipends of Colombian buyers, due to the national and local regulations that have been created for this purpose, because what they have achieved is carry out the facilitation of anticompetitive practices because the intensity of bad practices of competition between companies has not been reduced, which has resulted in low productivity in the country, which makes markets inefficient because there are few sophisticated companies, little productive change, the products have high prices and are of low quality; The aforementioned affects low-income consumers, so the conclusions are that the public policy regulating anti-competitive practices needs new institutional reforms to have a productive country