Suchergebnisse

[spa] A pesar de las tendencias positivas en las últimas décadas, los vertidos ocasionados por la exploración, extracción y transporte de petróleo siguen siendo una importante amenaza para los ecosistemas marinos y especialmente costeros. Esta Tesis se ocupa de todos los aspectos importantes sobre los vertidos marinos de petróleo: el origen, el destino ambiental y sus posibles efectos. Para permitir su comprensión global, se utilizaron diferentes metodologías complementarias. En primer lugar, se ha creado una base de datos físico-químicos de diferentes petróleos (crudos y refinados) que se transportan frecuentemente usando el análisis elemental, la cromatografía en capa fina (TLC) acoplada a un detector de ionización de llama (FID) de los principales grupos de compuestos de petróleo, la toma de huellas químicas de los hidrocarburos aromáticos policíclicos (HAP) y los biomarcadores mediante cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas (GC-MS), y ensayos de petróleo disponibles. A continuación, se aplicó esta base de datos para evaluar su posible destino en el caso de un vertido, y para modelar tres escenarios de vertidos en diferentes mares regionales europeos usando el software ADIOS2 de la Administración Nacional Oceánica y Atmosférica (NOAA). Las huellas químicas de los petróleos seleccionados fueron evaluadas y comparadas estadísticamente para investigar las diferencias de composición más relevantes que podrían facilitar la identificación del origen de vertido. En segundo lugar, la metodología de GC-MS utilizada para crear la base de datos de las huellas químicas de los petróleos seleccionados se ha evaluado en una prueba interlaboratorio internacional. El objetivo fue investigar la capacidad que tiene esta metodología de toma de huellas químicas para identificar el tipo y el origen de las muestras envejecidas (biodegradadas) de petróleo. En tercer lugar, se ha estudiado el envejecimiento de las muestras de petróleo de los vertidos de Prestige (2002) y de la plataforma Deepwater Horizon (2010), en particular, debido a la fotooxidación. Se analizaron muestras envejecidas en el campo y en experimentos de laboratorio mediante TLC-FID, GCMS, cromatografía de gases bidimensional integrada (GCxGC) acoplada a un FID, y espectroscopia infrarroja por transformada de Fourier (FT-IR) para investigar los cambios de composición tanto a nivel global como a nivel molecular. Los HAP y esteranos triaromáticos fueron de especial interés, así como los efectos de la fotooxidación en la robustez de la metodología de toma de huellas químicas de petróleo. Finalmente, se estudiaron los efectos de las muestras no tratadas y envejecidas (evaporadas, fotooxidadas) de los petróleos crudos y refinados seleccionados, utilizando el análisis dirigido por los efectos tóxicos (EDA). Las muestras se fraccionaron secuencialmente usando la cromatografía líquida en columna abierta y la cromatografía líquida de alta eficacia (HPLC) semipreparativa en fase normal. Las fracciones obtenidas se sometieron a bioensayos para investigar su actividad agonista de los receptores AhR y la actividad antagonista de los receptores AR. En el siguiente paso, las fracciones más activas fueron analizadas mediante GCxGC acoplada a espectrometría de masas en tiempo de vuelo (TOFMS), y estos datos se relacionaron con los resultados de los bioensayos utilizando un modelo quimiométrico de regresión por mínimos cuadrados parciales en N direcciones (N-PLS), con el fin de identificar los compuestos responsables de los efectos observados. ; [eng] In the past two decades we witnessed a decrease in both the number of oil spill incidents, and of the quantity of oil released in these incidents, which led to a diminished interest for basic oil spill science. With the introduction of more stringent oil spill legislation, much of the spill response, assessment and restoration activities were passed to governmental agencies and other stakeholders. Their capabilities were perhaps sufficient to deal with the most frequently occurring small-scale spills, however, recent large, catastrophic incidents such as the sinking of Prestige in 2002, or the Deepwater Horizon blowout in 2010, renewed the need for fundamental science in order to be able to fully understand and estimate the scope of the impacts such spills can have on the environment, economy and society. This is particularly important in the context of new explorations and discoveries of hydrocarbon resources in pristine regions such as Arctic, where extreme weather and the lack of infrastructure emphasize even more the need for a comprehensive assessment of all of the possible effects the future oil production could cause. The objectives of this thesis were set to provide new approaches and methodologies, and to improve and reevaluate the previously existing ones, in a way which can contribute to this comprehensive and proactive strategy. Their scope is comprehensive because it covers all the important aspects of marine oil spills – the sources, environmental fate and possible toxic effects. In addition, particular relevance of this thesis is drawn from the fact that the studies presented here include the investigation of real major oil spills (Prestige, DWH), and of a broad range of oils and oil products that are currently produced and transported worldwide. In order to fulfill the abovementioned general objectives, the following specific objectives had to be accomplished: Firstly, a physicochemical database of frequently transported crude and refined oils was created using elemental analysis, thin-layer liquid chromatography (TLC) with flame ionization detector (FID) analysis of principal oil compound groups, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) fingerprinting of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and biomarkers, and available oil assays. This database was then applied to assess their possible fate in the case of a spill, and to model three spill scenarios in different European regional seas using ADIOS2 software from NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Fingerprints of selected oils were assessed and statistically compared to discover the most relevant compositional differences that could facilitate the identification of oil spill sources. Secondly, the GC-MS methodology used to create the fingerprint database of selected oils was evaluated in an international interlaboratory ring test. The objective was to test the capability of this fingerprinting methodology to identify the type and source of weathered (biodegraded) oil samples. Thirdly, the weathering of oil samples from Prestige and Deepwater Horizon spills, in particular the photooxidation, was studied. Samples weathered in field and in laboratory experiments were analyzed using TLC-FID, GC-MS, comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) with FID, and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) to discover compositional changes on the bulk level as well as on the molecular level. PAHs and triaromatic steranes (TAS) were of particular interest, as well as the effects of the photooxidation on the robustness of the oil fingerprinting methodology. Finally, the effects of selected fresh and weathered (evaporated, photooxidized) crude and refined oils were studied, using the effect-directed analysis (EDA). The samples were sequentially fractionated using open-column liquid chromatography and normal-phase semipreparative HPLC, and the obtained fractions were subjected to bioassays to test their AhR agonist and AR antagonist activity. The most active fractions were then analyzed using GCxGC coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS), and this data was related to bioassay results using N-way partial least square (N-PLS) chemometric model, in order to identify the compounds responsible for the observed effects

ABSTRACTThe study looked at the protective legislation, policy and practice of archaeological heritage management in Kenya. The seriousness of the demise of archaeological heritage in the world in general and, Africa in particular is in no doubt. Archaeological heritage is thought to be endangered on the continent and the "crisis" in Africa, whether enunciated in terms of sheer decay or general destruction in the name of development, theft or looting, is becoming common place throughout the continent. Literature was reviewed on the concept of heritage management, history of archaeological heritage management, legal protection, policy and institutional framework for heritage management in the country. In its statement of the problem, the study examined the inter-phase between protection legislation, policy and practice of AHM in Kenya was done through an examination of the National Museums and Heritage Act 2006, and the National Culture and Heritage Policy 2009 in addressing the challenges faced in the implementation process. The study also evaluated various international Charters for culture and heritage management. The overall objective of the study was established by looking at the role of the legal framework, the practice, policy reforms and recommendation on how Archaeological Heritage Management in Kenya can be improved in Nairobi National Museum (Central Region), Kisumu Museum (Western region), Fort Jesus Museum (Eastern Region) and Thimlich Ohinga (Western Region). This was done through a SWOT analysis of the four sites under study. The study looked at the question of the research in which it established the role of legal and policy reforms played in streamlining the management of Archaeological Heritage in Kenya. Also, the study covered AHM practices and how they affect the management of various museums and heritage sites in the country. This was done in reference to the four sites under study. The study adopted the Adaptive theory in its theoretical framework and has drawn particular attention in resource management. Heritage studies, are trandisciplinary embracing ecology, archaeology history, and public policy to mention a few. Therefore, the public policy has been restricted to academic political opinion for evaluating internal and external capacity of NMK without leaving environmental policies leading to good governance of museums hence the this theory suited the study. The research adopted descriptive survey which was very useful because it does not allow the manipulation of the variables and it provided allot of information .During the process of data collection, primary sources such as interview and well structured questionnaire were used in addition to the observation method in all the three categories of the sampling areas which include western central and eastern. Also the research obtained the secondary information from the review of the previous document that included books journal and news papers. This provided essential procedure for the data analysis where SWOT method was used and the data analyzed presented in form of tables, charts and graphs. The study established that all the sites are under NMK management. However, the management of NMK concentrates so much on Nairobi National Museum and its affiliates, and Fort Jesus Museum at the expense of other museums, monuments and sites. Apart from Nairobi National Museum, all the other museums were under-staffed, with poorly managed storage of artefacts, and faced neglect in many areas. Kisumu Museum, despite its status, is under researched and has limited documented information about its historical background, services, and future plan. Comparatively, Thimlich Ohinga site was found to be adequately researched and has a lot of documented information. ; RÉSUMÉL'étude a examiné la législation de protection , la politique et la pratique de la gestion du patrimoine archéologique au Kenya . La gravité de la disparition du patrimoine archéologique dans le monde en général, et l'Afrique en particulier est dans aucun doute . Le patrimoine archéologique est pensé pour être en voie de disparition sur le continent et la «crise» en Afrique , que ce soit énoncé en termes de dégradation ou de destruction pure général au nom du développement , de vol ou de pillage , devient un lieu commun dans l'ensemble du continent . Littérature a été revue sur le concept de la gestion du patrimoine , de l'histoire de la gestion du patrimoine archéologique , la protection juridique , politique et institutionnel pour la gestion du patrimoine dans le pays . Dans sa déclaration du problème , l' étude a examiné l' inter- phase entre la législation sur la protection , la politique et la pratique de AHM au Kenya a été fait par un examen de la Culture et du Patrimoine de la politique nationale de 2009 Loi sur le patrimoine 2006, les musées nationaux et , et dans la lutte contre la difficultés rencontrées dans le processus de mise en œuvre . L'étude a également évalué diverses chartes internationales pour la culture et la gestion du patrimoine . L'objectif global de l'étude a été établie par la recherche sur le rôle du cadre juridique , la pratique , les réformes politiques et la recommandation sur la façon dont la gestion du patrimoine archéologique au Kenya peut être améliorée dans le Musée national de Nairobi ( Région du Centre ) , Musée Kisumu ( région de l'Ouest ) , Fort Jésus Musée ( Région de l'Est ) et Thimlich Ohinga ( région de l'Ouest ) . Cela a été fait par une analyse SWOT des quatre sites étudiés . L'étude a examiné la question de la recherche dans laquelle elle a créé le rôle des réformes juridiques et politiques ont joué dans la rationalisation de la gestion du patrimoine archéologique au Kenya . En outre, l' étude a porté sur les pratiques AHM et comment ils affectent la gestion de divers musées et sites du patrimoine dans le pays . Cela a été fait en référence aux quatre sites étudiés . L'étude a adopté la théorie d'adaptation dans son cadre théorique et a attiré une attention particulière à la gestion des ressources . Études du patrimoine , sont transdisciplinaire écologie enlacé , l'histoire de l'archéologie , et les politiques publiques de mentionner quelques-uns. Par conséquent , la politique publique a été limitée à l'opinion politique académique pour évaluer la capacité interne et externe de NMK sans laisser de politiques environnementales menant à la bonne gouvernance des musées où la cette théorie adaptée de l'étude . La recherche a adopté étude descriptive qui a été très utile , car il ne permet pas la manipulation de variables et il a fourni d'attribuer des informations . Pendant le processus de collecte de données , les sources primaires telles que l'entrevue et questionnaire bien structuré ont été utilisés dans plus de la méthode d'observation dans les trois catégories de zones d'échantillonnage qui comprennent centre-ouest et de l'est . Aussi la recherche a obtenu l'information secondaire de l'examen du document précédent qui comprenait des livres revue et journaux . Cette condition procédure essentielle pour l'analyse de données si la méthode SWOT a été utilisé et les données analysées présenté sous forme de tableaux, de diagrammes et de graphiques . L'étude a établi que tous les sites sont sous gestion NMK . Cependant , la gestion de NMK concentre tellement sur Musée national de Nairobi et de ses sociétés affiliées , et Fort Jesus Museum au détriment d'autres musées , monuments et sites . En dehors de Musée national de Nairobi , tous les autres musées étaient en sous-effectif , avec le stockage d'objets mal gérés , et face à la négligence dans de nombreux domaines . Musée Kisumu , malgré son statut , est sous documenté et a limité des informations documentées sur son contexte historique , les services et plan d'avenir . En comparaison, le site Thimlich Ohinga a été jugée suffisamment d'études et a beaucoup d' informations documentées .

This thesis analyses the foundations and the evolution of the water economy and management in Lebanon by emphasizing the legal, institutional and political frameworks. The study uses a mixed approach combining a qualitative methodology, through surveys, interviews and documentation and a quantitative approach using econometric modeling. By composing our conceptual framework, we seek to define the political economy of the resource in Lebanon and the ties linking water use to land tenure structures. The study is composed of five chapters. Our first chapter reviews the economic literature dealing with the water value and scarcity and addresses a criticism concerning globalized paradigms, mainly, river basin management, good governance and the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). Going beyond those theories and using a historic-materialist approach, we propose our analytical framework of a "waterscape" combining the hydraulic societies theory developed by Karl Wittfogel and the "moments" approach of David Harvey. Our second chapter explores, by adopting a chronological approach over a long period, the evolution of the legal and the institutional structures of water management in Lebanon. This chapter covers four centuries of the Levant territories under the Ottoman Empire, followed by the French mandate over Lebanon and, finally, the national construction phase between the independence and country's civil war. Our analysis seeks to understand the historical foundations of the relationship between land tenure regimes and social power during those periods. We also develop in this chapter the pilars that drove the Lebanese hydraulic mission in order to present an interpretation of the dominant discourse in the water management. Our third chapter reviews the socio-spatial characteristics of the water and wastewater infrastructures during the reconstruction period. We extend our analysis to depict the institutional fragmentation characterizing the water public authorities in Lebanon. We emphasize on the water policies undertaken in the country during this recent period under structural adjustment and neoliberal paradigms, mainly, the adoption of the IWRM principles by the Lebanese government and the ground preparation to Public-Private Partnerships. The fourth chapter offers a public good model analyzing the concerns behind the allocation of water projects during the last two decades. Econometric results clearly approve our hypothesis that the distributive politics are solely driven by partisanship concerns during this period with no consideration about socio-economical and environmental features of regions. The fifth chapter develops the links of water use to the Lebanese agricultural economy in order to understand the main drivers of irrigation. We shed the light on the privileges of big landowner in accessing to subsidies following a water intensive production destined to the Gulf countries. This chapter detects the link between country's food system and water by presenting the virtual water balance and food water footprint. Finally, the chapter verifies the state of water in the liberalization process of the country by using a gravity model. From our reading of the socio-natural process of water in Lebanon, our results show that the modes of use, production and appropriation of the resource in the country are produced by a close relation between land property and power, an inherited link from the political history of Lebanon maintained by the confessional system. ; Cette thèse analyse les fondements et l'évolution de l'économie et de la gestion de l'eau au Liban dans ses cadres juridiques, institutionnels et politiques. L'étude s'appuie sur une méthodologie mixte, à la fois qualitative, à travers des études de terrains et celle de la littérature existante, et quantitative, en utilisant des outils d'analyse économétrique. Nous avons pris comme grille de lecture les liens entre les modes de production et d'usage de l'eau, la nature de la propriété foncière et sa structure dans une démarche d'économie politique. L'étude se compose de cinq chapitres. Notre premier chapitre, élaboré à partir d'une lecture critique de la littérature économique qui traite de la valeur de la ressource et de sa rareté, remet en cause la notion de crise de l'eau. Il propose une critique des paradigmes globalisés, notamment la gestion par bassin et la bonne gouvernance, qui sont à la base de la notion de Gestion Intégrée des Ressources en Eau (GIRE) d'inspiration libérale. En dépassant ces théories à l'aide d'une approche historico-matérialiste, ce chapitre construit notre grille de lecture d'un "paysage de l'eau" en mobilisant la théorie de Wittfogel des sociétés hydrauliques et la théorie des "moments" développée par David Harvey. Le deuxième chapitre suit chronologiquement et sur un temps long l'évolution juridico-institutionnelle de la gestion de la ressource depuis l'Empire ottoman et le mandat français sur le Liban jusqu'à la construction nationale entre l'indépendance et la guerre civile libanaise. Notre analyse reconstitue les fondements historiques de la relation du pouvoir aux régimes fonciers durant ces périodes. Nous développons en particulier les éléments qui sont à la source de la formulation de la vision de la mission hydraulique libanaise afin de présenter une interprétation de la relation de l'Etat à l'eau et le discours dominant de la gestion de la ressource. Le troisième chapitre expose les caractéristiques socio-spatiales du service d'eau potable et d'assainissement dans la phase de reconstruction. Il analyse la nature de la fragmentation institutionnelle des autorités publiques ainsi que la politique de l'eau engendrée par l'ajustement structurel et par les paradigmes néolibéraux, notamment, l'adoption des principes de la GIRE par le gouvernement libanais et la préparation du terrain pour des contrats de Partenariat Public-Privé. Le quatrième chapitre propose un modèle formalisé d'économie publique qui nous informe par ses résultats économétriques sur les critères d'allocation des projets de l'eau durant les deux dernières décennies. Les résultats économétriques de ce modèle vont confirmer notre hypothèse de base en montrant que seule la distance politique apparaît comme facteur décisionnel dans l'allocation des fonds aux régions, sans prise en compte de leurs caractéristiques socio-économiques et environnementales. Le cinquième chapitre étudie la question de l'irrigation et sa place dans les politiques agricoles du pays. Dans le fil de notre analyse sur la relation du pouvoir à l'eau, nous revenons sur les privilèges des grands propriétaires terriens dans l'accès aux subventions pour une production intensive en eau à destination des pays du Golfe. Ce chapitre pose la relation de l'eau au système alimentaire du pays en exposant le commerce et l'empreinte en eau virtuelle du pays. Finalement, nous utilisons un modèle de gravité commercial pour analyser la place de l'eau dans le processus de libéralisation du marché agro-alimentaire du pays. En conclusion, notre lecture de l'évolution du processus socio-naturel du paysage de l'eau confirme que les modes de production, d'usage et d'appropriation de la ressource hydrique au Liban sont le produit d'une relation étroite entre la propriété foncière et le pouvoir, héritée de l'histoire politique du pays et maintenue par son système confessionnel.

Realism in architecture is a "mutant' concept which admits multiple meanings. Accordingly it would be more precise to talk about realism - in plural - and to try to properly place each one in the contemporary context. at the same time, the relation between realism and architecture is not precise and specific anymore, we could even say it is not "real" any longer and, paradoxically, it has become more abstract. This new situation has a reason: the multiplicity of meanings that architectural realism has assumed. Trends which use architecture adjectivally are increasing more and more. For example, we can talk about high tech, iconic, virtual, sustainable, modern, commercial, classic-postmodern, or real architecture, among others. Facing this architectural variety, the debate between "realist" and "non realist" is increasingly becoming a complex issue. ln the architectural context, the main difficulty in order ta comprehend realism and specifically critic realism is precisely the definition of the meaning of "realism". We usually refer to realism in terms of what has meant in the past and not what it means in the present. The recognition of architecture realism's mutability and therefore the multiplicity of meanings establish a starting point tor this research. Among all realisms, there is one which assumes a critical attitude and a commitment with the built city as well as with the complexity of the new information Age and of globalization. In turn, architectural critical realism also assumes different forms which place it in the frame of resistance to the global; cammunicative and urban integration will; social and environmental commitment; technological development and programmatic pragmatism. This research approaches the (fragmented) definition of architectural critical realism through the study of projects built in Western Europe since 1980s and supported with references from postwar reaism (1950-1960) and the artistic and literary realism of the second half of the 191th century. Architecture of critic realism claims to be an "ethic attitude" as new brutalism was in the postwar and also in the 19th century. This attitude settles ils architectural proposals in the knowledge of reality understood as a physical, social, political, economical, technological and cultural context. It recognizes the complexity of globalization and of the new information age. At the same time it assumes a strong commitment with the built city, society and archilectural discipline. The age of simultaneity-which chronologically contextualizes this research - is a consequence of the technological and informative revolution consolidated since the 1990s at the same time as the global transfer from analogical to digital was taking place. In the architectural environment we can recognize simultaneity in hybrid programs, the new professinal partenship (increasing collaboration with consultants) and the new construction management systems (for example the fast track). One of the consequences of simultaneity is the difficulty in information management. ln this aspect, critic realism always tries to work with the essential information required for an architectural design. The built city is the natural scenario for the critic and realist attitude; a city which is the result of globalization effects such as urbanalization of historic centers and outs kirts, and the inevitable absorption of the periphery -which was one of the big issues of the 1980s. Critic realism intervenes in this context aiming to revitalize, transofrm, restore and even demolish it if necessary. In any case critic realism always acts with the aim to build or rebuild the identity of the built city and to set up the idea of urban sense of belonging. ; El realismo en arquitectura es un concepto "mutante" que admite múltiples significados . En consecuencia, sería más preciso hablar de realismos en plural e intentar situarlos a cada uno adecuadamente en el contexto contemporáneo. A su vez la relación entre realismo y arquitectura ha dejado de ser precisa y concreta, e incluso diríamos que ya no es "real", pasando a ser más abstracta. Esta nueva situación ha sido motivada por los múltiples significados que ha asumido el realismo arquitectónico. Cada vez existen más corrientes que acaban adjetivando a la arquitectura. Por ejemplo, hablamos de arquitectura high tech, icónica, virtual, sostenible, moderna, comercial, clásico-posmoderna o realista, entre otras. Ante esta variedad arquitectónica, el debate entre 'realistas' y 'no realistas' se convierte en una cuestión cada vez más compleja. En arquitectura, la principal dificultad para la comprensión del realismo, y específicamente del realismo crítico, se halla en la definición del propio significado de 'realismo', ya que nos referimos a él por lo que significó en el pasado y no por lo que representa en el presente. El hecho de asumir la mutabilidad y de ahí, la multiplicidad de significados de los realismos arquitectónicos contemporáneos, establecerá un punto de partida para esta investigación. De entre todos los realismos, el realismo crítico asume una actitud critica y un compromiso con la ciudad construida, así como con la complejidad de la nueva era de la información y de la globalización. El realismo critico arquitectónico también adopta a su vez diferentes formas que lo sitúan en el marco de la resistencia a lo global, la voluntad comunicativa y de integración urbana, el comprmiso social y ambiental, el desarrollo tecnológico y el pragmatismo programático.Esta investigación aborda la definición (fragmentada) del realismo critico arquitectónico a través del estudio de proyectos construidos en la Europa occidental a partir de la década de 1980 apoyándose en la naturaleza del realismo de posguerra (1950-1960) y en el realismo pictórico literario de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX La arquitectura del realismo critico contemporáneo pretende ser una "actitud ética", como lo fue en la posguerra o en el siglo XIX. Esta actitud basa sus propuestas arquitectónicas en el conocimiento de la realidad, entendida como contexto físico , social, político, económico, tecnológico y cultural, reconociendo la complejidad de la nueva era de la información y de la globalización. A su vez asume un fuerte compromiso con la ciudad construida, la sociedad y la disciplina arquitectónica. La era de la simultaneidad, que contextualiza cronológicamente esta investigación, es una consecuencia de la revolución tecnológica e informativa consolidada a partir de la década de 1990, coincidiendo con el traspaso a nivel global del sistema analógico al digital. En el ámbito arquitectónico, concretamente, podemos reconocer esta simultaneidad en los programas híbridos, las nuevas organizaciones profesionales (la cada vez más habitual colaboración con consultores) y los nuevos sistemas de gestión de obra (por ejemplo, el fast-track). Una de las consecuencias de la simultaneidad es la dificultad de la gestión de la información. Y en este sentido, el realismo crítico intenta siempre trabajar con la información esencial y necesaria para el diseño de un proyecto arquitectónico. La ciudad construida es el escenario propio de la actitud critico-realista; una ciudad que es el resultado de los efectos de la globalización, entre los que podemos destacar la "urbanalización" del centro y del extra-radio de las ciudades, y la inevitable absorción urbana de la periferia, que fue uno de los grandes temas de debate en la década de 1980. ; Postprint (published version)

Biometrics is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as "the automated recognition of individuals based on their behavioral and biological characteristics" Examples of distinctive features evaluated by biometrics, called biometric traits, are behavioral characteristics like the signature, gait, voice, and keystroke, and biological characteristics like the fingerprint, face, iris, retina, hand geometry, palmprint, ear, and DNA. The biometric recognition is the process that permits to establish the identity of a person, and can be performed in two modalities: verification, and identification. The verification modality evaluates if the identity declared by an individual corresponds to the acquired biometric data. Differently, in the identification modality, the recognition application has to determine a person's identity by comparing the acquired biometric data with the information related to a set of individuals. Compared with traditional techniques used to establish the identity of a person, biometrics offers a greater confidence level that the authenticated individual is not impersonated by someone else. Traditional techniques, in fact, are based on surrogate representations of the identity, like tokens, smart cards, and passwords, which can easily be stolen or copied with respect to biometric traits. This characteristic permitted a wide diffusion of biometrics in different scenarios, like physical access control, government applications, forensic applications, logical access control to data, networks, and services. Most of the biometric applications, also called biometric systems, require performing the acquisition process in a highly controlled and cooperative manner. In order to obtain good quality biometric samples, the acquisition procedures of these systems need that the users perform deliberate actions, assume determinate poses, and stay still for a time period. Limitations regarding the applicative scenarios can also be present, for example the necessity of specific light and environmental conditions. Examples of biometric technologies that traditionally require constrained acquisitions are based on the face, iris, fingerprint, and hand characteristics. Traditional face recognition systems need that the users take a neutral pose, and stay still for a time period. Moreover, the acquisitions are based on a frontal camera and performed in controlled light conditions. Iris acquisitions are usually performed at a distance of less than 30 cm from the camera, and require that the user assume a defined pose and stay still watching the camera. Moreover they use near infrared illumination techniques, which can be perceived as dangerous for the health. Fingerprint recognition systems and systems based on the hand characteristics require that the users touch the sensor surface applying a proper and uniform pressure. The contact with the sensor is often perceived as unhygienic and/or associated to a police procedure. This kind of constrained acquisition techniques can drastically reduce the usability and social acceptance of biometric technologies, therefore decreasing the number of possible applicative contexts in which biometric systems could be used. In traditional fingerprint recognition systems, the usability and user acceptance are not the only negative aspects of the used acquisition procedures since the contact of the finger with the sensor platen introduces a security lack due to the release of a latent fingerprint on the touched surface, the presence of dirt on the surface of the finger can reduce the accuracy of the recognition process, and different pressures applied to the sensor platen can introduce non-linear distortions and low-contrast regions in the captured samples. Other crucial aspects that influence the social acceptance of biometric systems are associated to the privacy and the risks related to misuses of biometric information acquired, stored and transmitted by the systems. One of the most important perceived risks is related to the fact that the persons consider the acquisition of biometric traits as an exact permanent filing of their activities and behaviors, and the idea that the biometric systems can guarantee recognition accuracy equal to 100\% is very common. Other perceived risks consist in the use of the collected biometric data for malicious purposes, for tracing all the activities of the individuals, or for operating proscription lists. In order to increase the usability and the social acceptance of biometric systems, researchers are studying less-constrained biometric recognition techniques based on different biometric traits, for example, face recognition systems in surveillance applications, iris recognition techniques based on images captured at a great distance and on the move, and contactless technologies based on the fingerprint and hand characteristics. Other recent studies aim to reduce the real and perceived privacy risks, and consequently increase the social acceptance of biometric technologies. In this context, many studies regard methods that perform the identity comparison in the encrypted domain in order to prevent possible thefts and misuses of biometric data. The objective of this thesis is to research approaches able to increase the usability and social acceptance of biometric systems by performing less-constrained and highly accurate biometric recognitions in a privacy compliant manner. In particular, approaches designed for high security contexts are studied in order improve the existing technologies adopted in border controls, investigative, and governmental applications. Approaches based on low cost hardware configurations are also researched with the aim of increasing the number of possible applicative scenarios of biometric systems. The privacy compliancy is considered as a crucial aspect in all the studied applications. Fingerprint is specifically considered in this thesis, since this biometric trait is characterized by high distinctivity and durability, is the most diffused trait in the literature, and is adopted in a wide range of applicative contexts. The studied contactless biometric systems are based on one or more CCD cameras, can use two-dimensional or three-dimensional samples, and include privacy protection methods. The main goal of these systems is to perform accurate and privacy compliant recognitions in less-constrained applicative contexts with respect to traditional fingerprint biometric systems. Other important goals are the use of a wider fingerprint area with respect to traditional techniques, compatibility with the existing databases, usability, social acceptance, and scalability. The main contribution of this thesis consists in the realization of novel biometric systems based on contactless fingerprint acquisitions. In particular, different techniques for every step of the recognition process based on two-dimensional and three-dimensional samples have been researched. Novel techniques for the privacy protection of fingerprint data have also been designed. The studied approaches are multidisciplinary since their design and realization involved optical acquisition systems, multiple view geometry, image processing, pattern recognition, computational intelligence, statistics, and cryptography. The implemented biometric systems and algorithms have been applied to different biometric datasets describing a heterogeneous set of applicative scenarios. Results proved the feasibility of the studied approaches. In particular, the realized contactless biometric systems have been compared with traditional fingerprint recognition systems, obtaining positive results in terms of accuracy, usability, user acceptability, scalability, and security. Moreover, the developed techniques for the privacy protection of fingerprint biometric systems showed satisfactory performances in terms of security, accuracy, speed, and memory usage.

Mountain pine krummholz within the Majella National Park forms an isolated patch and is a relictual species, thought representing the potential natural vegetation of the subalpine belt in Central Apennines, Italy. Mountain pine grows above the timberline and has in the Majella massif its southernmost limit of the distributional range. This vegetation dominates the treeline ecotone, between the dense beech forest and the alpine prairies, and is highly sensitive even to minor environmental changes. For this reason, it is a major proxy for monitoring the effects of climate and land-use changes occurring in the Mediterranean Basin. Mediterranean climatic trend includes projected increasing temperature and a different distribution of total precipitation, which are increasing during winter and decreasing during summer and autumn, respectively. Moreover, in Central Apennines, subalpine shrublands have been deeply reduced from the past anthropic practices. The recent abandonment of marginal areas and grazing cessation are allowing a re-colonization of areas previously grazed. The main objective of this study was to assess the effects of land-use and climatic changes on mountain pine population dynamics in the Majella massif, using three different methodological approaches. Temporal and spatial distribution of mountain pine since 1954 was reconstructed and a multitemporal map was created by historical aerial ortophotos. Results documented an upward and downward expansion of mountain pine and an ingrowth into the formerly tree-free grassland in early 1900s, together with a decline of the local human population and livestock. The relative role of climatic variables on mountain pine growth was assessed by dendroclimatological analysis. Climate-growth relationship were assessed by correlation function (CF) analysis and moving CF (MCF), investigating the possible deviations in the response of mountain pine to recent climate change. Results demonstrated that climate variables affected mountain pine growth at the treeline ecotone in the Majella massif. Significant correlations were found with the spring maximum temperatures and summer precipitation. MCF showed that mountain pine is a sensitive species, in terms of tree ring growth, particularly at the beginning and at the end of the growing season. For better understand dendroclimatological results, wood anatomical analyses were conducted. Timings of mountain pine xylogenesis were assessed and the principal phenological phases (cambial division; enlargement; wall thickening; mature) were monitored during the entire growing season. At the same time timings of compression wood (CW) formation and possible differences with the opposite wood (OW) formation were investigated. Results indicated that CW is characterized by higher number of cells and thicker secondary wall, as well as longer xylogenesis compared with the OW. The growing season started simultaneously in both types of wood (on 20 May), and ended two week earlier in OW (on 22 September) than in CW (on 6 October). Increasing temperature of spring month would be favourable for the elongation of mountain pine growing season, which would probably start early, though decreasing precipitation could compromise wood formation during summer, mountain pine being highly sensitive to this climatic parameter. Growing above the limit of tree vegetation, mountain pine proved to be a promising species for monitoring climate- and land use-driven influences over tree-ring growth at high elevation. An excessive expansion of mountain pine krummholz, mainly at higher altitudes, may represent a threat for rare and endemic species growing in the alpine grasslands of the Majella National Park. However, conservation and preservation of mountain pine are required, in order to avoid a severe reduction of its distribution and then the risk of extinction of the last "island" present in the Apennine. ; La mugheta del Parco Nazionale della Majella è una formazione isolata e relittuale, testimonianza vivente della possibile serie vegetazionale climacica della fascia subalpina in Appennino centrale. Il pino mugo cresce solitamente sopra il limite altitudinale degli alberi (timberline) e trova nel massiccio della Majella il limite meridionale del suo areale di distribuzione. Questa vegetazione ecotonale, di transizione tra il bosco denso di faggio e le praterie alpine, sensibile anche alle minime variazioni ambientali, rappresenta un ottimo indicatore degli effetti dei recenti cambiamenti climatici e di uso del suolo in atto nel Bacino del Mediterraneo. Le tendenze climatiche previste per quest'area includono un aumento delle temperature ed una diversa stagionalità delle precipitazioni, con aumento nei mesi invernali e diminuzione nei mesi estivi e autunnali. In Appennino, inoltre, la vegetazione arbustiva del piano subalpino è stata drasticamente ridotta in passato dall'azione diretta dell'uomo, per far spazio al pascolo d'alta quota. L'attuale e progressivo abbandono dei pascoli d'alta quota, però, sta permettendo una ricolonizzazione del piano alpino con la libera evoluzione delle serie vegetazionali. Questo lavoro ha l'obiettivo di valutare, mediante tre diversi approcci metodologici, gli effetti delle variazioni d'uso del suolo e dei cambiamenti climatici sulle dinamiche evolutive dei popolamenti di pino mugo nel massiccio della Majella. Un confronto diacronico svolto a scala di paesaggio, su fotogrammi aerei opportunamente ortorettificati e ortofoto digitali, ha mostrato una progressiva espansione della mugheta. Il contributo di indagini condotte in archivi di Stato e sedi ISTAT ha dimostrato una concomitante drastica riduzione della pratica del pascolo. Il ruolo delle variabili climatiche nella crescita del pino mugo è stato indagato mediante analisi dendroclimatologiche su carote legnose di pino mugo. Le relazioni clima-accrescimento sono state definite mediante funzioni di correlazione (CF), la cui variabilità nel tempo in risposta ai cambiamenti climatici è stata valutata con funzioni di correlazione a finestra mobile (MCF). I risultati hanno dimostrato che le variabili climatiche influenzano la crescita del pino mugo nell'ecotono della treeline sul massiccio della Majella. Significative CF sono state ottenute con le temperature massime primaverili e le precipitazioni estive. Le MCF hanno dimostrato che il pino mugo è una specie sensibile alle variazioni climatiche , in termini di crescita radiale, in particolare all'inizio e alla fine della stagione vegetativa. Il significato delle correlazioni ottenute è stato indagato con analisi anatomiche svolte a livello di singolo individuo che hanno permesso di definire le tempistiche della xilogenesi nel pino mugo. Le diverse fasi fenologiche (divisione e crescita cellulare, ispessimento della parete secondaria e completa lignificazione delle tracheidi) sono state monitorate durante un'intera stagione vegetativa, indagando contemporaneamente sulle tempistiche di formazione del legno di compressione (CW) e sulle differenze con il legno opposto (OW). Un maggior numero di cellule con parete secondaria più spessa è stato osservato nel CW, con tempi di formazione più lunghi rispetto al OW. Maggio rappresenta l'inizio della stagione vegetativa del pino mugo sul massiccio della Majella, settembre e ottobre la fine. Un incremento delle temperature primaverili permetterebbe un'anticipazione della riattivazione vegetativa e di conseguenza un allungamento della stagione di crescita del pino mugo. È quindi possibile confermare un'evoluzione della mugheta dovuta soprattutto all'abbandono dei pascoli, ma anche influenzata dagli andamenti climatici. Una eccessiva espansione della mugheta, principalmente verso quote maggiori, rappresenterebbe una minaccia per le specie rare ed endemiche presenti nei pascoli alpini del Parco Nazionale della Majella. Tuttavia, politiche di conservazione e salvaguardia dovranno allo stesso tempo evitare una eccessiva riduzione della mugheta e quindi la scomparsa dell'ultimo nucleo presente in Appennino. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Difesa e qualità delle produzioni agro-alimentari e forestali (XXV ciclo)

This report presents the findings of research into the main outcomes of government and donor-backed efforts to promote small and medium-sized energy businesses (energy SMEs) in sub-Saharan Africa. The research follows an outcome analysis methodology. The focus is on four countries: Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania and Zambia and primarily on UNEP's AREED programme (2002-2012). This research focuses on the 'contributing factors' – a deliberately broader term that incorporates the internal 'success factors' – for energy SMEs, about which much has already been written. Indeed, the research findings presented in this report reaffirm most of what has been concluded in previous studies, including Kolominskas (2003); Mehlwana (2003); Denton (2006) and Napier-Moore (2006). These studies identified the lack of access to affordable finance as the being the predominant, persistent, barrier to establishing and scaling up a commercially viable energy SME sector, emphasising the lack of strong policy support from governments, poor business skills capacity and the high cost of many RETs as related cause-and-effect barriers. While these issues continue to characterise, to a greater or lesser extent, the energy SMEs sectors in the countries studied for this research, it is more relevant to revisit the main assumption behind AREED and other donor-backed programmes designed to promote energy SMEs. The assumption is that the solution to the aforementioned barriers would be overcome by a 'demonstration effect' whereby successful energy SMEs, supported by donor-backed programmes, influence the commercial financial sector to invest in energy SMEs, thus triggering a virtuous circle of growth and profitability. Experiences drawn from a decade of AREED support across four of the project countries reveal both the presence (Ghana, Senegal) and absence, or weak presence, of this demonstration effect (Tanzania, Zambia). This is a central question, and one which was not the focus of previous research, presumably because the answer was not fully apparent prior to 2006 when the last substantial work was conducted. Where there is an absence, or weak presence, of a demonstration effect a number of explanatory factors can be identified. These include, inter alia, the lack of an entrepreneurial culture; an SME 'dependency syndrome' perpetuated by grant-based support from governments and donor agencies; persistent shortcomings in business skills capacity; lack of clearly defined markets; demand-side barriers to purchase relatively high capital-intense energy products. Where numerous energy SMEs are in operation and thus where a valid demonstration effect can be identified, there is a perceived paradox that serves to undermine commercial interest in investing in energy SMEs. The paradox is that the donor-supported businesses that were issued with concessional and/or flexible loans serve to demonstrate that these businesses depend upon such concessional terms, i.e., that they could not survive in 'the real world'. While this assumption is widely regarded as self-evident by private investors, there are in fact other, more concrete, factors that act to undermine the demonstration effect. These include, inter alia, relatively high transaction costs of investing in SMEs; the inherently complicated nature of energy sector SMEs with longer supply chains and slower pay-back periods for capital-intensive technologies such as solar PV; rigid rules regarding the need to secure collateral. These factors can be understood as structural issues that conspire to increase the financial risk of investing in energy SMEs and thus are not the product of ignorance on the behalf of the banking sector. In the countries studied for this research, these factors are compounded by the high opportunity costs for banks where higher rates of return can be secured from investing in high-turnover businesses, for example those trading in high-volume, perishable goods. There is also a more general challenge faced by a range of SME entrepreneurs where such individuals and businesses are considered by banks to have an inherently higher risk profile, a factor which, to some extent, appears to be the product of 'anti-SME' discrimination, where investors favour larger corporate players operating under licence, often backed by strong branding, reputation and/or political connections. There is evidence that government in the countries studied is now more receptive to the concept of energy SMEs. For example, most governments have eased the burden of red tape that traditionally surrounded business registration in many African countries and some governments, such as Senegal, have set up government departments whose sole purpose is to support SMEs. However there is a predominant view among stakeholders, across the countries studied, that governments are ineffective in designing and implementing tangible support for energy SMEs, despite politicians often providing strong rhetorical support. As such the establishment and success of energy SMEs more often depends on support provided by donor agencies or NGOs that can provide technical assistance and/or subsidised loans. This point highlights an important status quo, and an issue that was itself one of the key rationales behind supporting energy SMEs in the first place, i.e., to by-pass government in efforts to supply sustainable energy technologies to low income consumers by supporting SMEs. However, early experience with the practical challenge of supporting energy SMEs led observers, including Denton (2006) and Napier-Moore (2006), to consider the role and importance of an 'enabling framework' necessary for energy SMEs to function and thrive. While this issue would appear to present itself as a chicken-and-egg dilemma, the research findings presented here from Senegal, and to a lesser extent with Ghana's LPG market, do suggest that conducive economic and regulatory conditions are a prerequisite for scaling up the commercial success of energy SMEs. At the same time, one of the well-understood success factors for specific energy SMEs is the head start given to relatively mature technologies that are reliable, easy to understand and suitable for local distribution, thus presenting a 'low-hanging fruit' opportunity for SMEs. LPG and fuel efficient cook stoves are the obvious technologies that have proven to be most commercially viable, and indeed the failure to conduct in-depth market testing for energy products and services has been a major cause of commercial failure for otherwise well organised and motivated SMEs. A major geographical outcome is that energy SMEs continue to mostly operate in, and supply, urban and peri-urban markets. As such, programmes (including AREED) that were originally intended to address the rural market, where traditional fuel use accounts for major social and environmental impacts, have largely failed. This is due to low levels of entrepreneurial capacity, higher transaction costs for supplying a dispersed rural market, and demand-side barriers for capital-intensive RETs. However this market focus is not unique to the energy sector and entrepreneurial talents and opportunities tend to dominate in urban areas, across all sectors.

SÍNTESISLa capital política de la CAV es Vitoria, y Bilbao es la capital económicafinanciera, con una población de 400.000 habitantes,donde se enmarca la actuación de BILBAO Ría 2000.La recesión económica internacional de finales de los añossetenta, como resultado de la crisis del petróleo, provocó eldesmoronamiento de la gran industria pesada asentada en lasmárgenes de la Ría de Bilbao. La crisis de los 90, transformóbrutalmente las riberas en ruinas industriales.El conjunto deactuaciones en el entorno de la Ría de Bilbao, tal vez ha sidoel resultado de hacer de la necesidad virtud, y de convertir losproblemas en verdaderas oportunidades.Hasta el año 1800 la humanidad trabajó fundamentalmenteen la agricultura. El sector primario-agropecuario,dio trabajo ala humanidad durante 4.000 años, y el secundario-fabril, diotrabajo durante los últimos 200 años (entre 30% o 35% de lospuestos de trabajo necesarios),hoy el 70% del empleo restantelo proporciona sectores como el comercio, el turismo, los servicios,el ocio, la cultura, la información y otras actividades. Laapuesta estratégica consiste en comprender que la cultura no esnecesariamente sólo un coste sino una inversión de futuro.La mayoría de los oponentes opinaba que en tiempos de crisishabía que concentrar todos los recursos públicos en accionesa favor del empleo y de la industria. Un segundo grupo deoponentes, luchó ferozmente contra un proyecto que consumíasus fuentes de financiación y fue visto como "colonialismo ala americana" .Un tercer movimiento, alzó su voz contra unaconstrucción que iba a ocultar la silueta del monte.Las zonas industriales, ferroviarias y portuarias que quedaronlibres al cesar la actividad que sobre ellas se realizaba. Las actuaciones concretas a través de la sociedad BILBAO Ría 2000,una experiencia piloto en España, incluyeron la depuración susaguas y el traslado de las actividades portuarias hacia la desembocadura,incluyendo:El Metro de Bilbao ,1995.Dos nuevos puentes sobre la Ría, 1997.La terminal del aeropuerto de Bilbao, 2000.La ampliación del Puerto exterior, 1998.El Plan Integral de Saneamiento de la Ría.El nuevo puerto deportivo de Getxo.El Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, y el Palacio de Congresos y dela Música de Euskalduna.Las actuaciones ferroviarias.El tipo de actuaciones, debía favorecer la sostenibilidad. Paraello se abordaron conjuntamente y con un enfoque integradorlos problemas de transporte, urbanismo y medio ambiente. Asímismo, se trabajó con la ciudad existente, sin ocupar suelos vírgenes,y se trató de sacar el máximo partido a las infraestructurasexistentes, transformando los problemas en oportunidades.El ámbito de actuación abarcó los municipios situados a lo largode la Ría y su misión consistió en re-ordenar el territorio de lamano de la planificación de los distintos municipio afectados.La construcción del Museo Gugenheim, se volvió emblemático.El estudio de su viabilidad ,justificaba esta inversión a condiciónde que el museo recibiera 400.000 visitantes al año, cifra quese triplicó en el primer año, sin tener en cuenta efectos menostangibles, como el orgullo recuperado de una sociedad postradaque vuelve a tener fe en el futuro. Se trató, pues, claramente,de una inversión y no de un gasto. El museo suscitó el despertarcultural de Bilbao: su Museo de Bellas Artes se ha renovado yha doblado el número de visitantes; la vida nocturna se ha enriquecido,así como la programación de sus salas de espectáculos;sus tiendas se han renovado para acoger a más grandes marcas;la calidad del diseño y de la arquitectura ha dejado su improntaen toda la ciudad .La cultura crea ciudad y la ciudad hace cultura. Como dice RobertParker, "La ciudad es sobre todo una especie de estado deánimo, un conjunto de hábitos, de costumbres, de tradiciones,no sólo un mecanismo físico y una construcción artificial. Formaparte de los procesos vitales de los habitantes que la componen.Es un producto de la naturaleza, sobre todo, de la naturaleza humana".ABSTRACTThe political capital city of the Basque Autonomy Community isVitoria, being Bilbao its financial capital city with a populationof 400,000 inhabitants and where the projects of BILBAO Ría2000 are carried out.The international economic recession of the late 70's, resultingfrom the oil crisis, caused the collapse of the big heavy industryset up on the bank of Ría de Bilbao. The 90's crisis brutallytransformed the banks into industrial ruins. The activities takingplace on Ría de Bilbao may have been the result of turningneeds into virtue, and problems into real opportunities.Up to 1800, humankind fundamentally developed agriculture.The primary agricultural sector generated jobs for humankind for4,000 years, and the secondary manufacturing sector providedhumankind with jobs for the last 200 years (between 30% and35% of the necessary jobs). Nowadays, the rest 70% of jobsis provided by sectors such as trade, tourism, services, entertainment,culture, information and other activities. The strategicgamble lies in understanding that culture does not necessarilyinvolve costs, but also a future investment.Most detractors though that, in time of crisis, all public resourceshad to be focused on actions favoring employment and industry.A second group of detractors fiercely fought against a projectthat consumed their financing sources and that was seen as"American colonialism." A third movement raised its voiceagainst a construction that was going to hide the landscape.The industrial, railway and port areas were freed after the activitiesundertaken there were stopped. The activities undertakenby BILBAO Ría 2000, a pilot experience in Spain, included thetreatment of water and the relocation of port activities to theEstuary of Ría de Bilbao, including:Bilbao Subway ,1995.Two new bridges over Ría, 1997.The Bilbao's airport terminal, 2000.The enlargement of the Exterior Port, 1998.The Comprehensive Plan for Treating Ría.The new Getxo Port.The Guggenheim Museum of Bilbao, and the Palace of Congressesand Music of Euskalduna.Railway activities.The activities had to favor sustainability. Thus, the transportation,city-planning and environmental problems were tackled togetherby using an integrating approach. Likewise, they workedon the existing city, without occupying virgin lands, and tried tomake the most of the existing infrastructure by transformingproblems into opportunities. The activities covered the municipalitieslocated along Ría, and their goal was to rearrange theterritory according to the planning of the different municipalitiesinvolved.The construction of the Guggenheim Museum became emblematic.Feasibility studies justified this investment under thecondition that the museum received 400,000 visitors per year,a number that tripled in the first year, without considering lesstangible effects such as the restoration of pride in a bedriddensociety that regained its faith in the future. It was clearly an investmentand not an expense. The Museum caused the culturalawakening of Bilbao: the Bilbao Fine Arts Museum has beenrenewed and its number of visitors has doubled; night-life andthe programming of its halls have been enriched; its stores havebeen renewed to receive greater brand products; and the citybears the imprint of the quality of design and architecture.Culture creates city, and city creates culture. As Robert Parkersaid: "The city is, above all, some kind of frame of mind, anumber of habits, customs, and traditions. It is not just a physicalmechanism and an artificial construction. It is part of thevital processes of the inhabitants comprising it. It is a product ofnature, especially of human nature.

El cambio climático como fenómeno global preocupa a todo el mundo y se manifiesta en lo cotidiano a través de diversos desórdenes del clima. El Panel Intergubernamental de Cambio Climático (IPCC), en su cuarto informe de evaluación presentado el 2007, y la Organización Mundial de Meteorología (OMM) han establecido que desde el 2001 la temperatura media global en el planeta registra el nivel de aumento más alto de nuestra historia. A este ritmo, y por lo difícil que resulta encontrar una solución aun en el mediano plazo, todo indica que el 2013 no será la excepción.Las causas del cambio climático son atribuidas a factores naturales pero también antropogénicos; existe ya consenso respecto a la influencia de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), sobre todo el dióxido de carbono (CO2) en este proceso acelerado de calentamiento del planeta.Esta crisis del clima, como una forma de ser enfrentada, hoy está obligando a los países a promover proyectos que reduzcan las emisiones de GEI y permitan el almacenamiento de carbono. Uno de los mecanismos internacionales establecidos para concretar este objetivo son los bonos de carbono, iniciativa dispuesta por el Protocolo de Kioto, acuerdo jurídicamente vinculante firmado en 1997 y en vigor desde el 2005. Expiró el año pasado, pero la histórica Conferencia de Doha, Catar, decidió en diciembre último prorrogar la vigencia del tratado hasta el 2020.El protocolo, en su primera fase, exige a las grandes potencias reducir durante el período 2008-2012 la emisión de gases en un 5,2% por debajo del nivel de 1990. Lo interesante es que las empresas de tales potencias, para cumplir esta obligación, pueden hacerlo en cualquier lugar o comprar bonos de carbono de países que superen las metas exigidas. La emisión de estos bonos es, después de todo, una iniciativa de descontaminación, que permite que los países industrializados sigan con sus prácticas contaminantes, en tanto inviertencapitales en los países subdesarrollados para reducir en su favor las emisiones de GEI.Esta iniciativa ha generado un mercado de compra y venta de certificados de emisiones reducidas (CER). Nuestro país tiene enormes posibilidades para captar estos recursos. Se trata, entonces, de una oportunidad para ingresar a este mercado y generar importantes recursos que pueden ser invertidos en mayor investigación, desarrollo e innovación (I+D+i) en los mismos procesos de adaptación y mitigación del cambio climático.Perú tiene 13 humedales reconocidos y protegidos por la convención Ramsar, uno de estos humedales es el lago Chinchaycocha - el segundo más extenso del país - que debe ser visto hoy como un ecosistema que brinda servicios ambientales diversos y su conservación por lo tanto debe darse en el ámbito del mercado de bonos de carbono. Es la razón por la que en esta oportunidad con fines de determinar su potencial capacidad de almacenamiento de carbono, la Universidad Continental con el apoyo del Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas por el Estado (SERNANP) ha desarrollado entre los años 2011 y 2012 el importante proyecto de investigación "Almacenamiento de carbono en especies predominantes de flora en el lago Chinchaycocha" y así tener a futuro una adecuada valoración de este gran humedal en estos tiempos en los que su conservación responsable es clave como parte de los procesos de adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático global.La revista científica Apuntes de Ciencia & Sociedad en este número expresa especial interés en poner a disposición de la comunidad científica y académica los resultados del mencionado proyecto de investigación como muestra de nuestro compromiso con la ciencia y la vida. ; Climate change as a global phenomenon concerns worldwide and is manifested in everyday life through various climatic disorders. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its Fourth Assessment Report presented in 2007, and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) have established that since 2001 the global average temperature on the planet recorded the highest level of increase in our history. At this rate, and also the difficulty of finding a solution even in the medium term, it appears that 2013 won't be the exception.The weather change causes are attributed to natural factors but also anthropogenic; there is already a consensus on the greenhouse effect gases (GHG) influence, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) in this accelerated process of global warming.This climate crisis as a way to be faced, is now forcing countries to promote projects which reduce GHG emissions and permit carbon storage. One of the international established mechanisms to achieve this goal are the carbon credits initiative disposed by the Kyoto Protocol, a legally binding agreement signed in 1997 and in force since 2005. It expired last year, but the historical Doha Conference, Qatar, decided last December to extend the validity of the treaty until 2020.The protocol, in its first phase, demands the main powers during the period 2008-2012 to reduce gas emissions by 5,2 % below the level of 1990. The interesting thing is that such powerful companies to enforce this obligation, can do it anywhere or buy carbon credits from countries that exceed the required goals. The emission of these credits is, after all, a decontamination initiative, which allows industrialized countries to continue their polluting practices, while investing capital in underdeveloped countries to reduce GHG emissions on their behalf.This initiative has created a market for Certified Emission Reductions (CER) buying and selling. Our country has enormous potential to capture these resources. It is, then, an opportunity to enter this market and generate significant resources that can be invested in more research, development and innovation (R + D + i) in the same adaptation processes and climate change mitigation.Peru has 13 recognized and protected wetlands by the Ramsar convention, one of these wetlands is the Chinchaycocha lake - the second largest in the country - that must be seen today as an ecosystem that provides various environmental services and conservation, therefore it must be in the carbon credits market scope. It's the reason and with the purpose of determining its carbon storage capacity potential, the Universidad Continental with the National Service of Protected Natural Areas by the Government (SERNANP)'s support have developed between 2011 and 2012 the important research project "Carbon storing in predominant flora species in the Chinchaycocha lake" so in the future achieve a proper assessment of this wetland nowadays when responsible conservation is the key for adaptation and climate change mitigation.The "Apuntes de Ciencia & Sociedad" scientific journal in this number expresses special interest in making available to the scientific and academic community the results of that research project as a demonstration of our commitment to science and life.

One of the key issues of urban management is the process of drafting and approval of planning. Very particularly with regard to the definition of what in this thesis, we call urban model, i.e., trinity formed first by the use of soil, second by the build ability and finally the building typologies. In this thesis, we try to see what factors influence the determination of the urban model enshrined in planning legislation. It starts from the assumption that, besides the classical factors belonging to the urban economy (e.g. accessibility), sociology (e.g. social hierarchy of space), externalities (e.g. environmental quality) and demographics (e.g. housing needs) there are others who may be as important as the ones above. The nature all these new factors would be affiliated with the political will of those involved in drafting I planning approval, the private and the public interests. Ultimately, these conditions could be called agents (e.g. government and stakeholders) and processes (e.g. processes of social demands). Therefore the main objective of this thesis is lo study the weigh that these factors in shaping the urban model. The Thesis has two parts: a Theoretical one, which develops the theory of the urban model, its regulation, its process design, its shaping into a plan that has been approved and the determinants of land use, density and typologies. In the second part, using a logit regression model is studied to what extent the classic factors are able to predict the way in how, in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona, has configured the model embodied in 168 urban areas of planning legislation. Therefore it the classic factors of land use allocation I density I typology would be able to explain most of the variance of the sample, and then our hypothesis should be rejected. II on the contrary, the unexplained portion was relevant, and then it would mean that the determinants (agents and processes) may have a role in this allocation process. The findings of the quantitative section suggest that the classical factors can explain only 51.2% of cases; lo see it the unexplained portion (Le. the model error) was due to problems in the source lack of information; or it they really could be due to other factors, was performed a detailed analysis of each case. Following this review, it became clear the need to study in detail and with the support of qualitative techniques, two cases in Barcelona where the model was clearly wrong. The analysis performed on the file for approval of plans, a field study and interviews with stakeholders, revealed the enormous complexity inherent to the agents and processes evidenced in the management of the drafting and approval thereof, whose influence over redirecting, i.e. reconfiguring the urban model that would result simply by considering the classic factors of land use allocation I build abilities I typologies. One of the main contributions of this thesis was therefore to highlight the important role of the planning legislation, which being closer to reality, to the agents and the processes of the territory, allows building a city hypothesis inductively, Le. while it drafts I approves I managed; quite the opposite of what happens with the general planning whose hypotheses are propositions to be compared on the occasion of its development, and often contradicted by its frequent modification. ; Una de les qüestions clau de l' urbanisme és la gestió del procés de redacció i aprovació del planejament. Molt particularment pel que fa a la definició del que en aquesta tesi s'anomena model urbà, és a dir, la trinitat formada, en primer lloc per l'ús del sòl, en segon lloc per l'edificabilitat i finalment per les tipologies edificatòries. En aquesta tesi s'intenta veure quins factors tenen influència en la determinació del model urbà consagrat en el planejament derivat. Es parteix de la hipòtesi que, a més dels factors clàssics afiliats a l'economia urbana (p.e. accessibilitat), la sociologia (p.e. jerarquització social de l'espai), les externalitats (p.e. la qualitat ambiental) i la demografia (p.e. necessitats objectives d'habitatge) hi ha altres que poden ser igualment importants com els anteriors. La naturalesa d'aquests nous factors estaria afiliada a les voluntats polítiques dels que tenen ingerència en la redacció/ aprovació del planejament, als interessos particulars i de la ciutadania. En definitiva aquests condicionants podrien ser anomenats agents (p.e. administració i administrats) i processos (p.e. processos de reivindicació social). Així doncs, l'objectiu fonamental d'aquesta tesi és estudiar el pes que tenen aquests condicionants en la configuració del model urbà. La tesi es divideix en dues parts: una teòrica, en la qual es desenvolupa la teorització del model urbà, la seva regulació, el procés de concepció, la seva plasmació en un pla que ha de ser aprovat, així com les condicionants de l'ús del sòl, la densitat i les tipologies. Una segona, en la qual, mitjançant un model de regressió lògic s'estudia fins a quin punt els factors clàssics són capaços de predir la forma en com, a la Regió Metropolitana de Barcelona, s'ha configurat el model urbà plasmat en 168 sectors de planejament derivat. De manera que, si els factors clàssics d'assignació d'usos / densitats / tipologia fossin capaços d'explicar la major part de la variància de la mostra, la nostra hipòtesi hauria de ser rebutjada, si pel contrari, la part no explicada resultés rellevant, voldria dir que els condicionants (agents i processos) podrien tenir un paper en el procés d'aquesta assignació. Les conclusions de l'apartat quantitatiu apunten a que els factors clàssics només són capaços d'explicar el 51,2% deis casos; per conèixer si la part no explicada (i.e. l'error del model) es devia a problemes en les fonts / manca d'informació o si de veritat podrien ser conseqüència d'altres factors, es va realitzar una anàlisi detallada de cada cas. Després d'aquesta revisió es va fer evident la necessitat d'estudiar amb detall, i amb el concurs de les tècniques qualitatives, dos casos a Barcelona on clarament el model es mostrava errat. L'anàlisi realitzada sobre l'expedient d'aprovació dels plans, un estudi de camp i la realització d'entrevistes en profunditat amb els agents implicats, va revelar l'enorme complexitat inherent als agents i els processos, evidenciada en la gestió de la redacció i aprovació dels mateixos, la seva influència va acabar reconduint, és a dir, reconfigurant el model urbà que hagués resultat simplement de considerar els factors clàssics d'assignació d'usos / edificabilitats / tipologies. Una de les principals aportacions de la tesi ha estat, per tant, posar en relleu l'important paper que té el planejament derivat, ja que en estar més proper a la realitat, als agents i als processos del territori, permet construir la hipòtesi de ciutat d'una forma inductiva, és a dir, alhora que es redacta / s'aprova / i es gestiona, molt al contrari del que passa amb el planejament general, on les seves hipòtesis són proposicions a ser comparades en ocasió del seu desenvolupament, i moltes vegades refutades mitjançant la seva freqüent modificació. ; Postprint (published version)

Wenn räumliche Planungen in Angriff genommen werden, sind Konflikte meist vorprogrammiert. Weiten sich diese Konflikte über das konkrete Planungsprojekt aus, führt dies oft zu Debatten um das Ausmaß und die Art und Weise, in der die von einer Planung Betroffenen in diese einbezogen werden. Partizipative Verfahren werden dann als Ausweg aus einer solchen 'planerischen Legitimitätskrise' angesehen. Doch wie berechtigt ist die mit partizipativen Verfahren verbundene Hoffnung auf einen Ausgleich der widerstreitenden Interessen? Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung war es, anhand der Planungsprozesse ausgewählter Hochwasserrückhalteräume zu klären, inwieweit partizipative Verfahren tatsächlich zur Verbesserung von räumlichen Planungsprozessen beitragen können. Hierzu wurden drei Forschungsfragen aufgestellt: 1) Wie können partizipative Prozesse evaluiert werden? 2) Wie wirken sich partizipative Prozesse auf die Ergebnisse räumlicher Planungen aus? 3) Welche Rahmenbedingungen und Prozessfaktoren müssen für eine erfolgreiche Öffentlichkeitsbeteiligung gegeben sein? Mit dem Fokus auf einer partizipativen Entscheidungsfindung lässt sich die Arbeit in das Feld der interaktionsorientierten Policy-Forschung einordnen. Zur Untersuchung der partizipativen Prozesse wurden Methoden der qualitativen empirischen Sozialforschung angewandt. Der Forschungsprozess unterteilte sich in zwei Untersuchungsphasen: 1) In einer explorativen Studie wurden 25 problemzentrierte Experteninterviews in vier Fallstudien der Planung von Hochwasserrückhalteräumen entlang des deutschen Rheins durchgeführt. 2) Aufbauend auf den Ergebnissen der explorativen Studie wurde eine Modellstruktur zur Bewertung partizipativer Prozesse erarbeitet. Hierzu wurden die Ziele partizipativer Verfahren den drei Komponenten des Legitimitätsbegriffes (Input-, Throughput-, Output-Legitimität) zugeordnet. Basierend auf der Analyse bestehender Ansätze zur Evaluierung partizipativer Verfahren und den Ergebnisse der explorativen Studie entstand eine Modellstruktur. Diese diente als Codierungssystem bei der qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse der Interviews und wurde gleichzeitig im Verlauf der Analyse überarbeitet. Die Inhaltsanalyse wurde dabei auf zwei Fallstudien begrenzt. Bei der Betrachtung der beiden Fallstudien kristallisierten sich vier Rahmenbedingungen als entscheidend für den Erfolg partizipativer Verfahren heraus: 1) ein möglichst geringer Konfliktgehalt der Planung, 2) kooperative Schlüsselpersonen, 3) politische Unterstützung und politischer Handlungsspielraum, 4) finanzielle Grundlagen für den Ausgleich von Beeinträchtigungen. Als zentrale Prozessfaktoren wurden die folgenden drei Aspekte identifiziert: 1) ausreichende Ergebnisoffenheit auf Seiten des Planungsträgers und echte Kooperationsangebote an die betroffenen Akteure, 2) frühzeitige, kontinuierliche, transparente Information und direkte Kontakte zu den betroffenen Akteuren, 3) eine bewusst gestaltete Verzahnung zwischen formellen und informellen Verfahren. Die zentrale Frage dieser Arbeit, ob und inwieweit partizipative Prozesse zu einer größeren Legitimität von räumlichen Planungsprozessen beitragen können, kann nicht mit einem eindeutigen 'Ja' oder 'Nein' beantwortet werden. Dies liegt auch darin begründet, dass sich unter dem Dachbegriff der Legitimität die drei verschiedenen Aspekte Input-, Throughput- und Output-Legitimität verbergen. Diese drei Aspekte bauen aufeinander auf, stehen aber auch in einem Spannungsverhältnis zueinander, so dass Zielkonflikte zwischen ihnen entstehen. Je nach Situation und Planungsanforderungen sollte eine bewusste Entscheidung für eine bestimmte legitimatorische Ausrichtung des partizipativen Prozesses getroffen werden. Dies umso mehr, als die Fallstudien deutlich machten, dass es kein allgemeines Verständnis von Legitimität und einem 'guten' Verfahren gibt, dem sich alle Akteure automatisch anschließen. Das Wissen um Rahmenbedingungen und Prozessfaktoren kann Planungsträgern helfen, einen Beteiligungsprozess adäquat zu gestalten. Dieser ist natürlich nur bedingt steuerbar und mit gruppendynamischen Prozessen und Emotionen verbunden. Partizipation setzt daher auf Seiten der 'Anbieter' partizipativer Verfahren ein hohes Maß an Kompetenzen im Bereich des Prozess- und Konfliktmanagements voraus. Zugleich ist aber auch Partizipationskompetenz auf Seiten der partizipierenden Akteure notwendig. Partizipationsforschung sollte zukünftig stärker als bisher Wissenschaftsbereiche in die zu integrieren, die helfen, menschliche Verhaltensmuster und gruppendynamische Prozesse zu verstehen. Ein solches Verständnis würde es erlauben, adäquatere Hilfestellungen für die Gestaltung partizipativer Prozesse abzuleiten und auf die eingangs gestellte Frage nach der Wirksamkeit partizipativer Verfahren differenzierte und praxistaugliche 'Ja, wenn' – Antworten zu liefern. ; Conflicts are inherent to spatial planning processes. When these conflicts spread beyond the specific scope of the project, debates about the method to integrate concerned actors in the planning process are common. Public participation is seen in these cases as a solution for such planning-related legitimacy crises. However, the question arises as to whether expectations of public participation in relation to the balance of interests, authorized planning processes and technically sound decisions in environmental planning are justified. This thesis will contribute to answer that question by investigating planning processes in the field of flood protection. It was the main objective of this research to clarify in how far and under which conditions participatory processes can indeed improve spatial planning processes. Three research questions were derived: 1) How can participatory processes be evaluated?, 2) How do participatory processes affect the progress and result of a planning process?, 3) Which framework conditions and process factors need to be given for a successful public participation? Case studies concerning the planning of flood retention areas along the German Rhine served as background for the analysis. With its focus on the decision-making between actors, the research belongs to the field of interaction-oriented policy research. For the investigation of participatory processes, qualitative methods of empirical social research were applied. The research process was thereby divided into two investigation phases: 1) Within four case studies concerning the planning of flood retention areas along the German Rhine 25 problem-centered expert interviews were conducted. 2) Based on the results of the explorative study and on existing evaluation approaches, a model structure for the evaluation of participatory processes was developed. In order to define targets for participatory processes, different targets related to them were bundled in the field of legitimacy which includes three different components: input legitimacy, throughput legitimacy and output legitimacy. By doing so, an evaluation structure for participatory processes was developed, which bundles nine categories with 12 criteria in the three dimensions: context, process and result. The model structure served as coding system for the qualitative analysis of expert interview contents. Two case studies were selected for in-depth analysis. Four central framework conditions were identified within the case studies, which have an influence on the success of the participatory process: 1) a low conflict potential of the planning process, 2) existence of cooperative key stakeholders, 3) political support and scope of political action, 4) financial means of the planning agency to provide compensation. In additional to these general framework conditions, three crucial factors for the process design were identified: 1) openness towards unexpected results, especially on behalf of planning agencies, 2) early, continuous and transparent information flow through direct contact with concerned actors, 3) conscious interlocking of formal and informal processes. Hence, participatory processes need to be included in a mix of appropriate political instruments. The central question of this study regarding the extent to which participatory processes can add to broader legitimacy of planning processes cannot be answered with a straight 'yes' or 'no'. This is because of the complexity of the different spheres of legitimacy and the fact that they not only build on each other but that there are conflicting goals related to the three legitimacy aspects. Thus, there is the need to decide for a specific legitimacy orientation according to the situation and the requirements of the planning process. The case studies underpin this because they show that there is no universal definition of legitimacy and no commonly held understanding of a 'good' process. The focus on the identified framework conditions and process factors should allow planning agencies to facilitate improved public participation. Although they cannot necessarily be regulated, knowledge of these conditions and factors adds to the successful planning of the process. In order to handle emotions and group-dynamic processes, competencies in conflict and process management are crucial on the supply side. On the side of the participating actors, courage to express their own interests is important as well as the skills to understand complex planning processes and to act emphatically. Research areas that assist in understanding behavioral patterns and group-dynamic processes should therefore be more intensely included in participation research. This understanding would allow for appropriate assistance concerning the design of participatory processes and for the answer 'yes, if…' to the question of whether participatory processes can assist in the improvement of planning processes.

학위논문 (석사)-- 서울대학교 대학원 : 행정학과, 2012. 2. 김동욱. ; 이 논문은 한국과 이집트의 지역사회개발정책을 국가주도성이라는 공통적 측면에 주목하고, 이러한 국가주도적인 지역사회개발정책의 형성 및 발전과정에 따른 경로의존성을 분석하는데 주요한 관심을 둔다. 이를 위해 역사적 사건, 초기경로의 생성 경로의존적 닫힘, 그리고 새로운 경로의 열림으로 구체화 했다. 이러한 과정 하에 역사적, 제도적, 행위자적 요인으로 재분류함으로써 제도 변화의 경로 의존적 요인과 촉진 요인을 보다 면밀히 파악하고자 했다. 이는 기존의 제도적 맥락, 즉 제도 내외의 환경의 영향으로 설명하고자 하는 역사적 신제도주의에 기반하였다고 볼 수 있다. 이 논문을 통해서 지역사회개발정책을 둘러싼 국가 계획은 역사적, 제도적 그리고 행위자적 요인으로 인해 일정기간 지속성을 이끌어가는 요인으로 작용했으며, 한편으로는 역사적 요인에 의하여 단절적인 변화를 경험하기도 했다. 한국의 새마을운동이 적어도 정부가 의도한 바대로 지역사회의 변화를 이끌어내기 위한 의미있는 성과를 가져왔음에 비해, 이집트의 슈르끄 운동을 포함한 일련의 지역사회개혁정책이 지역민의 참여와 자원을 효과적으로 이끌어내지 못한 점을 경로의존성 분석을 통하여 도출해내었다고 볼 수 있다. 이러한 분석결과는 다음과 같이 양국의 지역사회개발정책의 유사성과 상이성으로 나뉜다. 먼저, 유사성으로는 한국과 이집트는 개발도상국으로서의 국가주도 지역사회개발정책을 실시한 경험을 가지고 있다는데 있다. 기본적으로 농경에 바탕을 둔 사회이며, 19세기 외세에 의한 근대화 및 권위주의정권에 의하여 지역사회개발정책이 상당부분 영향을 받았다는 점이 유사하다. 이외에도 개발도상국으로서 공업화 등에 대한 우선적 관심으로 상대적으로 지역사회개발정책과 관련된 자원을 투입하는데 한계가 있었지만, 대통령의 일반적인 관심사가 되었다는 점에서 유사하다. 다음, 상이성으로는 한국의 경우, 새마을운동은 앞선 시기의 여러 사회적, 제도적 및 행위자 요인과 함께 지역사회의 인적 물적 자원을 효과적으로 동원하는 내무부 주도의 제도적요인과 박정희 대통령의 정책에 대한 관심과 거버넌스를 촉진하는 행위자적 맥락 요인이 함께 작용하여 이러한 국가주도적 경로의존성을 지속시켜나갔다. 이러한 국가의 개입은 민간의 참여와 자원을 효과적으로 동원하는 방식으로 나아갔다. 한편, 1980년대 새마을운동은 박정희 정부의 종식과 연이은 전두환 정부의 민간주도 정책으로 인해 기존 국가주도적 경로를 이탈하게 된다. 한국과 달리 이집트의 국가주도 지역사회개발정책의 경로는 국가가 이러한 변화를 주도하는 측면에서는 여전히 경로의존성을 유지하고 있었다. 이는 1980년대 무바라크 정부에서는 슈르끄 사업을 실시함으로써 민간주도로 이행하기 위한 노력을 진행했으나, 현재까지 강한 국가주도적 경로를 유지하고 있다. 국가의 의도를 실현시킬 수 있는 효과적인 집행기관과 지역사회의 참여와 자원을 이끌어낼 수 있는 기제가 마련되어 있지 않는데 원인이 있다. 또한, 실제 지역사회개발정책을 통한 정책효과에 대한 무바라크 대통령의 관심의 부재와 지역사회개발에 참여하는 대지주 및 기업가의 부패문제는 지역사회 참여자의 관심을 이끌어 내지 못함으로써 국가가 대부분의 지역사회개발과 관련된 문제를 독자적으로 해결해나가야 하는 악순환에 처해 있는 것이다. 그러나 2012년 현재 이집트는 쟈스민 혁명으로 일컬어지는 민주화운동에 의하여 새로운 정부 수립을 앞두고 있다. 이렇게 새로이 수립된 정부가 그간 권위주의 정부에 의하여 추진된 농촌 등 지역사회개발정책에 대한 개선책에 대한 기대감이 크다. 새로운 정부의 수립 이후 과거 이집트정부가 추진한 강한 국가주도 지역사회개발정책의 실효성을 강화하는 방향으로 나아갈지 혹은 새로이 민간주도 정책으로 전환하는 주요 결절점으로서 작용할지가 주목된다. 이와는 별개로 정권교체 이후에도 당분간 국가가 주도하여 지역사회개발정책을 수립해나갈 가능성이 크므로 이러한 작업을 위해 이집트 정부는 한국 새마을 운동의 성공요인이었던 내무부 주도, 민간의 자발적 참여와 자원동원을 이끄는 방식을 추진한다면, 지역사회개발의 성공을 앞당길 수 있을 것으로 전망된다. ; Focusing on similarity of the state-led character between both countries, this study aims to analyze its formation and developmental process of Korea and Egypt's rural development policy in terms of a path dependency. For this purpose, this study fall into the four sub-parts, which is historic events, creation of initial path, closeness of path and openness of new path. Under this circumstance, as being reclassified in the basis of historic, institutional, and stakeholder factor, it was able to look into more specifically how the path was proceeded. This based on historical institutionalism to be explained by its environmental circumstances both inside and outside institutions. This study shows the national plan on both country's policies of rural development contributed to keep consistency within a certain periods, but they often experienced several sudden shocks which might be disconnect their paths. The Saemaeul Undong in Korea at least have brought significant outcomes for changes in its rural societies. In comparison, The Egypt's case was not successful at that much because they failed to efficiently attract its rural people's support and securing their resources for their national rural development plans. These result outcomes came from analysis from the perspective of path-dependency and it can be more specifically classified into the two categories, which is similarity and difference of both nation's rural development policies. First of all, Korea and Egypt have a similar experience for conducting their own state-led rural development plans as a developing countries. Besides, when they started to develop rural area, the state mainly relied on agriculture and the rural development plan influenced from the authoritative regimes or the power of a foreign countries. In addition, both countries was more focused to invest their limited resources into the industries, rather than rural development. Next, In Korea, with its prior several social, institutional and stake holder's factors, Saemaeul Undong kept its state-led developmental path as successfully mobilizing its human and material resources with help of deep concern of president Park Chung-hee as stakeholder factor and his ministry of interior as institution factor. Especially, this engagement by the central government was gave more initiatives to private sectors when they obtaining their participation and resources. Meanwhile, in 1980s, the Saemaeul Undong derailed its path due to the facts such as the assassination of president Park Chung-hee or the privatization policy of president Chun Doo-hwan. Different from the Korea case, Egypt's state-led rural development has kept on sustaining previous path until now. There are several attempts such as president Mubarak's Shrouck plan toward private-led rural development. However, it does not seem to be enough for detouring its current state-led development tendency for a new change. This is responsible for lack of effective implementation agency and mechanism which is able to get cooperation from rural society. It hinders them in carrying out their plan not only by president Mubark's lack of actual concerns on rural reforms, but also by business man or large farm owner's corruption problems. Therefore the Egyptian government was caught in a vicious circle in which the central government should exclusively take on whole responsibility for rural development issue. However, as of 2012, Egyptians are facing a new government by liberalization movements which called 'jasmine revolution'. They hope that a reform packages of the new government would be differentiated from that of the previous. it might be a prime concerns whether they are maintaining its state-led path or changing their course toward a more private-led one. Whatever the case it would be, their strong involvement by the central government is more likely to be kept for a while. In these circumstance, if the Egyptian government adopt those successful factors of the Saemaeul Undong, their success for rural development would be advanced by substantial length of time. Keywords : rural development, state-led, path dependency, Korea, Egypt ; Master

Die Studie schließt an die Debatte in der vergleichenden politikwissenschaftlichen Verwaltungsforschung an, die sich mit der Rolle interner Beratungsakteure in Regierungsorganisationen beschäftigt. Ziel dieser Studie ist es, die Mechanismen zu erklären, durch die interne Beratungsakteure die ihnen zugeschriebene Bedeutung im exekutiven Entscheidungsprozess erlangen. Dabei werden jene Organisationseinheiten untersucht, die proaktiv an exekutiven Entscheidungsprozessen mitwirken und mit ihrer Beratung politischer Akteure in Konkurrenz zur Ministerialverwaltung stehen können. Die Einflussmechanismen dieser Akteure in der exekutiven Entscheidungsfindung werden als Formen einer "Institutionenpolitik" aufgefasst, bei der Akteure die institutionellen Bedingungen von Politikformulierungsprozessen bzw. die "Spielregeln exekutiver Entscheidungsfindung" verändern, um ihre eigene Position bzw. die ihres "Klienten" zu stärken. Das theoretische Argument dieser Arbeit folgt der neo-institutionalistischen Wende in der Organisationstheorie und definiert Institutionenpolitik als graduelle Institutionalisierungsprozesse zwischen Institutionen und organisationalen Akteuren, wobei einem weiten Institutionenbegriff folgend die Objekte solcher Veränderungsprozesse durch regulative, normative und kognitive Säulen gekennzeichnet sind. In Anwendung des "power-distributional approach" lassen sich graduelle Institutionalisierungsprozesse durch institutionenbezogene Charakteristika erklären, d.h. die Beschaffenheit der Objekte von Institutionenpolitik, insbesondere die Interpretationsfreiheit ihrer Anwendung, sowie die Restriktionen des institutionellen Kontexts. Zudem lässt sich Institutionenpolitik durch akteursbezogene Charakteristika erklären, d.h. den Ambitionen der Akteure sich als "potentielle institutionelle Agenten" zu engagieren. Diese beiden Erklärungsdimensionen drücken sich in vier idealtypischen Mechanismen von Institutionenpolitik aus: Sedimentation, Ersetzung, Drift, und Konversion, die mit vier Agententypen korrespondieren. Die Studie untersucht die institutionenpolitischen Ambitionen der Akteure explorativ, die Relevanz des institutionellen Kontexts wird mithilfe von Erwartungshypothesen zu den Effekten von vier Merkmalen analysiert, die in der bestehenden Debatte als relevant gelten: (1) die Parteienzusammensetzung der Regierung, (2) die Strukturprinzipien von Kabinettsentscheidungen, (3) die Verwaltungstradition sowie (4) die formale Politisierung der Ministerialverwaltung. Die Studie folgt einem "most similar systems design" und führt qualitative Fallstudien zur Rolle interner Beratungseinheiten im Zentrum deutscher und britischer Regierungsorganisationen, d.h. der Regierungszentrale und dem Finanzministerium, über einen längeren Zeitraum durch (1969/1970-2005). Es werden jeweils drei Zeitperioden pro Untersuchungsland betrachtet, die britischen Fallstudien analysieren die Beratungsakteure im Cabinet Office, Prime Minister's Office und dem Finanzministerium unter den Premierministern Heath (1970-74), Thatcher (1979-87) und Blair (1997-2005). Die deutschen Fallstudien untersuchen die Beratungsakteure im Bundeskanzleramt und dem Bundesfinanzministerium unter den Bundeskanzlern Brandt (1969-74), Kohl (1982-1987) und Schröder (1998-2005). Für die empirische Untersuchung wurden die Ergebnisse einer Dokumentenanalyse mit den Erkenntnissen aus 75 semi-strukturierten Experteninterviews trianguliert. Die vergleichende Analyse zeigt unterschiedliche Muster von Institutionenpolitik. Die deutschen Beratungsakteure agieren anfänglich in Ersetzung, später vornehmlich in Sedimentation sowie Drift, d.h. ihre institutionenpolitischen Aktivitäten widmen sich nach anfänglicher Ersetzung bestehender institutioneller Grundlagen zunehmend der Addition neuer Elemente sowie der deliberativen Nicht-Entscheidung zur Anpassung existierender institutioneller Grundlagen an Umweltveränderungen. Die britischen Beratungsakteure sind zumeist in Ersetzung sowie Konversion engagiert, trotz gelegentlicher Sedimentation, d.h. einer direkten Ersetzung bestehender institutioneller Grundlagen durch neue Spielregeln exekutiver Entscheidungsfindung sowie einer bewussten Umwandlung und Neuausrichtung existierender institutionellen Grundlagen, gelegentlich auch eine Addition neuer Elemente zu bestehenden Regeln. Die institutionen- und akteursspezifischen Charakteristika sind für diese Muster von Institutionenpolitik erklärungsrelevant. Erstens weist die Studie nach, dass der institutionelle Kontext die institutionenpolitischen Aktivitäten in Deutschland beschränkt und in Großbritannien begünstigt. Zweitens ist die Interpretationsfreiheit der Anwendung institutionenpolitischer Objekte bedeutsam, wie sich anhand der institutionenpolitischen Ambitionen der Akteure im Zeitverlauf und im Ländervergleich zeigt und somit drittens bestätigt, dass diese Interessen der Akteure an Institutionenwandel die Mechanismen von Institutionenpolitik beeinflussen. Die Arbeit schließt mit der Erkenntnis, dass die Rolle interner Beratungseinheiten in der exekutiven Politikformulierung nicht nur aus ihren inhaltlichen, parteistrategischen oder medial-beratenden Funktionen für politische Akteure in Regierungsämtern folgt, sondern insbesondere aus ihren institutionenpolitischen Aktivitäten, deren Resultate die institutionellen Restriktionen aller Akteure in exekutiven Entscheidungsprozessen beeinflussen – und somit auch ihre eigene Rolle in diesen Prozessen. ; This study follows the debate in comparative public administration research on the role of advisory arrangements in central governments. The aim of this study is to explain the mechanisms by which these actors gain their alleged role in government decision-making. Hence, it analyses advisory arrangements that are proactively involved in executive decision-making and may compete with the permanent bureaucracy by offering policy advice to political executives. The study argues that these advisory arrangements influence government policy-making by "institutional politics", i.e. by shaping the institutional underpinnings to govern or rather the "rules of the executive game" in order to strengthen their own position or that of their clients. The theoretical argument of this study follows the neo-institutionalist turn in organization theory and defines institutional politics as gradual institutionalization processes between institutions and organizational actors. It applies a broader definition of institutions as sets of regulative, normative and cognitive pillars. Following the "power-distributional approach" such gradual institutionalization processes are influenced by structure-oriented characteristics, i.e. the nature of the objects of institutional politics, in particular the freedom of interpretation in their application, as well as the distinct constraints of the institutional context. In addition, institutional politics are influenced by agency-oriented characteristics, i.e. the ambitions of actors to act as "would-be change agents". These two explanatory dimensions result in four ideal-typical mechanisms of institutional politics: layering, displacement, drift, and conversion, which correspond to four ideal-types of would-be change agents. The study examines the ambitions of advisory arrangements in institutional politics in an exploratory manner, the relevance of the institutional context is analyzed via expectation hypotheses on the effects of four institutional context features that are regarded as relevant in the scholarly debate: (1) the party composition of governments, (2) the structuring principles in cabinet, (3) the administrative tradition, and (4) the formal politicization of the ministerial bureaucracy. The study follows a "most similar systems design" and conducts qualitative case studies on the role of advisory arrangements at the center of German and British governments, i.e. the Prime Minister's Office and the Ministry of Finance, for a longer period (1969/1970-2005). Three time periods are scrutinized per country; the British case studies examine the role of advisory arrangements at the Cabinet Office, the Prime Minister's Office, and the Ministry of Finance under Prime Ministers Heath (1970-74), Thatcher (1979-87) and Blair (1997-2005). The German case studies study the role of advisory arrangements at the Federal Chancellery and the Federal Ministry of Finance during the Brandt government (1969-74), the Kohl government (1982-1987) and the Schröder government (1998-2005). For the empirical analysis, the results of a document analysis and the findings of 75 semi-structured expert interviews have been triangulated. The comparative analysis reveals different patterns of institutional politics. The German advisory arrangements engaged initially in displacement but turned soon towards layering and drift, i.e. after an initial displacement of the pre-existing institutional underpinnings to govern they laid increasingly new elements onto existing ones and took the non-deliberative decision to neglect the adaption of existing rules of the executive game towards changing environmental demands. The British advisory arrangements were mostly involved in displacement and conversion, despite occasional layering, i.e. they displaced the pre-existing institutional underpinnings to govern with new rules of the executive game and transformed and realigned them, sometimes also layering new elements onto pre-existing ones. The structure- and agency-oriented characteristics explain these patterns of institutional politics. First, the study shows that the institutional context limits the institutional politics in Germany and facilitates the institutional politics in the UK. Second, the freedom of interpreting the application of institutional targets is relevant and could be observed via the different ambitions of advisory arrangements across countries and over time, confirming, third, that the interests of such would-be change agents are likewise important to understand the patterns of institutional politics. The study concludes that the role of advisory arrangements in government policy-making rests not only upon their policy-related, party-political or media-advisory role for political executives, but especially upon their activities in institutional politics, resulting in distinct institutional constraints on all actors in government policy-making – including their own role in these processes.

A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ; This research takes an interdisciplinary approach and includes aspects of applied geography, applied management, political economy, development studies, sociology and anthropology, in line with the tradition of progressive tourism studies. It seeks to resolve academic concern about the limited insight within existing bodies of knowledge into how sustainability and sustainable tourism development are conceptualised at a grassroots level by inhabitants and other stakeholders of tourism destinations (Redclift, 1987; Liu, 2003; Swarbrooke, 1999; Mowforth and Munt, 1998; Maida, 2007) and furthermore how these conceptualisations are shaped through expressions of political economy in a post-crisis context. The research aimed to evaluate how political economy and interpretations of sustainability affected post-disaster tourism redevelopment using the case study of Phi Phi Island in Thailand, which was devastated by the tsunami of December 2004. An interpretive philosophy informed the research design, in which primary data was gathered using an inductive mixed methodology. Methods included online research, comprising the design and operation of a tailored website to overcome geographical and access limitations; and offline methods such as visual techniques to monitor change and confirm opinions offered by participants of the research; in-depth face-to-face interviews with hand-picked stakeholders of Phi Phi's development; open-ended questionnaires with tourists; and extended answer Thai script questionnaires in order to overcome language barriers and present the 'Thai voice'. The primary data was gathered from April 2006-December 2011 including a period working at [information removed for anonymity purposes] University in Phuket (June-December 2006). Twenty-five themes emerged from the data, the most significant being the social impacts of tourism, environmental impacts of tourism, power relationships and future desires. It was found that the factor with the greatest influence over Phi Phi's development is the desire to develop the economy through tourism, and the philosophy underpinning the development is largely economic. The tsunami did not cause any significant reassessment of the tourism development trajectory, but served to uncover a range of conflicts and unlawful activity, resulting from powerful stakeholders pursuing their own interests and desired outcomes, in order to suit their own needs rather than those of the community as a whole. In terms of how sustainability is conceptualised by different stakeholder groups, it was found that the meanings attributed to sustainability in this context differ greatly to meanings elaborated within western ideological debates. Stakeholders' conceptualisations of sustainability were mapped against key debates within literature. How meanings differed between stakeholder groups was also examined and a definition for sustainable tourism development on Phi Phi was compiled encompassing a broad range of interests. The thesis provides a rare opportunity to see which political, economic and cultural factors shape the planning of tourism development and whether actual practice mirrors the principles of sustainability. For islanders, present needs are yet to be met and education was recommended to increase islanders' understanding of impacts and sustainability, as well as their skills and knowledge base to enable them to compete intellectually with the ruling elite and reduce dependence upon landowners and the mainland. Numerous authors have highlighted a relative lack of academic attention directly addressing the influence of political economy on achieving sustainability in post-disaster reconstruction (Klein, 2008; Hystad and Keller, 2008; Olsen, 2000; Bommer, 1985; Beirman, 2003; Faulkner, 2001; Glaesser, 2003; Ritchie, 2004). This work therefore extends existing academic debates and studies in a number of areas. In existing academic debates concerning the political economy of post-disaster reconstruction there is a trend towards 'disaster capitalism' (Klein, 2005: 3) or 'smash and grab capitalism' (Harvey, 2007: 32) and 'attempts to accumulate by dispossession' (Saltman, 2007a: 57). However, this did not occur on Phi Phi. Despite claims of a 'clean slate' being offered by the tsunami in developmental terms (Pleumarom, 2004; UNDP, 2005; Dodds, 2011; Ko, 2005; Nwankwo and Richardson, 1994; Argenti, 1976; Rice, 2005; Altman, 2005; Brix, 2007; Ghobarah et al., 2006; Dodds et al., 2010), this research provides evidence and explanation of why this did not and would never exist on Phi Phi, a finding that may be applied to other destinations in a post-disaster context. In response to Blaikie et al.'s (2004) concerns that vulnerability is often reconstructed following a disaster and may create the conditions for a future disaster, this work has extended discussions of disaster vulnerability through an adapted application of Turner et al.'s (2003) Vulnerability Framework. This meets Calgaro and Lloyd's (2008) recommendation that further longitudinal research is required in other tsunami-affected locations. This research refines their work to identify a detailed framework of vulnerability factors intertwined with factors of political economy, presenting a post-disaster situation that remains highly vulnerable and non-conducive to sustainability. This is in response to Hystad and Keller's (2008) recognition that there is a lack of long-term studies, which not only show how disaster has shifted the nature of the destination and tourism product, but also identify successful strategic processes and actions in disaster response. The strategic response has been analysed through an adapted Strategic Disaster Management Framework (Ritchie, 2004) to identify the shortcomings of the disaster response to comprehend how such a disaster has influenced tourism development and planning on the island, showing that this was a mirror opposite to how a disaster should be handled according to the literature (Ritchie, 2004; Adger et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2006; Olsen, 2000; Coppola, 2007; Faulkner, 2001; Baldini et al., 2012). The researcher draws on the notion of 'strategic drift' (Johnson, 1998: 179) and 'boiled frog syndrome' (Richardson, Nwankwo and Richardson, 1994: 10) to explain how host attitudes to tourism may increase vulnerability. Both these contributions can assist in identifying destination vulnerability and limitations in disaster response and recovery. Unlike the work of Dodds (2010) and Dodds et al. (2011), the aim was not to assess the practice and attainment of sustainability on Phi Phi; rather, it was to elaborate interpretations and conceptualisations of sustainability. An examination of development philosophy established how specific factors of political economy and relationships of a hegemonic nature influence the development trajectory of both Phi Phi and Thailand. Despite governmental rhetoric influenced by a strong 'sufficiency economy' hegemony led by King Bhumibol Adulyadej, the observations of dependency theorists provide a better fit for the experiences on Phi Phi and present significant challenges for the pursuit of sustainability. The thesis posits that an effective response to the disaster and pursuit of sustainability are undermined by the political economy of the destination.

The cooperatives are legal entities which may make contracts, appear in trial and act on everything that is in accordance whit its social and economic nature. These acts are from trade on the form, but not in the essence, because in the cooperatives don´t exist the profit, the trade act haven´t all its form characteristics.It differs between internal and external acts. The first one is celebrating between the members and the cooperative; the second, the celebrating with third no members, but for benefic of its members, or rather, to comply the social goal.What is intended to recognize the spirit of cooperation, leading to the central point of this work: "The cooperative act" from the viewpoint of its rules.The organizations of the solidarity economy, have been created, as the name implies, with the spirit to protect to the most neediest, providing more access to the most vulnerable populations; but this has been disproved by these institutions to approve loans without knowing some of the rights and in turn stretch the limits of her performances, using the powers granted by law and perform sequestration pensions and salaries of persons who are not partners or who do not exercise their rights as such that we find the largest number of complaints that users on the Superintendencia de la Economía Solodaria for the issue of usury and other irregularities in the granting and debt recovery.It then suggests the regulation of cooperative action within our Colombian law through a law, decree or mandatory rule that force or tools to Colombians and control agencies to act against the administrators or solidarity organizations that make this type of acts against law.It is suggested that regulation of the cooperative act within the Colombian legislation through a law, decree or mandatory rule that gives strength or tools to Colombians and control agencies to act against the administrators or solidarity organizations who commit this type of acts against law.It is clear to see the profound importance of the proposed topic, as the cooperative and solidarity economy are the object of legal regulation widening in our country for the importance and how it affects decisions at national level in terms of work and a lot other aspects that initially developed without any regulatory framework, as is the case with several of the forms of association that were designed to solve economic, social, cultural and environmental eventually be regulated legally (Sarmiento & Guarín, 1999). ; Las cooperativas son personas jurídicas que pueden realizar contratos, comparecer en juicio y actuar en todo aquello que esté conforme con su índole social y económica. Sus actos son de comercio en la forma, pero no en la esencia, por no existir el lucro, por no reunir todas sus características formales.Se distinguen entre actos internos y externos. Los primeros son los celebrados entre los asociados y la cooperativa; los segundos, los celebrados con terceros no asociados, pero para beneficio de sus asociados, o mejor dicho, para poder cumplir el fin social. Lo que se pretende en reconocer el espíritu del cooperativismo, lo que conduce al punto central de este trabajo: "El acto cooperativo" desde la perspectiva de su reglamentación.Las organizaciones de la economía solidaria, han sido creadas, como su nombre lo indica, con el espíritu de protección hacia los más necesitados, ofreciendo servicios de mayor acceso a las poblaciones más vulnerables; pero esto se ha desvirtuado por estas entidades al aprobar créditos desconociendo algunos de los derechos y a su vez excediendo los límites de sus actuaciones, al usar las prerrogativas otorgadas por la ley y realizar embargo de pensiones y salarios de personas que no son asociados o que no ejercen sus derechos como tal, lo que constatamos con el mayor número de quejas que presentan los usuarios en la Superintendencia de la Economía Solidaria por el tema de Usura y otras irregularidades en el otorgamiento y cobro de créditos.Se sugiere entonces la reglamentación del acto cooperativo dentro de nuestra legislación colombiana a través de una Ley, Decreto o norma imperativa que le de fuerza o herramientas a los colombianos y a las entidades de control para actuar en contra de los administradores o entidades solidarias que cometen este tipo de actuaciones contrarias a derecho.Es claro ver la profunda importancia del tema propuesto, dado que el cooperativismo y la economía solidaria son objeto de una regulación legal cada vez más amplia en nuestro país por la importancia y la forma como afecta las decisiones a nivel nacional en lo laboral y otro muchos aspectos que inicialmente se desarrollaron sin ningún marco normativo, como es el caso de varias de las formas asociativas que fueron ideadas para solucionar problemas económicos, sociales, culturales y ambientales, terminaron por ser reglamentados jurídicamente (Sarmiento & Guarín, 1999). ; As cooperativas são entidades jurídicas que podem fazer contratos, o seu julgamento e agir em tudo o que você está satisfeito com a sua natureza social e econômica. Suas ações são negociadas em forma, mas não a essência, porque não há lucro, não satisfazer todas as suas características formais.Ela difere entre os atos internos e externos. O primeiro está comemorando entre os membros da cooperativa e, a segunda, a celebrar com terceiros não membros, mas para benéfico dos seus membros, ou melhor, para cumprir o objetivo social.As organizações da economia solidária, foram criados, como o nome indica, com o espírito pra proteger aos mais necessitados, proporcionando mais acesso às populações mais vulneráveis , mas isso foi desmentido por estas instituições por aprovar empréstimos sem conhecer alguns dos os direitos e por sua vez, ampliar os limites de suas performances, no uso das atribuições conferidas por lei e executar o sequestro pensões e salários de pessoas que não sejam parceiros ou que não exercer os seus direitos como tal, que encontramos o maior número de reclamações que os usuários em a Superintendência de la Economía Solodaria para a questão da usura e outras irregularidades na concessão e recuperação de dívidas.Em seguida, sugere a regulamentação da ação cooperativa dentro do nosso direito colombiano através de uma regra lei, decreto ou obrigatório que a força ou as ferramentas para os colombianos e agências de controle para agir contra os administradores ou organizações de solidariedade que fazem este tipo de actos contra a lei.É claro, para ver a profunda importância do tema proposto, como a economia cooperativa e solidária são objecto de alargamento na regulamentação legal no nosso país por causa da importância e como ela afeta as decisões a nível nacional em termos de trabalho e muito aspectos que, inicialmente, desenvolvidos sem qualquer marco regulatório, como é o caso de várias das formas de associação que foram projetados para resolver econômica, social, cultural e ambiental, eventualmente, ser regulado legalmente (Sarmiento & Guarín, 1999).