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The Transkei Wild Coast is a unique and diverse biophysical environment stretching some 280 kilometres between the Great Kei and Mtamvuna Rivers along South Africa's eastern coastline. Its extensive indigenous forests were recognised for their biological and economic importance by the colonial government and granted protection from the late 1800s, with forced removal of indigenous people who resided within them. The state restricted and controlled the utilisation of the forest resources, particularly by Black people, through promulgation and enforcement of legislation. Similar conservation methods were employed for protection of the Wild Coast's soils, grasslands and marine resources, usually without any consultation with local Black leadership or communities who relied upon these resources. Previous studies have focussed on the impacts of Western-style conservation legislation and the promulgation of protected areas on local people. These have suggested that local communities have been denied access to natural resources through a fences and fines approach, often accompanied by heavy-handed, strict law enforcement measures. Very little research has been conducted to document the actual reasons for and the history of conservation efforts along the Wild Coast. The aim of this study was to explore the history of natural resource management and conservation along the Wild Coast from a Western and African perspective, and to examine the conflicts that have arisen as a result thereof. The importance of utilisation of natural resources to sustain livelihoods and the conservation methods applied to protect these resources were examined, mainly by means of a literature review and face-to-face interviews with local traditional leaders and environmental managers. The successes, challenges and conflicts that resulted from conservation efforts were examined through detailed analysis of the conservation history of three case study areas: Dwesa-Cwebe, Hluleka and Mkambati nature reserves. The study concludes that traditional leaders, foresters and conservation managers have largely been ignored during previous research on management and conservation of the Wild Coast; however, they were very eager to express their views on this subject. The interviews revealed that traditional leaders and conservationists from each case study area want to protect the Wild Coast and its natural resources, albeit for different reasons. Conservationists recognise the importance of the region's biodiversity and the need for protected areas, particularly where there is rich endemism such as at Mkambati and Dwesa-Cwebe. Traditional leaders recognise the potential for jobs for their people where protected areas preserve the aesthetic beauty of the coast and attract tourists. For them, employment opportunities are a priority, as is access to utilisation of natural resources to sustain livelihoods. The traditional customs and culture of the people living along the Wild Coast are also seen as being of critical importance. This has not been adequately considered by past conservation planners and managers, but traditional leaders express value in conserving the amaXhosa and amaMpondo way of life. Nowhere is this more evident than in relation to grazing land for cattle. Another significant finding is that the support shown by traditional leaders for conservation of the terrestrial environment is not necessarily mirrored when it comes to protection of marine resources. The Wild Coast has a rich variety of marine flora and fauna and a high percentage of endemic species. Local people have relied upon marine resources for sustenance, but conservationists acknowledge that access to these resources has historically been restricted without consultation with traditional leaders or local communities. It is concluded that these restrictions can be linked to many land claims on protected areas on the Wild Coast since 1994. While this study suggests that both traditional leaders and conservationists want to protect the Wild Coast and its natural resources, there is still mistrust based on a history of unjust forced removals from forests, restrictions on the use of natural resources through the manifestation of colonial and apartheid power, and broken promises relating to benefit sharing from proceeds of wildlife and tourism ventures, as well as those benefits linked to land claim settlement agreements in the post-apartheid era. The study concludes that, despite past conflicts relating to conservation management, the Wild Coast's protected areas have widespread support amongst traditional leaders. There is agreement that co-management is the preferred option but the state has to assist in curbing lawlessness that threatens over-exploitation of natural resources. It is largely acknowledged by conservationists that local people should be permitted to sustainably use certain natural resources and that there have to be increased economic benefits from tourism. Although protected area managers cannot be expected to carry the responsibility of failed tourism models and economic ventures on nature reserves, this study found that they are often the only government officials available on the ground for traditional leaders and local communities to consult with. For co-management to be successful on the protected areas, regular communication about all matters pertaining to management is considered important. While it is accepted that traditional leaders no longer have the administrative powers that they historically possessed, the study found that they are still widely respected along the Wild Coast. It is therefore concluded that regular consultation between environmental managers and traditional leaders is essential for the future conservation of the Wild Coast. ; Thesis (PhD) -- Faculty of Science, Geography, 2021

This thesis is composed of a set of research in applied economics that enroll in the contemporary field of economics of biodiversity. The thesis focuses specifically on the links between economic development, local welfare and biodiversity conservation in sub-Saharan Africa region. An introductory chapter presents the subject of the thesis as well as the research field and situates our contribution.The rest of the thesis is composed of two parts divided into macroeconomic studies and case studies. Part 1 (composed of chapter 2 and chapter 3) addresses the link biodiversity and development under a macroeconomic perspective by taking into account spatial interactions between countries. In chapter 2, we examine the impact of development in sub-Saharan Africa on biodiversity using recent indicators on threatened species. In chapter 3, we focus on the mechanisms that support public conservation policies in Sub-Saharan Africa and tested the effect of tourism, environmental aid and spillover effects on conservation effort. Part 2 (composed of chapter 4 and chapter 5) presents two case studies in Ivory Coast. Chapter 4 presents a cost benefit analysis using contingent valuation and market price method. It evaluates the costs and benefits of conservation for local populations. In chapter 5 we examine people's preferences for conservation and identify key factors that determine local preferences. In the last chapter we draw implications of results and present potential extensions of this thesis. ; La présente thèse est composée d'un ensemble de travaux de recherche en économie appliquée qui s'inscrivent dans le champ contemporain de l'économie de la biodiversité. La thèse s'intéresse spécifiquement aux liens entre développement économique, bien-être local et conservation de la biodiversité avec comme zone d'étude l'Afrique subsaharienne. Un chapitre introductif présente les questions de recherche débattues dans cette thèse et situe notre contribution dans la littérature.Le reste de la thèse est composé de deux parties regroupées en études macroéconomiques et en études de terrain. La partie 1 (composé du chapitre 2 et du chapitre 3) aborde le lien biodiversité-développement sous un angle macroéconomique en considérant les interactions spatiales entre pays. Le chapitre 2 examine l'impact du développement en Afrique Subsaharienne sur la biodiversité mesuré à partir d'indicateurs récents sur les espèces menacés. Le chapitre 3 s'intéresse aux mécanismes qui soutiennent les politiques publiques de conservation en Afrique Subsaharienne et teste l'effet du tourisme, de l'aide environnementale et des effets transfrontaliers sur l'effort de conservation. La partie 2 (composé du chapitre 4 et du chapitre 5) présente deux études de cas en Côte d'Ivoire. Le chapitre 4 évalue monétairement les coûts et les bénéfices de la conservation pour les populations locales. Le chapitre 5 examine les préférences des populations pour la conservation et identifie les facteurs clés qui déterminent ces préférences locales. Le chapitre 6 fait une synthèse des résultats en tire les implications en termes de recommandations de politiques et présente de potentielles extensions de la thèse.

The aim of this work was to study butterflies and moths (Macrolepidoptera) and their diversity in the Puščia peat bog and to compare it with natural Kernavas peat bog. The abundance of butterflies and day-active moths' species was evaluated using transect method. A total of 302 Lepidoptera specimens belonging to 31 species and five families (one moth family and four butterflies' families) were registered. Twelve species (six tyrphobiontic (Aricia eumedon, Plebeius optilete, Callophrys rubi, Boloria euphrosyne, Jodis putata, and Ematurga atomaria) and six tyrphophilous (Plebeius idas, Lycaena dispar, Argynome laodice, Boloria dia, Brenthis ino, and Boloria selene) were obligatory associated with peat bogs. Other species showed no preference to bogs. Three different habitats of Puščia peat bog were studied: renewable peat bog's site, renewable peat bog and natural peat bog outskirt. Variety and abundance of different lepidopterans species were recorded in the studied habitats. The sparse abundance and variety of butterflies species was noted in the renewable peat bog habitat due to sparse vegetation, upset hydrological regime and exploitation of peat. The diversity of butterflies in Puščia peat bog seems to be typical to the raised bog ecosystem, though relict species (e.g. Oeneis jutta, Proclossiana eunomia and Colias palaeno) were not found there. The absence of these species shows degradation of the Puščia peat bog. The Puščia bog is a valuable site for some rare butterrfly species, e.g. Papilio machaon, Aricia eumedon and Lycaena dispar. These butterfly species are protected in Lihuania and the whole European Union. So the Puščia peat bog needs comprehensive protection and further reconstruction.

The aim of this work was to study butterflies and moths (Macrolepidoptera) and their diversity in the Puščia peat bog and to compare it with natural Kernavas peat bog. The abundance of butterflies and day-active moths' species was evaluated using transect method. A total of 302 Lepidoptera specimens belonging to 31 species and five families (one moth family and four butterflies' families) were registered. Twelve species (six tyrphobiontic (Aricia eumedon, Plebeius optilete, Callophrys rubi, Boloria euphrosyne, Jodis putata, and Ematurga atomaria) and six tyrphophilous (Plebeius idas, Lycaena dispar, Argynome laodice, Boloria dia, Brenthis ino, and Boloria selene) were obligatory associated with peat bogs. Other species showed no preference to bogs. Three different habitats of Puščia peat bog were studied: renewable peat bog's site, renewable peat bog and natural peat bog outskirt. Variety and abundance of different lepidopterans species were recorded in the studied habitats. The sparse abundance and variety of butterflies species was noted in the renewable peat bog habitat due to sparse vegetation, upset hydrological regime and exploitation of peat. The diversity of butterflies in Puščia peat bog seems to be typical to the raised bog ecosystem, though relict species (e.g. Oeneis jutta, Proclossiana eunomia and Colias palaeno) were not found there. The absence of these species shows degradation of the Puščia peat bog. The Puščia bog is a valuable site for some rare butterrfly species, e.g. Papilio machaon, Aricia eumedon and Lycaena dispar. These butterfly species are protected in Lihuania and the whole European Union. So the Puščia peat bog needs comprehensive protection and further reconstruction.

Context
Multi-use management of global forests has seen even-aged, high-stem density regrowth represent >50% of the world's forest cover. Large areas of river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forests have declined in ecological condition. Thinning has been promoted as a tool to reduce competition in dense, young stands of E. camaldulensis regrowth, yet responses of forest structure and fauna to large-scale thinning are largely unclear.

Aims
To establish a before-after-control-impact experiment to assess responses of forest structure and fauna to large-scale (compartment-level; ~440 ha) silvicultural thinning.

Methods
We measured immediate (<2 yrs) responses of forest structural components (living, dead and hollow-bearing stem densities, coarse woody debris (CWD) density and volumes and ground cover) and components of biodiversity (bats, birds, volant insects and non-volant mammals) before and after thinning within five control and three impact compartments.

Key results
Thinning reduced stem density by approximately two-thirds and was associated with a substantial increase in activity and richness of bats and a change in bat species composition. There was no change in richness for birds and non-volant mammals, nor insect biomass in relation to thinning. However, thinning affected composition of non-volant mammals, with the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) less active post-thinning at impact plots relative to control plots. Thinning reduced the density of dead stems, though these were predominantly small (~13 cm diameter at breast height over bark, or dbhob) and mostly lacked hollows. Hollow-bearing tree density was not affected by thinning. Although thinning increased CWD densities, volume of CWD did not change, indicating that thinning contributed small-sized CWD. Thinning did not affect densities of hollow- and fissure-bearing CWD or ground cover, which was low (<7%) in control and impact plots. There were no other negative effects on biodiversity detected.

Conclusions
Short-term fauna responses to thinning were generally neutral or positive.

Implications
Ongoing monitoring is required to detect long-term changes that may result from colonisation or altered breeding success after thinning. We recommend that some unthinned stands should be retained throughout the landscape to provide a mosaic forest structure suitable for a diverse fauna.