Allergic diseases often occur early in life and persist throughout life. This life-course perspective should be considered in allergen immunotherapy. In particular it is essential to understand whether this al treatment may be used in old age adults. The current paper was developed by a working group of AIRWAYS integrated care pathways for airways diseases, the model of chronic respiratory diseases of the European Innovation Partnership on active and healthy ageing (DG CONNECT and DG Sante). It considered (1) the political background, (2) the rationale for allergen immunotherapy across the life cycle, (3) the unmet needs for the treatment, in particular in preschool children and old age adults, (4) the strategic framework and the practical approach to synergize current initiatives in allergen immunotherapy, its mechanisms and the concept of active and healthy ageing. ; European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing Reference Site MACVIA-France, European Structural and Development Funds of Region Languedoc Roussillon ; Imperial Coll London, Natl Heart & Lung Inst, Royal Brompton Hosp NHS, London, England ; UPMC Paris 06, Sorbonne Univ,Dept Pneumol & Addictol,UMR S 1136, Hop Arnaud de Villeneuve,CHRU Montpellier, IPLESP,Equipe EPAR,Unite Allergol, F-75013 Paris, France ; Univ S Florida, Morsani Coll Med, Tampa, FL USA ; Univ Zurich, Swiss Inst Allergy & Asthma Res SIAF, Christine Kuhne Ctr Allergy Res & Educ CK CARE, Davos, Switzerland ; Univ Hosp Ghent, ENT Dept, Upper Airways Res Lab URL, Ghent, Belgium ; IQ4U Consultants Ltd, London, England ; Osped Riuniti, Univ Hosp, Allergy Unit, Dept Internal Med, Ancona, Italy ; Med Univ Vienna, Dept Pathophysiol & Allergy Res, Ctr Pathophysiol Infectiol & Immunol, Vienna, Austria ; Univ Naples 2, Rome, Italy ; CNR, IFT, Rome, Italy ; Univ Genoa, Allergy & Resp Dis Clin, DIMI, IRCCS AOU San Martino IST, Genoa, Italy ; Hosp Univ Vall dHebron, Allergy Sect, Dept Internal Med, Barcelona, Spain ; Montpellier UPMC Univ Paris 06, Sorbonne Univ,UMRS 1136, Hop Arnaud de Villeneuve,Equipe EPAR IPLESP, Div Allergy,Dept Pulmonol,Univ Hosp Montpellier, Paris, France ; Nova Southeastern Univ, Ft Lauderdale, FL USA ; Univ Hosp Strasbourg, Div Allergy, Chest Dis Dept, Strasbourg, France ; Univ Versailles St Quentin, Suresnes, France ; Foch Hosp, Dept Airway Dis, Clin Pharmacol Unit, UPRES EA 220, Suresnes, France ; Rangueil Larrey Hosp, Dept Resp Dis, Toulouse, France ; Univ Palermo, Di Bi MIS, Palermo, Italy ; Kings Coll London, Guys & St Thomas NHS Trust, London, England ; Imperial Coll London, Natl Heart & Lung Inst, Allergy & Clin Immunol Sect, London, England ; Childrens Hosp, Dept Pediat Pulmonol & Allergy, Aarau, Switzerland ; Bambino Gesu Pediat Hosp, Dept Pediat, Div Allergy, Rome, Italy ; Kings Coll London, Allergy Acad, London, England ; Erasmus MC, Dept Internal Med, Bldg Rochussenstr, Rotterdam, Netherlands ; Hosp San Bernardo, Unidad Alergia & Asma, Salta, Argentina ; Helsinki Univ Hosp, Skin & Allergy Hosp, Helsinki, Finland ; Odense Univ Hosp, Hans Christian Andersen Childrens Hosp, Odense, Denmark ; Katholieke Univ Leuven, Univ Hosp Leuven, Clin Dept Otorhinolaryngol Head & Neck Surg, Louvain, Belgium ; Secretary Immunotherapy Interest Grp EAACI, Allergy Learning & Consulting, Copenhagen, Denmark ; UPMC Univ Paris, Sorbonne Univ,Hop Enfants Armand Trousseau,INSERM, Inst Pierre Louis Epidemiol & Sante Publ,Equipe E, Allergol Dept,Ctr Asthme & Allergies,UMR S 1136, Paris, France ; Hosp Sirio Libanes, Sao Paulo, Brazil ; Univ Hosp Montpellier, Montpellier, France ; UPMC Paris 06, Sorbonne Univ, Equipe EPAR, UMR S 1136,IPLESP, Paris, France ; Ackermann Hanf & Kleine Tebbe, Outpatient Clin & Clin Res Ctr, Allergy & Asthma Ctr Westend, Berlin, Germany ; German Soc Otorhinolaryngol HNS, Ctr Rhinol & Allergol, Wiesbaden, Germany ; Univ Med Ctr Utrecht, Dept Immunol & Dermatol Allergol, Utrecht, Netherlands ; Med Univ Lodz, Lodz, Poland ; ARIA, Mexico City, DF, Mexico ; Hosp Med Sur, AAAAI, Mexico City, DF, Mexico ; Capital Reg Denmark, Res Ctr Prevent & Hlth, Copenhagen, Denmark ; Rigshosp, Dept Clin Expt Res, Copenhagen, Denmark ; Univ Copenhagen, Fac Hlth & Med Sci, Dept Clin Med, Copenhagen, Denmark ; Charite Med Univ, Pediat Pneumol & Immunol, Berlin, Germany ; Gentofte Univ Hosp, Allergy Clin, Danish Allergy Ctr, Hellerup, Denmark ; Klinikum Univ Koln AoR, IMSIE, Cologne, Germany ; Hosp Clin Barcelona, Unitat Rinol & Clin Olfacte, ENT Dept, Clin & Expt Resp Immunoallergy,IDIBAPS,CIBERES, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain ; Padua Gen Univ Hosp, Dept Women & Child Hlth, Food Allergy Referral Ctr Veneto Reg, Padua, Italy ; Univ Athens, Allergy Unit, Pediat Clin 2, Athens, Greece ; Univ Genoa, Allergy & Resp Dis, IRCCS San Martino IST, Genoa, Italy ; ASST Grande Osped Metropolitano Niguarda, Pzza Osped Maggiore, Milan, Italy ; Univ Med Mannheim, Dept Otorhinolaryngol Head & Neck Surg, Mannheim, Germany ; Heidelberg Univ, Med Fac Mannheim, Heidelberg, Germany ; Ctr Rhinol & Allergol, Wiesbaden, Germany ; Univ Aberdeen, Acad Primary Care, Div Appl Hlth Sci, Primary Care Resp Med, Aberdeen, Scotland ; RiRL, Cambridge, England ; Optimum Patient Care Ltd, Singapore, Singapore ; Hosp Infantil Univ Nino Jesus, Allergy Sect, Madrid, Spain ; Ludwig Maximillian Univ, Dept Dermatol & Allergol, Munich, Germany ; Med Univ Warsaw, Dept Prevent Environm Hazards & Allergol, Warsaw, Poland ; Royal Natl Throat Nose & Ear Hosp, London, England ; UCL, London, England ; Univ Zurich Hosp, Clin Trials Ctr, Zurich, Switzerland ; Imperial Coll London, Natl Heart & Lung Inst, Allergy & Clin Immunol Inflammat Repair & Dev Sec, Immunomodulat & Tolerance Grp,Fac Med, London, England ; MRC, London, England ; Asthma UK Ctr Allerg Mechanisms Asthma, London, England ; Univ Edinburgh, Usher Inst Populat Hlth Sci & Informat, Asthma UK Ctr Appl Res, Med Informat Ctr, Teviot Pl, Edinburgh EH8 9AG, Midlothian, Scotland ; SLAAI, Asuncion, Paraguay ; Univ Fed Sao Paulo, Programa Posgrad Pediat & Ciencias Aplicadas Pedi, Dept Pediat EPM, Sao Paulo, Brazil ; Med Univ Graz, Dept Dermatol & Venerol, Graz, Austria ; Allergy Outpatient Clin Reumannplatz, Vienna, Austria ; Complejo Hosp Navarra, Serv Alergol, Pamplona, Spain ; Univ Amsterdam, Acad Med Ctr, Dept Expt Immunol, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Univ Amsterdam, Acad Med Ctr, Dept Otorhinolaryngol, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Univ Bari, Sch Med, Unit Geriatr Immunoallergol, Interdisciplinary Dept Med, Bari, Italy ; Complejo Hosp Univ Santiago de Compostela, Dept Allergy, Santiago De Compostela, Spain ; Med Univ Graz, Dept Paediat, Resp & Allerg Dis Div, Graz, Austria ; Charite Univ Med Berlin, Klin Dermatol Venerol & Allergol, Allergie Ctr Charite, Berlin, Germany ; European Innovat Partnership Act & Hlth Ageing Re, MAlad Chron Vleillissement Actif Languedoc Roussi, Paris, France ; INSERM, VIMA, Epidemiol & Publ Hlth Approaches, U1168,Ageing & Chron Dis, Paris, France ; Univ Versailles St Quentin En Yvelines, UVSQ, UMR S 1168, Versailles, France ; CHRU, 371 Ave Doyen Gaston Giraud, F-34295 Montpellier 5, France ; Programa de Pòs‑Graduação em Pediatria e Ciências Aplicadas à Pediatria, Departamento de Pediatria EPM, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil ; Web of Science
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With NATO's 75th anniversary summit drawing near, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz told the Munich Security Conference in February that Germany would this year meet NATO's 2% of GDP target for defense spending and would sustain this level "through the 2020s and 2030s."But Bastian Giegerich, the head of the London-based International Institute for Security Studies, has said that reversing the effects across Europe of more than 20 years of underfunding of defense capabilities will take at least a decade of substantially increased defense spending. He's not alone in thinking this way, and for good reason. Germany's 2024 budget allocates 51.8 billion euros for defense, by itself short of the 2% of GDP NATO benchmark. Germany seems on course, however, to meet the target by drawing down the 100 billion euro emergency fund announced by Scholz in his famous Zeitenwende (epochal change) speech to the Bundestag in February 2022. Disbursements from this fund are projected to keep Germany's defense spending at or above the 2% of GDP mark through 2028, after which Germany plans to fund defense through the regular budget process. Achieving this will require an increase of approximately 30 billion euros over the 2024 defense outlay. An increase of this magnitude to defense spending from the regular budget process will require overcoming very serious obstacles. Germany has well established limits on the fiscal deficit, which will create politically destabilizing distributional conflict when other spending priorities are forced to adjust to make room for a bigger defense budget.. This constraint will be even more binding if the economy, expected to grow at only 0.2% this year, remains weak. Fiscal probity is baked into German political culture and shored up by formal legal constraints. The "debt brake" written into the constitution in 2009 holds the federal budget deficit to 0.35% in any budget year. The opposition Christian Democratic (CDU/CSU) party, which, according to current polling trends, seems likely to return to power in the 2025 elections, is wary of any attempt to circumvent or reform the debt brake, which legally can be suspended only by invoking "emergency" conditions, as was done to fund pandemic spending, and to unlock 100 billion euros for defense spending in 2022. Last November, Germany's Constitutional Court ruled against the government's plan to repurpose 60 billion euros of unspent COVID funding to pay for green energy transition programs. The ruling coalition had to scramble to fill the hole in its budget, exposing the vulnerability of Germany's fiscal policy to distributional constraints. Farmers took protests onto the streets of Berlin to demand restoration of their diesel fuel subsidy. This kind of social tension is likely to follow any attempt to shift massive resources to the defense sector by cutting other programs. The green energy transition remains a priority for the coalition's two main parties — the Social Democrats (SPD) and the Greens — even though both are fully convinced of the need to boost defense spending. The fiscally conservative Free Democrats (FDP) and their leader, Finance Minister Christian Lindner, adamantly oppose reforming the debt brake or raising taxes. The only obvious way to square this circle would be to consider the continuing war in Ukraine an emergency and thereby unlock another 100 billion euros. This is obviously not an ideal way to finance a program of rearmament that might take decades, and such a maneuver might not survive scrutiny by the Constitutional Court in any case. It is becoming evident that, even with the provision of emergency funding, the defense industrial base can expand only gradually, and weapons procurement processes are limited by the time needed to manufacture new weapons and equipment, whether from Germany, elsewhere in Europe or the United States. For example, the 18 Leopard 2 battle tanks ordered to replace those supplied to Ukraine will arrive two years from now at the earliest. Meanwhile, Ukrainian president Zelensky recently assailed Germany for not delivering the Taurus missiles; he claimed Berlin decided the missiles were necessary for defending Germany instead.Social Constraints: Leadership and Public AttitudesThe German military was underfunded for years before February 2022, because the political leadership absorbed the liberal triumphalism of the 1989 democratic revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe and believed history pointed to global convergence on the liberal democratic model.Efforts to expand military recruitment began after the 2014 Russian takeover of Crimea, but has failed to attract new recruits in sufficient numbers. The number of troops remains stuck at 180,000. Some are now calling for reinstituting mandatory military service.The most effective and vocal advocate for Germany's rearmament is Defense Minister Boris Pistorius, an SDP politician widely touted as a possible successor to Scholz. Pistorius has said that the Bundeswehr must be made "kriegstüchtig" (war ready) and warned that Russia might attack a NATO member within the coming 8-10 years.These statements, very much against the grain of Germany's antecedent anti-militarist political culture, have not dented Pistorius' popularity. German elites and, to a lesser extent, the broader society seem to be moving toward greater acceptance of the need for national rearmament.The European Vision: Too Many Cooks?The European Commission has advanced its own plans to coordinate the financing of rearmament across Europe, favoring and fostering synergies among European defense-industrial firms. In principle, this initiative should pose no problem for Germany since Scholz, a committed European, has repeatedly stated that the EU is the framework for Germany foreign and security policy.Nevertheless, the Commission risks competing with member nations for available resources for equipment and weapons acquisition. Most member countries, including Germany and France, conceive of defense cooperation in a multilateral pan-European context, but would insist that member nations remain in the driver's seat.Emmanuel Macron's exhaustive vision for Europe— the "Sorbonne II" speech of April 26 — dealt extensively with the European imperative to develop a more capable conventional deterrent, albeit within NATO.His framing of the issue was the stark warning that "Our Europe can die," but he did not endorse any pooling of national sovereignty on defense policy. On the contrary, he pledged personally to convene "all partners" to develop a "new defense paradigm" for the "credible defense of the European continent."This is an intergovernmental framework rather than one featuring a leading role for the European Commission.Why the Path Ahead is DifficultBastian Giegerich of IISS says that for Germany "the mental shift, the societal resilience" needed to underpin rearmament "has not happened." This is true, but it is not only a matter of changing hearts and minds. Germany's limitations are embodied in its institutional framework and very resistant to change, given the perceived challenges from the populist right, the climate policy imperative, its generous social safety net, the fragmented party system, the self-imposed but broadly popular fiscal constraints, and complex coordination problems with key partners (above all France) and the European Commission. This transformation, even if embraced without reservation by Scholz or his successors, is a vastly complex and fraught agenda.
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The RAND corporation's Samuel Charap and Johns Hopkins University professor Sergey Radchenko published a detailed timeline and analysis of the talks between Russian and Ukrainian negotiators just after the Russian invasion in February 2022 that could have brought the war to an end just weeks after it had begun. Much of the piece confirms or elucidates parts of the narrative that had previously been reported. In the spring of 2022, the two sides appeared relatively close to a deal, one that, according to the authors, would "have ended the war and provided Ukraine with multilateral security guarantees, paving the way to its permanent neutrality and, down the road, its membership in the EU." But due to a combination of changing battlefield dynamics that convinced Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky that he could win the war militarily, Western allies' hesitance to engage diplomatically with Russia and simultaneous ramping up of military support for Ukraine, and the discovery that Russian forces had committed atrocities in Bucha, the talks eventually fell apart. On some of these points, the authors contend that earlier accounts have been overstated. The idea that the U.S. and the UK "forced" Zelensky to back out of peace talks is "baseless," say Charap and Radchenko, though they acknowledge that "the lack of Western enthusiasm does seem to have dampened his interest in diplomacy." On the suggestion that the discovery of war crimes convinced the Ukrainian president to abandon negotiations, the authors note discussions "continued and even intensified in the days and weeks after the discovery of Russia's war crimes, suggesting that the atrocities at Bucha and Irpin were a secondary factor in Kyiv's decision-making." But taken together, these factors, along with certain details of the agreement that were never finalized, were enough to imperil the negotiations. In the two years since Ukrainian and Russian interlocutors last convened, the realities on the ground have changed. By April 2022, Vladimir Putin had likely realized that he would fail to achieve his most maximalist war aims. Now, with Western aid stalled and the war tilting in Moscow's favor, Ukraine is in a less favorable negotiating position than it was and Russia may be less inclined to enter talks. But, as George Beebe and Anatol Lieven detail in a recent Quincy Institute paper, all sides still have a reason to pursue a diplomatic solution, one that could both end the war and provide for a new European security architecture once the fighting ceases. As Charap and Radchenko note in their Foreign Affairs piece, one of the reasons the original talks broke down was because the two sides were more focused on the broader endgame rather than on shorter-term solutions. "A final reason the talks failed is that the negotiators put the cart of a postwar security order before the horse of ending the war," they write. "The two sides skipped over essential matters of conflict management and mitigation (the creation of humanitarian corridors, a cease-fire, troop withdrawals) and instead tried to craft something like a long-term peace treaty that would resolve security disputes that had been the source of geopolitical tensions for decades." The two years of war have only increased distrust between Russia, Ukraine, and Kyiv's Western backers, and diplomacy appears to be more difficult today than it was in 2022. But, say Charap and Radchenko, Zelensky and Putin surprised us once before with the concessions they may have been willing to make, and perhaps they will do so again. The consequences of that failed first effort at diplomacy are clear, as Thomas Graham, former senior director for Russia on the National Security Council staff, argued this week. "The great tragedy of the Russian-Ukrainian war is that it will ultimately prove to have been futile. The likely outcome — territorial adjustments in Moscow's favor, security guarantees for Ukraine and Russia — could have been peaceably negotiated beforehand had leaders had a firmer grasp of the real balance of power or greater political courage," he wrote in the Hill. "The cost of failed diplomacy is already hundreds of thousands of lives lost and hundreds of billions of dollars' worth of property destroyed." In other diplomatic news related to the war in Ukraine: — After months of waiting, the House may hold a vote to give Ukraine another tranche of aid over the weekend. On Wednesday, Speaker Mike Johnson (R-La.) introduced four separate bills, including one that will provide approximately $60 billion in aid for Kyiv. The House Speaker is already facing backlash from members of his own party, but the legislation is likely to have enough bipartisan support to pass if it is brought to the floor for a vote. — There are reportedly increasing points of tension between Washington and Kyiv as Ukraine awaits more aid and its war effort falters. Zelensky was frustrated that Washington has not offered his country the same missile defense help as it provided to Israel during Iran's strikes over the weekend. "European skies could have received the same level of protection long ago if Ukraine had received similar full support from its partners in intercepting drones and missiles," Zelensky wrote in a post on X. "Terror must be defeated completely and everywhere, not more in some places and less in others." Moreover, Kyiv has expressed frustration over Washington's recommendations that Ukraine not strike Russian oil refineries, according to The Washington Post. Vice President Kamala Harris reportedly privately made the suggestion to Zelensky in February at the Munich Security Conference. "The request, according to officials familiar with the matter, irritated Zelensky and his top aides, who view Kyiv's string of drone strikes on Russian energy facilities as a rare bright spot in a grinding war with a bigger and better-equipped foe. Zelensky brushed off the recommendation, uncertain whether it reflected the consensus position of the Biden administration, these people said." according to the Post. "Instead of acquiescing to the U.S. requests, however, Ukraine doubled down on the strategy, striking a range of Russian facilities, including an April 2 attack on Russia's third-largest refinery 800 miles from the front." — Russia and Ukraine nearly struck a deal late last month to renew the agreement that allowed for the safety of shipping in the Black Sea before Kyiv suddenly pulled out, according to Reuters. "A deal was reached in March 'to ensure the safety of merchant shipping in the Black Sea', and though Ukraine did not want to sign it formally, Kyiv gave its assent for Turkish President Tayyip Erdogan to announce it on March 30, the day before critical regional elections, the sources said," reports Reuters. The reason for Kyiv's withdrawal is unclear. Russia and Ukraine previously struck a deal to allow for safe shipping in June 2022 but Moscow withdrew from that agreement after one year. U.S. State Department News In a press briefing on Wednesday, State Department spokesman Vedant Patel urged the House to pass the aid bill for Ukraine quickly. "So it certainly would not be hyperbole to say that every day matters, and the House, we believe, needs to act this week to support Ukraine and Israel as they respectively defend against Putin and the Russian Federation and the Iranian regime. And so this is something that we need Congress to provide urgently," Patel said.
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In a recent interview, Pope Francis took stock of the war in Ukraine. "The strongest one is the one who looks at the situation, thinks about the people and has the courage of the white flag, and negotiates," the pope told Swiss media. The comment led to derision from Ukraine and its Western supporters, who saw in the pontiff's message a call to capitulate. (We'll leave aside the fact that, behind closed doors, some European diplomats are reportedly warming to the idea of a negotiated end to the war.)Pope Francis offered an easy target for criticism by referring to a white flag, the traditional symbol of surrender. But one of his key messages actually was, "Don't be ashamed to negotiate before things get worse." Pope Francis has often referred to the Ukrainian people as martyrs in this war; suggestions that his words are a gift to Putin are misguided and confuse his anti-war instincts for support of Russia's war effort.Pope Francis noted that "the word negotiate is a courageous word." Pierre Hazan, a senior adviser with the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue and author of a new book on conflict mediation, would probably agree. Hazan cut his teeth as a journalist covering the Bosnia War and other conflicts before putting down the pen to take an active role in armed conflict negotiations. One of these was the peace process in the Basque Country that led the terrorist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) to lay down its arms. In "Negotiating with the Devil: Inside the World of Armed Conflict Mediation," the Swiss mediator mounts a strong defense of the importance of negotiation in the middle of a conflict.Before extolling the virtues of talks, Hazan acknowledges the potential pitfalls. Among other things, negotiations risk being manipulated by one of the parties. The author provides the example of the Munich Conference in 1938, which became the antechamber of Adolf Hitler's march on the European continent. There is also the possibility that talks become a smokescreen for violence. Hazan mentions here the Norwegian-led mediation between the Sri Lanka government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a group of ruthless insurgents fighting for a Tamil state. When the Sri Lankan government wiped out the LTTE in a final offensive in 2009, it also killed around 40,000 civilians in the process. On rare occasions, the problem is not that negotiations end up facilitating carnage but that there is simply no partner willing to talk. That is the case of ISIS or the extinct Shining Path in Peru, explains the Swiss mediator.These difficulties notwithstanding, for Hazan, the key question remains whether "negotiating with war criminals—including the worst of them—might save lives." To this, he replies that "with very few exceptions, the answer is yes, of course." Those who mediate in armed conflicts are forced to consider possibilities that are far removed from ideals of justice in the search for the least bad option, argues Hazan. This became more complicated after the 9/11 attacks, when President Bush declared a "War on Terror," and the room for negotiations with warring states, rebel groups, or terrorist organizations narrowed down dramatically. In this new context, remarks Hazan, "mediation, previously lauded, was pushed aside in favour of military solutions."If total victory over terrorists and rogue states was, as Bush suggested, both just and within reach, then there was little need for negotiation in this new world. If the goal was to export democracy and eliminate terrorism once and for all, Bush failed spectacularly on both accounts. By then, however, the world had already been defined in good-versus-evil terms. Thus, to conduct badly needed talks with the evil side of this simplistic equation (be it Iran, North Korea, or the Taliban) would have been seen as treason to our highest ideals. The U.S., with European countries often following suit, promoted a new paradigm according to which mediation was "perceived as an admission of weakness," writes Hazan.These dynamics can be observed in the case of former United Nations diplomat Álvaro de Soto, who resigned his position as envoy for the Middle East Peace Process in May 2007. After Hamas won the 2006 Palestinian elections, the international community halted direct funding to the Palestinian Authority. The rationale was that this would apply pressure on Hamas to recognize the state of Israel and renounce violence. The consequence was not a moderation in Hamas' positions but a steep increase in poverty among Palestinians and a deterioration of public services.De Soto opposed the aid blockade on Palestinians but had little room to maneuver, as the Peruvian diplomat himself explained in a secret report written before handing in his resignation. In the (subsequently leaked) report, de Soto argued U.S. pressure had "pummelled into submission" the U.N.'s role as a neutral mediator in the Middle East. As Hazan explains, one of the biggest obstacles for de Soto was that his superiors forbade him to continue talks with Hamas or the Syrian government.Hazan added a preface to the original French edition of his book to cover the events that followed Hamas' attack against Israel on October 7, when the militant group killed 1,200 people and took 240 hostages. Since then, Israel's military operation in the Gaza Strip has resulted in the death of at least 31,000 people. Hazan reflects on the Qatar-mediated ceasefire in Gaza that lasted for a week at the end of November 2023. The ceasefire, the author argues, was a historical development for at least two reasons. First, it was probably an unprecedented agreement, as hostages were directly exchanged for ceasefire days. And second, Qatar's role exemplified "the end of Western hegemony over the international system."Whether Western hegemony will be followed by something better is up for debate. However, when Hazan points to Turkey's role in the mediation of the grain deal between Russia and Ukraine, or to China's diplomatic efforts leading to the resumption of ties between Iran and Saudi Arabia, it is easy to recognize a pattern towards a broader plurality in the mediation scene.Hazan offered an interview last month discussing the latest developments in the Ukraine war, which are not included in the book. Hazan explained that he sees two main scenarios for a mediated solution in Ukraine. In the first one, a precarious calm would prevail and there would be a limited ceasefire with Russia and Ukraine technically at war for the foreseeable future. In the second one, what he calls the "Korean model," there would be a demilitarized zone between the two sides with Ukraine obtaining security guarantees and NATO/European Union membership. A more robust mediation process and peace agreement will only happen "if the military or the political situation changes radically either way," he argued.Based on his long-time experience, Hazan notes that "peace is a messy, chaotic business, as is the road that leads to it." There is no sense in negotiating only for negotiations' sake, and mediation is fraught with dangers.Yet experts should not be swayed by the supposed moral certitude of refusing to come to the table. Outright negation of the possibility of talks carries the risk of missing opportunities to settle for the lesser evil even as the greater good fades into the distance.
The text analyses the intelligence activity against Poland in the period 1944-1989. The paper also contains a case study, i.e. an analysis of the American intelligence service activity held against Poland. While examining the research thesis, the author used the documents and analyses prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In order to best illustrate the point, the author presented a number of cases of persons who spied for the USA, which was possible thanks to the analysis of the training materials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs directed to the officers of the Security Service and the Citizens' Militia. The text tackles the following issues: (1) to what extent did the character of the socio-political system influence the number of persons convicted for espionage against Poland in the period under examination?, (2) what was the level of interest of the foreign intelligence services in Poland before the year 1990?, (3) is it possible to indicate the specificity of the U.S. intelligence activity against Poland? 1) The analysis of data indicates that the period 1946-1956 witnessed a great number of convictions for espionage, which is often associated with the peculiar political situation in Poland of that time. Up to 1953, the countries of the Eastern bloc had reproduced the Stalin's system, which only ceased due to the death of Stalin himself. Since then, the communist systems gradually transformed into the system of nomenklatura. Irrespective of these changes, Poland still witnessed a wave of repressions, which resulted from the threats continuously looming over the communist authorities – combating the anti-communist underground movement, fighting with the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, the Polish government-in-exile, possible revisionism of borders, social discontent related to the socio-political reforms. Hence, a great number of convictions for espionage at that time could be ascribed to purely political sentences. Moreover, equally significant was the fact that the then judicial practice was preoccupied assessing negatively any contacts and relations with foreigners. This excessive number of convictions could ensue from other criminal-law provisions, which applied with respect to the crimes against the State, including espionage. What is also important is the fact that in the Stalin's period the judiciary personnel acquired their skills and qualifications through intensive courses in law with the predominant spirit of the theory of evidence and law by Andrey Vyshinsky. Additionally, by the decree of 1944 the Penal Code of the Polish Armed Forces was introduced; the code envisaged the increase in the number of offences classified as penalised with death penalty, whereas the high treason was subject to the military jurisdiction (the civilians were prosecuted in military courts till 1955; the espionage, however, still stood under the military jurisdiction). In 1946, there was introduced the Decree on particularly dangerous crimes in the period of the State's recovery, which was later called a Small Penal Code. 2) The interest that foreign intelligence services expressed in relation to Poland was similar to the one they had in all countries of Eastern and Central Europe. In the case of Poland, it should be noted that foreign intelligence services recruited Polish citizens who had previously stayed abroad and after WWII returned to their home country. The services also gathered information from Poles staying in immigrant camps (e.g. in FRG). The activity of the American intelligence service on the territory of FRG and West Berlin played a key role. The documents of the Ministry of Internal Affairs pointed to the global range of this activity, e.g. through the recruitment of Polish sailors in the ports of the Netherlands, Japan, etc. In line with the development in the 1970s, espionage, which had so far concentrated on the defence and strategic sectors, became focused on science and technology of the People's Republic of Poland. The acquisition of collaborators in academic circles was much easier, as PRL opened to academic exchange. Due to the system of visas, the process of candidate selection for intelligence services (e.g. the American) began in embassies. In the 1980s, the activity of the foreign intelligence services concentrated on the specific political situation in Poland, i.e. the growing significance of the "Solidarity" social movement. 3) The specificity of the American intelligence activity against Poland was related to the composition of the residency staff, which was the largest in comparison to other Western countries. The wide range of these activities can be proved by the quantitative data of convictions for espionage in the years 1944-1984 (however, one has to bear in mind the factors mentioned earlier in the text, which led to the misinterpretation of these data). Analysing the data and the documents prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, one should treat them with caution, as, frequently, the Polish counter-intelligence service used to classify the ordinary diplomatic practice and any contacts with foreigners as espionage threats. It is clearly visible in the language of the training materials concerned with "secret service methods of the intelligence activity" as well as in the documents on operational activities of the Security Service in relation to foreigners. The level of interest the USA had in Poland was mirrored in the classification of diplomatic posts, according to which Warsaw occupied the second place (the so-called Group "B") on the three-point scale. The CIA experienced spectacular defeats during their activity in Poland: supporting the Polish underground anti-communist organisation Freedom and Independence and the so-called Munich-Berg episode (both cases took place in the 1950s). The text focuses only on selected issues related to the espionage activities against Poland. Similarly, the analysis of the problem has been based on selected sources, which has limited the research scope - however, it was not the aim of the author to present the espionage activity against Poland in a comprehensive way. In order to assess the real threat posed by the espionage activity, one should analyse the case of persons convicted for espionage in the period 1944-1989, as the available quantitative data, mentioned in the text, cannot constitute an explicit benchmark for the scale of espionage activity. The inaccuracies in the interpretation of data and variables, which can affect the evaluation of this phenomenon, have been pointed out in the text. ; The text is treats of the espionage against Poland in the period 1944-1989. The above analysis has been supplemented with the quantitative data from the period 1944-1984 as regards those convicted for participating in, acting for, and passing on information to the foreign intelligence agencies. The espionage issues were presented on the example of the American intelligence activity, which was illustrated by the cases of persons who were convicted for espionage. While examining the research thesis, the author used the documents and analyses prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which were in its major part addressed to the Security Service and the Citizens' Militia officers. The author made an attempt at the verification of the following research hypotheses: (1) to what extent did the character of the socio-political system influence the number of persons convicted for espionage against Poland in the period under examination (1944-1989)?, (2) what was the level of foreign intelligence services' interest in Poland before the year 1990?, (3) is it possible to indicate the specificity of the U.S. intelligence activity against Poland?
Contents: Preface: Older Men Learning in the Community – European Snapshots; Chapter 1: Introduction - Marvin Formosa, António Fragoso, Sabina Jelenc Krašovec, and Tiina Tambaum; Chapter 2: Older Men as Learners in the Community: Theoretical Issues - Marvin Formosa, António Fragoso, and Sabina Jelenc Krašovec; Chapter 3: Passing on Skills and Knowledge as Part of Learning for Older Men: Readiness and Obstacles among Older Men in the Municipality of Tartu - Tiina Tambaum and Helina Kuusk; Chapter 4: Older Men Learning Through Religious and Political Membership: Case Studies from Malta - Roberta Chetcuti Galea and Rosette Farrugia-Bonello; Chapter 5: Learning in Informal Spaces in the Community: A Case Study from Southern Portugal - Rute Ricardo, Nélia Tavares, Aurora Coelho, Hugo Lopes, and António Fragoso; Chapter 6: Older Men Learning in Urban and Rural Municipalities in Slovenia - Sabina Jelenc Krašovec, Marko Radovan, Špela Močilnikar, and Sabina Šegula; Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusion - António Fragoso and Marvin Formosa; About the authors; Index of Authors; Subject Index. ; Preface: Older Men Learning in the Community – European Snapshots I am truly delighted to be asked to contribute this preface to what I regard as a very important and timely European contribution to the broad field of research on older men's learning in community settings. As an oft-quoted source in the field, it has seriously concerned me that more colleagues were not working in the field internationally to provide the critically important refutation, qualification, or validation of what many older men were reporting, and that my research was turning up in Australia half a world away. As Australian community men's sheds have taken root in culturally similar fertile ground in Ireland and the UK, I have wondered if things will turn out to be similar or different in the possible application of the same principles in more diverse and different cultural contexts in mainland Europe. This research provides some of the answers to this and many other important questions about men learning later in life. This set of excellently edited and carefully researched case studies by highly regarded researchers from Estonia, Malta, Portugal, and Slovenia, which they have modestly called 'snapshots,' is in fact a very important advance. By absolute coincidence, in our 'Discussion and Conclusion' (Chapter 16) in Men Learning through Life (Golding, Mark, and Foley (2014, p. 252), we also remarked that our seven 'national chapters are at best a partial snapshot and are far from representative of men's learning worldwide'. This work significantly widens the lens, both culturally and theoretically. The great value in this European book, excellently theorised and written in English, lies in part in the diverse backgrounds and theoretical depth of the 13 researchers who contribute chapters from countries whose national languages are not English. I first met and was enthused by the passion and expertise of Sabina Krašovec (from Slovenia) and António Fragoso (from Portugal) and other researchers from nations whose first language is not English at the 2009 ESREA (European Society for Research on the Education of Adults 'Education and Learning of Older Adults' (ELOA)) network meeting in Munich, Germany. I remain humbled by their linguistic dexterity, something most people like me, born in Australia (with the exception of Aboriginal Australians), do not share. Doing field research, writing, and assembling this painstakingly carefully researched book in English across four widely separated European nations, languages, and cultures is a notable achievement. Having access to literature and older men's cultural insights in at least five main languages (Slovenian, Portuguese, Estonian, and Maltese/English) expands our collective, recent 'snapshots' of men's learning to a very diverse and fascinating three dimensional, coloured picture. Veronica McGivney, a pioneer in the field on men's learning in England from two decades ago, remarked (in the preface of our Men Learning through Life) that this relatively unexplored field of research was a theoretical minefield, mainly because it raises questions about existing gender biases, not only in adult education practice, but also in terms of what constitutes an acceptable set of theoretical perspectives to bring to this much neglected field. It is gratifying, in a world increasingly plagued by narrowing, increasingly instrumental, neoliberal views about the highly desirable, emancipatory ideal of lifelong and lifewide learning, to find researchers bold enough to collectively declare at the outset that 'the neglect of masculinities in older adult learning can never be overstated.' ELOA ambitiously aims on its website 'to bring together research activities in this field [of older learning] on a European scale and to establish a regular interchange of researchers who work on these topics. By continuous exchange via internet and periodical network meetings the European collaboration in this field of educational research should be strengthened and common research projects and publications should be initiated.' 5 This research and book ably meet this laudable aim. The range of European contexts in which learning is examined in this book's national chapters and case studies further broaden the scope and cultural reach of research in this relatively new, interdisciplinary field. The Estonian and Slovenian examination of sharing knowledge, skills, and learning by older rural men has important resonances with some of our Australian research. The examination of politics and religion as vehicles for older men's learning in Malta breaks new and important ground, as does the nuanced examination of informal learning by older men in informal spaces in southern Portugal. The strongly stated theoretical issues and the carefully nuanced findings neatly bookend the volume that I highly recommend to those researchers, policy makers, professional and practitioners worldwide who interact with older men. I hope others take up the challenge of extending this thinking, research, and action into Asia, Africa, and the Americas, as well as into the diverse, other cultural 'nooks and crannies' across Europe. Finally, I am delighted, not because this gives recognition to the researchers, though this is warmly welcomed, but because excellent research like this can and does make a positive difference in the way we think about and treat older men. Research, in turn, can make huge differences in people's lives, as demonstrated by the men's sheds movement. There is a case for expanding this European snapshot of learning by older men in this volume to other groups similarly disadvantaged in accessing learning: by history, life circumstances, gender, income, language, culture, religion, or disability. It is a sobering reminder that we have to be very careful as academics, professionals, and practitioners not to get trapped into the dominant and potentially patronising discourse of clients, customers, patients, or students, particularly from ageist and deficit models of service provision which deny people agency. Older men are people with much knowledge and wisdom to share. Even from a narrow, economic-rationalist perspective, it makes sense to help all people to keep learning and looking after themselves, their families, children, and grandchildren for as long as they can. Professor Barry Golding, 2 April 2014 Faculty of Education and Arts, Federation University Australia Ballarat, Australia www.barrygoanna.com b.golding@federation.edu.au ; N/A
SUMMARY: This is a Russian translation of a few chapters from the book by Jürgen Osterhammel, Transformation of the World: History of the Nineteenth Century (Munich, 2009). He starts with an affirmation of the historical and cultural conditionality of periodizations and of a linear calendar. The author then proceeds with an explication of his understanding of the "nineteenth century": at its core is not a linear chain of developments from A to Z, but ruptures and transformations that are defined by their specific temporal structures yet are nevertheless interconnected. The nineteenth century is thus understood as the simultaneous continuation of transformations of the preceding epoch and the prehistory of "modernity" Therefore, the narrative in Osterhammel's book is structured by a twofold logic: that of a calendar century (1801–1900) and that of a "long nineteenth century," defined as a matrix of interdependences and correlations (approximately 1770 to the early 1920s). Osterhammel comments on the constructed nature of historical "epochs" such as "Hellenism," "the Late Medieval age," or "Early Modern history," yet points to the fact that the nineteenth century escaped this kind of classification. Historically, the year from 1880 to 1881 was experienced as the border of the new century only in Christian regions of the world. "The West" is thus identical to the territories whose population cared about the border of epochs. Osterhammel discusses the Gregorian calendar as the most successful cultural export of Europe of the Modern epoch, and presents a picture of the calendar pluralism that used to characterize the world. He broadens this discussion to include perceptions of historical and social time in different regions of the world. Then he switches to the issue of ruptures as manifested by multiple layers and modes of human existence (economics, politics, private life, intellectual process, etc.) and by different scales of generalization (a national history based on the consensus of major turning points versus European history versus world history). From this perspective, the rupture of the French Revolution cannot serve as a political beginning of the nineteenth century because it would be relevant only for France, Germany, and Haiti. The whole nineteenth century was defined by the failure of Ancient Regimes. In Japan political modernity began only in 1868. Then Osterhammel tests the periodization based on popular and cultural developments and ruptures connected with the concept of "early modern times" (the end of these times is the beginning of the nineteenth century). He admits the Eurocentric nature of the concept of "early modern times," yet points to the historiographic consensus regarding 1450–1600 as the years of "big changes" for most of Eurasia and America (the rise of trade, the introduction of new technologies, the centralization of state and religious disturbances that were not directly connected to European expansion). However, the end of these more or less universal "early modern times" is far from obvious. To deal with this complexity, Osterhammel borrows from Reinhart Koselleck the concept of Sattelzeit , as a long transition from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century (approximately 1770–1830) and divides the nineteenth century into Sattelzeit – Victorian decades – Fin de Siècle . He offers a detailed discussion of the meaning as well as global applicability and limitations of these sub-epochs. He then balances this analysis by turning to microprocesses, insofar as epochal thresholds are created not by some "objective" meanings but by the overlapping of multiple thin time nets. In other words, they are condensations of similar and repetitive changes. To reveal this overlapping, besides a linear concept of time, one also has to allow a nonlinear time (thus resisting a Eurocentric homogenization of historical narratives). A separate chapter in Osterhammel's book deals with different experiences of time characteristic of the nineteenth century and with its unification. He explicates the complex dynamics of the parallel unification and nationalization of time. He positively resolves the question of acceleration as a universal human experience in the nineteenth century, but is more reluctant to recognize the universal nature of the acceleration of historical time (as opposed to personal experiences of speed, movement, etc.).
The second part of the published extract from the book deals with the problem of space and its correlation with time. In spacial terms, the nineteenth century is represented in Osterhammel's chapters through the center–periphery model. The nineteenth century is also discussed as a time of dominance of European geographical knowledge. However, the nineteenth century represented not only the first phase of creation of a scientific geography but also the last phase of the epoch of great discoveries. Osterhammel considers individual and group expeditions of the nineteenth century and the new territories they discovered. He stresses that in the nineteenth century large geographic territories still had rather flexible affiliations, their names and borders were not stable and universally accepted. The metamorphoses of the European semantics of space are illustrated in detail in a special paragraph dedicated to the region that today is known as Eastern Asia or the Far East. The tension between the tendency toward a metageographical simplification and geographical (terminological) sophistication is illustrated by the works of Carl Ritter, Friedrich Ratzel, and Elisée Reclus.
The next level of discussing space is connected with mental geography. Here the major categories under discussion are the "West" as it emerged in the 1890s from the expansion of the transatlantic civilization model, and "Europe" (its center, its civilization borders and open frontiers, etc.). Next Osterhammel discusses the spacial Chinese mentality of the same period. Later in the text he turns to another dimension of space – space as a contact arena, a zone of interactions. Among such zones he treats the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean; the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; and continental spaces. Osterhammel also raises the issue of power and space and focuses on states' efforts to rationalize and order spaces. He claims that this is usually, but not necessarily, the prerogative of modern states. This thesis is tested by three cases: that of China, the United States, and Russia.
Finally, Osterhammel discusses issues of territoriality, diaspora, and borders. These issues are also connected with the role of the state in the nineteenth century. The imagined ideal state territory was large and contiguous. This contradicted the actual discontinuity of the social space – the fullest expression of which Osterhammel finds in diasporas. He concludes that the collecting of national spaces under one power and the formation of emotional attachment to one territory was accompanied by the emergence of transnational spaces that were marked by less intensive yet still quite visible territoriality. Borders are included in this picture as enabling multiple understandings of territoriality. Osterhammel shows that linear borders (instead of frontier zones) were not invented in the nineteenth century and that linear state borders were not an invention of European imperialism introduced to the non-European world. Yet the spread of semiotically marked, fortified linear borders became the main tendency of territoriality of power in the nineteenth century, when control over a country became more important than control over people.
In: Margheritini , L 2009 , R &D Towards Commercialization of Sea Wave Slot Cone Generator (SSG) Overtopping Wave Energy Converter : selected topics in the field of wave energy . DCE Thesis , no. 24 , Department of Civil Engineering, Aalborg University , Aalborg .
Et element i kampen mod klimaændringer er udviklingen af alternative ikke-forurenende kilder til produktion af energi. SSG er netop en teknologi, som omdanner havets bølger til elektricitet. SSG konceptet fungerer ved at bølgerne løber op ad en rampe, over en kam og fanges i en række reservoirer. Det vand, som nu befinder sig på et højere niveau end havoverfladen, bringes tilbage til havet gennem nogle lavt-tryks vandturbiner, og der udvindes elektricitet. Nærværende afhandling indeholder en beskrivelse af forfatterens arbejde med tekniske og ikketekniske aspekter i forbindelse med udviklingen af SSG konceptet. Arbejdet er foregået i samarbejde med virksomhederne bag SSG teknologien. Her tænkes specielt på WAVEEnergy AS, hovedudvikleren og ejeren af SSG teknologien. Afhandlingen indeholder et udvalg af publikationer udført af forfatteren, og allerede offentliggjort. Publikationerne omfatter 3 peer reviewed tidsskrift artikler og 7 peer reviewed konferenceartikler. Afhandlingen kan teknisk set opdeles i fire områder: - Laboratorieundersøgelser af hydrauliske ydeevne af et SSG anlæg - bølgebryder applikationer og sammenligninger med en OWC-teknologi - økonomiske overvejelser - og endelig miljøvurderinger. Bølgeenergisektoren er i dag langt efter andre vedvarende energi teknologier som f.eks vindkraft. Bredden af forfatterens arbejde skal derfor ses i, og forstås i lyset af at SSG teknologien i de forløbne år er gået fra at være en simpel ide til at være et af de seriøse bud på en kommende kommercielt vedvarende energiteknologi. ; Global energy needs are likely to continue to grow steadily for the next two and a half decades (International Energy Agency, 2006). If governments continue with current policies the world's energy needs would be more than 50% higher in 2030 than today. Over 60% of that increase would be covered in the form of oil and natural gas. Climate destabilizing carbon-dioxide emissions would continue to rise, calling into question the long-term sustainability of the global energy system. More vigorous government policies in consuming countries are steering the world onto an energy path oriented to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and related greenhouse-gas emissions and to the development of Renewable Energy Sources (RES). Diversification of RES is fundamental in such a path to ensure sustainability. In this contest wave energy can provide great contribution, having its worldwide resource been estimated to be up to 10 TW (Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources 2003; Cruz et al. 2008); depending on what is to be considered useful, this may cover from 15% to 60% of the World energy demand calculated for 2006. Indeed, together with the overall trend of all renewable energies, wave energy has enjoyed a fruitful decade. Improvement of technologies together with financial support at different levels gave space to new ideas, bringing the research to gamble on different concepts. While innumerable projects went through an initial testing phase that lasts 5-10 years, only few of them reached the sea prototype testing and eventually commercialization. After the phase of R&D developers had spent at least 15 mill Euro in average (Kofoed et al. 2008). Good ideas can fail between the R&D and market stage. This event is described by Tom Delay, Head of the Carbon Trust, as "falling into the valley of death". This is the stage where the wave energy sector is. The limited ability of many ventures to attract private financing is certainly one of the major barriers. However, it is also very often a symptom of other underlying, and more fundamental issues. In reality, ventures fail to obtain funding because there are significant gaps between what the ventures are offering to investors and what the potential investors are seeking (Murphy and Edwards 2003). When risks associated to the investment is high, simply the deals often don't look very attractive. It is indeed necessary to reduce information gaps or asymmetries between ventures and private investors, and to promote an accelerated shift from a technology to a market focus. This Thesis is presented as a collection of works published by the author on her research on the Sea wave Slot cone Generator wave energy converter. These include 1 accepted and 2 submitted journal papers; 7 peer-reviewed conference papers. The results are based on laboratory tests, numerical simulations and feasibility studies. Research presented in this Thesis contributes to reduce the technical and non-technical risks associated to the wave energy sector and promotes accelerated shift from technology to market focus. This has been done by using the R&D steps for a specific wave energy converter as an example of best practice for wave energy development towards commercialization. The Sea wave Slot cone Generator (SSG) is a multilevel wave energy converter. Incoming waves overtop the structure and the water is temporarily stored in reservoirs at a higher level than sea water level. This water is returned through specially designed low head hydro turbines powering electrical generators. The device has been subject to 6 years of R&D at the Department of Civil Engineering of Aalborg University, involving the hydraulic performance such as geometric optimization for power capture and feasibility of the SSG-breakwater application. The issues under research led to close collaboration with Technical University of Munich (DE), for the turbine control and strategy; IKM Elektro for the operating procedures and generators (NO); WAVEenergy AS for the commercialization of the concept (NO); DNV for the insurance of the structure (DK); and Delta marine Consultants for the SSG-breakwater design (NL). At the present stage of development of the SSG device, economical feasibility and reliability are at the first places on the ranking issues. The efficiency optimization is linked with the cost of the produced electricity. In the SSG device most of the optimization is done on the geometry as this has the biggest impact in the captured power and has the larger uncertainties. At the same time, the largest cost for the device is the structure itself and therefore the amount of concrete utilized for its construction. Prediction of wave loading is indeed influencing both the reliability of the device and the final cost of electricity. The most promising application for the SSG device is into breakwaters for harbor protection. Aspects related to the construction have also being reviewed in this work. The research carried out on this application demonstrated the device is economically feasible and competitive to OWC devices with the same application, offering moreover additional improvements to the protection. Finally it must be noticed that due to the relative young stage of development of the entire sector (at least 10 years behind the offshore wind sector) frameworks and regulations for wave energy development are not fully ready. The majority of the Companies involved are small and unable to undertake time consuming consents processes. This may be the case also for the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process. For this reason a study aimed at the simplification of the EIA of WECs, with particular reference to the scooping process, has been concluded. Based on the results, the potential environmental impact of the SSG device has been preliminary assessed.
Nachdem Pettenkofer die Hygiene als experimentelle wissenschaftliche Disziplin begründet und in München 1865 den ersten Lehrstuhl besetzt hatte, kam es in Deutschland Anfang des 20. Jh. nur noch zu einer Spezialisierung des Fachgebietes. Für Grotjahn wurde 1920 an der Berliner Universität eine Abteilung für Sozialhygiene eingerichtet. In dem nach dem zweiten Weltkriege verstärkt einsetzenden Differenzierungsprozess in der Hygiene entstanden an der Greifswalder Universität zwei Unikate: die, Hygiene auf dem Lande "und die - Militärische Sozialhygiene". Da sie wissenschaftlich bisher nicht näher beschrieben wurden, bestand das Anliegen dieser Arbeit darin, die Entwicklung der Hygiene in Greifswald in der Etappe von 1945 bis 1990 nachzuzeichnen und den Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung auf die Etablierung der beiden Besonderheiten zu legen. Die engere Zielstellung war darauf gerichtet, die europaweiten Unikate näher zu beschreiben, Kurzbiographien der beteiligten Hochschullehrer zu erarbeiten und ihr Wirken an der Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität im Zusammenhang mit den erbrachten wissenschaftlichen Leistungen zu bewerten. Das verfügbare Material stammt aus Primärquellen, in erster Linie aus Zeitschriftenartikeln und Büchern, aus Sekundärquellen, vorrangig aus Dissertationen, Unterlagen zur Forschung und wissenschaftlichen Arbeit und anderer nichtbuchhändlerischer Literatur sowie aus Unterlagen mit einem Geheimhaltungsgrad und biographischen Dokumenten. Seine Erschließung erfolgte durch öffentliche Zugänge in Bibliotheken und Archiven sowie durch die Bereitstellung privater Unterlagen noch lebender Hochschullehrer. Deskription und Analyse der Dokumente wurden, soweit es möglich war, im Interesse einer ausgewogenen Wertung der stattgehabten Prozesse durch gezielte Anfragen und Interviews ergänzt. Die erste Periode der Hygiene in Greifswald begann 1888 mit Friedrich Loeffler und endete mit Kurt Herzberg. Auch wenn es bei den in der Zwischenzeit agierenden Ordinarien durchaus einige kommunal- und sozialmedizinische Orientierungen in der Arbeit gab, dominierten mikrobiologische und virologische Themen. Das änderte sich, als unter Georg Tartler der Differenzierungsprozess der Hygiene eingeleitet wurde. Er lässt die Unterscheidung von drei Entwicklungslinien zu: - Erstens die Fortführung von Mikrobiologie und Virologie, - zweitens die Etablierung der Sozial-, Gewerbe-(später Arbeits-) und Kommunalhygiene und - drittens, im Zusammenhang mit der Angliederung der Militärmedizinischen Sektion an die Universität, die Schaffung militärhygienischer Fachgebiete. Nach der notwendigen Skizzierung der Hygiene als Lehrfach an der Medizinischen Fakultät und der Militärhygiene an der Militärmedizinischen Sektion erfolgte die nähere Charakteristik der Entwicklung der Sozialhygiene in beiden strukturellen Gliederungen. Einbezogen wurden dabei Kurzbiographien der Hochschullehrer, ihre Publikationen sowie die unter ihrer Leitung abgeschlossenen Promotionen und Habilitationen. Die 7 Kurzbiographien der Lehrstuhlleiter und die erfassten 801 Publikationen, 168 Dissertations- und 20 Habilitationsschriften dürften in ihrer Gesamtheit ein Bild über die Sozialhygiene in Greifswaldvermitteln helfen. Das aus der Verschmelzung der Lehrstühle, Sozialhygiene " und, Hygiene auf dem Lande entstandene Unikat, Sozialhygiene und Hygiene auf dem Lande " bestand nach Weggang von Ludwig Mecklinger aus Greifswald unter Leitung von Herbert Knabe von 1964 bis 1983 und wurde dann von Horst Huyoff noch zwei Jahre weitergeführt, bevor daraus 1985 ein selbständiges "Institut für Sozialhygiene" entstand. Die Analyse zeigte, dass es keine feststellbaren Bemühungen gab, ein solches, doch deutlich von dem Differenzierungsgefüge der Hygiene an anderen Universitäten abweichende Institution wissenschaftssystematisch näher zu begründen. Nach den Interessen von Herbert Knabe aufgebaut und profiliert, konnte dieses Unikat am ehesten als ein, Institut für Allgemein- und Sozialmedizin " unter anderem Namen in den zeitgeschichtlichen Prozess eingeordnet werden. Mit Friedrich Ring wurde an der Militärmedizinischen Sektion ein erfahrener Militärarzt mit dem Aufbau eines Instituts beauftragt, das für Lehr- und (und später ins Auge gefasste) Forschungsbemühungen auf den Gebieten der Organisation und Taktik des Medizinischen Dienstes sowie des Gesundheitsschutzes der Truppe im Frieden verantwortlich sein sollte. Nach seinem frühen Tod führten Günter Ewert und Rolf Hornei für das Fach Organisation des Gesundheitsschutzes, das ab 1965 in einem eigenständigen Institut verselbständigt wurde, den Aufbauprozess weiter. Er erfolgte, abweichend von der sowjetischen militärmedizinischen Doktrin, in Anlehnung an das Fachverständnis der DDR als, "Militärische Sozialhygiene". Damit verbunden war eine 1änger schwelende Auseinandersetzung um die Bezeichnung, die sich an der MMS bis 1976 im Rahmen des, Instituts für die gesamte Militärhygiene" behaupten konnte. Dann folgte eine Periode der Stagnation, bis es mit dem neuen Stellenplan 1988 gelang, nun unter den zwischenzeitlich akkumulierten Erfahrungen der Informatik, Epidemiologie, Ökonomie und Soziologie, ein breiter gewordenes Selbstverständnis unter der jetzt ausgewiesenen "Militärsozialhygiene " neu zu formieren. ; After Pettenkofer the hygiene as experimental scientific discipline had justified and in Munich 1865 the first chair had occupied, came it into Germany at the beginning 20. Century only to a specialization of the field of activity. For Grotjahn 1920 at the citizens of the University of Berlin a department for social hygiene were furnished. After the Second World War the differentiation process in the hygiene developed at university of Greifswald two uniques professorships: the "rural hygiene" and the "military social hygiene". Because of they weren't scientifically described, the request of this work consisted of describing the development of the hygiene in Greifswald from 1945 to 1990 and putting the emphasis of the investigation on the establishment of the two characteristics. The closer goal was addressed to describe the uniques in Europe better to compile short biographies of the university teachers involved and to evaluate their working to the seriousness Moritz Arndt University in connection with the furnished scientific achievements. The available material originates from primary sources, in the first place from magazine articles and books, from secondary sources, with priority from theses, documents to the research and scientific work and other literature outside commerce as well as from documents with a security classification and biographic documents. Its development took place via public entrances in libraries and archives as well as via the supply of private documents still living university teacher. Description and analysis of the documents were supplemented, as far as it was possible, in the interest of a balanced valuation by purposeful inquiries and interviews. The first period of the hygiene in Greifswald began 1888 with Friedrich Loeffier and ended with Kurt Herzberg. Even if there were social medical orientations in the work with all the professors acting in the meantime quite some local and, dominated micro-biological and virological themes. That changed, when under Georg Tartler the differentiation process of the hygiene one introduced. It permits the distinction of three lines of development: First the continuation of microbiology and virological, secondly the establishment of the social -, trade more (later employment -) and rural hygienic and thirdly, in connection with the affiliation of the military-medical section to the University, the creation of military - hygienic fields of activity. After necessary outlining of the hygiene as training subject at the medical faculty and the military hygiene at the military-medical section the closer characteristic of the development of the social hygiene took place in both structural arrangements. Were included thereby short biographies of the university teachers, their publications as well as the graduations and habilitations locked under their direction. The seven short biographies of the chair leaders and the seized 801 publications, 168 theses and 20 habilitations might help to mediate in its whole a picture over the social hygiene in Greifswald. From the fusion of the professorships "social hygiene" and "rural hygiene" developed the unique "social hygiene and rural hygiene" consisted after departure of Ludwig Mecklinger of Greifswald under the direction of Herbert Knabe from 1964 to 1983 and then by Horst Huyoff two years resumed. In 1985 an independent "institute for social hygiene" developed. The analysis showed that there were no ascertainable efforts, a professorship of "social hygiene and rural hygiene" to establish sciencesystematically. After the interests of Herbert Knabe developed and formed, would know this unique earliest as 9nstitute for general and social medicine" among other name in the time-historical process to be arranged. With Friedrich Ring was assigned at the military-medical section an experienced military physician to build an institute, which should be responsible to teach and research efforts on the area of the organization and tactics of the medical service as well as the health protection of the troop in peacetime. After his early death GUnter Ewert and Rolf Hornei for the subject" organization of health protection", this was starting independent from 1965 in its own institute, continued to lead the building-up. It took place, deviating from the Soviet military-medical doctrine, following the specialized understanding of the DDR as "military social hygiene." With this was connected a longer argumentation about the designation. This designation to state could on the MMS until 1976 in the context of the %nstitute for the whole military hygiene". Then one period of the stagnation followed, until it succeeded with the new staff appointments plan 19881, now under the in the meantime accumulated experiences of computer science, epidemiology, economics and sociology, a self understanding under the proven become now "military social hygiene" to form flew.
Thema dieser medizinhistorischen Arbeit ist die Bioergografie des Hamburger Ordinarius für Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferheilkunde und Mund-Kiefer-Gesichtschirurgen Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. h. c. Karl Schuchardt (1901-1985). Dessen 100.Geburtstag im Jahre 2001 gab Anlaß zu dieser Forschungsarbeit, welche unter Anleitung der Medizinhistorikerin Prof. Dr. Ursula Weisser und des Mund-Kiefer-Gesichtschirurgen Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerd Gehrke ausgearbeitet wurde. Schuchardt war nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg über zwei Jahrzehnte leitende Persönlichkeit der Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie in Deutschland und eine internationale Fachgröße. In einer umfassenden historischen Würdigung werden sowohl sein persönlicher Lebensweg als auch seine wissenschaftlichen Leistungen unter Einbeziehung des allgemein- und medizinhistorischen Kontextes behandelt. Die Untersuchungen zum biografischen Teil nehmen vorrangig auf die 1920er bis 1950er Jahre Bezug. Ihnen liegen bisher unveröffentlichte schriftliche Quellen aus deutschen Archiven und Interviews mit Zeitzeugen, u. a. seiner Kinder und seines Neffen zugrunde. Berücksichtigung fanden Akten des Bundesarchivs in Berlin, des Staatsarchivs in Hamburg, des Archivs der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, des Universitätsarchivs in Freiburg i. Br., des Hamburgischen Architekturarchivs, des Kirchenbucharchivs Itzehoe, des Schularchivs der Kaiser-Karl-Schule in Itzehoe, der Archive des Universitätsklinikums Hamburg-Eppendorf in der Personalabteilung und im Institut für Geschichte der Medizin in Hamburg sowie graue Literatur aus der Bibliothek für Wissenschaftsgeschichte in Berlin. Schuchardts Werdegang wird in Zusammenhang gestellt mit dem Prozeß der zahnärztlichen Professionalisierung 1869-1952 und der Entwicklung des Fachgebietes Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie nach dem ersten Weltkrieg. Näher beleuchtet werden dabei der in Deutschland erloschene Berufsstand der Dentisten, die Studienbedingungen an den Lehreinrichtungen für Zahnheilkunde der von Schuchardt besuchten Universitäten in Freiburg i. Br., Kiel und München und die Arbeitsschwerpunkte an den im zweiten Viertel des 20. Jahrhunderts gegründeten Berliner Kieferkliniken der Charité und des Rudolf-Virchow-Krankenhauses, wo er seine wissenschaftliche Laufbahn begann. Breiten Raum nimmt die Darstellung der institutionellen Zusammenführung der Nordwestdeutschen Kieferklinik mit der Hamburger Universitätsklinik für Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferkrankheiten (ZMK) nach 1945 unter Schuchardt ein. Besonderes Interesse galt auch seiner Tätigkeit als Sanitätsoffizier der Deutschen Wehrmacht und dem Schicksal seiner Ehefrau Dr. med. Eva Schuchardt geb. Ries (1900-1995), deren Eltern jüdischer Konfession waren. Wegen des Antisemitismus in Deutschland emigrierte Frau Schuchardt mit den beiden Kindern des Ehepaares 1939 in die USA. Schließlich wird Schuchardts Verbundenheit mit den bildenden Künsten, insbesondere seine Freundschaft mit dem Itzehoer Künstler Wenzel Hablik (1881-1934) sowie sein Grundentwurf für den Neubau der Nordwestdeutschen Kieferklinik 1953, gewürdigt. Im werkorientierten Teil, dem 165 Veröffentlichungen Schuchardts aus den 1930er bis 1970er Jahren zugrunde liegen, werden seine wissenschaftlichen Schwerpunkte herausgestellt und seine Leistungen eingeordnet. Es überwiegen Publikationen über plastische und wiederherstellende Chirurgie im Kiefer-Gesichtsbereich, besonders über Rundstiellappenplastiken. Hauptwerk ist seine 1944 als Buch erschienene Habilitationsschrift Der Rundstiellappen in der Wiederherstellungschirurgie des Gesichts-Kieferbereiches. Im Streben nach ästhetisch ausgewogenen Operationsergebnissen verstand er sich als Künstler. Er entwickelte ein Dermatom, Unterlippen-Kinnplastiken, die gestielte Fettplastik, modifizierte die Augenhöhlen-, Nasen- und Mundvorhofplastiken nach Ganzer, die Ohrmuschelplastik nach Pierce, die Hautschlaufenbildung nach Rang, die Plastiken bei Mund-Antrumverbindungen nach Rehrmann und nach Kazanjian und die Wangenrotation nach Esser. Weitere Schwerpunkte waren die Chirurgie der Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalten, die Therapie von Frakturen des Gesichtsschädels, die orthopädische Chirurgie des Gesichtsschädels sowie die Diagnose und Therapie von Tumoren. Zwecks historischer Einordnung seiner Errungenschaften werden Abrisse der Geschichte der Brückenlappenplastik bei Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalten, der intraoralen dentalen Schienenverbände und der orthopädischen Chirurgie des Gesichtsschädels gegeben. Zur Abrundung werden eine chronologische und eine thematisch geordnete Bibliografie der Veröffentlichungen Schuchardts sowie ein Verzeichnis der unter seinem Direktorat an der ZMK angefertigten Dissertationen, ein Verzeichnis von Jubiläumsartikeln und Nekrologen, die zu seiner Ehrung erschienen und fünf Tabellen zu Lehrveranstaltungen und Lehrenden im Fach Zahnheilkunde an der Universität Hamburg 1946-1970 vorgelegt. ; The subject of this doctoral dissertation is the bioergography of Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. h. c. Karl Schuchardt (1901-1985), maxillofacial surgeon and director of the Dental Institute and Clinic at the University of Hamburg from 1945 to 1970, the centenary of whose birth in 2001 prompted an investigation of his work. After the Second World War, Schuchardt became a leading expert in maxillofacial surgery in Germany and was one of the great international specialists. Research for the present work was carried out under the direction of the medical historian Prof. Dr. Ursula Weisser and the maxillofacial surgeon Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerd Gehrke. A critical study will reveal not only the surgeon's success, but also discusses Schuchardt's merits in research, academic life and hospital administration. His life history and career are placed in the political, social and medical context of his time. The biographical part concentrates on the three decades between 1920 and 1950. Extensive search in several archives and libraries all over Germany has yielded a multitude of relevant materials mostly unpublished. Sources from the following institutions have been consulted: Bundesarchiv (Berlin), Staatsarchiv der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg, Archiv der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Universitätsarchiv (Freiburg i. Br.), Hamburgisches Architekturarchiv, Kirchenbucharchiv (Itzehoe), Schularchiv der Kaiser-Karl-Schule (Itzehoe), Archiv des Universitätsklinikums Hamburg-Eppendorf of the personnel department as well as of the Institut für Geschichte der Medizin (Hamburg) and Bibliothek für Wissenschaftsgeschichte (Berlin). Interviews with Schuchardt's two children and his nephew helped to shed light on his multifaceted personality. The emigration of his wife, the medical doctor Eva Schuchardt, née Ries (1900-1995), who was of Jewish descent, and his children to the USA in 1939 in order to escape antisemitic persecution was the most tragic episode of his life. The process of dental professionalisation in Germany from 1869 to 1952 played a major role in his father´s career as a non-academic dentist. Thus, Schuchardt early became familiar with different models of dental education, which later qualified him to promote unification of the profession on an academic level. Descriptions of the programs of studies at the dental institutes at Kiel, Freiburg i. Br. and Munich elucidate the particulars of Schuchardt's dental education. Research for a doctoral dissertation in medicine at University at Kiel followed. His training as an oral surgeon is strongly related to the establishment of the first civil clinics of oral surgery at the Rudolf-Virchow-Krankenhaus and at the Charité in Berlin in the second quarter of the 20. century. Entering the speciality of maxillofacial surgery was a result of his mobilisation as military surgeon during the Second World War. After the war, Schuchardt distinguished himself as director of a clinic of oral surgery in Hamburg, Nordwestdeutsche Kieferklinik, which he, after his appointment as full professor of dentistry, united with the Dental Institute of the University of Hamburg. In addition, Schuchardt´s lifelong passion for the visual arts and architecture is acknowledged and exemplified by his friendship with the artist Wenzel Hablik (1881-1934) from Itzehoe and Schuchardt´s designing of a new hospital building for his Clinic of Oral Surgery in Hamburg in 1953. Schuchardt´s ergography contains 165 publications, most of them written in the four decades between 1930 and 1970. In addition, he edited 16 works. Among his publications those on plastic and reconstructive surgery are in the majority, and his studies on tube flap plasty occupy a spesial place. His doctoral thesis, published as monograph "Der Rundstiellappen in der Wiederherstellungschirurgie des Gesichts-Kieferbereiches" in 1944, was his most influential book. In his efforts to achive aesthetic results in plastic surgery, he saw himself as an artist. He invented a dermatome and developed methods for cheilomentoplasty and a tubed lipoflap plasty. He modified Ganzer´s orbitoplasty, nasoplasty and vestibuloplasty, Pierce´s auricoloplasty, Rang´s skin loop plasty attaching auricuolar protheses, Rehrmann´s and Kazanjian´s plasties to close oroantral communication and Esser´s buccorotation. Other major contributions Schuchardt´s concern management of cleft lip and palate, management of facial fractures, orthognatic surgery as well as diagnosis and treatment of facial tumours. The significance of his achievements is emphasized by placing them in the general history of the field with special emphasis on the development of Langenbeck´s palatorrhaphy, of dental splints and arch bars and of orthognatic surgery. Nine appendixes contain his bibliography, presented chronologically as well as by theme, a list of the doctoral dissertations completed during his directorship, a list of anniversery articles and obituaries and finally five tables of university courses on dentistry and oral surgery given at Hamburg University Dental Clinic during his directorship.
Dr Hinko Urbach napisao je dirljiv tekst o nadrabinu aškenaske opštine u Sarajevu dr Samuelu Weszel-u koji je iznenada preminuo 1928. godine. Dr Weszel je poticao od pobožnih i učenih roditelja - Mojsija Weszela i Sare Hirschfeld. Rodio se u Vacz-u (Mađarska) 25. maja 1871. U sedmoj godini ostao je siroče zbog čega je njegov životni put bio veoma težak. Uprkos tome posvetio se nauci. Sa 10 godina čitao je "maftir" (počasno čitanje poslednjeg odlomka Tore u javnom bogosluženju), sa 13 je davao "seder" i išao u veliku "ješivu" u Bonybad, sa 16 je podučavao mladiće mnogo starije od njega. Sa 18 godina već je držao predavanja u hramu. U Bernu i Minhenu je studirao filozofiju i semitsku filologiju kod poznatih profesora i promovisan je za doktora filozofije. U praktičnoj pedagogiji usavršavao se u Hamburgu, Beču i Bazelu, odakle su ga pozvali za rabina u Roterdam, a potom u Sarajevo. Službu rabina aškenaske opštine u Sarajevu započeo je 1. novembra 1898. godine a 1900. godine se oženio Paulom, kćerkom naučnika Isaka Robinšona iz Šarlotenburga. Svoj poziv dr Weszel je veoma voleo i postigao je značajne uspehe. Na početku svoga delovanja pokazao je veliko razumevanje za instituciju "Hevra Kadiše" koja ga je izabrala za počasnog člana. Osnovao je prvo "Židovsko Omladinsko Društvo" u kome je uspeo da okupi sefardsku i aškenasku omladinu u zajedničkom radu. Iz ovog društva se kasnije, 1912. godine razvilo "Židovsko Nacijonalno Društvo", čiji je on bio prvi član osnivač. Zajedno sa svojom suprugom osnovao je 1901. godine "Židovsko aškenasko gospojinsko društvo". Svojim neumornim radom doprineo je da opština sagradi impresivan hram, koji je posvetio 1902. godine. Velike zasluge imao je oko osnivanja i delovanja "Ahdusa", društva Jevreja sa Istoka, i omladinskog društva "Makabi". Ogroman doprinos dao je na polju veronauke: izradio je "Nastavni plan za jevrejski vjeronauk", koji je tadašnja Zemaljska vlada uvela u škole Bosne i Hercegovine. Bio je član uprave Saveza rabina i Glavnog odbora Saveza jevrejskih veroispovednih opština. Dr Weszel je bio odličan govornik, govorio je blago, toplo i ubedljivo, sa posebnom personalnom notom. Bio je impresioniran Prvim cionističkim kongresom u Bazelu 1897. godine na kome je imao lične kontakte sa svim velikanima nacionalnog pokreta. Nikad nije izgubio zanos i oduševljenje i neumorno je radio na obnovi Jevrejstva u dijaspori i Erec Izraelu. Njegovo delo "Das Targum zuni Buche Ruth" u kojem je obradio aramejsku parafrazu ove biblijske knjige izašlo je u Berlinu 1898. godine na nemačkom jeziku i ima naučnu vrednost. Za "Jewish Encyclopedia" napisao je istoriju jevrejskih opština u Bosni i Hercegovini: u Sarajevu, Travniku i Mostaru. Napisao je brojne naučne članake i predavanja, koji su, nažalost zbog njegove skromnosti, ostali u rukopisima. Povodom 25-e godišnjice njegovog službovanja 1923. godine kralj Aleksandar ga je odlikovao ordenom Svetog Save IV stepena. Na kraju teksta o životu i radu dr Weszela objavljen je govor koji je Vrhovni rabin dr Isak Alkalay iz Beograda održao na njegovoj sahrani. ; Dr. Hinko Urbach wrote a touching text about the senior rabbi of the Ashkenazi community in Sarajevo, Dr. Samuel Weszel, who died suddenly in 1928. Dr. Weszel came from religious and scholarly parents - Moses Weszel and Sarah Hirschfeld. He was born in Vacz (Hungary) on May 25, 1871. When he was seven, he has left an orphan, which made his life very difficult. Despite this, he devoted himself to science. He dedicated all his strength to science. At the age of 10, he read the "maftir" (honorary reading of the last passage of the Torah in public worship), at the age of 13 he gave "seder" and went to the big "yeshiva" in Bonybad, at the age of 16 he taught young men much older than him. At the age of 18, he was already lecturing in the temple. In Bern and Munich, he studied philosophy and Semitic philology with famous professors and was promoted to doctor of philosophy. He studied practical pedagogy in Hamburg, Vienna and Basel, from where he was invited to become a rabbi in Rotterdam, and then in Sarajevo. He began his service as a rabbi of the Ashkenazi community in Sarajevo on November 1, 1898, and in 1900 he married Paula, the daughter of the scientist Isaac Robinson from Charlottenburg. Dr. Weszel loved his invitation very much and achieved significant success. At the beginning of his career, he showed great understanding for the institution "Hevra Kadisha", which elected him an honorary member. He founded the first "Jewish Youth Society" in which he managed to gather Sephardic and Ashkenazi youth in joint work. Later, in 1912, the "Jewish National Society" developed from this society, of which he was the first founding member. Together with his wife, he founded the "Jewish Ashkenazi Lady's Society" in 1901. With his tireless work, he contributed to the community building an impressive temple, which he dedicated in 1902. He had great merits for the founding and operation of "Ahdus", the Society of Jews from the East, and the youth society "Maccabi". He made a huge contribution in the field of religious education: he developed the "Curriculum for Jewish Religious Education", which the then Provincial Government introduced in schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was a member of the board of the Federation of Rabbis and the Main Board of the Federation of Jewish Religious Communities. Dr. Weszel was an excellent speaker, he spoke softly, warmly, and convincingly, with a special personal note. He was impressed by the First Zionist Congress in Basel in 1897, where he had personal contacts with all the giants of the national movement. He never lost his enthusiasm and worked tirelessly to restore Judaism in the Diaspora and Eretz Israel. His work "Das Targum zuni Buche Ruth", in which he processed the Aramaic paraphrase of this biblical book, was published in Berlin in 1898 in German and has scientific value. For the "Jewish Encyclopedia", he wrote the history of Jewish communities in Bosnia and Herzegovina: in Sarajevo, Travnik, and Mostar. He wrote many scientific articles and lectures, which, unfortunately, due to his modesty, remained in manuscripts. On the occasion of the 25th on the anniversary of his service in 1923, King Alexander honored him with the Order of Saint Sava IV degree. At the end of the text about the life and work of Dr. Weszel, a speech was given by the chief rabbi Dr. Isak Alkalay from Belgrade at his funeral. ; Str. 19: Fotografija dr Samuela Weszel-a. ; Na kraju teksta o životu i radu dr Weszela objavljen je govor koji je Vrhovni rabin dr Isak Alkalay iz Beograda održao na njegovoj sahrani (At the end of the text about the life and work of Dr. Weszel, a speech was given by the Chieff Rabbi Dr. Isak Alkalay from Belgrade at his funeral).
