Suchergebnisse

Transportation has continued to increase worldwide and fossil-fuel dependency is strong which leads to a number of problems, e.g. increased emissions of green-house gases (GHG) and risks related to energy security. Biofuels have until now been one of the few renewable alternatives which have been able to replace fossil fuels on a large scale. The biofuel share in relation to the total use of fuel in the transportation sector is still small, but in many places in the world political targets are set to increase the share of renewable fuels, of which biofuels are supposed to be an important part. Within the European Union targets for renewable energy have been set, including within the transportation sector, where 10% shall come from renewable sources by 2020 according to the EU Renewable Energy Directive (EU RES). Biofuels also need to fulfill the sustainability criteria in the EU RES, to be regarded as renewable. Depending on how biofuels are produced their resource efficiency varies, and the differences in environmental and economic performance can for instance be significant. The aim of this thesis is to describe and analyze conditions for a development towards increased and more resource-efficient production of biofuels in Sweden. The conditions have been studied from a regional resource perspective and from a biofuel producer perspective since it has been assumed that the producers are in possession of important knowledge, and potentially will play an important role in future biofuel development. The concept of resource efficiency used in this thesis includes an environmental and economic perspective as well as an overall societal dimension to some extent. The region of Östergötland in Sweden was used for the assessment of the resourcefocused biofuel potential for the year 2030, where two scenarios based on assessments regarding socio-technical development in relation to regional resources were used. The scenarios were based on semi-structured interviews with biofuel actors, literature studies and information from experts in the field. In the EXPAN (Expansion) scenario a continued development in line with the current one was assumed, but also an increased availability of feedstock primarily within the agricultural and waste sectors (also including byproducts from industry) for biofuel production. In the INNTEK (Innovation and Technology development) scenario greater technological progress was assumed to also enable the use of some unconventional feedstock besides increased available arable land and improved collection/availability of certain feedstock. Biomass feedstock from four categories was included in the potential: waste, agriculture, forestry and aquatic environments. One important feedstock which was not included in this study, but which is often included in studies of potential, is lignocellulosic material from the forest. This choice was also supported by the regional actors who judged it as less probable that there will be any large-scale use of such feedstock for biofuels in this region within the given timeframe. Regarding arable land available for biofuel production a share of 30% was assumed at maximum in the region, of which 15% is already used for cereal production for ethanol fuel. On these additional 15% assumed to be available for biofuel production year 2030, ley cropping for production of biogas was assumed in this study. Aquatic biomass is often not included in biofuel potentials. Here, algae were assumed to be a potentially interesting substrate for biogas production since harvesting algae in for instance the Baltic Sea could be seen as a multifunctional measure, i.e., contributing additional environmental benefits such as reducing eutrophication. Based on the assumption that the energy need in the transportation sector will be the same in 2030 as in 2010, up to 30% could be substituted with biofuels in the EXPAN scenario and up to 50% in the INNTEK scenario, without seriously conflicting with other interests such as food or feed production. In the study of potential, production systems for biogas production were prioritized since such systems were judged to have a large potential for resource efficiency. This is because they have a big capacity to utilize by-products and waste as feedstock, and also because they can contribute to closing the loops of plant nutrients, seen as an important goal in society, if the digestate is returned to arable land. The utilization of by-products and waste however in many cases requires cooperation between different actors in society. Within the research field of industrial symbiosis, cooperation regarding material and energy flows is studied from different perspectives, e.g. how such cooperation between actors evolves and to what extent such cooperation can contribute to improving the environmental and economic performance of systems. Both these perspectives are interesting in relation to biofuels since production often involves a large number of energy- and material flows at the same time as resource efficiency is important. How the producers organize the production when it comes to feedstock, energy, by-products and products and what influences this is therefore interesting to study. In this thesis four biofuel producers of three different biofuels (ethanol, biodiesel and biogas) on the Swedish market were studied, focusing on how they organize their biofuel production in terms of e.g. their material and energy flows, and how they intend to organize it in the future. The study is based on semi-structured interviews with the biofuel producers as well as literature studies. In all the cases, a number of areas of material and energy flow cooperation were identified and it could also be concluded that there had been some change regarding these patterns over time. Looking into the future a clear change of strategy was identified in the ethanol case and partly also in the biodiesel case where a development towards improved valorisation and differentiation of by-product flows was foreseen. If such a "biorefinery" strategy is realized, it can potentially improve the economic viability and resource efficiency in these biofuel producers. In the biogas cases, instead a strategy to lower the costs for feedstock through the use of lower quality feedstock was identified. This strategy also has a potential to increase economic viability and improve the resource efficiency. However, the success of this strategy is to a large extent dependent on how the off-set of the biofertilizer can be arranged regarding the economic challenges that the biogas producers' experience, and yet no strategy for implementation regarding this was identified. The EU Renewable Energy Directive was mentioned in relation to most cooperation projects and therefore regarded as an important critical factor. All of the studied companies also struggle to be competitive, for which reason the importance of the direct economic aspects of cooperation seems to increase. ; Transporterna i världen ökar kontinuerligt och det fossila beroendet är fortsatt stort vilket medför flera problem, bl. a. ökade utsläpp av växthusgaser och en osäkerhet kring framtidens energiförsörjning. Biodrivmedel har hittills varit ett av de få förnyelsebara alternativ som kunnat ersätta fossila drivmedel i stor skala. Andelen biodrivmedel av den totala bränsleanvändningen inom transportsektorn är dock fortfarande liten, men på många håll i världen finns nu politiska mål för att öka andelen förnyelsebara drivmedel av vilka biodrivmedel förväntas utgöra en viktig del. Inom EU har mål för förnybar energi satts upp bl. a. inom transportsektorn där 10% skall komma från förnybara energikällor senast år 2020 enligt EUs förnybarhetsdirektiv. Biodrivmedel måste dessutom, om de ska räknas som förnyelsebara, uppfylla direktivets hållbarhetskriterier. Beroende på hur biodrivmedel produceras är de olika resurseffektiva, med exempelvis betydande skillnader avseende miljömässig och ekonomisk prestanda. Syftet med den här avhandlingen är att beskriva och analysera förutsättningarna för en utveckling mot ökad och mer resurseffektiv produktion av biodrivmedel i Sverige. Förutsättningarna har studerats med ett regionalt resursperspektiv samt från ett biodrivmedelsproducentperspektiv eftersom producenterna sitter på viktiga kunskaper och sannolikt spelar en betydande roll för den framtida utvecklingen. Resurseffektivitetsbegreppet som används i den här avhandlingen inkluderar ett miljömässigt och ett ekonomiskt perspektiv liksom ett övergripande samhälleligt perspektiv. När det gäller ett regionalt resursperspektiv har Östergötland använts för att med hjälp av två scenarier för år 2030 ta fram en biodrivmedelspotential utifrån en bedömning av en socio-teknisk utvecklingspotential i förhållande till regionala resurser. Scenarierna togs fram med hjälp av semistrukturerade intervjuer med aktörer i branschen, litteraturstudier och i vissa fall med hjälp av sakkunniga. I scenario EXPAN (expansionsscenario) antogs en fortsatt teknikutveckling i linje med den hittills-varande och en samtidig ökning av tillgängligheten av potentiella resurser inom framförallt jordbrukssektorn och avfallssektorn (inkluderat också restproduktsresurser inom industrin) för biodrivmedelsproduktion. I scenario INNTEK (Innovations och teknikutvecklingsscenario) har utöver ytterligare antagen tillgänglig jordbruksmark också större tekniksprång antagits som möjliggör användning av icke konventionella råvaror för biodrivmedelsproduktion, samt förbättrad insamling/tillgängliggörande av vissa råvaror. I potentialen har biomassa från fyra olika sektorer inkluderats; avfall, jordbruk, skogsbruk och akvatiska miljöer. En viktig biomassaresurs som inte inkluderats i denna potentialstudie, men som vanligen inkluderas i potentialstudier, är lignocellulosarika material från skogen. Detta var ett val som också stöddes av de regionala aktörerna som i den här studien bedömde det som mindre sannolikt att någon storskalig användning av sådana råvaror kommer att finnas i regionen inom den aktuella tidsramen. När det gäller jordbruksmark som kan utnyttjas för bioenergiproduktion så har en andel på 30% antagits, varav 15% redan idag utnyttjas till spannmålsodling för produktion av etanol. På de ytterligare 15% som antas kunna tas i anspråk för biodrivmedelsändamål år 2030, har vallodling för biogasändamål antagits i denna studie. Akvatisk biomassa ingår ofta inte i bioenergipotentialstudier, men har inkluderats här eftersom alger skulle kunna vara ett intressant substrat för biogasproduktion, men också för att algskörd i akvatiska miljöer skulle kunna ses som en multifunktionell åtgärd med ytterligare miljönytta som t.ex. minskad övergödning i Östersjön. Med antagandet att energibehovet inom transportsektorn blir lika stort år 2030 som år 2010, skulle upp till 30% av de fossila drivmedlen kunna ersättas av biodrivmedel i scenario EXPAN och upp till 50% i scenario INNTEK, utan att större intressekonflikter skulle uppstå i förhållande till andra behov såsom mat eller foderproduktion. I potentialstudien har vidare produktionssystem för biogas prioriterats eftersom sådana system bedömdes ha stor potential när det gäller resurseffektivitet. Först och främst för att de har stor kapacitet när det gäller användning av restprodukter, men också för att de kan bidra till att sluta kretsloppet av växtnäringsämnen om rötresten återförs till åkermark. Nyttiggörande av restprodukter och avfall kräver emellertid i många fall samarbete mellan olika aktörer i samhället. Inom forskningsfältet industriell symbios studerar man bl. a. hur samarbeten kring energi- och materialflöden mellan aktörer uppstår och i vilken utsträckning samarbetsgraden kan bidra till att förbättra miljöprestandan och ekonomiska prestanda i systemen. Dessa perspektiv är intressanta i förhållande till biodrivmedel eftersom produktionen av dessa är förknippad med ett stort antal energi- och materialflöden samtidigt som resurseffektiviteten är viktig. Hur biodrivmedelsproducenterna organiserar produktionen när det gäller råvaror, energi, biprodukter och produkter och vad som styr detta är därför intressant att studera. I den här avhandlingen studerades hur fyra svenska biodrivmedelsproducenter för tre olika biodrivmedel (etanol, biodiesel och biogas) på den svenska marknaden har organiserat sin produktion, med fokus på energi- och materialflöden, samt hur de planerar att organisera den framöver. Studien baseras framförallt på semi-strukturerade intervjuer med aktörerna samt litteraturstudier. I samtliga fyra fall kunde ett antal samarbeten kring bl.a. material och energiflöden kartläggas samt hur dessa förändrats över tiden. När det gäller framtiden kunde en tydlig strategiomläggning ses i etanolfallet och delvis i biodieselfallet mot en valorisering och diversifiering av rest-/bi-produktflöden. Om denna "bioraffinaderistrategi" lyckas kan den bidra till bättre lönsamhet och bättre resurseffektivitet. I biogasfallen fanns istället strategier för att försöka sänka råvarukostnader genom att hitta råvaror av lägre kvalitet. Också denna strategi kan öka lönsamheten och förbättra resurseffektiviteten, men detta förutsätter att avsättningen av biogödsel också kan lösas på ett lönsamt sätt. Detta är en fortsatt stor utmaning för biogasproducenterna. En av de viktigaste kritiska faktorerna för de olika samarbetsprojekten var EUs förnybarhetsdirektiv som nämndes i samband med de flesta samarbetsprojekt och som här sågs som en miljömässig drivkraft. Också det långsiktiga byggandet av gröna varumärken verkar vara en drivkraft, åtminstone när det gäller vissa samarbetsprojekt. Samtliga biodrivmedelsproducenter kämpar idag med lönsamheten varför också de ekonomiska aspekterna kring samarbeten är mycket väsentliga.

Muutto on merkittävä tapahtuma yksittäisen ihmisen elämässä. Muutto on myös keskeinen ilmiö alueellisen kehityksen edistäjänä tai estäjänä. Yhteiskunnallisten vaikutustensa vuoksi erilaiset muuttoaallot ovat puhuttaneet poliitikkoja, tiedotusvälineitä ja tutkijoita jo vuosikymmenten ajan. Erityisenä huolen kohteena on usein ollut nuorten muuttaminen kaupunkeihin, pois syrjäisiltä seuduilta. Muuttoliike kohti keskeisiä kaupunkialueita on nähty alueellisen kehityksen taholta negatiivisena ilmiönä. Muutto ei kuitenkaan näyttäydy kaikille negatiivisessa valossa. Yksittäisen ihmisen kohdalla muuttaminen voi liittyä oman elämän suunnitteluun ja persoonan kehitykseen. Nuorten osalta muutto saattaa näyttäytyä positiivisena elementtinä, joka kuuluu keskeisesti itsensä kehittämiseen ja myönteiseen tulevaisuuteen. Tarkastelen väitöskirjatyössäni nuorten muuttoinnokkuutta syrjäisillä alueilla. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli selvittää kuinka korkea muuttoinnokkuus on Barentsin alueella asuvien tutkimukseen osallistuneiden nuorten keskuudessa. Työn toisena keskeisenä tehtävänä oli etsiä niitä tekijöitä, jotka vaikuttavat näiden nuorten muuttoinnokkuuteen. Tutkimus olettaa, että nuorten muuttoinnokkuuden taustalla eivät ole pelkästään työ- ja koulutusmahdollisuuksiin liittyvät seikat, vaan muuttoinnokkuuden taustalla vaikuttavat myös laajempi paikallisen asuinympäristön mahdollisuusrakenne, sosiaaliset suhteet sekä nuorten yksilölliset tulevaisuuden odotukset. Tulokset osoittavat, että muuttoinnokkuus on vallitseva piirre tutkimukseen osallistuneiden nuorten keskuudessa. Valtaosa vastaajista (74 %) oli suunnitellut muuttoa pois kotiseudultaan. Eri maita vertailtaessa, tuli ilmi, että muuttoinnokkuus on korkein suomalaisten (81 %) ja ruotsalaisten (82 %) vastaajien keskuudessa. Venäjä ja Norja muodostavat toisen ryhmän, noin 67 % näiden maiden kaikista vastaajista suunnitteli muuttoa. Muuttoinnokkuus oli korkein, noin 82 %, sellaisten vastaajien keskuudessa, jotka asuivat kylissä tai kuntakeskuksissa. Kaikista alhaisin muuttoinnokkuus, 59 %, löytyi suurissa kaupungeissa asuneiden vastaajien keskuudesta. Tulosten perusteella voidaan havaita, että nuorten muuttoinnokkuus ei välttämättä ole pelkästään syrjäisiä seutuja leimaava ilmiö. Keskeiset syyt tutkimukseen osallistuneiden nuorten muuttoinnokkuuden takana liittyivät yksilön toiveiden ja kolmen keskeisen paikan komponentin, sijainnillisuuden, paikallisuuden ja paikkatunteen, yhteensopimattomuuteen. Työn tulokset osoittavat, että asuinpaikan sijainnillisuus ja paikallinen mahdollisuusrakenne olivat tärkeitä tekijöitä muuttoinnokkuuden ja vastaajien henkisen asenteen muodostumisessa suhteessa syrjä- ja kaupunkiseuduista muodostettuihin mielikuviin. Keskeisen sijainnin omaavien kaupunkiseutujen houkuttelevuus ja oletettu mahdollisuuksien kirjo näyttää vaikuttaneen tutkimukseen vastanneiden nuorten muuttoinnokkuuteen, kotipaikkasuhteeseen sekä heidän käsityksiinsä paikallisista mahdollisuuksista, henkilökohtaisesta menestymisestä ja oman elämän suunnittelusta tulevaisuudessa. Tutkimuksen nuoret tuntuivat ajattelevan, että avointen mahdollisuuksien kenttä on jossain muualla kuin heidän kotiseudullaan, vaikka tosiasiassa heidän kotipaikkansa voisivatkin tarjota heille erilaisia mahdollisuuksia edes jossain määrin. Vaatimus laajasta mahdollisuuksien kirjosta tuli esille erityisesti tutkimukseen osallistuneiden nuorten ajatuksissa koulutuksesta, työllistymisestä ja uranäkymistä. Työn tulokset myös osoittavat, että vastaajien muuttoinnokkuus oli osittain seurausta heidän näkemyksestään, jonka mukaan heidän kotiseudullaan ei ole myönteistä tulevaisuutta. Paikallisuus, asuinpaikan sosiaalinen ulottuvuus, oli läsnä tässä tutkimuksessa vastaajien sukulaisten, ystävien ja seurustelukumppanien kautta. Tällä tavoin paikallisuus ankkuroitui vastaajien pohdiskeluihin maantieteellisistä etäisyyksistä ja henkilökohtaisesta tulevaisuudesta. Läheisyys sukulaisten ja ystävien kanssa osoittautui sekä henkisesti että maantieteellisesti tärkeäksi tutkimukseen osallistuneille nuorille. Pitkät välimatkat läheisten ihmisten kanssa nähtiin epämiellyttävänä tilanteena. Tutkimukseen osallistuneiden nuorten muuttoinnokkuutta näytti nostavan se, että jotkut sukulaiset ja ehkä suurin osa ikätovereista oli jo muuttanut pois tai osa heistä suunnitteli muuttoa. Vastaajien oli vaikea ylläpitää suhteita ja paikallisia sosiaalisia verkostoja silloin, kun ikätoverit ja läheiset ihmiset muuttavat tai suunnittelevat muuttoa. Tutkimukseen vastanneilla nuorilla oli vähemmän mahdollisuuksia, tai tahtoa, kiinnittyä paikalliseen sosiaaliseen verkostoon silloin, kun muutto tuntui olevan kovin vallitseva ilmiö omassa sosiaalisessa piirissä. Muuttoinnokkuus on myös seurausta tutkimukseen vastanneiden nuorten tekemästä kotiseutunsa piirteisiin ja ominaisuuksiin liittyvästä kustannus-hyötyanalyysistä. Tämä perustuu paikkatunteeseen, eli niihin kokemuksiin ja tietoihin, joita yksilöllä on omasta asuinympäristöstään, mutta toisaalta myös siihen tietoon, jota hänellä on liittyen muihin, kaukaisiinkin, paikkoihin. Tämän arviointiprosessin aikana yksilö vertailee omaa asuinympäristöään ja asuinpaikkaansa muihin paikkoihin ja alueisiin, joko realistisesti tai mielikuvituksen tasolla. Yksilön suhde paikkaan muodostuu tämän prosessin aikana perustuen paikkakokemukseen, asuinympäristön piirteisiin, historialliseen tietoisuuteen ja tulevaisuudennäkymiin sekä faktatietoon tai mielikuvituksellisiin ajatuksiin muista paikoista. Tutkimukseen osallistuneiden nuorten muuttoinnokkuus voidaan nähdä myös yksilöllisen paikkasuhteen ilmentymänä. Näyttää siltä, että muutosta oli tullut osa tutkimukseen vastanneiden nuorten yksilöllistä, hyvään elämään tähtäävää, elämänsuunnitelmaa. Kunkin vastaajan muuttoinnokkuus perustuu henkilökohtaiseen näkökulmaan sekä haluttuun ja joskus jopa väistämättömään kehitysprosessiin. Yksilöllinen usko ja näkemys muuton kannattavuuteen kiteytyivät henkilökohtaisten ja paikallisten toimintamahdollisuuksien leikkauspisteessä. Voidaankin sanoa, että tämän tutkimuksen nuorten keskuudessa muuttoinnokkuus oli seurausta yksilön asuinympäristöönsä kohdistamasta arviointiprosessista sekä epätasapainosta paikallisen todellisuuden ja jokseenkin kuvitteellisten paikkamielikuvien välillä. Tutkimuksen keskeiset teoreettiset teemat olivat elämänpolitiikka, individualismi, tulevaisuusorientaatio, paikkakiinnittyneisyys ja muuttoon vaikuttavat perustekijät. Näiden lisäksi tutkimuskysymykset ja aineiston analyysi pohjautuivat kolmeen paikan komponenttiin: sijainnillisuuteen, paikallisuuteen ja paikkatunteeseen. Sijainnillisuus viittaa tässä työssä paikan suhteelliseen sijaintiin ja siihen liittyviin tekijöihin, kuten esimerkiksi alueelliseen työnjakoon, työ- ja opiskelumahdollisuuksiin. Paikallisuus puolestaan viittaa sosiaaliseen vuorovaikutukseen ja niihin mahdollisuuksiin, joiden perusteella yksilön sosiaaliset suhteet muodostuvat. Paikkatunne viittaa yksilön sisäiseen tuntemukseen paikasta, tarkoittaen paikkakiinnittyneisyyttä ja paikallisia jokapäiväisiä käytäntöjä, jotka sitovat ihmiset asuinympäristöönsä. Barentsin alueella tämä merkitsee pohjoisuuden tulkintaa ja kokemista: perifeerisyyttä, ankaraa ilmastoa, traditionaalista ja paikallisesti värittynyttä kulttuuria, mutta myös sukupolvien ketjua sekä tiettyihin paikkoihin kiinnittyviä tunteita herättäviä ja tärkeitä kokemuksia. Tutkimusalueena oli Barentsin alue, joka koostuu Suomen, Ruotsin, Norjan ja Venäjän pohjoisosista. Barentsin aluetta ja täten myös tutkimuksen kontekstia luonnehtivat pohjoinen ja perifeerinen sijainti. Tutkimus perustui kyselyaineistoon. Kyselyyn vastasi yhteensä 1627 nuorta. Kyselyyn vastanneet nuoret olivat tutkimusajankohtana 14-30-vuotiaita ja asuivat Barentsin alueella. Aineiston keruu toteutettiin koulukyselynä neljällä eri koulutustasolla: peruskoulussa, lukiossa, ammatillisissa oppilaitoksissa sekä yliopistossa. ; This doctoral thesis explores the migration alacrity of young people in peripheral areas. The main objective of the study is to investigate, firstly, how high migration alacrity is among young people in the Barents Region, and secondly, what factors affect young people s migration alacrity. I then consider how these factors affect migration alacrity. The context of the study is the Barents region, which includes 13 counties in northern parts of four different countries: Finland, Norway, Sweden and Russia. The Barents Region is characterised by its northern and peripheral location. This study is based on empirical data that was collected among young people living in different living environments within this region, in response to both structured and open-ended questions. The data was collected by means of a school survey conducted among students (N=1627) in four different levels of education: comprehensive schools, upper secondary schools, vocational institutes and universities. The age of the respondents varied between 14 and 30 years old. The theoretical frame of reference for this research is built on themes that are closely connected to important factors in the investigation of the migration plans of young people living in remote and peripheral areas. The central theoretical themes in this research are: life politics, individualism, future orientations, place attachment and basic factors affecting on migration. My research questions and data analysis are based on three components of place: location, locale and sense of place (Agnew 1993). Location here refers to those factors of certain places which affect the people living there on an external level. These factors may be, e.g., division of labour, possibilities for work and education, local systems of material production and distribution networks. Locale, in turn, refers to the settings in which social relations are constituted . For the individual, locale means the setting for personal social relations and both formal and institutional relations and activities, i.e. face to face society. Sense of place, in turn, is the internal component of place, referring to place attachment and local everyday practises which bind people to their living environment. In the Barents Region this may mean both representation and experiences of northerness: peripheriality, harsh climate, traditionally and locally guided culture, but also a chain of generations and emotional and meaningful experiences connected to certain places. The results imply that migration alacrity is a dominant feature among young people involved in this study. The majority of the respondents, 74 %, have migration plans. On the country level, the strongest desire to migrate can be found among Finnish and Swedish respondents. In Finland 81 % of all respondents plan to move out of their region; in Sweden, 82 %. Russia and Norway join at a lower level; about 67 % of those surveyed from each of these countries have migration plans. On the county level, the highest migration alacrity, over 80 %, was found among respondents from Lapland, Murmansk County and Norrbotten. The lowest migration willingness can be found among respondents from Republic of Karelia. Migration readiness is highest, about 82 %, among those respondents who live in villages or in municipal centres. The lowest migration alacrity was found in big cities; with only 59 % of respondents there have plans for migration. It can be argued on the basis of the results of this study that the fundamental idea behind and reasons for migration alacrity are the correspondence between individual wishes and the three essential components of place: location, locale and sense of place. Results suggest that location and local opportunity structure play an important part in the origin of a mental attitude concerning relations between remote and urban areas, in which urban areas are seen as being in a stronger position compared to peripheral areas. This has an impact on young people s relation to their home places, and their comprehension of local opportunity structure and their possibilities to make successful use of personal life politics. Thus respondents tendencies to migrate are tied to their beliefs concerning their home district and what their home district is (not) able to offer them. Migration alacrity of survey respondents is thus partly a consequence of their belief that their home district has no future. One aspect of this is a belief among these young people that somewhere else than in their home localities there is a diversity of open possibilities which they do not see for themselves in their home locales; even though, at least to some extent, those possibilities might really be there. The issue of providing ample possibilities has to do with the most important issues in the lives of the respondents: education, employment and career prospects. Locale, the social environment of the living place, was present in this study in the form of respondents relatives, friends and romantic partners. In this way locale was anchored to considerations of geographical distances and personal future orientation. Closeness to relatives and friends appeared to be important for young people involved in this study not only psychologically, but also geographically; long distances between oneself and important persons were not seen as a preferable situation. As part of outward migration, young people are escaping from the area together with their relationships and their social capital. It will be harder to maintain relationships and local social networks in the situation in which some relatives, and perhaps most peers, have moved away or are planning migration. Thus young people involved in this study have less possibilities, or will, to seize on the idea of integrating themselves into the locale. High migration alacrity also means that social capital is becoming even more exposed to erosion due to future depopulation. Furthermore, migration alacrity is a consequence of respondents evaluating their home territory in terms a cost/benefit ­ analysis. This is based on the sense of place ­ experiences and knowledge the person has of his/her own living environment, together with information that has been gathered regarding places further away. During the evaluation process, the person is comparing his/her own contemporary living environment and place of residence with other places and areas, either on a realistic level or an imaginary level. Relation to the place is constructed during this process on the basis of place experience and features of the living environment, as well as on knowledge of the history and the future prospects of one s own living place and knowledge or imaginary ideas of other places. Migration alacrity can also be seen as a spatial implication of individualism. Migration is based on an individual point of view; a desired and sometimes even inevitable developmental process. In an individualistic society an individual, unique life plan is highly valued. It seems that migration has become part of an individual life plan, which is aiming towards the good life. Individual belief in the profitability of migration is crystallised at the intersection of personal performance structure (Groß 2005) and local opportunity structure. A high personal performance structure may increase belief in this profitability and thus increase migration alacrity. On the other hand, a will to build a higher personal performance structure may be a driving force of migration alacrity. To summarise, respondents migration alacrity is a consequence of an individual valuation process, and a consequence of unbalance between the local reality and a somewhat imaginary outside world.

Soviet and post-Soviet historians have not paid enough attention to the US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) – the U.S. principal archive that preserves historical documentary sources of national importance. In the United States the history of the National Archives is presented in the works of Wayne C. Grover, Donald R. McCoy, H.G. Jones, Herman J. Viola, Anna Bruner Eales and other authors. The 1940-1950's in NARA's history is one of the most important periods, the time of "maturing and gaining self-awareness", which the author intends to explore in this article. NARA, established in 1934, tried to represent itself as a very important state agency. During World War II, NARA received a significant number of historical documents of the federal executive departments for storage, executed thousands of requests from civilian and military government agencies, popularized historical documents in order to reinforce a sense of patriotism, created thousands of security copies, let their premises to important military defense offices, made important steps to save documents of the occupied countries. Due to the services, rendered by archivists to the U.S. Army and Navy, NARA got the title of "National Defense Agency." Immediately after the war, the Second Archivist of the USA Solon J. Buck suggested creating the International Council on Archives and the UNO Archives. Prominent American archivists Waldo Gifford Leland, one of the founders of (NARA) the National Archives, Chairman of the Committee on Conservation of Cultural Resources, Collas G. Harris, the head of an Archives committee on protection against the hazards of war, Vernon D. Tate, the head of NARA photo archives department, Philip M. Hamer, the Records Control Officer NARA contributed to the development of the records' saving methods during the war. Ernst Posner, a scholar and lecturer at the American University, headed of the project on compilation of guides of archives in Germany, Italy and many occupied countries. The guides were created in order to save the repositories and documentary treasures they contained. Under the leadership of Philip M. Hamer the staff of the National Archives prepared "Guides to Records of World War II" for print. Consequently, archivists believed they were able to prove the value of archives as a strategic state informational resource that preserves nation's historical documents and provides government institutions with important retrospective information. However, in the postwar years, the government made decisions unfavorable for further development of the National Archives. Before and during the war an extraordinary number of documents in need of appraisal and disposal were accumulated in federal departments. In 1943 Congress issued the «Records Disposal Act» which demanded institutions to submit schedules of records, allocated for destruction to the U.S. Archivist. However, the devising of schedules progressed slowly. In 1945 amendments to the Act were adopted, which authorized the Archivist of the United States to compile mandatory General schedules. In 1946 President Harry S. Truman signed EO 9784 "Providing for the More Efficient Use and for the Transfer and Other Disposition of Government Records". This order required the departments of the executive branch to implement records management programs, and made NARA responsible for control and coordination in the area of the records management. It seemed that the measures taken to resolve the problem of appraisal and records management were sufficient. In 1947 the Commission on the Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government was established in the U.S. government, headed by the former U.S. President Herbert Hoover. Although Hoover declared that the reorganization was necessary for management simplification, clarity of the executive branch of power's policies, according to the Constitution of the United States, the real purpose of reorganization was the executive branch's attempt to take over all possible functions of governance, strengthening the status of major federal departments and cost savings. A special group was created as a part of the Commission. Its task was to survey the records management in federal agencies and provide recommendations for its improvement. Emmett J. Leahy led the group. He suggested the creation of a Federal Records Administration, incorporating it as a component of the National Archives and all the repositories, that stored non-current federal government documents, and passing a law to coordinate formation, storage, management and destruction of records procedures, appointing a person responsible for records management in each department, developing and implementing the relevant standards and regulations. However, the only Leahy's proposal the members of the Hoover Commission realized concerned NARA association with the General Services Administration (GSA), the office, responsible for ensuring the operation of public institutions and their buildings, transport and so on. The Third Archivist of the USA Wayne C. Grover (1948-1965) directed his own suggestions to the Hoover Commission, in which he appealed against the decision to establish a new Administration and insisted that NARA was able to successfully perform the functions of records management on its own. Opponents criticized Leahy for the narrowness of the aim he pursued: the problem of reducing the quantity of records and saving space for their storage. They made hints that he was more concerned with how to "sell" his idea to the Commission, than the communal benefit. They also pointed out the lack of alternatives and the uncertain status of the National Archives. Their fears were justified. On June 30, 1949 «Federal Property and Administrative Services Act» (PL 152) concerning federal property and administrative services was adopted, according to which all government records were declared federal property, centralized management was entrusted to GSA, which the National Archives and Records Service (NARS) was subjected to. With a few exceptions, the law passed in 1949 ensured that all the U.S. Archivist's responsibilities were passed to the head of GSA. Archives lost its authority as an independent government agency, and even changed its name from NARA to NARS. This resulted in the inability of the National Archives to conduct independent policy in the field of archival affairs and to control human resources and finances, which adversely affected the further development of the Archives. In 1953 U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961) intended to politicize the post of the Archivist, to remove W.C. Grover from the office and appoint a politician. In 1965 Grover resigned because of a conflict with GSA regarding Archives funding cuts. Before that he had written a letter to President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969) with a request to reestablish the National Archives into an independent agency. For 25 years the conflict between the GSA and NARS had been developing into a state of "war" in which, fortunately for American Archivists, they achieved a victory, returning not only the name but also the independence and rights to the Archives in 1985. Changes in the archives legislation concerning U.S. Archives in the 1940s – 1950s improved the records management in federal agencies: General and specific schedules were introduced, the activities of institutions in the field of records management were regulated, the rules for records disposition were established, retention periods were determined, destruction procedures were standardized, federal records centers were founded. Institutions were freed from aggravating work with noncurrent records, receiving an opportunity to transfer them to temporary repositories, appraisal and subsequent disposal in records centers. Activities of federal agencies in the area of records were subjected to centralized management, coordination and control by NARS. In fact, NARS powers were increased with the right to the records management programs control of the life cycle of documents from the formation in an institution until the final disposition. This was a significant step forward in comparison with the situation in the first half of the XX century. It ensured systematic acquisition of records of historical value by NARS and prevented the loss of valuable documents. Assessment of the guidelines given to the government by Hoover Commission is not high. The National Archives as an independent agency of the executive branch could have implemented its tasks in the field of records management on its own without unnecessary complications. Instead, it was held "captive" for 25 years (in the words of American Archivists) by the GSA and worked under pressure of an unresolved conflict which was time and energy consuming for the archivists. The examined period in the history of the National Archives of the United States (1940-1950's) was important both in terms of archives' achievements in practicing their trade and in terms of understanding their role as archivists. American archivists managed to prove to their federal departments the importance of transferring documents to be stored in the Archives and showed department heads that the Archives are a federal agency, which guarantees and reliably ensures the safety of government records and information as well as institutions' services. Later on, the heads of federal agencies had no doubts about the wisdom of submitting records to the NARA. Archives' informational activities didn't focus solely on executing state civilian and military agencies' requests, but on actively popularizing historical documents among officials, military men and citizens too. Actions, intended to popularize historical documents, helped to form a positive image of archives in the community. For the United States it was of great importance as American citizens as taxpayers assess the necessity of an institution's existence in terms of its cost justification. Activities of American archivists had a positive impact on the safety of occupied countries' documents. Contribution to the salvage of documents of other countries positively influenced the perception of the United States as one of the founders of the International Council on Archives by the international archival community. Decisions taken by the U.S. government in the postwar years were positive as a whole. Firstly, a strict records management system was implemented in federal agencies. The problem of appraisal and temporary storage of records was solved. Second, the loss of National Archives status as an independent public entity, which negatively reflected on all of the Archives' activities until 1985, taught archivists a lesson. Archivists realized that their mission was not to be clerks, who perform routine paperwork, but as guardians of history. W.C. Grover commented on this in his farewell letter to the staff of the Archives: «These missions, as I have repeated many times, are important. They are at the center of man's effort to preserve and carry forward civilization itself. "The written word endures" - at least such portions of the word as we archivists decide are worth preserving! It is a worrisome and responsible task, but I can't think of a nobler one in this rather uncivilized era we find ourselves». It took years for archivists to overcome the resistance of politicians and government officials, return an independent status to the Archives, eliminate the threat of politicization and turn archival branch into a separate independent public system. This does not mean that the U.S. archival branch and National Archives today operate without problems, but they experienced a period of "maturing and gaining self-awareness", which allowed archivists to move on to a new level of perception and representation of themselves and their role in State and society. ; Освещена история Национального архива США в период Второй мировой войны и первые послевоенные годы, усилия архивистов, направленные на организацию экспертизы ценности и обеспечение сохранности документов департаментов федерального правительства, популяризацию исторических источников; деятельность первой и второй Гуверовских комиссий, изменения законодательства в отраслях архивного дела и управления документацией в США в 1940-1950-х гг. Особенное внимание уделено статусу Национального архива США как самостоятельного органа исполнительной ветви власти и стратегического информационного ресурса государства ; Висвітлено історію Національного архіву США у період Другої світової війни та перші повоєнні роки, зусилля архівістів з організації експертизи цінності та забезпечення збереженості документів департаментів федерального уряду, популяризації історичних джерел; діяльність першої та другої Гуверівських комісій, зміни законодавства у галузі архівної справи та у сфері управління документацією у США у 1940-1950-х рр. Особливу увагу приділено статусу Національного архіву США як самостійного органу виконавчої гілки влади та стратегічного інформаційного ресурсу держави

This guide accompanies the following article: Annamaria Csizmadia, 'The Role of Racial Identification, Social Acceptance/Rejection, Social Cognition, and Racial Socialization in Multiracial Youth's Positive Development', Sociology Compass 5/11 (2011): 995–1004, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00418.x.Author's introductionMultiraciality has been garnering growing public and scholarly attention since 2000. For the first time in Census history, the 2000 U.S. Census allowed individuals to identify with more than one race. The latest Census revealed that over 9 million individuals identified with two or more races (Humes, Jones, & Ramirez, 2011), and that they were one of the fastest growing racial groups in the last decade. Multiraciality has also become the topic of frequent public discussion thanks to the election of Barack Obama, the first Black, that is, biracial, president of the United States in 2008. Historically, multiracial individuals have been automatically relegated to the racial group of their minority parent (also known as the rule of hypodescent). Black‐White biracial people were identified as Black due to the one‐drop rule, which considered any person with a trace of African ancestry to be Black. Sociological and developmental research that has been burgeoning since 2000 revealed that contemporary multiracial youth identify in a variety of ways. They may identify as multiracial or as monoracial. They may choose to shift their racial identity depending on their social context. Finally, some refuse to identify themselves in racial terms altogether. In addition to this body of research, scholars have begun to examine the implications of racial identity choices for contemporary multiracial youth's psychosocial adjustment. This paper reviews findings of this emerging body of research and suggests ways in which parents, school counselors, teachers, and social workers can support the positive development of the growing population of multiracial youth.Author recommendsTo develop an understanding of how contemporary Black‐White multiracial young adults understand themselves racially in private and identify themselves in public, I recommend the series of publications that summarize Rockquemore and Brunsma's research on Black‐White biracial young adults from the Midwest, South, and East. A good place to start is their book Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America published in 2002. This book provides a thorough background to the literature, their multi‐stage research design, and includes a copy of the Survey of Biracial Experience. This survey has been used in several recent studies to assess multiracial youth's racial identification. Rockquemore and Brunsma elaborated on different facets of multiracial youth's lived experiences in several peer‐reviewed publications. They investigated the roles of physical appearance (Brunsma & Rockquemore, 2001); geographic location (Brunsma, 2006), and gender (Rockquemore, 2002) in contemporary multiracial youths' racial identification. For sociologists, social psychologists, and race scholars, who want to delve into the complexity of the multiracial experience, I recommend Daniel's More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order and Brunsma's 2006 edited volume, titled Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the "Color‐Blind" Era. Brunsma's edited book contains highly insightful chapters contributed by renowned scholars from the field (e.g., Davis, Bonilla‐Silva, Yancey, Spencer, Dalmage, and Rockquemore and colleagues). For family scholars, developmentalists with an interest in parenting issues, and parents of multiracial children, Rockquemore and Laszloffy's Raising Biracial Children will be very informative.Brunsma, D. L. and K. A. Rockquemore. (2001). 'The New Color Complex: Appearances and Biracial Identity.'Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research 1(3): 225–46.Brunsma, D. L. (2006). Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the "Color‐Blind" Era. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.Brunsma, D. L. (2006). 'Public Categories, Private Identities: Exploring Regional Differences in the Biracial Experience.'Social Science Research 35: 555–76.Daniel, G. R. (2002). More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Rockquemore, K. A. (2002). 'Negotiating the Color Line: The Gendered Process of Racial Identity Construction among Black/White Biracial Women.'Gender & Society 16(4): 485–503.Rockquemore, K. A. and D. L. Brunsma. (2002). Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Rockquemore, K. A. and T. A. Laszloffy. (2005). Raising Biracial Children. New York, NY: Altamira Press.Online materialsThere are several organizations that are dedicated to providing support to multiracial children, youth, and their families. Websites of these organizations provide useful and practical information for parents, youth, and practitioners. They also allow multiracial people to connect with other multiracial peers. For scholars, they often serve as a starting point for recruitment of multiracial research participants.1. The Mavin Foundationhttp://mavinfoundation.org/2. The Mixed Heritage Centerhttp://www.mixedheritagecenter.org/3. AMEA: Association of MultiEthnic Americanshttp://www.ameasite.org/4. Race: The Power of an Illusionhttp://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00‐Home.htmFor students and scholars of race and multiraciality, the accompanying website to the three‐part PBS documentary on race is a good source of information. The site contains sample discussion questions, historical facts, and self‐quizzes to assess one's view on race. It also contains short clips to the film. Understanding how the racial classification system and hierarchy of the United States evolved is essential to studying contemporary multiracial youth's lives in context.Sample syllabusTopics for lecture and discussion and recommended readingsWeek I: Introduction and overviewDefinitions, Problems and Issues: Who is Multiracial?Reading:Daniel, G. R. (2002). More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Week II. The history of race in the United StatesReadings:Bonilla‐Silva, E. (1996). 'Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation.'American Sociological Review 62: 465–80.Omi, M. and H. Winans. (1994). Racial Formations in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. New York, NY: Routledge.Week III. The multiracial population of the United StatesReadings:Humes, K. R., N. A. Jones, and R. R. Ramirez. (2011). Overview of race and Hispanic origin: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br‐02.pdf.Jones, N. A. (2005). We the people of more than one race in the United States: Census 2000 special reports, U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censr‐22.pdf.Week IV. What are you? – How do multiracial youth identify?Readings:Harris, D. R. and J. J. Sim. (2002). 'Who is Multiracial? Assessing the Complexity of Lived Race.'American Sociological Review 67(4): 614–27.Rockquemore, K. A. and D. L. Brunsma (2002). Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Week V. Changes in racial identification over timeReadings:Brown, J. S., S. Hitlin, and G. H. Elder, Jr. (2007). 'The Importance of Being "Other": A Natural Experiment about Lived Race over Time.'Social Science Research 36: 159–74.Doyle, J. M. and G. Kao. (2007). 'Are Racial Identities of Multiracials Stable? Changing Self‐identification among Single and Multiple Race Individuals.'Social Psychology Quarterly 70(4): 405–23.Terry, R. L. and C. E. Winston (2010). 'Personality characteristic adaptations: Multiracial adolescents' patterns of racial self‐identification change.'Journal of Research on Adolescence 20: 432–55.Week VI. Influences on multiracial youth's racial identification: physical appearanceReading:Brunsma, D. L. and K. A. Rockquemore (2001). 'The New Color Complex: Appearances and Biracial Identity.'Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research 1(3): 225–46.Week VII. Influences on multiracial youth's racial identification: geographic region and neighborhoodReading:Brunsma, D. L. (2006). 'Public Categories, Private Identities: Exploring Regional Differences in the Biracial Experience.'Social Science Research 35: 555–76.Week VIII. Influences on multiracial youth's racial identification: historical timeReadings:Davis, J. F. (1991). Who is Black? One Nation's Definition. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.Khanna, N. (2010). ' "If You're Half Black, You're Just Black": Reflected Appraisals and the Persistence of the One‐Drop Rule.'The Sociological Quarterly 51: 96–121.Week IX. Multiracial youth's peers/friendsReadings:Doyle, J. M. and G. Kao (2007). 'Friendship Choices of Multiracial Adolescents: Racial Homophily, Blending, or Amalgamation?'Social Science Research 36: 633–53.Quillian, L. and R. Redd (2009). 'The Friendship Networks of Multiracial Adolescents.'Social Science Research 38: 279–95.Week X. How do parents identify their multiracial offspring?Readings:Brunsma, D. L. (2005). 'Interracial Families and the Racial Identification of Mixed‐Race Children: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study.'Social Forces 84(2): 1131–57.Qian, Z. (2004). 'Options: Racial/Ethnic Identification of Children of Intermarried Couples.'Social Science Quarterly 85(3): 746–66.Roth, W. D. (2005). 'The End of the One‐Drop Rule? Labeling of Multiracial Children in Black Intermarriages.'Sociological Forum 20(1): 35–67.Week XI. Parenting multiracial childrenReadings:Rockquemore, K. A. and T. A. Laszloffy (2005). Raising Biracial Children. New York, NY: Altamira Press.Rockquemore, K. A., T. A. Laszloffy, and J. Noveske. (2006). 'It all Starts at Home: Racial Socialization in Multiracial Families.' Pp. 203–17 in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the "Color‐Blind" Era, edited by D. L. Brunsma. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.Weeks XII–XIII. Multiracial youth's social‐emotional adjustmentReadings:Campbell, M. E. and J. Eggerling‐Boeck. (2006). 'What about the Children? The Psychological and Social Well‐being of Multiracial Adolescents.'The Sociological Quarterly 47: 147–73.Lusk, E. M., M. J. Taylor, J. T. Nanney, and C. C. Austin. (2010). 'Biracial Identity and its Relation to Self‐esteem and Depression in Mixed Black‐White Biracial Individuals.'Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work 19: 109–26.Phillips, L. (2004). 'Fitting in and Feeling Good: Patterns of Self‐evaluation and Psychological Stress among Biracial Adolescent Girls.'Women & Therapy 27(1/2): 217–36.Sanchez, D. T., M. Shih, and J. A. Garcia. (2009). 'Juggling Multiple Racial Identities: Malleable Racial Identification and Psychological Well‐being.'Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 15(3): 243–54.Suzuki‐Crumly, J. and L. L. Hyers. (2004). 'The Relationship among Ethnic Identity, Psychological Well‐being, and Intergroup Competence: An Investigation of Two Biracial Groups.'Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 10(2): 137–50.Week XIV. Supporting multiracial youth's positive developmentReadings:Csizmadia, A. (2011). 'The Role of Racial Identification, Social Acceptance/Rejection, Social Cognition, and Racial Socialization in Multiracial Youth's Positive Development.'Sociology Compass.Khanna, N. (2004). 'The Role of Reflected Appraisals in Racial Identity: The Case of Multiracial Asians.'Social Psychology Quarterly 67(2): 115–31.Week XV. Methodological issues in multiracial researchReadings:Root, M. P. P. (2002). 'Methodological Issues in Multiracial Research.' Pp. 171–93 in Asian American Psychology: The Science of Lives in Context, edited by G. C. N. Hall and S. Okazaki. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.Shih, M. and D. T. Sanchez. (2005). 'Perspectives and Research on the Positive and Negative Implications of Having Multiple Racial Identities.'Psychological Bulletin 131(4): 569–91.Focus questions
 How do you determine a person's race? How do you determine if a person is multiracial?
 How do multiracial people fit into the racial classification system of the United States?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of being multiracial?
 How does multiracial youth's physical appearance influence the way others relate to them?
 How do you explain regional variations in how multiracial young adults identify themselves racially?
 Is there a racial identity type that is psychologically ideal for multiracial youth: why or why not?
 What topics should scholars of multiracial youth investigate in the future? Why do you think these topics are important to study? How will they inform our understanding of multiracial youth's development?
 What role do others play in how multiracial youth choose to identify racially? Based on the assigned readings for this week (Csizmadia, 2011 and Khanna, 2004), make a list of suggestions of how parents can support their multiracial children's healthy racial identity development and psychosocial adjustment.
Seminar/Project ideas1. Class activityTo introduce the complexity of multiracial youth's lived experience, ask students to answer the race questions on the U.S. Census form. After students complete the relevant questions, ask students to discuss how they identified on the Census form, whether it was easy for them to select a category, and in what ways the answer choices influenced their responses.2. Class activityStudents view the PBS documentary: Race: The Power of an Illusion Part I and II in class. Use the contents of these two episodes to discuss how racial categories evolved in the U.S. and how multiracial youth have been treated historically.

Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, Güneydoğu Anadolu dağ sistemi içerisinde önemli bir alanı temsil etmekte olup, söz konusu özellik Mezopotamya çukur bölgesini hem kuzey hem de doğu Anadolu alanlarına bağlayan bir rol oynamasına imkan sağlayan coğrafi konumu ile ilişkilidir. Dicle nehrinin yukarı çığırında son otuz yılda gerçekleştirilen arkeolojik araştırmalar sayesinde, yerel bir kültürel sistemin tanımlanmasını sağlayacak yeni önemli göstergelere ek olarak, gerek bölge içerisinde gerekse ötesinde zamandizinsel ayrımlar ve eşzamanlılıklara açıklık getirmekte kullanılabilecek kapsamlı bir veri bütüncesi de elde edilmiştir. Bu kitap, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı'nın son kısmına ilişkin yakın dönemde yürütülen arkeolojik etkinliklerin sonuçlarını araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Yayımlanan verilerin ayrıntılı bir çözümlemesinden başlayarak yerleşkeler, stratigrafi, mimari, çanak çömlekler, bölgesel bağlantılar ve zamandizine ilişkin temel konular ele alınmıştır. Ṭūr ʿAbdīn tepelerinin kuzeyinde, yüksek Güneydoğu Torosların eteklerinde yer alan Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, arkeolojik bulgular açısından tutarlı ve uyumlu bir görüntü çizmektedir. Yürütülen araştırma ve kazılar, vadideki kayda değer bir yerleşim döneminin, ufak boyutlu yerleşimlerin Dicle taşkın ovası kenarındaki akarsu taraçalarında ve ana akarsu kolları boyunca kurulma eğilimi içerisinde oldukları M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın ilk yarısı arasında tarihlendirilmesi gerektiğini belgelemektedir. Bunların çoğu, iri yapılar ya da yapı bütünleri ile komşu bölgelerdeki eşzamanlı seramik geleneklerinden farklı nitelikteki yerel bir seramik topluluğu tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Ağırlıklı olarak kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerden oluşan seramik topluluğu, yerel sistemin tanımlanması ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki sahalararası kültürel bağlantıların belirlenmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Alanda ele geçirdiğimiz buluntuların büyük kısmını teşkil eden çanak çömlek parçalarının yaygın olarak yer alışı, halihazırda araştırmaların temelini oluşturmalarını sağlamaktadır. Özellikle son dönemdeki araştırmaların üzerinde yoğunlaştığı Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde ele geçirilen çanak çömlekler, diğer buluntu kategorileri ve alandaki varlıklarına kıyasla, yalnızca farklı katman bağlamları dahilinde değil aynı zamanda henüz kazılmamış alanların yüzeylerinde de dikkat çekici nitelikte olup; bu belirgin coğrafi alandaki maddi üretimin belirleyici özelliklerini saptamak ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki kültürel gelişimi daha geniş bir yelpazede yorumlayabilmek adına en güvenilir araçlardan biri olma özelliğine sahiptir. Coğrafi ve tarihi nitelikli kısa önsöz hariç (Bölüm 1), kitabın esas içeriğini bölgede yürütülan arkeolojik araştırmalar ve çözümlemeleri olusturmaktadır (Bölüm 2 & 4). İkinci bölümün konusu, araştırılan alanlar ve kazılan verleşimler olup (Bölüm 2); söz konusu alanlar, bugün itibarıyla sahip olduğumuz arkeolojik bilgilerin en üst seviyesine ışık tutmaktadır. Bu konuda bir diğer önemli katkı sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe'deki kazılar kitabın üçüncü bölümünün ana konusunu teşkil etmekte ve yerleşim evreleri ve ilgili çömlek buluntularını (3.4) da içeren arkeolojik bağlam (3.2) üzerine çoğunluğu yayımlanmamış akla yatkın önermelerde de bulunulmaktadır. Çanak çömlek parçalarının gerek teknolojik gerekse biçimsel açıdan sınıflandırılması (3.3) ile, alandaki varlıklarının mekansal ve zamansal devamlılık özellikleri ve çanak çömlek çeşitlerinin analizine geniş yer ayrılmıştır. Ayrıca temel küçük buluntular da gerek bölgesel gerekse zamandizinsel çerçeve açısından yorumlanmış ve ilgili ögelerle birlikte değerlendirilmiştir (3.5). Seramik buluntularının ayrıntılı bir analizini gerçekleştirebilmek adına yararlandığımız temel bilgi kaynağı Hirbemerdon Tepe höyüğünde gün ışığına çıkarılan yapılar bütünü olmakla birlikte, yerleşimde açılan sondajlardan elde edilen bulgulardan da yararlanılmıştır. Dicle nehrinin sağ kıyısında yer alan Hirbermerdon Tepe'de gerçekleştirilen ilk kazı dönemi (2005-2007), yararlı arkeolojik verileri göz önüne sermenin ötesinde, çoğunluğu M.Ö II. binyılın ilk kısmına tarihlendirilen bol miktarda çanak çömlek buluntusu ve buluntu elde edilmesini de sağlamıştır. Farklı katmanlara ait yeni veriler sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe, böylece Yukarı Dicle vadisinin kültürel profilini belirlemek adına önemli bir katkıda bulunmaktadır. Kazılar, her biri form ve teknolojik özellikleri sayesinde belirlenen üç ana seramik evresi sıralamasını gün ışığına çıkarmıştır (3.6). Yaklaşık olarak Erken Tunç Çağı'nın sonlarına, yani Erken Tunç Çağı III-IV'e (Erken Cezire III-V'in sonu) tarihlendirilen erken evre (1. Evre), kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) tarafından; Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen orta evre (2. Evre), çoğunlukla kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler ve şerit boyama çömlekler (band painted ware) tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Son evre ise (3. Evre) Orta Tunç Çağı ile kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömleklerden oluşan karmaşık bir repertuvarı gözler önüne sermekte ve Geç Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen Habur ile Nuzi çömlek parçalarını da içermektedir. Hirbemerdon'da Geç Tunç Çağı'na ait kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlek bulunup bulunmadığı henüz kesinlik kazanmamıştır. Seramik repertuvarının teknolojik ve biçimsel özellikleri kapsamında tartışılması ve bölgesel bir bağlama yerleştirilmesine ayrıca bir bölüm ayrılmış (3.7) olup; yerel seramik sistemi ile komşu bölgelerdekiler arasındaki ilişkinin altını çizebilmek adına, eldeki veriler diğer sit alanları ve bölgelerden elde edilenlerle karşılaştırılmıştır. Bölümün sonunda ise, bölgesel dönemlendirmeye ilişkin yorumlar yer almakta ve repertuvar için bir tarihlendirme önerisi sunulmaktadır. Bölüm 4, Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki yerleşim düzeninin gelişimi, yapılar ile elde edilen çanak çömlekler ve önemli küçük buluntulara ilişkin bazı genel yorumlar sunmaktadır. Halihazırda yayımlanmış ve mevcut veriler ile Hirbemerdon Tepe'den elde edilen bulgulara dayanan bu araştırmanın sonuçlarına göre, yerel Orta Tunç Çağı kültürünün yükselişinin M.Ö. III. ile II. binyıl arasındaki geçiş dönemine tarihlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. Yukarı Dicle topluluklarının en etkin oldukları dönemin ise M.Ö. 19. ile 17. yüzyıllar arasına tarihlendirilmesi gerekmekte olup, söz konusu dönem kırmızı kahverengi astarlı/ boyalı çömleklerin ana üretim dönemiyle örtüşmektedir. Yukarı Dicle bölgesine özgü ortak bir seramik repertuvarı tespit edilebilmekte ve özellikle kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW), kırmızı-kahverengi perdahlı çömlekler (RBBW), koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB/DROW) ve çömleğin yüzünü tamamen ya da kısmen örtmek ve dekore etmek amacıyla kullanılan kırmızı-kahverengi astarların karakterize ettiği şerit boyama çömleklerin (BD) varlığı dikkat çekmektedir. Çömlek şekillerinin münferit parçalarını ile paralellik gösteren unsurlara Anadolu ve Suriye'deki Yukarı Fırat bölgesi, Belih Vadisi, Yukarı Habur ve Kuzey Irak düzlük arazileri ve bazen yüksek Anadolu arazilerini de içine alan yaygın bir coğrafyada rastlanmak olsa da, çanak çömleklerin maruz kaldığı yüzey işlemlerinin kendine özgü yerel bir özellik taşıması nedeniyle Dicle vadisi kültürünün belirgin bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilmesi gerekmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerin hayli yüksek bir yüzdeye sahip oluşu, Güneydoğu Toros sıradağları ile Van dağ sırasının güneybatısında yer alan Ṭūr ʿAbdīn yüksek arazileri arasında yerel geleneğe yakından bağlı kalmış kendine özgü bir seramik bölgesinin varlığını ileri sürer niteliktedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi çömlekler (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD), Dicle nehri bölgesindeki aynı imalat geleneğinin ürünleridir. Büyük olasılıkla koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) M.Ö. II. binyılın başlarında bazı sınırlı istisnalar hariç kullanımdan kalkmış olduğu halde, kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ise Orta Tunç Çağı'nın tamamı boyunca ve muhtemelen Geç Tunç Çağı'nın başlarına kadar var olmaya devam etmiştir. Dicle çanak çömlek seçkisi, Fırat bölgesinden Cezire'ye kadar uzanan farklı akımlardan etkilenmiş olup; etkileşimin bazı dönemlerle oldukça yoğun, bazen ise daha seyrek nitelikte olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuç kısmını teşkil eden Bölüm 5'te ise, türdeşliğin Dicle Bölgesi'ndeki maddi kültür bağlamında toplumsal ve kültürel değeri araştırılmakta ve belki de siyasi oluşumlarla ilintili bir genel örgütlenmenin varlığına ilişkin görüşler ileri sürülmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi seramik tarafından karakterize edilen sit alanları, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı arasındaki kültürel devamlılığa dair kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Verilerden hareketle, yerel toplumsal ve siyasi düzenin bir noktada değişime uğradığı ve çok işlevli yapılar barındıran küçük yerleşkeler etrafında odaklanan yeni bir yerleşim düzenine geçildiği ve bu değişimin başta kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) olmak üzere, kırmızı-kahverengi çömlek gruplarının üretildiği yerleşim alanlarının gelişimiyle özdeşleştirilebileceği varsayımında bulunmak mümkündür. Erken Tunç Çağı dönemine dair fazla bir yorumda bulunmak mümkün değildir. M.Ö III. binyılın ikinci yarısına ait ya da son yüzyıllarına tarihlendirilen buluntular ve katmanlar, birkaç sit alanında gün ışığına çıkartılmasına rağmen, hiçbiri açık bir stratigrafik sıralama ya da nispeten bütünlüklü bir bağlamlar topluluğu sunmamaktadır. Kalıntılar, bir sonraki dönem olan Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakilere kıyasla cılız kalmakta ve sit alanının kenar noktalarında yer almaktadır. Vadi bu dönemde önemli yerleşimlerden neredeyse tamamen yoksun olup, bunun nedeni muhtemelen yerleşim düzeninin Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakinden hayli farklı ve/veya arkeolojik açıdan kolayca tespit edilemez nitelikte oluşudur. Bazı sit alanlarından oldukça seyrek bulgular elde edilmiş (gömütler, duvar ve zeminlerin bazı bölümleri, çanak çömlek parçaları), fakat bugün itibarıyla kayda değer herhangi bir katmana rastlanmamıştır. Gel gelelim ince katmanların kısa ve aralıklı yerleşim dönemlerine işaret etmesi mümkündür. Elbette bazı ana höyüklerin altında henüz gün ışığına çıkartılmamış kayde değer M. Ö III. binyıl yerleşimlerinin yer alma olasılığı bulunmakla birlikte, henüz bu yönde somut herhangi bir kanıt ele geçirilmemiş, Pornak ve Pir Hüseyin'deki olası geniş yerleşke buluntuları da nehir boyunca ilerleyen vadi bağlamında neredeyse fark edilmeyecek kadar ufak yerleşkelerden ibaret kırsal bir arazi şeklinde beliren genel görüntüyü değiştirecek nitelikte değildir. Muhtemelen M.Ö III. ile II. binyıl arasında geçiş döneminde vadideki yerleşke ve topluluklar, yerleşim alanlarının artması suretiyle bir yeniden yapılanma süreci yaşamış; söz konusu süreç, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yaşayan gerek yerleşik gerekse yerel toplumun parçası olan hareketli grupların toplumsal karmaşıklığının gelişmesini tetikleyen ve bu sayede topluluklar arasında yeni etkileşim, kontrol ve idare yöntemleri meydana getiren, niteliği henüz belirsiz fakat önemli bazı değişiklikleri takiben hayata geçmiştir. Bu dönemde, muhtemelen M.Ö III. binyıl sosyopolitik düzeninin belirgin özelliği olan gevşek köy örgütlenmelerine kıyasla daha karmaşık bir toplumsal yapı geliştirilmiştir. Örneğin Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe'de bulunan ve Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen yapılara ve birleşik mimari komplekslere ait bölümler ile benzer mimari özellikler taşıyan Kavuşan ve Üçtepe kalıntıları, muhtemelen üretim kaynakları üzerinde belirli denetim yöntemlerinin uygulandığı bir toplum planlaması düzenine ya da yerel ekonomik yaşantı yapılanmasına işaret etmekle birlikte, merkezi bir güce biat edildiğini ima etmek için yeterli bir karmaşıklık seviyesinde olmadığı görülmektedir. Yapı ve buluntular elit bir sınıfın varlığını doğrulamamakta olup, yerel ekonomi yönetimini mütevazı ölçekte organize eden ufak toplulukların varlığını ortaya koymaktadır. Söz konusu sitler arasında bir hiyerarşi olduğunu iddia etmeye yetecek bulguya sahip olmamamıza rağmen, eşgüdüm bağlamında önemli bir rol üstlendiklerini ve toplulukları kendilerine çeken, üretilen ürünlerin işlendiği, hayvancılık, tarım, avcılık ve dağlar arası ticaretten elde edilen malların depolandığı ve aynı zamanda toplumsal ve dini nitelikli eylemlerin gerçekleştirildiği önemli birer merkez teşkil ettikleri görülmektedir. Yerleşim yoğunluğundaki artış, yöreye özgü grupların sosyoekonomik anlamdaki yeniden yapılanmasının göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu yenilenme süreci, ticari bir ağın kurulmasına ve/veya temel geçim etkinlikleri arasındaki dengede meydana gelen bir değişime ya da bölgeye yeni toplulukların gelişi gibi diğer dış etkenlere de bağlantılandırılabilir. Aynı şekilde önemli olabilecek bir başka faktör ise, aynı grup veya kabile içerisindeki iki farklı kesim, diğer bir deyişle yerleşikler (çoğunlukla çiftçi) ve seyyar (yaylacı çobanlar ve göçebeler) arasındaki ilişkinin değişmesi ve bu sayede bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyo-politik düzenin gelişmesine neden olmasıdır. Şimdilik yerli toplumun gelişiminin olası nedenleri üzerine tahmin yürütmekle yetinmek zorundayız. Söz konusu iki kesim, yani aynı grup ya da kabile içerisindeki yerleşikler ve seyyarlar arasındaki ilişki ve bu ilişkinin yol açtığı bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyopolitik düzenin gelişmesi olguları, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde M.Ö III. binyılda hayat bulan yeni bir toplum yapısının temellerini teşkil etmekteydi. Daha karmaşık bir süreci basite indirgemek suretiyle zihnimizde bir senaryo canlandırmak gerekirse, bu bölgede yaşadıkları antik metinler ve modern araştırmalarca doğrulanan göçebe ya da yarı göçebe çoban gruplarının farklı gerekçelerle tarımsal etkinlikler ve köy yaşantısına geçmeye karar verdiklerini ve bu amaçla dağlar, vadiler ve stepler arasında önceleri yüzyıllar boyunca mevsimlik göç ve yaylacılık çerçevesinde yararlandıkları alanlardan birine yerleşmeyi seçtiklerini; grubun diğer kısmının ise sürülerle geleneksel rotaları izleyerek ilerledikleri ve yerleşik topluluklarla etkileşime devam ettiklerini düşünmek mümkündür. Eldeki mevcut yazılı belgeler yetersiz olup, güney şehir devletleriyle etkileşim ve ticaret ağlarına katılım yöntemlerinin belirlenmesine henüz imkan sağlamamaktadır. Yerel toplulukların sosyal ve ekonomik yapılarının yeniden düzenlenmesi olgusu Orta Tunç Çağı toplumlarının belirgin bir özelliği olarak öne çıkmakta; nitekim söz konusu toplumların önce M.Ö II. binyıl ve takiben M.Ö I. binyıl boyunca yerel niteliklerine sıkıca bağlı kaldıkları ya da güney imparatorluklarının sabit sömürgeleştirme girişimleri ve baskılarına rağmen, zaman zaman Anadolu'nun doğusuna yöneldikleri görülmektedir. Bu durumun toplumsal ve tarihsel değerinin önemli çıkarımlarından birine, yerel toplumun farklı unsurları ve üyelerinin bu arkeolojik arazi kapsamında üstlendikleri roller üzerinden ulaşmak mümkündür. Oluşturduğumuz taslak doğru ise, M.Ö III. binyıla tarihlendirilen sitlerin azlığı ya da başka bir ifadeyle bu yerleşim alanlarının sınırlı görünürlükte oluşlarının, dengesiz bir yerleşme düzenine işaret ediyor olabilir. Zira nüfusun büyük bir kısmı, bölge şartlarına en iyi uyum gösterme yöntemi olarak seyyar, yarı göçmen ya da göçmen bir yaşam tarzını tercih etmiştir. Yukarı Dicle vadisi örneğinde ise, sistemin karmaşıklaşması ve yerel toplumdaki dönüşümün tetiklenmesinde ticaret ağlarının mı yoksa yerel gruplar arasındaki belki de Akkadların bölgedeki etkilerini artırmaları sonucu doğan dinamiklerin mi etkili olduğunu sorgulamamız mümkündür. Vadi, maddi kültürü ve özellikle de çanak çömlek geleneği açısından kendisini çevreleyen diğer bölgelerden ayrılan bir niteliğe sahiptir. Aslında Dicle kültürünün kendine has ve özel konumu, birçok yüzyıl boyunca metinsel herhangi bir ize rastlanmaması, Mezopotamyalıların bölgeyi kontrol altına almakta yaşadıkları zorluklar ve maddi kalıntıların özellikleri, bu alanın iyi tanımlanmış ve belirgin bir kültürel ve belki de siyasi oluşuma ev sahipliği yaptığını düşündürmekte ve bunun bağlantılı olarak, kırmızı-kahverengi seramiklerin varlığı ile karakterize edilen yerleşkelerin gelişiminden de anlaşıldığı üzere, M.Ö III. binyılda gerçekleşen değişimlere de yön verdiği ihtimalini güçlendirmektedir. Yukarı Dicle'deki kazılarda gün ışığına çıkartılan kalıntıların Hurri medeniyetinin doğrudan bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilip edilemeyeceği ise, şimdilik ilginç fakat metinsel kanıtların yokluğunda ispat edilemeyecek bir varsayımın ötesine geçememektedir. Ancak Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yakın dönemde yürütülen araştırmalar, M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın başı arasında Anadolu'nun güneydoğusunda yaşayan ve Antik Yakın Doğu'nun tarihsel arka planı kapsamında henüz tam anlamıyla belirlenememiş de olsa önemli bir rol oynayan toplulukların daha iyi tanımlanabilmeleri adına yeni ve önemli bazı kanıtlar elde edilmesini sağlamıştır. ; La regione attraversata dal corso superiore del fiume Tigri, in Turchia sud-orientale, è stata per molto tempo un'area poco conosciuta dal punto di vista archeologico. L'intensificarsi delle ricerche sul campo, a partire dagli anni novanta del secolo scorso, ha prodotto le evidenze su cui basare una prima ricostruzione della storia dell'insediamento e della cultura materiale di questi territori, tra le alte terre anatolico-orientali e le pianure mesopotamiche. I risultati degli scavi e le ricognizioni indicano che tra la fine del Bronzo Antico e l'inizio del Bronzo Medio giunge a maturazione un processo di trasformazione e riorganizzazione delle comunità locali. La comparsa di ampi complessi architettonici ed edifici in siti di medio-piccole dimensioni, caratterizzati da un particolare repertorio di oggetti e da ceramiche rosso-brune, potrebbe nascondere la formazione di realtà socio-politiche più strutturate rispetto a quelle del periodo precedente ed essere espressione di quel mondo khurrita che avrebbe avuto proprio nella regione del Tigri, secondo le ricostruzioni storiche, una delle zone di insediamento principale. ; The Upper Tigris region represents an important area within the mountainous system of south-eastern Anatolia and its relevance is related to its geographical position that plays a role in connecting the Mesopotamian lowlands to both northern and eastern Anatolian areas. Archaeological researches carried out during the last thirty years along the upper course of the Tigris river have provided new important evidence for the definition of a local cultural horizon and a large corpus of data that may be used to clarify chronological divisions and synchronism within the region itself and beyond. The aim of this book is to investigate the results of the recent archaeological activities concerning the final part of the Early and the Middle Bronze Age. Starting from a detailed analysis of the published data, central issues concerning settlements, stratigraphy, architecture, pottery, regional links, and chronology have been treated. The region of the Upper Tigris river, north of the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn hills and at the foot of the high south-eastern Anatolian mountains, show a coherent picture in terms of archaeological evidence. Surveys and excavations have documented that an important occupational period of the valley should be dated back to the end of the 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, when mainly small sized settlements tend to be established on the river terraces on the edge of the Tigris floodplain and along the main river tributaries. Many of them are characterized by large buildings or architectural complexes and the presence of a typical ceramic assemblage which appears to be distinct from the other contemporaneous ceramic traditions of the neighbouring regions. The assemblage of pottery, mainly red-brown slipped and painted wares, is important for the definition of a local horizon and for the identification of intersite cultural connections in the upper Tigris region. The ubiquity of pots sherds, essentially representing the bulk of what we found in the field, make them currently the basis of this investigation. In the particular case of the Upper Tigris, area of recent investigation, the pottery is remarkable when compared with other categories of finds and their presence, not only in stratified contexts but also on the surface of non-excavated sites, makes one of the most reliable tools for characterizing the material production of this specific geographical area and interpreting wider features of the cultural development in the Upper Tigris. A part a brief geographical and historical introduction (Chapter 1), the core of the book is represented by the results of the archaeological researches in the region and their analysis (Chapters 2 and 4). Surveyed areas and the excavated sites are the subjects of the second chapter (Chapter 2) that provides also the current state of the art for our archaeological knowledge. An important contribution is offered by the excavations at Hirbemerdon Tepe and to this site is dedicated the Chapter 3 where is reasoned argument of the archaeological context (3.2) with its phases of occupation and associated pottery (3.4), mainly unpublished. Much space is given to the classification of pottery sherds (3.3) both in technological and morphological terms and the analysis of spatial and diachronic occurrence of wares and types. Also main small findings are interpreted and contextualized in the regional and chronological frameworks (3.5). Our primary source of information for a detailed analysis of the pottery is the architectural complex, discovered on the mound of Hirbemerdon Tepe but also the evidence from other soundings opened on the site. The first excavations campaigns (2005-2007) carried out at Hirbermerdon Tepe, on the right bank of Tigris river, yielded good archaeological contexts and a conspicuous amount of pottery and artefacts mainly dating back to the first part of the 2nd millennium BC. Providing a new set of stratified data, Hirbemerdon Tepe offers an important contribution to defining the cultural profile of the Upper Tigris valley area. The excavations provided us with a sequence of three main ceramic phases, each individuated by morphological and technological attributes (3.6). The early phase (Fase 1), dating to the end of the Early Bronze Age, approximately to Early Bronze Age III-IV (end of Early Jazirah III-V), is characterized by the presence of an early version of RBWW and DROB; the middle phase (Fase 2), dated to the Middle Bronze Age, is characterized mainly by RBWW and band painted ware. The last phase (Fase 3) comprises a mixed assemblage with RBWW types of MBA date and others in common ware together with some Khabur and Nuzi sherds of Late Bronze Age date. It is not ascertained that at Hirbemerdon exists RBWW of LBA date. A section is dedicated to discuss the pottery repertoire, its technological and morphological characteristics, and in the regional context (3.7), comparing data with those from other sites and regions in order to underline the relationship between the local ceramic horizon and those of the neighbours. The end of the chapter concerns remarks on the regional periodization and propose a date for the repertoire. Chapter 4 offers general remarks about the settlement developments, architecture, pottery and significative small finds recovered in the Upper Tigris region. According to the results of this study, based on the published data currently available and the evidence from Hirbemerdon Tepe, the rise of the local Middle Bronze Age culture has to be dated to the passage between the 3rd and the 2nd millennium. The floruit of the Upper Tigris communities has to be dated to the period between the 19th and 17th centuries that coincides with the main phase of production of the red-brown slipped/painted pottery. A common pottery horizon is widely recognizable in the Upper Tigris region, marked specifically by the presence of categories known as Red Brown Wash Ware (RBWW), Red Brown Burnished Ware (RBBW), Dark Rimmed Orange Bowls/Ware (DROB/DROW) and Band Painted Ware (BD) which are characterized by a layer of red/brown slips used to cover, entirely or partially, the surface of the pot and to decorate it. Parallels of single components of the pottery shape are geographically widespread, encompassing the Upper Euphrates in Anatolia and Syria, the Balikh area, the Upper Khabur and the northern Iraqi lowlands, sometimes the Anatolian highlands, but the particular surface treatment is a specific local characteristic and has to be considered as a distinctive expression of the Tigris valley culture. The high percentage of red-brown slipped and painted wares suggests that a proper ceramic region existed between the South-Eastern Taurus fringes and the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn uplands, south-west of the Van mountain system, resting firmly within a local tradition. Red-brown wares (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD) are products of the same manufacturing tradition, centred on the Tigris river area. It is likely that the DROB were out of use at the beginning of 2nd millennium, a part some marginal exceptions, whereas the RBWW continued for the entire span of the Middle Bronze Age and probably until the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The Tigris pottery assemblage experienced the effects of different influxes, from the Euphrates area and to the Jazirah, with a period of major interaction and others of less intensive contacts. In conclusion, Chapter 5 explores the social and cultural value of the homogeneity in material culture within the Tigris region, suggesting the existence of a communal organization maybe connected with political entities. The sites characterised by red-brown wares represent evidence of cultural continuity between the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. It may be assumed that at a certain point a transformation of the local social and political system occurres, with the conversion to a new settlement pattern organized around little sites with multifunctional buildings and this change is also identified by the growth of settled sites producing red-brown pottery, like DROBs and principally RBWW. Not much can be said as regards the end of the Early Bronze Age period. Findings and strata of the second half of 3rd millennium or dating to the last centuries have been exposed at few sites but none provides a clear stratigraphic sequence or fairly well articulated contexts. In general, the remains are poor compared with those of the following Middle Bronze Age and cover marginal areas of the site. The valley was almost devoid of significant settlements during this period, probably because the settlement pattern was substantially different from the Middle Bronze Age pattern and/or not easily recognizable archeologically. Some sites produced very sparse evidence (tombs, portion of walls and floors, pot-sherds) but no substantial layers have been found up to now. In fact the thin layers could indicate brief and intermittent periods of occupation. Of course there might have been considerable 3rd millennium sites not yet excavated beneath some of the major and important mounds but as yet there is no evidence for them and the possible finding of large settlements in Pornak and Pir Hüseyin do not change the general picture of a rural landscape with evanescent presence of very small sites, as for the valley along the river. Probably during the passage between the 3rd and 2nd millennium there was a reorganization of settlements and populations in the valley with an increase of settled sites, after important but unclear changes in the whole region that stimulated the growth of the social complexity among the groups inhabiting the Upper Tigris, both sedentary and mobile segments of local society, producing new forms of interaction between the communities, control and management of the resources. In this period a social structure more complex than loose village organizations that probably characterized the sociopolitical landscape of the 3rd millennium was developed. The portions of buildings and composite architectural complexes, dating to the Middle Bronze Age, found for example at Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe, but also the remains of Kavuşan and Üçtepe showing similar architectural features, suggest a community planning with the possible existence of a form of control over productive resources or organization of the local economic life, but not a level of complexity implying the subordination to a centralizing power. Architecture and artifacts do not confirm the presence of elites but indicate small communities organizing the management of local economy on a modest scale. We do not have elements to recognize a hierarchy between these sites yet but it seems that these played a role of coordination and were centers of attraction for populations; for processing products and storing commodities coming from herds, agriculture, hunting and intermountain trade as well as for communal and ritual performances. The growing of settlement density can be considered as an indicator of a socio-economic reorganization of indigenous groups. This regenerative process can be linked to the establishment of a commercial network and/or to a change in the balance between main subsistence activities or to other external stimuli as the arrival of newcomers. Not less important could have been the changing relation between the two segments, settled (mainly farmers) and mobile (transhumant shepherds and nomads) of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, At present we can only speculate about what the development of the indigenous society holds. The relation between these two segments, settled and mobile of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, was at the base of a new society inaugurated at the end of the 3rd millennium in the Upper Tigris. It is possible to imagine a scenario, simplifying a more complex process, where groups of shepherds, nomadic or semi-nomadic, who have lived in this area as ancient texts and modern studies confirm, decided to convert to agricultural activities and village life, for different motives, settling in one of the areas that for centuries they had used during the seasonal migrations and transhumance between mountains, valleys and steppes; whereas the other part of the group continued to bring herds along traditional routes interacting with the sedentary communities. The available textual documentation is meager and does not permit to establish yet the modalities of interaction with the southern city states as well as the involvement within commercial circuits. This new organization of the social and economic structure of the local community is a trait of the Middle Bronze Age society that in the course of the 2nd millennium and then during the 1st millennium, will keep firmly a local character or will be occasionally oriented towards eastern Anatolia in spite of the pressure and attempts at stable colonization by southern empires. An important implication of social and historical significance is involved in the role assumed by the different components and members of the local society in this archaeological landscape. If this outline is correct, the scarcity of sites dated to the 3rd millennium or otherwise, the low visibility of these settlements, might point to unstable occupation: a mobile, semi-nomadic or nomadic style of life was for most of the population the best adaptation to the surrounding regional environment. We can question if in the case of the Upper Tigris river valley it has been the trade network to generate the rise of complexity or dynamics internal to local groups (maybe stimulated after the Akkadians established their influence over the region) have had been more effective to prompt the transformation of local society. The valley represents a distinct unit from the surrounding regions with regard to its material culture and particularly its pottery tradition. Actually, the particular setting of Tigris culture, the lack of textual records for several centuries, the difficulties met by Mesopotamians to control these territories, and the characteristics of the material remains could suggest that the area was a place of a well-defined cultural and maybe political entity and resulting in the changes at the end of 3rd millennium that we can recognize in the growth of the settlements characterized by the presence of red-brown ceramics. If the archaeological remains emerged through the excavation in the Upper Tigris have to be considered direct expression of the Khurrian world is at the moment an intriguing hypothesis that in absence of textual evidence cannot be demonstrated. However the results of the recent research in the Upper Tigris provide new fundamental evidence for a better definition of the communities inhabiting the south-eastern Anatolia between the end of 3rd and the beginning of 2nd mill. BC that played an important, yet poorly defined role within the historical scenario of the Ancient Near East.

Moldova has suffered over the last two decades from rising poverty, territorial secession, armed conflict, and the spillover effects of a regional financial crisis, with declining population size and life expectancy, and an economy approximately one-half of what it was in 1990. The return of the Moldovan Communist Party (PCRM), which won two major elections after 2001, contributed to increasing centralization of governmental authority along with a reform agenda that emphasized greater state control over the economy, fiscal support to state enterprises and collective farms, land consolidation, economic protectionism, and the tolerance of monopolies in industry and energy. At the same time, the government has increased social expenditures, and taken major steps to improve public financial management. Bank engagement was moderately effective at the country and project levels, and substantially effective at the sector level. There was progress in several aspects of public financial management (PFM). Regulatory streamlining has reduced costs to business, although resistance to civil service reform has left much work to be done. The Bank has also helped achieve progress on Governance and Anticorruption (GAC) issues in primary education, roads, and private sector development. Education progress is highly uneven across regions, for example, overweight trucks continue to tear up roads, and private investment is not enough to make a dent in high unemployment. A graduated approach to country systems and road sector technical audits help address GAC issues at the project level. The overall impact of GAC strategy implementation was moderate. The GAC committees set up at the regional and sectoral Bank department levels are particularly useful mechanisms for disseminating practices from the GAC Council. Staff has been proactive in using Country Governance and Anticorruption (CGAC) resources. However, three applications for window one funding were not approved, reducing the ability of this small program to seize opportunities.

The Malawi Urbanization Review aims to provide fresh perspectives on urbanization in Malawi, by analyzing the current and potential contribution of urbanization to long-term national development and the current institutional and financial capacity of local governments to manage the process. Analyses presented in this report are particularly timely as Malawi is planning for the coming half decade through the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS) III (2016-2020). Malawi is urbanizing at a moderate rate and has a good chance of proactively managing the urbanization process. Opportunities may arise from a positive structural change that Malawi's economy is undergoing, whereby the driver of growth and job creation moves from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors. Faster urbanization, with strong linkages with rural areas, can contribute further to deepening such structural change. To unlock the potential of urbanization as a catalyst for long-term economic development, it is necessary to strengthen the capacity of urban local governments to generate revenues and meet the key infrastructure and service needs in urban areas, which remain challenging even at the current rate of urbanization.

Sustainable investment (SI) has a strong niche foothold in Sub-Saharan Africa, anchored in the region's largest investment market, South Africa. Yet more work is needed, at policy and portfolio levels, to grow this investment theme. This report recommends measures to expand SI in Sub-Saharan Africa. It forecasts that over the next five years there will be considerable growth of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) considerations applied to investment in South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria. While these three countries form the basis of the study, the lion's share of data and observations emerged from South Africa, which is home to the continent's most developed capital markets.

The Operations Evaluation Department (OED) is an independent unit within the World Bank. The goals of evaluation are to learn from experience, to provide an objective basis for assessing the results of the Bank's work, and to provide accountability in the achievement of its objectives. This report on the Post-Conflict Fund (PCF) is one of twenty six case studies that have been prepared as source material for the second phase of OED's independent evaluation of the Bank's involvement in global programs. The program objective is to position the Bank through constructive engagement in conflict-affected countries where normal instruments and budget provisions cannot apply. The key findings are as follows : (i) a flexible instrument such as the PCF serves the needs that the Bank's numerous instruments do not fulfill in conflict-affected countries; (ii) yet if the policy guidelines under which it operates are too flexible, and the DGF criteria are ambiguous and insufficiently enforced, the instrument can be less than fully effective; (iii)Programs can continue over several years without a results-based framework and strong monitoring and evaluation; (iv) as currently designed, the country-by-country approach of the program does not sufficiently generate broader cross-country lessons and does not exploit the program's full potential to serve the Bank and its partners strategically; and (v) a global partnership program on conflict-affected countries with partners at the governance level might help the Bank, United Nations (UN) agencies, and other stakeholders to better respond to the transition from relief, to rehabilitation and reconstruction and development. Finally, this being an OED evaluation, it focuses primarily on the Bank's strategic role and performance in playing up to its comparative advantage relative to other partners in each program.

In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association "Motorobudivnyk" (now the Public Joint Stock Company "Motor Sich") and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau "Progress" (now the State Enterprise "Ivchenko – Progress") has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years' achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St.Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I.H.Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the "patent wars" that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K.G.Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K.S.Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions. ; In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association "Motorobudivnyk" (now the Public Joint Stock Company "Motor Sich") and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau "Progress" (now the State Enterprise "Ivchenko – Progress") has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years' achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St.Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I.H.Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the "patent wars" that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K.G.Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K.S.Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions. ; In the new issue, our scientific journal offers you thirteen scientific articles. As always, we try to offer a wide variety of topics and areas and follow current trends in the history of science and technology. In the article by Olha Chumachenko, оn the basis of a wide base of sources, the article highlights and analyzes the development of research work of aircraft engine companies in Zaporizhzhia during the 1970s. The existence of a single system of functioning of the Zaporizhzhia production association "Motorobudivnyk" (now the Public Joint Stock Company "Motor Sich") and the Zaporizhzhia Machine-Building Design Bureau "Progress" (now the State Enterprise "Ivchenko – Progress") has been taken into account. Leonid Griffen and Nadiia Ryzheva present their vision of the essence of technology as a socio-historical phenomenon. The article reveals the authors' vision of the essence of the technology as a sociohistorical phenomenon. It is based on the idea that technology is not only a set of technical devices but a segment of the general system – a society – located between a social medium and its natural surroundings in the form of a peculiar social technosphere, which simultaneously separates and connects them. Definitely the article by Denis Kislov, which examines the period from the end of the XVII century to the beginning of the XIX century, is also of interest, when on the basis of deep philosophical concepts, a new vision of the development of statehood and human values raised. At this time, a certain re-thinking of the management and communication ideas of Antiquity and the Renaissance took place, which outlined the main promising trends in the statehood evolution, which to one degree or another were embodied in practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. A systematic approach and a comparative analysis of the causes and consequences of those years' achievements for the present and the immediate future of the 21st century served as the methodological basis for a comprehensive review of the studies of that period. The article by Serhii Paliienko is devoted to an exploration of archaeological theory issues at the Institute of archaeology AS UkrSSR in the 1960s. This period is one of the worst studied in the history of Soviet archaeology. But it was the time when in the USSR archaeological researches reached the summit, quantitative methods and methods of natural sciences were applied and interest in theoretical issues had grown in archaeology. Now there are a lot of publications dedicated to theoretical discussions between archaeologists from Leningrad but the same researches about Kyiv scholars are still unknown The legacy of St.Luke in medical science, authors from Greece - this study aims to highlight key elements of the life of Valentyn Feliksovych Voino-Yasenetskyi and his scientific contribution to medicine. Among the scientists of European greatness, who at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries showed interest to the folklore of Galicia (Halychyna) and Galician Ukrainians, contributed to their national and cultural revival, one of the leading places is occupied by the outstanding Ukrainian scientist Ivan Verkhratskyi. He was both naturalist and philologist, as well as folklorist and ethnographer, organizer of scientific work, publisher and popularizer of Ukrainian literature, translator, publicist and famous public figure. I.H.Verkhratskyi was also an outstanding researcher of plants and animals of Eastern Galicia, a connoisseur of insects, especially butterflies, the author of the first school textbooks on natural science written in Ukrainian. A new emerging field that has seen the application of the drone technology is the healthcare sector. Over the years, the health sector has increasingly relied on the device for timely transportation of essential articles across the globe. Since its introduction in health, scholars have attempted to address the impact of drones on healthcare across Africa and the world at large. Among other things, it has been reported by scholars that the device has the ability to overcome the menace of weather constraints, inadequate personnel and inaccessible roads within the healthcare sector. This notwithstanding, data on drones and drone application in Ghana and her healthcare sector in particular appears to be little within the drone literature. Also, little attempt has been made by scholars to highlight the use of drones in African countries. By using a narrative review approach, the current study attempts to address the gap above. By this approach, a thorough literature search was performed to locate and assess scientific materials involving the application of drones in the military field and in the medical systems of Africans and Ghanaians in particular. The paper by Artemii Bernatskyi and Vladyslav Khaskin is devoted to the analysis of the history of the laser creation as one of the greatest technical inventions of the 20th century. This paper focuses on establishing a relation between the periodization of the stages of creation and implementation of certain types of lasers, with their influence on the invention of certain types of equipment and industrial technologies for processing the materials, the development of certain branches of the economy, and scientific-technological progress as a whole. The paper discusses the stages of: invention of the first laser; creation of the first commercial lasers; development of the first applications of lasers in industrial technologies for processing the materials. Special attention is paid to the "patent wars" that accompanied different stages of the creation of lasers. A comparative analysis of the market development for laser technology from the stage of creation to the present has been carried out. Nineteenth-century world exhibitions were platforms to demonstrate technical and technological changes that witnessed the modernization and industrialization of the world. World exhibitions have contributed to the promotion of new inventions and the popularization of already known, as well as the emergence of art objects of world importance. One of the most important world events at the turn of the century was the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. Thus, the author has tried to analyze the participation of representatives of the sugar industry in the World's Fair in 1900 and to define the role of exhibitions as indicators of economic development, to show the importance and influence of private entrepreneurs, especially from Ukraine, on the sugar industry and international contacts. The article by Viktor Verhunov highlights the life and creative path of the outstanding domestic scientist, theorist, methodologist and practitioner of agricultural engineering K.G.Schindler, associated with the formation of agricultural mechanics in Ukraine. The methodological foundation of the research is the principles of historicism, scientific nature and objectivity in reproducing the phenomena of the past based on the complex use of general scientific, special, interdisciplinary methods. For the first time a number of documents from Russian and Ukrainian archives, which reflect some facts of the professional biography of the scientist, were introduced into scientific circulation. The authors from Kremenchuk National University named after Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi presented a fascinating study of a bayonet fragment with severe damages of metal found in the city Kremenchuk (Ukraine) in one of the canals on the outskirts of the city, near the Dnipro River. Theoretical research to study blade weapons of the World War I period and the typology of the bayonets of that period, which made it possible to put forward an assumption about the possible identification of the object as a modified bayonet to the Mauser rifle has been carried out. Metal science expert examination was based on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the concentration of elements in the sample from the cleaned part of the blade. In the article by Mykola Ruban and Vadym Ponomarenko on the basis of the complex analysis of sources and scientific literature the attempt to investigate historical circumstances of development and construction of shunting electric locomotives at the Dnipropetrovsk electric locomotive plant has been made. The next scientific article continues the series of publications devoted to the assessment of activities of the heads of the Ministry of Railways of the Russian Empire. In this article, the authors have attempted to systematize and analyze historical data on the activities of Klavdii Semyonovych Nemeshaev as the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire. The article also assesses the development and construction of railway network in the Russian Empire during Nemeshaev's office, in particular, of the Amur Line and Moscow Encircle Railway, as well as the increase in the capacity of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The article discusses K.S.Nemeshaev's contribution to the development of technology and the introduction of a new type of freight steam locomotive for state-owned railways. We hope that everyone will find interesting useful information in the new issue. And, of course, we welcome your new submissions.

POLITENESS STRATEGIES IN REQUEST AND COMMAND USED BY AUNG SAN SUU KYI TO RULE BURMESE IN MOVIE "THE LADY" Erna Yulianti English Literature, Faculty of Language and Art, State University of Surabaya, nana_jouly@yahoo.com Advisor: Dian Rivia Himmawati, SS., M.Hum dianrivia@gmail.com Abstrak The major aims of this study are to analyze the positive and negative politeness strategies, to analyze the characteristics of two types of politeness strategies concerned to request and command utterances, and to know how strategies that subject used influence the responses of addressee. The subject of this study is Aung San Suu Kyi, the main character of film "The Lady". The data were taken from subject's utterances classified by Brown and Levinson's theory of positive and negative politeness strategy, theory of request and command by Blum-Kulka, and theory of power language by Fairclough. The method of this study is qualitative approach. Pragmatics and critical discourse analysis are used to interpret the data analyzing. This study relates to the power language. The power means how the strategies influence the responses in the communication. As results, it's found that there are three main results. First, San Suu Kyi used both positive and negative politeness with various sub-types strategies in the utterances. Second, there are politeness characteristics built by San Suu Kyi through request and command utterances. The characteristics were presented by sub-categories of request sequences and three level of command. And the last, the strategies that subject used have great impact to the responses were given by addressee. Within analyzed the responses, this study used three constrains of power language (subject, relation, content). They were found that subject of the study has influential and instrumental power which influence addressees to give positive responses. This study also creates some findings as final result of data analyzing. The findings concerned on differential forms of three main results analyzed. Key words: politeness strategy, positive politeness, negative politeness, request, command, power language INTRODUCTION Today women contributed to the political sector. Now, the achievement of the women to share ideas and thoughts had strong influences to the society. Women had opportunity to be leader or head as same as man. Many of them were successful to bring the big change, as example were the iron lady, Margaret Tacher – prime minister of Great Britain, Aquino – president of Philipines, and Aung Saa Suu kyi (Suu) - politician who successful brought Burmese changed political guidance from military government to the democracy. It means that women had political power to influence the subordinates or society. Women successfulness was not separate from the strategy used. How to maintain and control society, how to ensure society about the ideas, and how to make society believed in what contributed were some strategies used by politician, especially woman politician. Here, the role of language was significant to gain the strategies. Therefore woman tend to use different type of language than that man. Based on Holmes (2001) one of the types of strategies was politeness, because women were more polite than man in building communication with hearer. From that issue, politeness became good character of using language point of view. Because of the function of politeness applied which not only a duty but also a favor, it would be interesting to lift politeness as topic analyzed. Politeness was one of strategies usually used to cover some goals, it also became attribution in communication. Compare to the other language strategies, politeness had higher position in its function to achieve good responses than another. It is believed that politeness is a principle of language identified character. Someone would define as good character, moreover woman, if she used polite language. By contrast, someone who lack of polite words in speech, it means (s)he has bad character. Both people and its character can be measured by the language used, because in the societies many people argued that hearer more paid attention to the speaker who had good personal character with polite way to speech. The language use has many utterances to gain wants, like apologize, warning, persuasion, invitation, thank, command, and request. They were probably used in language applied. A research conducted by Wagner used apologized related to politeness too. It could identify known or stranger participant in social relationship. It would be different from request utterances which could identify how strong speaker wanted to something. And command could identify how important speaker's position to obligate something. Because of these order more appropriate to the notion of power language which they would tend to state the ideas or thoughts in request and command statements. Asking for agreement of some programs or plans was tendency of "request" order used. Leading for conducting movement like warning or instruction of public campaign was tendency of "command" order used. The use command and request in politeness applied would influence to the hearer responses, it means good responses referred to the good speaker. Because of that, Aung San Suu Kyi put as strong politician figure which had good speaker. There were other figures that may have same position as Suu, such as Margaret Techer who successes in dominating house of representative for several periods or Aquino who became the first woman president in Philippine, but, the achievements of Suu more influential than another. Suu was politician of pro democracy in Myanmar where societies appreciate to the figure who brings democracy into the country. As politician who had great opportunities to unite Burmese under democracy consciousness, the request and command stated were intentioned by Burmese. The struggles also considered as defensive movements to the government created democracy in that country. The efforts to unite Burmese conducted in the prison and separated from family. This position made Suu appreciated by people as figure of politician who led Burmese to the democracy who has great opportunities to unite Burmese under democracy consciousness, even the speeches and talks were very influential. Every utterances used, stated Suu in high position, So that, it would be interesting to take Suu as subject of the research. Based on issues that the women more polite than men, the politeness used in request and command could identify the power, and the importance position of Suu as politician led this study to find (1) what are types of politeness strategies used by Aung San Suu Kyi, (2) what are types of request and command used by Aung San Suu Kyi, and (3) how does Aung San Suu Kyi influence addressees in order to get good responses. Those reasons decided that politeness strategies used by Aung San Suu Kyi in request and command to rule Burmese as title of this study. This study related to the other studies. Since it analyzed utterances, pragmatic and critical discourse analysis (CDA) were theory used. According to Schiffrin (1994:41), discourse can be approached to the pragmatic study. To prove her argument she describe three definitions of discourse, they are "the language above the sentence", "language use" and "utterances". Discourse can research how speakers produce utterances, what strategy that speakers used, what the goals are, and how speakers influence hearer to get good responses. Fairclough (2012:452) states that CDA investigates the social phenomena which are complex. In terms of the concept of social practice, CDA criticizes social practices such as; social subjects, social relations, instruments, objects, strategies in using language, values, etc. He emphasizes that studying discourse in society means giving focus on power, dominance and the way these reproduced by social member through talks. Those three modes often appear in social communication practices. These linguists had similar arguments which utterances spoken in society can be analyzed the meaning through discourse and pragmatics. The other study was politeness strategy in positive and negative which both of them had their own sub-strategies. Based on Brown & Levinson (1987) positive politeness was positive self-image of addressee. Doing FTA by using this strategy means that speaker (S) considers that (s)he wants hearer (H)'s wants. E.g by threatening H as a member of his/her group, a friend, or a person whose desire and personality traits are known and liked. In positive politeness, the area of redress is extended to the appreciation of H's desires or the expression of similarity between S's and H's desires. Negative politeness had at least ten sub-strategies. Here, this study provides seven sub strategies, they are: be conventional indirect, go on record (incurring debt/no indebting) H, apologize, don't coerce H, impersonalize S and H, give deference, and be pessimistic. Yule (1997) assumed that negative politeness is oriented to satisfy H's negative face, basic want of H is to be free and unimpeded. It meant that the speaker recognized and respected the addressees's freedom of action and would not (or would minimally) impede it. be optimistic, include both S and H in activity, give gifts to H, avoid disagreement, offer promise, give reason, use in-group identity maker, asserts/presuppose S's knowledge of concern for H's wants, seek agreement and exaggerate. Since the strategies used by subject [Suu] focused on request and command that theory is needed to identify the types. Based on the Blum-kulka (1987), request was part of speech act performed when a speaker wants a person (the hearer) to do something. Some types of categories provided in request utterances were: query preparatory, strong hints, mild hints, obligation statement, hedge performative, and suggestory formulae. In command utterance, Robinson (1972) argued that it referred to activities involved in the regulation when speaker produced command to fulfill by hearer. Blum-kulka gave guidance of three level of commands to identify how powerful them used for to be fulfilled by hearers. Most direct: command which directly pointed out the topic, usually imperative Conventional indirect: command which contained command form, but it is added by supporting sentence in order to decrease the directness Inconventional indirect: command which did not command form, but the essential meaning was command. To analyze the hearers' responses this study related politeness strategies to the power. Fairclough (1989) argued that power relationship has big scope which power can appears from subject, society, status, relationship etc. he gave power indentifying through three constrains that useful to identify whether speakers have power language or not. There are three types of such constrains on: Contents on what is said or done Relations. Social relations people enter into in discourse Subject or the subject positions people can occupy. RESEARCH METHOD This study was conducted by using qualitative approach, as Litosseliti (2010) said that the study of text or talk (spoken discourse) used to analyze how the politeness strategy through utterances which was spoken by main character employing the approach of politeness theory that concern with positive and negative politeness and their influence related to the power language. This included developing a description of an individual or setting, analyzed data for themes or categories, and finally making an interpretation or drawing conclusions about its meaning personally and theoretic. The data source of this study was taken from a film titled The Lady which released on 2011. The film based on true story of pro-democracy politician in Myanmar. Command and request utterances were chosen as data taken from the main - character Auu Saan Suu Kyi and added by conversational sequences. The instrument of the data was covering material by analytical thoughts, therefore media was very important in conducting this study, for instance; visual media recorder. Based on Erickson (in Litosseliti: 2010) the data were collected by using systematic attention to meaning. First step was collecting and logging data, it means logging processes were viewing film and note analytical thoughts. Second part was viewing data as research team, it means organizing them into generated criteria. Third part was sampling data, it more focus on what stands out. And the last was transcribing data by using a range of descriptive dimensions. Data selecting were utterances selection of Suu which concerned to the request and command utterances. The data selected in to sub-types of (positive and negative politeness) also selected in to sub-categories of request and command. For example: no. acts data politeness characteristics (+) (-) request command 1. 15 "Give it to me!" Give gifts to H Most direct DATA ANALYSIS 1. The Types of Positive and Negative Politeness Used by Aung Saan Suu Kyi This part analyzed about types of positive and negative politeness strategies used by Aung Saan Suu Kyi. There were many types which have their own characteristics. It tend to analyze which utterances that belong to sub types of positive politeness and which utterances that belong to sub of types negative politeness. 1.1 Positive politeness Conventional indirect that used by Suu in her utterances are an unambiguous sentences or phrases which contextually have different meaning from literal meaning. In many contexts there are many sentences which are conventionally understood differently from its literal meaning, like stated on the data below. Data 35: (A)Ne-win's delegation: "How was Mr. Aris? I'm sorry to hear that" (B)Suu: "((ne-win's delegation comes to drive suu away)) it is not your question, Norway government borrowing us an air ways ambulance, Dalai Lama send one of the best doctor to follow Michel Suu said; "it is not your question," this utterance encodes the clash of desire, Suu's desire of going on record states as the desire of going off record. In this condition means suu knows everything that would be said by delegation. As information, before suu utter that, the delegation ask about the condition of Suu's husband who suffered from cancer, but suu does not answer the question by saying good or not too good for example, There are extended desire that suu want to achieve, but she gives long explanation "Norway government borrowing us an air ways ambulance, Dalai Lama send one of the best doctor to follow Michel". Here, this information used to make hint critics to the government about why see can not meet her husband while the facilities provided. In these cases the utterances have different meaning from literal meaning. b. Go on record as (incurring debt/no indebting) H, This strategy suggests speaker [S] may redress his FTA by explicit conveying his indebtedness to hearer [H] or disclaiming any indebtedness of H. this extracts below are type of go on record without indebting H. Data 2: (A)Suu: "Be a good boy, help your father when I'm not here" (B)Children: "Yeah…" The extract contained directive form since the speaker used them in direct way. Directives are concerned with getting people to do things. The speaker which expresses directive force varies in strength. Direct typically signed by using of verb at the beginning of the sentences like be, help, don't, tell, go, stay here. Identifying directive should pay attention to the intonation and tone of voice used by the speaker. There were no claiming indebting hearer, because hearer seems know that what S wants are like a duty that they should do. c. Apologize, This strategy to show that S did not mean to impinge H apologizing. By apologizing for doing FTA, S indicates her reluctance to impose on H's negative face. Brown and Levinson suggested to communicate regret or reluctance to do an FTA. The first way is S frankly admits that she is impinging H's negative face. This strategy applies in this extracts below. Data 4: (A)Leo: "Don't you mind to call me every time you need (B)Suu: " Yes I will, thank you for everything uncle Leo The word thanks here does not mean thanks as usual, S implicitly says "sorry" under function of notion thanks. This utterance more sounds sorry than thanks, because the condition and situation tend support speaker to say "I'm sorry to bother you with everything" than "thank you for everything". H has been done everything to help S fulfill her desire in impossible and critics situation, but H can do it well, so that S showing respect to H's conducts because of the bothering. Then, S has to be sorry for it. In spite of saying thanks, it is contains of sorry implicitly. S does it strategy to not impinge H. d. Don't coerce H [hearer], another way to satisfy H's negative face is by avoiding coercing hearer especially when the FTA involves predicating act of H such as requesting help or offering something which needs H's acceptable. This condition can be created by explicity giving H the opinion not to do the expected act Data 5: (A)Suu: "What are you doing?" ((stop the activist)) (B)The activist: "we have to go" The data above contain strategy. Speaker avoids coercing H because of the utterances involves of predicate "do". In this condition, S asks for request to H "don't" do something. e. Impersonalize S and H, Pluralizing 'I' and 'you' is another technique to save H's negative face. According to the Brown and Levinson (1987:189) it seems to be very general in many languages that the use 'you' (pl) pronoun to refer to a single person is understood to show deference (P) or distance (D). Hence 'we' and 'you' can serve for 'I' and 'you' (sing) respectively to give respect to single referent 'we' is possibly the conventionalized polite form more appropriate to formal situations [campaign] and negative politeness. because it usually use in formal speech like campaign. S bring the name of party under the name of togetherness Data 12: Speech 1[Suu] Buddhist, Burmese, today, we meet here in order to unite 1our desire for freedom, we want the world look us for it. The world should hear our voice to be democratic state with multiparty. For those aim, we [NLD] want you to know…. f. Give deference, This strategy suggest that S [Suu] considers H [husband] being in higher social status than her. There are two ways in the realization of this strategy; one in which S humbles and lowers himself and the other in which S raises H's position or treats H as superior like in the extracts below. people use thanks for showing the great affection to bother about something. Data 26: (A)Suu: "Thanks for everything, I can't do anything without you, I will be right here Mikey, don't worry, prior the boys." (B)Husband: "sure I will, you have long trip, be sure to eat well, keep your health" The negative politeness shows in (data 26), those utterances appear when she talks to her husband. Before the utterances are spoken, there are a lot of things have done by her husband for helping her, so the words thanks for everything convey a lot of meaning. First, beside it applies thank for all of things, it also apply an apology. Suu feels that everything that she burdens to her husband is a load. In that case she tries to apologize by using thanks, not in sorry, because thanks listened respect, being honor to the husband. g. Be pessimistic, This strategy suggests that S may explicitly express a doubt that H is not likely to do his expected act. It means that S should be pessimistic about H's response. Data 34: (A)Suu: " As you, should I be there?" (B)Husband: "no, no Suu, you shouldn't, don't think about it" Strategy used by Suu in the data above contains modality form. In As you, should I be there? S making question with pessimist desire, she arranges it to hide the pessimistic with saving way by using modality. Modality is irrealis, counterfactual forms would, could, might etc are more polite than ability or future-oriented variant can and will. 1.2 Negative politeness a. Be optimistic, Strategy that assumes H wants what S wants for himself (or for both of them) and H will help S to obtain it. On contrary of strategy offers promise, This strategy suggests S being presumptuous or optimistic allows S to put pressure on H to cooperate with him. verb placed in the beginning of utterances "stay" possible indicates optimistic reason, it is caused by communication situation and hearer. Data 21: (A)Party member: ((take the gun on)) (B)Suu: "No, don't think about it, there's no bullet, we still continue. Stay calm, stay calm, stay here." ((walk forward face soldiers with guns pointed her)) The situation at that time is S and her party member held a meeting for campaign, but, the meeting is sabotaged by military government. They bring ready gun and weapon to stop the meeting. S as leader of the meeting, is optimist that they are not too danger to fight. So that S confidently says to the H [one of her party member] like in "No, don't think about it, there's no bullet, we still continue. Stay calm, stay here." b. Include both S and H in activity, Including both S and H in the activity is another way to perform cooperative strategy. An inclusive 'we' form which S really means 'you and me' is commonly used to make H involve in S action thereby redress FTA, some common examples are We can start it (data 10). This strategy is often use to soften requests where S pretend the requested thing too, and offers where S pretends as if S were as eager as H to have the action. At data 10, S may utters it Data 10: (A)Guests: "we come to ask you to discuss many things that occur recently Daw Suu" (B)Suu: "We can start it? for inviting the guests who come to talking about democratic crisis. Since S interested in the meeting and the topic talked, S gratefully accepts the guests, then S expresses inviting H [guests] by using direct request which in fact means "well, why don't we start it now?". The inclusive "we" used to show that between S and H are cooperate in same purpose. c. Give gifts to H, This strategy is to satisfy H's face S may grant H what H wants e.g; by giving gift H. Not only tangible gift, which indicates that S knows H's wants them to be fulfiled, but also human relations wants like the wants to be liked, admired, cared about, understood, listened to and so on.(Brown & Levinson, 1987:129) Data 8: (A)Maid: ((take the bags and case)) (B)Suu: "Give it[bag] to me ((smile)) In this extract above, S seems like command H directly. But it is uttered softly, because S act her speech while smile to H. Here, S makes communication with H [maid], as usual the maid always serves the house well, H brings S's bag, but S ignore H's act. The ignorance states in positive way, then for intended action S asks H as in Give it[bag] to me. This sentence represents S want that she gives gifts to H, the gift may not a good but something like sympathy or understanding that H has been done a lot of things well, so that S does not want to burden H more. d.Avoid disagreement, In order to satisfy h's positive face, S should avoid disagreement with H. One strategy to achieve such circumtance is by pretending that S agrees with H's statement. It called 'token agreement'. For example Data 11: (A)Guest: "Madam, it's urgent, we believe that you are the best figure to bring this country in democracy" (B)Suu: "Beside my less experience, I had leaved this place for long time, so I think, I need you to…" In the case of (data 11), S disagree with H wants. It shows by using "Beside my less experience, I had leaved this place for long time" Before this statement appears, H wants S to lead and join against military government, but S disagree. S feels do not confidence with those agreement. As consequence S intends her utterance by saying "so I think, I need you to…. S avoids H's agreement, but at the end S seems like agree, however in condition where H has to do something for S. it is like accepting through ignorance words, or in other words "yes, but…". e. Offer promise, Stressing that whatever H wants and will help to obtain. S may state offers and promise to create such condition with a purpose of showing S's good intentions in redressing H's positive face wants even if they are false. Data 27: (A)Suu: ((Walk to the gate)) (B)Soldier: "hei, no you can't, stop! (A')Suu: "What? I just want to talk with them, never try to bother me, I will talk with them" ((meet her supporter outside the gate)) "offer promise" can be applied as in data 27. S says "I will talk with them" this utterance seems like intimidates H. S creates condition with a purpose to against H. S stresses it utterance with give exact meaning of "I will talk with them and everything will be alright, you save and I save, so please don't stop me", S may want H fulfill her wants by showing positive sentence to H even if they are false. f. Give reason, Giving reason is a way of implying' I can help you' or 'you can help me, and assuming cooperation, a way of showing what help is needed. This fact directs to pressure to go off record to investigate and see H whether or not he is cooperative. Data 20: (A)General Nyunt: "you are a good wife also a good girl, after your mother passed away, surely you want to go home soon to meet your kids and husband right (B)Suu: "I think you haven't to do it [drive away] General Nyunt. Now, my big mission in Burma is joining in the national election. As soon we held the election, as possible I will beside them [family]. You may suggest Ne-Win in hurry." This strategy implies that if S has good reasons why H couldn't cooperate. This strategy can also be used to criticize H's past action why he did or didn't something without any good reason. In the other words S tries to criticize why H do not held election soon. H should do it if they want S leave soon. Here, S wants to give indirect suggest to H through positive and cooperative way. g. Use in-group identity maker, This strategy suggests that claiming implicity the common ground with H, S can use in-group membership identity maker. The address form includes generic names and terms like mac, mate, buddy, pal, honey, dear, cutie and guys. S claims common ground with H by showing that both of them in the same group of level and sharing particular desiring such as values and goals. This strategy shows as in extracts below. Data 23: (A)Suu: "My darling, I hear violence that conducted by Ne-Win military soldier happen every day. They want to found the authority with that way. So you can't back here in this time, so darling please, do your best, and don't worry about me." (B)Husband: ((seeing Suu, silence but thoughtful)) This strategy uses not only to make solidarity, but also emphasize make the communication flow in informal style since it is minimize status differences. h.Assert/presuppose S's knowledge of concern for H's wants, This strategy is declaring or employing knowledge of H's wants and willingness. In the data 24, utterance "there are many soldiers around our house" shows presuppose S's knowledge about the situation they faced. Then, S asserts of concern for H's wants is associated in maybe there's nothing happen. However, if I'm caught, I had arranged plan to send you back to Oxford. S puts a pressure on H to cooperate with her. Cooperate here meant if something happen because of S's presupposition, S wants H do something that had been arranged by H. All of utterances stated by S are significant to H's wants, the want of to be safe. Data 24: (A)Suu: "Good morning, get up boys, how was your sleep? Listen, today, this morning, there are many soldiers around our house. I don't want you be afraid, maybe there's nothing happen. However, if I'm caught, I had arranged plan to send you back to Oxford. I want you to know, everything will happen, we still love you. Ok?" (B)Children: "Yes mom" i. Seek agreement, This strategy can be achieved by S in raising safe topics. By doing 'safe topic' S is allowed to stress his agreement with H and satisfy H's want to be right or to be corroborated in his opinion. Small talk about weather, sickness, politic, and current local issues. seek agreement are some example of 'safe topic'. Data 29: (A)Suu: "Is it may a new face? ((talk to a soldier)), what's your name? ((pause)) do you speak English? So what's your name?" (B)Soldier: ((Smile)) To make good impression S uses small talk as initial of the conversation. This strategy also has big role of successful S's purpose and avoid the ignorance. j. Exaggerate, This strategy quite similar to the attend to H's interest, wants, needs, goods strategy however, S's attention or sympathy to H is indicated by exaggerating intonation, stress, and other aspect prosodic such as marvelous, the best, how beautiful etc. Data 32 (A)Suu:"You might be the best husband ever after.((hug Mikey)) (B)Husband: I will ((smile)) S's strategy also indicates a hope, S has big hope to H to do something. S wants H to be the best husband ever after for S. Its desire is spoken by giving H interest or attention in form of exaggerates. 2. The Types of Request and Command Used by Aung Saan Suu Kyi 2.1 Request, It is concern in the types of request utterances built by speaker in her utterances which may belong to positive or negative politeness. a. (-) Query preparatory, That is request utterances which contain reference to preparatory conditions such as ability and willingness, as conventionalized in any specific language. As in data 1 below, S requests for telling story. Data 1: (A)Suu: "Dad, tell me a story please" (B)Suu's Father: "I will tell you about Burma" The sequence of the sentence contains of address term "Dad" and query preparatory "tell me a story please". Here, S places the word "please" in the end of the request, means that she wants to ask H in polite way, however she begins her request by first form of verb "tell", S forms her request by showing her willingness that H can fulfill her request. (+) Query preparatory there was distinguish feature of utterances belong to the positive tend to spoken by participant who want to get closer relationship, and both speakers want the same thing. This condition also place indicate that the utterances is speaker and hearer oriented. b. (-) Strong hints, This category forms request utterances which contain partial reference to object or element needed for the implementation of the act. References used significant to hints the requests because S do not want to impose H's face S wants H learn the reference by themselves to know what S wants then understanding it to take extended acts to fulfill S's requests. However, actually the extended acts are not important, the important one is the function of the reference itself. S also uses will and conditional if associate to the hint request which is imply to the negative politeness. c. (-) Obligation statements, That is request utterances which the obligation of the hearer to carry out the act stated explicitly. It is proven by using of first form of verb like "be" and "help" S really wants H to do her request, this characteristic belongs to negative politeness strategy because of the using of positive statement which means S obligate H to do something in the way of giving good impression to H. d. (-) Mild hints, That is request utterances which does not contain reference to the request form properly, but it is interpreted as request by context. The request formed immediately go on head act, there is neither supportive move as reference nor address term. The request provided on interrogative form e.g:"What are you doing?" which it does not mean to be answered. That is a request S formed to H in order to follow S's want. At glance, there is not like a proper request, but based on the language function, it is structurally incorrect then, functionally proper. e. (-) Suggestory formulae, That is request utterances which refer to suggestion to the hearer to do act. As provided in data 34A, S tries to give suggestion to H. In the fact, that suggestion is a request form. The request made seems like contains a worry. S gives suggestion whether she's coming is needed by H. her worry appears because she cannot insure her request will be fulfilled or not by H. So that, in the name of does not want to impinge H, S make her request in the suggestion form. This suggestion belongs to the characteristic of negative politeness strategy, the evidence is the using of modality "should" it associates to the utterances which suggest or need an agreement from H to fulfill the request. (+) Suggestory formulae in positive was strategy formed by using future desire of "will". Besides that, the role of "we" as in "let we take her to the bed, then we will see what's going on and in the ""We can start it?" As sign that between S and H include in the same activity strengthen its position belongs to positive politeness strategy. This request S's characteristics is giving suggestion to H to do the thing together. f. (-) Hedge performative, That is request utterances in which the illocutionary force is named and accompanied by hedging expressions. There are address term such as "Buddhist, Burmese". Then, followed by supportive move that spoken in long sentence as references of S to ensure H, it was an effort to make sure that implicit requests which spoken successfully listened. (+) Hedge performative, Elements by means of which the speaker avoids specification in making a commitment to the illocutionary point of the utterance, in naming the required action, in describing the manner in which it is to be performed, or in referring to any other contextual aspect involved in its performance. This request category has characteristic which S tries to give "softening" effect to her request. 2.2 Command, Command in language use, is used to ask something with obligate answer. S has strong desire which has to do by H either negative or positive politeness has command utterances. a. (-) Most direct, That is explicit level, realized by command syntactically marked as such, such as imperatives, or by other verbal means that name the act as command initial first form of verb. the command utterances form by S is obeyed by H, because H treats in duty. (+) Most direct This level of command used in positive by S with provides some additional sign which indicate to the positive. It may same as negative that contains first form of verb like in the "Give it[bag] to me" S commands H to do something that it decrease H's duty or as simple words, S want to help H under the term of command. b. (-) Conventional Indirect This command's level procedures that realize the act by reference to contextual preconditions necessary for its performance, as conventionalized in a given language (these strategies are commonly referred to in speech act literature. This command utterances is not as strong as most direct one, because speaker formed her command with negation and modality S wants to show power through command, but she does not want to impinge the hearer. That's why this command belongs to negative politeness strategy. (+) Conventional indirect, command that contain invitation by calling H with first name (FN), it also can contain good impression to get H closer obviously get good responds of the command formed. the impression brought H to fulfill what S wants. However, there a "must" that contain a duty, H accepts it happily because there are prize for H. c. (+) Non-conventional indirect level, i.e. the open-ended group of indirect command (hints) that realize the command by either partial reference to object or element needed for the implementation of the act. This level contained softening command or hidden command. S forms command by using "will" as characteristic of soften command. E.g: "I will campaign…" and "never try to bother me, I will talk with them" are example implicit command used by S. To show the positive strategy, S forms the command characterized as making agreement, that is cooperation among participants to fulfill the wants. 3.How does Aung San Suu Kyi influence the addressees in order to get good responses? This part analyzed findings in previous problems which influence the hearers' responses. 3.1 Different function of "please", In communication people used term please for a willingness statement. It is so as in Suu's statement in the film, she used please for hoping something, and emphasizing the willingness. Please can be stated in front of statement or in the end. In this part subject produced word please differently. Based on the theory of request (Blum-Kulka:1987) "please" used to express hoping for something with full of willingness. The subject of the film used the function of please to utter strong request. In other situation please only for "sweetener", because there was no strong willingness occurred. Suu gave new function of please in this movie. It was different from the other study conducted request as theory which it put please only as negative politeness marker without mentioned the distinctive function. This finding showed that request utterances with please indicating social relationship where speaker put herself in higher or lower position than hearer. It is supported by theory of power relation by (Fairchlough:1989) that type of this please request tend to use by younger to elder. And Suu applied it both while talking with elder and younger. In this case Suu showed that please was not stuck in the using. In this movie subject shows that type of please used in different purpose. 3.2 Universality of "thanks", The using of thank commonly used for saying thank you for people that help or doing something for us. Involving thank words in to utterances was one of negative politeness strategy. It based on (Yule: 65), thanks could work sometimes be heard in extended talk often with hesitations. In this study, subject represented thank in apologize and gave deference. They reflected the differences of using thank or I prefer to call it universality of thank. Subject defense the theory, the possible reason was subject to show the wants differently or there were factors that force speaker (S) to use it in other sentences besides thank sentences. Universality of using thank reflected apologizing utterances also contrast to the previous study conducted by Wagner which apologizing occurred did not showing thank word. The other function of thank is used for showing deference. Deference communication appeared when S felt H need to be honor. In the case of Suu's utterances, the honorific by using thank used was as same as Brown & Levinson theory which it had function for talking to the far relationship, and if it said to the people close relation, it was not an honor, but it would be a purposeful way. Obviously, thank is universal in its using. Thank not only used for saying thank you, but also, subject in this film shows us that thank can be used to show apologize and showing deference. 3.3 Different function of inclusive "we", Based on Brown & Levinson (1987) theory we used in positive refer to main purposes of making solidarity, need to be accepted, even liked by others and to be treated as member of same group. It is same with purpose in data of inclusive we uttered by Suu. Positive-we which "we" tends to put speaker (S) and hearer (H) include in same activity. Positive-we used to built solidarity in communication. Both S and H are involved in the same topic spoken. Positive-we ask H to join in the speaker's wants or S joins to the H's wants. Here, "we" used as signal of good cooperation among of participants. In this case, positive-we have same purpose like the previous study conducted by Ayuningtyas which concern to the associate responses of children. However the hearer was different, but both this study and that previous research had same purpose. That way appropriate used to show togetherness among speaker and hearer. Otherwise, we used in negative reflected differently. They are refer to the negative politeness which have main purposes oriented to show deference, need to be independent to have freedom of action, showing respect to others, or sometime negative utterances more formal than positive one. It is proven through S uses negative-we in her political campaign where it is a formal situation. Actually, the negative-we used by S is represent if "I". Speaker wants to avoid personalize term of "I", so that she uses negative-we, because, when S uses "I" in formal situation. it Negative -we also shows that S cares about H's wants without impinge on H's negative face. The discussion shows us that inclusive "we" can be used both in positive or negative, which positive-we has function of making good cooperative communication or solidarity in same group, while, negative-we has function of represent "I" to avoid personalize, and also to show using polite pronoun in formal activity. 3.4 Different function of query preparatory (QP), suggestory formulae (SF), and hedge performative (HP) in (-) & (+) Difference of QP in negative, or it called as "–QP", it is request category which has characteristic of preparatory conditions. The request sequences are only oriented to S (speaker) wants. These are different from QP in positive, or it called as +QP. The difference of SF in negative it called as –SF. Request category which contains suggestion. Characteristic formation used by S is using suggestion through word "should" used by subject is modality form, modality sometimes shows respect, because it is more polite than "shall or will". So that she makes it as –SF to avoid impinge H. It is different from SF in positive that it called +SF. Request sequence formed with using "will". The request type used by S included both S and H in the same activity to gain same wants. It was S (speaker) and H (hearer) oriented. Then, difference in request is HP, this category appears either in negative that it called as –HP or in positive that it called as +HP. The differences of –HP and +HP state in the request function based on condition. S made implicit request in order to reach successfully listened, S used the function of upgrader. The upgrader means S and H had separation, where S here in the "up" or high position that has possibility (power). Upgrader function suggests S to persuade H fulfilled what her wants. These are different from the using of request in +HP. This request category has characteristic which S tries to give "softening" effect to her request. +HP also has function of downgrader. This condition is opposite to the –HP that has upgrader function. Downgrader places herself in lower position and down tone utterances than H. It's happen because of S wants to make "softening" request. That "softening" formed through +HP and it significant to help request become downgrader. The three request categories showed that same category can be stated in positive or negative, as the subject in this movie shown. However they are same in the terms or names, but they have their own differences when they used in positive and negative politeness. 3.5 The formulation command utterances in most direct(MD), conventional indirect(CI), and non-conventional Indirect(NCI). a. First level is most direct or easier to call it MD. It is direct command or I prefer call it "strong command", because this command directly point the purpose out. Speaker (S) directly mentions what thing becoming point of command. Usually MD level using imperative to state command utterances. That was the using of first form of verb put in the beginning of the sentences. That's why it assumed that MD level contains command formulation: Verb 1 as starting words of command, as example: Data 8: (A)Maid: ((take the bags and case)) (B)Suu: "Give it [bag] to me ((smile)) b. Second level of command was conventional indirect, or it called as CI. It is the middle of direct command which means CI is not too direct and also not too indirect. This means S formed command with some purposes, for example S wants to get closer with H or doesn't want to impinge H. The other purposes may S want to showing appreciate to H. Usually these command level has additional information / supportive sentence which following command in order to make commands did not sound too strong. They can be stated before or after command uttered. Supportive sentence / additional information can be contained of; modality, address or first name (FN), and making good impression. CI examples below have command formulation: supportive sentence + command statement. Data 6: (A)Activist: ((bring a blooded girl leave her bed)) (B)Suu: "She can't leave this place, [supportive sentence] + you should stay here", [command] c. The last command level was non-conventional indirect or NCI. This level was similar with hints/hidden command. The formation of the utterances may not command form, but the element inside the sentences has implementation of command. Here, S want to command H implicitly, and the implicit feature forms through future desire "I will…". It was not only to hide the command, but also to shows S's plans, which those plans have same function as command because they bring H involve to the utterances. In the other words, S uses "I will…" to show H what her plan is, while at the same time, S also commands H to do "something". Subject in this study used NCI level with command formulation: hints command by using "I will…". The obvious features of how did language operate in social interaction were influential and instrumental relationship with power. Influential power found in the research closely related to the dominance words that subject used, this domination mostly appears in command utterances. The position as political leader has big potential to influence the responds of the hearer whom talks with. The ability of influencing people in communication cannot be separated from successful sequences both in request and command used which well formed. The strategies used associated to the instrumental. They were like the useful tools to dress utterances being interesting, or interested in hearer. The subject capability of matching many instruments as instrumental power to gain the goal influenced to the hearer was a kind of creating power language process, so that subject had powerful language in achieving successful responses. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion This study can be concluded that, first politeness strategies used by subject Aung San Suu Kyi in the film "The Lady" are both positive politeness and negative politeness. Subject implements their sub-types, but not for all types. From fifteen sub-types of positive provided, subject used ten sub-types, and from ten sub-types of negative provided, subject used seven sub-types. Second, the characteristics of the subject that have been measured by request and command, politeness characteristics resulted are; in request, there are query preparatory, strong hints, mild hints, obligation statements, hedge performative and suggestory formulae. In command, there are most direct, conventional indirect, and non-conventional indirect. Third, the influences of subject's utterances are defined from the responses given to subject, and how far subject's strategies influence others are taken from analyzing them through content, subject, and relation. Suggestion It was suggested that the later research can conduct the same research in other aspect of discussion, for example by conducting the research with real situation as the object. It was hoped the next study would observe some politeness strategies with different backgrounds in order to know the characteristics of politeness strategies in different ways. REFERENCES Ayuningtyas, D. 2006. Politeness Strategy in Request in Film Harry Potter, and The Related The Associated Response in Children Character. English Department, State University of Surabaya. Blum-Kulka, S., and Olshtain, E. 1987. Requests and Apologies: A Cross-Cultural Study of Speech Act Realization Patterns (CCSARP)1. Hebrew University, Jerusalem Tel Aviv University. pdf. file, Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 5, No. 3 (pp:196-212) Brown, P., and Levinson, S. 1987. Politeness Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Codreanu, A., and Debu, A. 2011. Politeness in requests: Some Research Findings Relevant for Intercultural Encounters. pdf. file, Journal of Defense Resources Management no.2 (2)/2012 Fairclough, Norman. 1989. Language and power. Edinburg: Longman Fairclough, Norman. 2012. Critical Discourse Analysis. International Advances in Engineering and Technology (IAET) ISSN: 2305-8285 Vol.7 July 2012 International Scientific Researchers (ISR) Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction of Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Longman Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. The Principles of Pragmatics. New York: Longman Litosseliti, Lia. 2010. Research Method in Linguistics. London: Continuum International Publishing Group Magnis-Suseno, Franz. 2009. Etika Jawa: Sebuah Analisa Filsafat Tentang Kebijakan Hidup Jawa. Jakarta: Gramedia McGinty, Sarah Myers, Ph.D. 2001. POWER TALK Using Language to Build Authority and Influence.New York: Warner Books Pranowo. 2009. Berbahasa Secara Santun. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Belajar Robinson, W.P. 1972. Language and Social Behavior. Middlesex England: Penguin Book Ltd. Van Djik, T. 1995. Aims of Critical Discourse Analysis. Journal of JD Japanese Discourse vol:1 (pp;17-27) Watts, Richard J. 2003. Key Topics in Sociolinguistics: Politeness. Edinburg: Cambridge University Press Wagner, Lisa C. The Journal of Politeness, University of Lousville. Positive- And Negative Politeness Strategies: Apologizing In The Speech Community Of Cuernacava Mexico. pdf. file posted 02/18/2013 Werda, Sukardi. Politik Dan Rekayasa Bahasa (Journal of politic and language). Posted on 2nd November 2012 Wodak, R., and Meyer, M. 2008. Critical Discourse Analysis: History, Agenda, Theory, and Methodology. pdf. file Wodak-3795-Ch-01:Wodak-3795-Ch-01.QXP 9/29/2008 4:29 PM Page 1-33 Yule, George. 1997. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press

En la actualidad los procesos de migración son foco de atención de numerosas disciplinas científicas e instituciones gubernamentales. El estudio del uso de plantas medicinales entre comunidades migrantes que habitan las urbes, también ha sido una temática que ha cobrado un interés creciente en la etnobotánica, especialmente por las diversas preocupaciones sanitarias que este fenómeno conlleva. El caso particular de la migración boliviana hacia Argentina es una de las más relevantes en nuestro país, con varias décadas de intercambios culturales en todo el territorio. Estos grupos en su nuevo lugar pueden recrear su herbolaria, armarse de estrategias para conseguir los recursos vegetales provenientes de su lugar de origen, incorporar nuevas especies y prácticas de la sociedad receptora o, bien, disminuir los usos o la riqueza de sus plantas medicinales. En este sentido es pertinente mencionar la medicina tradicional como eje principal y representativo del modo de vida de las comunidades del territorio andino. Esta práctica médica ancestral parte del concepto de enfermedad como un estado de desajuste interno empleando principalmente elementos vegetales para la cura. La Etnobotánica, ciencia que estudia la relación ser humano-planta, nos permite analizar en un entorno de ciudad el conocimiento botánico local (CBL) que surge en dichos contextos interculturales. Por otra parte, un concepto útil que permite analizar el cambio y la flexibilidad del CBL en comunidades inmigrantes sobre especies medicinales es la hibridación cultural. Se han propuesto como marcos teóricos el estudio de subprocesos distinguibles que tienen como finalidad visualizar, contextualizar y caracterizar de manera más profunda los procesos de hibridación en trabajos de etnobotánica urbana. Estos subprocesos pueden mostrar un enriquecimiento de la riqueza total de especies (fusión o yuxtaposición), re-utilización de recursos y/o prácticas en un nuevo ambiente (re-localización); mezcla de elementos vegetales tradicionales y nuevos para aumentar una acción terapéutica (recombinación), cambios y/o sustituciones de algún recurso (re-estructuración); agrupamientos internos en especies y prácticas (segregación espacial); novedades en la producción, circulación y consumo; y coexistencia simultánea de distintos universos simbólicos. Asimismo, entender los mecanismos de transmisión cultural del CBL de una población migrante resultan claves para comprender las hibridaciones posibles, dado que de esta forma se puede tener una visión más acabada de los procesos que dinamizan los saberes intercambiados entre los integrantes de la comunidad. En este sentido, esta tesis tuvo los principales objetivos: 1) Caracterizar los estudios de etnobotánica urbana, realizados tanto en poblaciones migrantes como no migrantes, respecto al uso de plantas medicinales y analizar los procesos de hibridación; 2) Documentar la riqueza de especies vegetales de valor medicinal de mayor importancia cultural, y las prácticas y valores asociados que siguen vigentes, o aquellos que cambiaron, en una comunidad migrante boliviana que reside actualmente en la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy; 3) Determinar las principales dolencias para las cuáles se utilizan plantas como recurso medicinal y si la consulta a especialistas andinos sigue vigente entre los migrantes; 4) Indagar las formas de obtención y ambientes de recolección del recurso vegetal; 5) Analizar las formas de aprendizaje y el tipo de transmisión de los conocimientos sobre plantas entre sus miembros; 6) Indagar en el ámbito escolar el CBL relacionado al uso de especies medicinales y las formas de adquisición de ese conocimiento. Para abordar los objetivos se aplicaron distintas estrategias metodológicas propias de la disciplina, como el análisis bibliográfico cuali-cuantitativo, trabajo de campo con adultos y niños, que incluyeron entrevistas y talleres participativos, y metodología botánica de gabinete para la determinación taxonómica de especies, que incluyó también técnicas micrográficas. Los datos se analizaron cualitativa y cuantitativamente, mediante la aplicación de índices y pruebas no paramétricas y de regresión multinomial dada la naturaleza categórica de la mayoría de las variables. En los capítulos I y II, III se presentan los antecedentes y principales marcos conceptuales de esta tesis, dando cuenta del proceso histórico de inmigración boliviana en Argentina y particularmente en la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy. En el capítulo IV correspondiente al primer objetivo de esta tesis, se estudiaron las herbolarias urbanas provenientes de la literatura internacional usando el concepto de hibridación cultural como marco teórico. Se detectaron 63 trabajos de la temática que poseen un rango temporal corto (1991-2016). Los principales resultados muestran que en las ciudades se utilizan alrededor de 531 especies medicinales, principalmente cosmopolitas. Existe un creciente interés en el estudio de herbolarias inmigrantes correspondiente al 33% (21 trabajos). Los procesos de mayor visibilidad en la literatura fueron las Novedades (29%), Relocalización (20%) y Fusión (19%). Al analizar estos artículos a través de una regresión multinomial se advierte en la bibliografía que las herbolarias urbanas con migrantes son menos proclives a fusionar con elementos vegetales exógenos y se advierten más relocalizaciones y restructuraciones en las plantas a utilizar. Mientras que la bibliografía focalizada en el sector de la sociedad urbana sin inmigrantes las fusiones son los procesos más mencionados.En el capítulo V, se desarrollan del segundo al sexto objetivo, que consiste en el trabajo de campo realizado en una comunidad boliviana que reside en un sector urbano-periurbano (Barrios Los Ladrilleros y Los Huaicos) de la ciudad de San Salvador de Jujuy, (Jujuy-Argentina) dedicada a la industria artesanal del armado de ladrillo. Los datos etnobotánicos fueron obtenidos mediante la aplicación de técnicas etnográficas como observación participante, entrevistas abiertas, semi- estructuradas, enlistados libres e historias de vida. Se entrevistaron 24 personas adultas, principalmente mujeres con experiencia en el uso de especies medicinales. Se relevaron 89 especies medicinales (44% nativas y 56% exóticas), de las que lograron mayor consenso Matricaria chamomilla, ?manzanilla? (62%) y Ruta chalepensis, ?ruda? (50%). Las familias Lamiaceas y Asteraceas fueron las más representativas. Se registraron 43 dolencias tratadas con plantas respetando las categorías émicas . La mejor representada fue destinada al tratar los ?dolores de estómago? (18%) y plantas que les ?hacen bien? (12,4%), consideradas como ?adaptógenas?. Se distinguieron distintos ambientes de colección: ?casa y alrededores? (46%), ?comercio? (23%), ?campo? (15%), ?huerta? (15%) y ?trae de Bolivia? (2%). Finalmente, el capítulo VI que corresponde al último objetivo de esta tesis, se analiza el conocimiento botánico local de niños bolivianos e hijos de bolivianos que residen en los barrios Los Ladrilleros y Los Huaicos de San Salvador de Jujuy. Mediante la metodología aula-taller, en una escuela estatal de la ciudad, se indagaron los saberes sobre plantas medicinales que forman parte de los niños y las formas de adquisición de ese conocimiento, así como también el rol que cumple la institución educativa como espacio de apertura a temas vinculados a la realidad local. Se emplearon técnicas propias de la metodología participativa que se utilizan en la indagación etnobotánica. Los resultados arrojaron 42 especies con fines medicinales siendo la especie de mayor frecuencia de uso Ruta sp. ?ruda? (67%). El modo más significativo de transmisión de este conocimiento fue vertical, a través de los abuelos y padres. A modo de conclusión, a nivel global, se puede decir que los migrantes en las ciudades tratan de reproducir sus prácticas con las mismas plantas que conocían en sus sitios de origen, mayormente cosmopolitas y de fácil obtención, sin poner en riesgo su salud con intoxicaciones o usos incorrectos de plantas nuevas. En todo caso, los peligros que sufren se refieren a los impedimentos existentes para que estos colectivos puedan obtener sus plantas y reproducir sus prácticas. En cambio, los trabajos de etnobotánica urbana generales mostrarían que su población no migrante es más proclive a fusionar sin conocimientos previos. A nivel local, en los inmigrantes bolivianos de San Salvador de Jujuy, su farmacopea está dada por una relocalización y reestructuración en su elenco de especies medicinales, tomando en cuenta la importancia de la huerta y casas y alrededores para abastecerse de las plantas de uso medicinal. Se manifiesta una reestructuración de su herbolaria debido a la percepción de procesos de desactivación de conocimientos. Por otra parte, las soluciones locales se basarían en la redundancia, y no en la versatilidad de su herbolaria. Con ello se aseguran su eficacia terapéutica en el tratamiento de enfermedades específicas con especies muy conocidas, de amplia distribución. Con respecto a lo que aprendieron los niños acerca del conocimiento botánico sobre el uso de las plantas medicinales, prevalece una transmisión del conocimiento botánico vertical, principalmente por vía materna. Esto reflejaría un conocimiento botánico con poca incorporación de información exógena, es decir, desde fuera del ámbito familiar. ; Migratory processes are currently attracting the attention of numerous scientific disciplines and governmental institutions. The study of medicinal plant use among migrant communities living in urban areas is also a topic of growing interest, especially because of diverse public health concerns that accompany this phenomenon. The particular case of the Bolivian migration to Argentina is one of the most relevant to our country, with a history of various decades of cultural exchange throughout the country. In their new environments these groups can recreate their herbal medicine, developing strategies to acquire plant resources from their country of origin, incorporate new species and practices from the receiving society, or decrease the use or richness of their medicinal plants. At this point it is important to mention that traditional medicine is a key factor, representative of the lifestyle of Andean communities. This ancestral medical practice is based on the concept of illness as a state of internal imbalance, and employs mainly plants as the means of treatment. Rom the perspective of ethnobotany, a science that studies the relationship between humans and plants, we can analyse the local botanical knowledge (LBK) that develops in intercultural contexts in an urban setting. A useful concept for the analysis of change and the flexibility of LBK in terms of medicinal species in immigrant communities is cultural hybridization. As a theoretical framework the study of distinguishable sub-processes has been suggested, as they can visualise, contextualise and characterise hybridization processes in urban ethnobotanical studies in a more profound way. These sub-processes can result in an increase in the total richness of species (fusion or juxtaposition), the reuse of resources and/or practices in a new environment (relocalisation), the blending of traditional and new plant elements to enhance therapeutic action (recombination), changes and/or substitution of a resource (restructuring), internal grouping of species and practices (spatial segregation), innovation in production, circulation and consumption, and the simultaneous coexistence of different symbolic universes. Understanding the mechanisms of cultural transmission of LBK in a migrant population is key to our comprehension of possible hybridization, since we can obtain a more complete picture of the processes involved in the exchange of wisdom between members of the community. The main objectives of this thesis were: 1) To characterise urban ethnobotanical studies on the use of medicinal plants, whether carried out in migrant populations or not, and analyse their processes of hybridization; 2) Document the richness of medicinal plant species which are of most cultural importance, and the associated practices and values 12 which are still maintained, and those which have changed, in a Bolivian migrant community currently residing in the city of San Salvador de Jujuy; 3) Determine the principal illnesses which are treated with plant resources and whether Bolivian migrants still consult Andean specialists; 4) Investigate how plant resources are acquired and identify the gathering environments used by Bolivian migrants; 5) Analyse the ways of learning and the type of transmission of plant knowledge used among community members; 6) Investigate LBK related to the use of medicinal species in a school context, and the methods of acquisition of this knowledge. In order to carry out this study different methodological strategies were applied which are commonly used in the discipline of ethnobotany, such as a quali-quantitative bibliographical analysis, fieldwork with adults and children, including interviews and participative workshops, and botanical laboratory methodology for the taxonomical definition of species, which also included micrographic techniques. The data obtained were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively, through the application of non-parametric indices and tests, and multinomial regression, given the categorical nature of most of the variables. In chapters I, II and III, background information and the main conceptual frameworks of this thesis are presented, taking into account the historical process of Bolivian migration into Argentina, and particularly the city of Jujuy. In chapter 4, corresponding to the first objective, urban herbal medicine in international literature is studied, using the concept of cultural hybridization as a theoretical framework The bibliographical research was carried out using the following search engines: Scielo (www.scielo.org), Scopus (www.scopus.com) and Google Scholar, and 63 studies with a short time span (1991-2016) were found on this subject. The main results show that approximately 531 medicinal species are used in cities, mainly cosmopolitan species. There is increasing interest in the study of immigrant herbolaria, corresponding to 33% (21 studies) of those found. The most frequently mentioned processes in the literature were Innovation (29%), Relocalisation (20%) and Fusion (19%). Analysis of these articles through multinomial regression revealed that the urban herbal medicine of migrants is less likely to undergo fusion with exogenous plant elements and contains little incorporation of new elements in the list of species used. Relocalisation and restructuring of the plants are found more commonly in these groups. In contrast, fusion is the most frequently mentioned process in the bibliography focusing on the sector of urban society without immigrants. 13 Chapter V deals with objectives 2 – 6, and describes fieldwork carried out in a Bolivian community residing in an urban-periurban sector (Los Ladrilleros and Los Huaicos neighbourhoods) of San Salvador de Jujuy (Jujuy -Argentina). Prior informed consent was obtained from participants, who were selected by means of opportunistic and snowball interviews. The ethnobotanical data were obtained through ethnographic techniques such as participant observation, open and semi-structured interviews, free listing and life histories. Of the 24 adults interviewed most were women with experience of medicinal plant species. A total of 89 medicinal plants were registered (44% were native and 56% exotic), and those with highest consensus were: Matricaria chamomilla, "manzanilla" (62%) and Ruta chalepensis, "ruda" (50%). The Lamiaceae and Asteraceae families being the most represented. Illnesses treated with plants numbered 43, respecting the emic categories . The most common ailment treated was "stomach pains" (18%). The next most common use category is associated with plants that "do one good" (12.4%), considered "adaptogens". Different plant gathering environments were identified: close to the house (46%), shops (23%), countryside (15%), vegetable garden (15%) and "brought from Bolivia" (2%). Finally, chapter VI deals with the last objective of this thesis, the analysis of LBK of Bolivian children and the children of Bolivians who live in the Los Ladrilleros and Los Huaicos neighbourhoods of San Salvador de Jujuy. Using classroom-workshop methodology in a state school in the city, we investigated the children's knowledge of medicinal plants, and the ways they had learned about them. We also analysed the role played by the educational institution in offering an opportunity to deal with subjects related to the local context. Participative methodology was used, as commonly employed in ethnobotanical investigation. Results revealed that 42 medicinal species were known by the children, the species with highest use frequency being Ruta sp. "ruda" (67%). The most important method of transmission of this knowledge was vertical, through grandparents and parents. In conclusion, on a global level it can be said that migrants in cities attempt to reproduce their practices with the same plants as they used in their places of origin, so as not to put their health at risk with toxic plants or incorrect usage. The dangers faced by the communities are associated with the difficulties they experience in the acquisition of their plants and reproduction of their practices. In contrast, general urban ethnobotanical 14 studies show that the non-migrant population is more likely to employ processes of fusion, with no previous knowledge. At a local level, the pharmacopoeia of the immigrant Bolivians in San Salvador de Jujuy is the result of relocalisation and restructuring of their medicinal species, taking into account the importance of vegetable gardens and the areas around their houses to provide a supply of plants with medicinal uses. The restructuring of their herbal medicine is due to their perception of processes of deactivation of knowledge. Local solutions are based on redundancy, and not on the versatility of their herbal medicine. In this way they are assured of effective therapies for the treatment of specific illnesses with very well known species, which have a wide distribution. Regarding the children's LBK related to medicinal species, the vertical transmission of knowledge is predominant, mainly by mothers. This is reflected in the children's knowledge having little exogenous information; that is, from outside their family. ; Fil: Acosta, Marina Eva. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy. Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Salta. Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas; Argentina

1. Kapitel: Einleitung Das Kapitel der Einleitung erläutert die Zielsetzung und Fragestellung dieser Arbeit unter Angabe der verwendeten Primärquellen, zu denen die Zeitungsartikel, Archivdokumente, die Transkriptionen der qualitativen Interviews gehören sowie den aktuellen Forschungsstand. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es zum einen, auf inhaltlicher Ebene die Auto- und Heterobilder sowie Stereotype in der westdeutschen und britischen überregionalen Presse herauszuarbeiten und diese vor dem Hintergrund des außenpolitischen bilateralen Verhältnisses zu interpretieren. Zum anderen sollen jene Eigen- und Fremdbilder strukturell in die Argumentationen der jeweils nationalen Pressetexte eingeordnet werden und auf ihre Funktion hin überprüft werden. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird angenommen, dass Stereotype und Bilder "des Anderen" gezielt in die Argumentationen der nationalen Pressetexte eingebettet sind und dort argumentative Funktionen erfüllen, wie etwa die Verstärkung eines Arguments oder die Herstellung von Plausibilität, Interpretation und Einordnung eines Ereignisses oder dessen gesellschaftliche Legitimation. Daher verbindet diese Arbeit die Methodik der "Kritischen Diskursanalyse" (KDA) mit der "Imagologie". Das Forschungsparadigma der KDA lautet nach Siegfried Jäger, den Diskurs auf seine ikonographischen Mittel hin zu untersuchen. Manfred Beller und Joep Leerssen definieren den Forschungsanspruch der Imagologie wie folgt: "Imagology aims to understand a discourse rather than a society". Weder die KDA gelangt zu einer näheren Klassifizierung der zu untersuchenden "ikonographischen Mittel", noch unternimmt die "Imagologie" den Versuch, den Begriff "discourse" näher zu bestimmen. Daher wird in dieser Arbeit diese Lücke geschlossen und beide Methodiken an ihrer Schnittstelle miteinander verbunden. Es ist das Hauptanliegen dieser Arbeit, die diskursive Konstruktion des deutsch-britischen Verhältnis im jeweiligen Pressediskurs beider Länder im Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit tiefgreifend zu analysieren und die dem jeweiligen Diskurs zugrundeliegenden "Aussagen" im Sinne Foucaults herauszuarbeiten. Zudem sollen allgemein-gültige Ergebnisse zur Tradierung von Stereotypen und dem positiven und negativen Tenor der überregionalen Berichterstattung unter Berücksichtigung des außenpolitischen Kontextes in Betracht gezogen werden. Die Auswirkungen des Pressediskurses auf das öffentliche Denken soll anhand von Archivdokumenten bzw. von qualitativen Interviews punktuell gezeigt werden. 2. Kapitel: Diskurs und Kritische Diskursanalyse Im zweiten Kapitel wird zunächst der Diskursbegriff nach Michel Foucault mit den Wirkmechanismen und Strukturen von Diskursen begründet. Wichtig dabei ist der "Wissen/Macht-Komplex", der die diskursive Aushandlung von "allgemein gültigem Wissen" innerhalb einer Gesellschaft beschreibt. Dieses "Wissen" enthält die Tradierung gültiger Argumentationsformen inklusive Eigen- und Fremdbilder in der Presse. Der Begriff "Aushandlung" impliziert dabei, dass es sich um einen diffizilen diskursiven Prozess handelt. "Wissen und Macht" sind laut Foucault intrinsisch miteinander verbunden. Macht generiert Wissen, Wissen impliziert Macht. Demnach haben die als gültig ausgehandelten Argumentationsformen und Bilder in den Pressetexten eine Wirkungsmacht, Bewusstsein innerhalb einer Gesellschaft formen. In Foucaults diskursanalytische Theorien, die selbst keine konkreten Analyseschemata zur Untersuchung von (Medien-) Diskursen beinhalten, fließen die Weiterführungen von Sara Mills, Ruth Wodak und Norman Fairclough mit ein. Konkrete Vorgaben zur praktischen Analyse von Mediendiskursen legte der Linguist Sigfried Jäger des Duisburger Instituts für Sprach- und Sozialforschung vor. Jäger definiert verschiedene Diskursebenen innerhalb einer Gesellschaft, bei denen der Mediendiskurs zwischen der Politiker- und Alltagsebene angesiedelt ist. Jäger beschreibt, dass der Mediendiskurs in sich relativ homogen ist, da die großen Leitmedien ihre Informationen von wenigen offiziellen Presseagenturen beziehen. Dies bedeutet, dass die Nachrichten zur Aktualität im Fernsehen relativ gleich denen im Radio oder den Zeitungen sind. Im Fall dieser Arbeit ist bestätigt, dass die Presse den dominanten Mediendiskurs sowohl in der BRD als auch in GB zur politischen Information darstellt. Die Pressetexte mit ihren Argumenten, ihrem Tenor und den Selbst- und Fremdbildern zu den Ereignissen der zweiten Berlin-Krise hatten demnach eine große Wirkung auf ihre Leser, zu denen nachweislich auch die Regierungsoberhäupter Adenauer und Macmillan zählen. Trotz der angenommen Homogenität des Mediendiskurses besitzt jede Presse- und Medieninstitution eine eigene "diskursive Position" gemäß ihrer Ausrichtung, die nachhaltig den Tenor ihrer Nachrichten bestimmen. Grundsätzlich teilt man in einer Gesellschaft Wissen darüber, welche Ausrichtung die "großen Zeitungen" haben. So ist etwa der Guardian und die SZ sozialliberal, die Times, FAZ, Die Welt und der Daily Telegraph konservativ eingestellt. Darüber hinaus teilt Jäger die Presseberichterstattung in ihre Bestandteile. Diese sind etwa die Berichterstattung über ein bestimmtes Thema, den "Diskursstrang". Pressetexte, die ein bestimmtes Thema behandeln, nennt er "Diskursfragmente". Demnach bilden alle Diskursfragmente zu einem Thema den Diskursstrang, der sich diachron gemäß der (außen-)politischen Situation entwickelt. Jäger bezeichnet ihn metaphorisch als "Fluss von Wissen durch die Zeit". Analysiert man ein Ereignis, über das in den Medien viel berichtet wird, stellt dies ein "diskursives Ereignis" dar. Für Jäger stellen diese Orientierungspunkte dar, da sie eine "Momentaufnahme" des Diskursstranges abbilden und zeigen, welche Bilder, Argumente und diskursiven Mechanismen zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt tradiert wurden bzw. "gültig" waren. Die diachrone Aneinanderreihung von Ergebnissen aus mehreren diskursiven Ereignissen zeigt dann Entwicklungen und Veränderungen in einem Diskursstrang auf, dessen Einwirkungen vor dem Hintergrund der politischen Ebene interpretiert werden können. 3. Kapitel: Imagologie und Stereotypenforschung Das Kapitel behandelt die Bildung, Funktionen und Tradierung von Eigen- und Fremdbildkonstruktionen als kulturelle Konstrukte im öffentlichen Diskurs, dem die Berichterstattung angehört. Ursprünglich in der vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft situiert, weiten Beller & Leerssen das Untersuchungsfeld der Imagologie von literarischen Texten auf Texte "as forms of cultural representation" aus. Dem sind Zeitungsartikel überregionaler Qualitätszeitungen ebenso zuzuordnen. In diesem Kapitel werden die "Images" als Oberbegriff erläutert, aus denen sich das Bild, Stereotyp, Vorurteil und Feindbild ableiten. Zudem wird das Nationenbild behandelt. Der Schwerpunkt der Darstellungen in dieser Arbeit liegt dabei auf dem Stereotypenbegriff. Eingehend erläutert dieses Kapitel die identitätsstiftende Funktion von Eigen- und Fremdbildern, wobei ebenso die Aspekte des Wandels und der Beständigkeit von Stereotypen beleuchtet werden. Die Eigen- und Fremdbildkonstruktionen werden in den Kontext der Presseberichterstattung, insbesondere der Auslandsberichterstattung, eingebettet und deren Merkmale skizziert. Demnach wird die Struktur der Presseberichterstattung erläutert, in dem die Stereotype und Bilder eingebettet werden. Ebenso wird die Relation zwischen verbalem Ausdruck eines Stereotyps und dessen kognitive Assoziierung behandelt, wobei der konturierte Charakter eines Stereotyps gezeigt werden soll. 4. Kapitel: Methodische Vorgehensweise Dieses Kapitel fasst, basierend auf der erläuterten Methodik der Kritischen Diskursanalyse aus Kapitel 2 und den Grundlagen der Stereotypenforschung in Kapitel 3 die konkrete Vorgehensweise und methodische Anwendung dieser Arbeit zusammen. Behandelt wird die konkrete Auswahl relevanter Pressetexte für die quantitative und qualitative Analyse von westdeutschen und britischen Zeitungsartikeln der jeweils drei großen überregionalen Tageszeitungen, die das Korpus dieser Dissertation bilden (Times, Daily Telegraph, Manchester Guardian, FAZ, SZ und Die Welt). Die diskursiven Ereignisse des Untersuchungszeitraumes werden erläutert, ebenso wie die Klassifizierung der drei untersuchten Diskursstränge, die das deutsch-britische Verhältnis zur Zeit der zweiten Berlin-Krise von 1958 bis 1962 diskursiv aushandeln. Die konkrete Vorgehensweise aus Struktur- und Feinanalyse, die auf die drei Diskursstränge angewandt wird, wird geschildert. Dabei wird bereits der "Tenor der Berichterstattung" geschildert, der die drei untersuchten Diskursstränge dominiert. Neben der Tradierung von negativen, neutralen oder positiven Stereotypen im überregionalen Pressediskurs eines Landes entscheidet auch die subtilere "Stimmung" im Pressetext über die Formulierung eines positiven oder negativen Fremdbildes. Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung zeigen in Abgleich mit den Archivdokumenten zum politischen Hintergrund, dass der Tenor der Berichterstattung eines Landes über die fremde Nation an das außenpolitische Verhältnis gebunden ist – zur Zeit von Macmillans Moskau-Reise im Februar 1959 stellt die britische Außenpolitik eine Bedrohung für den Kurs Adenauers dar mit der Konsequenz, dass in beiden Pressediskursen ein negativer Tenor mit einer großen Anzahl negativer Fremdbilder zirkulierte. Als Macmillan 1960 von seiner Entspannungspolitik in Zentraleuropa Abstand nimmt und sich der kontinentaleuropäischen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen zuwendet, verbessert sich sowohl der Tenor als auch die wechselseitigen Heterobilder über den Anderen in beiden Pressediskursen. Demnach hängt die negative Tradierung von Fremdbildern von der diskursiven Konstellation ab, die in den überregionalen Leitmedien dem außenpolitischen Kurs der jeweiligen Regierung folgt. 5. Kapitel: Das britische und westdeutsche Pressewesen Im 5. Kapitel wird das westdeutsche Pressewesen dem britischen gegenübergestellt. Zunächst soll gezeigt werden, dass die Zeitungen im Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit das dominante Leitmedium zur politischen Information darstellen, da die "ephemeren" Medien wie Radio und Fernsehen zwar in beiden Ländern zahlenmäßig (bereits) weit verbreitet waren, sich zur intensiven politischen Information jedoch (noch) nicht durchgesetzt hatten. Dies hat zur Folge, dass der Presseberichterstattung über die britische und westdeutsche Außenpolitik zur zweiten Berlin-Krise eine noch größere Wirkungsmacht zukommt, deren inhaltliche Analyse sich eignet, dominante Grundaussagen des britischen und westdeutschen Pressediskurses in Form von Argumentationsmustern und der Tradierung von Fremdbildern zu Legitimierungszwecken herauszuarbeiten. Von diesen kann angenommen werden, dass sie eine sehr starke Wirkmacht zur Bewusstseinsbildung über die jeweils fremde Nation bei den Lesern hatten, zu denen nachweislich auch die führenden Politiker beider Länder zählten. Danach werden die sechs überregionalen Zeitungen in ihrer Pressegeschichte sowie ihrer zahlenmäßigen Verbreitung vorgestellt und ihre "Diskursposition", d.h. in ihrer (politischen) Ausrichtung im gesellschaftlichen Diskurs, genannt. Da diese Arbeit eine relative Homogenität der überregionalen Leitmedien annimmt, wird die Diskursposition der einzelnen Tageszeitungen in dieser Untersuchung vernachlässigt. Es werden zudem wesentliche Unterschiede des westdeutschen und britischen Pressewesens erläutert und die Kriterien einer "überregionalen Tageszeitungen" definiert. Abschließend werden beide Pressewesen miteinander verglichen und in den historischen Kontext der zweiten Berlin-Krise eingeordnet. 6. Kapitel: Die zweite Berlin-Krise als diskursiver Kontext Dieses Kapitel erläutert die außen- und weltpolitischen Hintergründe des längsten Konfliktes des Kalten Krieges, die im August 1961 zur sichtbaren Teilung Deutschlands in Ost- und West führte. Der historische Hintergrund wird mit Archivdokumenten aus dem Bundesarchiv Koblenz sowie dem Politischen Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes gestützt. Gezeigt werden die Rollen und Verantwortlichkeiten der alliierten Siegermächte Großbritannien, den USA und Frankreich gegenüber den sowjetischen Forderungen Chruschtschows, das Viermächteabkommen aufzukündigen und die alliierten Truppen aus Westberlin abzuziehen. Mit der Schilderung des historischen Hintergrundes wird zudem der Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit festgelegt, der mit dem Chruschtschow-Ultimatum vom 27.11.1958 beginnt und mit dem Beginn der Kuba-Krise im Oktober 1962 endet. Neben der Schilderung des Verlaufes der zweiten Berlin-Krise wird das deutsch-britische Verhältnis in diesem Zeitraum eingehend geschildert. Betont werden die Rolle Großbritanniens in der Außenpolitik Adenauers sowie umgekehrt, Deutschland bzw. Berlin in der britischen Außenpolitik. Darüber hinaus behandelt dieses Kapitel dominante Deutschlandbilder der britischen Öffentlichkeit sowie die Englandbilder der westdeutschen Bevölkerung. Inhalte politischer Dokumente stützen vorherrschende Haltungen beider Regierungen zueinander, die dem Zweck dienen, Einflüsse auf den jeweiligen Pressediskurs eines Landes zu erkennen, bzw. aus diskursanalytischer Sicht, die Politikerebene von der Medienebene zu trennen. 7. Kapitel: Kategorisierung der Diskursstränge Hier werden die drei in dieser Arbeit analysierten Diskursstränge inhaltlich umrissen. Diskursstränge, die Bilder des Anderen enthalten, jedoch nicht wechselseitig in beiden auftreten, werden in Punkt 7.4 genannt. Dabei handelt es sich um Diskursstränge, die spezifisch für ein Land stehen, die fremde Nation jedoch thematisieren. So behandelt Großbritannien verstärkt das Thema "NS-Prozesse" im eigenen spezifischen Diskurs anders als dies in der westdeutschen Presse geschieht. 8. Kapitel: Diskursstrang 1: Der Staatsbesuch von Theodor Heuss: Oktober 1958 Mehrere Faktoren begründen den Staatsbesuch von Theodor Heuss als ersten offiziellen Empfang eines deutschen Regierungsoberhauptes durch die britische Monarchin seit 1907 als diskursives Event zu behandeln und in die Analyse miteinzubeziehen, obwohl er Ende Oktober 1958, knapp einen Monat vor dem Beginn der zweiten Berlin-Krise, durch das Chruschtschow-Ultimatum stattfand. Erstens repräsentieren sowohl der Bundespräsident als auch die britische Monarchin die Bevölkerung ihres Landes und nicht die außenpolitische Linie. Demnach steht das Verhältnis beider Bevölkerungen zueinander im Mittelpunkt der Berichterstattung. Zweitens bestätigen mehrere Quellen, dass der Heuss-Besuch das Ende der Nachkriegsära im deutsch-britischen Verhältnis einläutete. Demnach stand dem Besuch eine große diskursive Aushandlung über die Presse beider Länder bevor, das deutsch-britische Verhältnis, das sich insbesondere durch den Zweiten Weltkrieg zu einer Feindschaft wandelte, neu auszuhandeln. Von britischer Seite bestand eine große Reserviertheit und Kühle gegenüber dem westdeutschen Gast, die die britische Presse dominierte. Die westdeutschen Zeitungen berichteten ausführlich über die Ehrung und Würde des königlichen Empfangs und bezogen sich anschließend auf das negative Echo der britischen Zeitungen. Die britische Presse zeichnete dabei das Bild des "deutschen Charakters" als obrigkeitshörigen, gefügigen, materialistischen und unmoralischen Deutschen, der seine Vergangenheit mit dem Konsum des Wirtschaftswunders verdrängt. Heuss dagegen sei "not this kind of German". Von deutscher Seite seien "Engländer auch keine Italiener". Nationale Bilder des Anderen dienen der Legitimierung und Einordnung in den eigenen diskursiven Kontext, die Haltung und Reaktion des Anderen logisch zu interpretieren. Sowohl die qualitative als auch quantitative Analyse der Presseartikel in den westdeutschen und britischen Zeitungen ergeben, dass das Bild vom Anderen in seiner Anzahl negativ ist, was auf ein vorherrschend negatives Bild und Grundaussauge insbesondere im britischen Diskurs gegenüber den Deutschen schließen lässt. Es zeigt sich zudem, dass die dominanten Unterthemen der britischen und westdeutschen Presse analog zu der Hierarchie der am meisten verwendeten negativen Fremdbildern sind. Demnach überwiegt zahlenmäßig in der britischen Presse das Bild des unmoralischen und militanten Deutschen, das in Analogie zum am meisten vorhandenen Unterthema der NS-Vergangenheit steht. Von deutscher Seite ist das Bild der kühlen, reservierten und unhöflichen Briten dominant, das am gewichtigsten das Unterthema der "Reaktion der britischen Bevölkerung und der britischen Presse" interpretierend unterstützt. Heterobilder und -stereotype sind demnach in die Struktur der Presseberichterstattung eingebettet und erfüllen bestimmte Funktionen, meist die der Verstärkung der Argumentationen zur Herstellung von Plausibilität und Logik. Indem die westdeutsche Presse die Briten als "arrogant allem Fremden gegenüber" charakterisiert, dient dies der Einordnung und Erklärung für die berichtete kühle Reaktion der britischen Bevölkerung auf den deutschen Gast. Indem die britische Presse ein Kontinuitätsbild der Deutschen als "militant und unmoralisch" tradiert, ist die reservierte Haltung der eigenen Bevölkerung gegenüber den unmoralischen Deutschen gerechtfertigt. Zugleich stilisieren sich die Briten selbst als "moralisch" im Hinblick auf ihre politische Tradition und Konstitution. Die diskursive Aushandlung des deutsch-britischen Verhältnis zum Heuss-Staatsbesuch dient der "Aktualisierung" des jeweiligen Fremdbildes, wodurch aus diskursanalytischer Sichtweise "viel Wissen produziert wird". Die mediale Neuaushandlung der deutsch-britischen Beziehungen wird durch Berichte etwa des deutschen Botschafters in London sowie von Heuss selbst ergänzt, die erläutern, dass es sich um eine berichtete kühle Reserviertheit der britischen Bevölkerung gegenüber dem deutschen Staatsgast handelt und nicht um eine tatsächlich erlebte Ablehnung aus Sicht beider Politiker. Theodor Heuss berichtigte diese Tatsache sogar in seiner Neuansprache an das deutsche Volk vom 31.01.1958, bei der er sagte, dass er viel Wärme erfahren habe und dass verantwortliche Journalisten einberufen wurden. Trotz der überwiegend negativen Tradierung der Bilder des Anderen während des Heuss-Besuchs ist eine Verbesserung des Tenors in beiden nationalen Pressediskursen zu erkennen, die etwa im Januar bei den wohlwollenden Berichten über die Assoziierung Großbritanniens an den europäischen Markt deutlich erkennbar ist, jedoch durch die Herausforderungen der zweiten Berlin-Krise ab Januar 1959 deutlich in den Hintergrund rückt. 9. Kapitel: Bilaterale Krise zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan: 1959 Der Diskursstrang der bilateralen Krise zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan im Jahr 1959 bildet den "Kern" der in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Diskursanalyse. Dies ist damit zu begründen, dass der Diskursstrang von Oktober 1958 bis Januar 1959 eine positive Entwicklung aufzeigt, die durch das zunächst relativ harmonische persönliche Verhältnis zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan aufgrund außenpolitischer Übereinstimmung gekennzeichnet ist. Adenauers Position als Befürworter des britischen Anliegens, sich wirtschaftlich in Europa nicht zu isolieren durch die Schaffung einer Freihandelszone als Gegengewicht zur 1957 gegründeten EWG der Kontinentaleuropäer stößt zunächst auf Wohlwollen der außenpolitischen Interessen Macmillans und Adenauers, der stets eine engere Einbindung Großbritannien an Europa anstrebte. Durch das Chruschtschow-Ultimatum Ende November 1958 und der sich Mitte Januar 1959 herauskristallisierenden entgegengesetzten Positionen im Ost-West-Konflikt verschlechterte sich das bilaterale Verhältnis um ein Vielfaches, das nach der unilateralen Moskau-Reise Macmillans Ende Februar 1959 im April 1959 seinen Höhepunkt nimmt. Der bilaterale Konflikt wird auf den polarisierenden Charakterisierungen des weichen Macmillans gegenüber eines starren Adenauers auf die Personen des britischen und westdeutschen Regierungsoberhauptes übertragen. Von westdeutscher Seite wird dem Misstrauen gegenüber der britischen Außenpolitik mit Beschwichtigungen reagiert. Zugleich tritt Amerika als "Beschützer" vor den Russen ins Zentrum der westdeutschen Argumentation. Macmillans ergebnislose Moskau-Reise wird in der westdeutschen und britischen Presse unterschiedlich interpretiert: die Briten sehen sie weitestgehend als Erfolg, da Chruschtschow gegen Ende doch noch einer Außenministerkonferenz zustimmte, die ab Mai in Genf stattfand. Die Zeitungen der BRD werten sie einschlägig als "Fehlschlag". Macmillans einseitige Initiative wirft zugleich die Frage einer "Paris-Bonn-Achse" auf, da die Moskau-Reise noch stärker zu einer Polarisierung innerhalb der westlichen Allianz führt: de Gaulle steht entschieden zur starren Haltung Adenauers gegenüber der UdSSR, Amerika befürwortet eher Verhandlungen wobei die britische Regierung vollkommen auf Verhandlungen mit Chruschtschow setzt, um die Berlin-Frage zu lösen. Die Begriffe "schwach" in der westdeutschen Presse und "suspicious" in der britischen sind die im Verlauf des Jahres 1959 am häufigsten tradierten Bilder des Anderen. Die deutschen Zeitungen stilisieren Macmillans Außenpolitik und Großbritannien als schwächste Alliierte wohingegen die britische Presse Adenauer als "misstrauisch" gegenüber britischen Motiven charakterisiert. Im April äußerte sich Adenauer im Rundfunk über "Drahtzieher", die bewusst das deutsch-britische Verhältnis in Großbritannien verschlechtern. Ohne direkt die "Wire-Pullers" zu nennen, bezieht die britische Presse Adenauers Anschuldigungen Mitte April 1959 auf sich. Es kommt zum Times-Artikel: "Anglo-German relations at low ebb" sowie zur Bemerkung im Daily Telegraph: "No conspiracy is needed since anti-German feelings exist without being artificially inspired". Adenauers kritische Äußerungen halten von Juni bis September 1959 an. Während der ersten Phase der Genfer Außenministerkonferenz bleibt ein negativer Tenor in der westdeutschen Presse gegenüber britischen Motiven bestehen, wobei Adenauers Kritik an der britischen Außenpolitik in Zusammenhang mit der (ergebnislosen) Genfer Konferenz zu sehen ist. Ab September ist eine eindeutige Distanzierung sowohl der britischen als auch deutschen Presse zu Adenauers Äußerungen zu bemerken. Dies liegt in der quantitativen Anzahl von Artikeln begründet als auch in der qualitativen Analyse der Presseartikel. Über die dritte Adenauer-Kritik an Großbritannien wird verhältnismäßig wenig und sehr "nüchtern" berichtet. Daher ist eine Einflussnahme der Regierungen auf eine Verbesserung des bilateralen Verhältnisses in der Presseberichterstattung zu verzeichnen. Als Adenauer im Oktober 1959 bekannt gibt, Ende November 1959 zu bilateralen Gesprächen mit Macmillan nach London zu reisen, richtet sich der Tenor beider Pressediskurse auf die Hoffnung und Zuversicht, dass beide Staatsmänner ihre Differenzen beseitigten. Insbesondere in der britischen Presse ist eine stark betonte Verbesserung des Tenors gegenüber Deutschland zu vermerken, die etwa in Berichten wie "the prospects for next week's talks are excellent" zum Ausdruck kommt. Die deutsche Presse bezeichnet die Verschlechterung des deutsch-britischen Verhältnis als "unnötigen Hader". Auch die Nachbereitung der bilateralen Gespräche hinterlässt einen positiven Einschlag. Die öffentliche Haltung des westdeutschen Außenministers sowie Adenauers selbst, eine Assoziierung der neu gegründeten EFTA mit der EWG zu befürworten, sowie Macmillans Distanzierung von einem Disengagement in Zentraleuropa führt zu jener bilateralen Verbesserung. Die Analyse ergab, dass die britische Presse Adenauer negativ als "old, suspicious, rigid und authoritarian" im April, Juni und September im Rahmen seiner Kritik an Macmillan charakterisiert. Britische Außenpolitik wird in der zweiten Hälfte von 1959 als "nüchtern" und "pragmatisch" stereotypisiert, in der ersten als "weich, schwach und flexibel". Auffallend ist, dass, je mehr über die verschlechterten deutsch-britischen Beziehungen berichtet wird, desto stärker das deutsch-französische hervortritt. Die Dominanz der Unterthemen in beiden Pressediskursen im Jahr 1959 zeigt, dass das Gewicht vom außenpolitischen Prinzip bestimmt ist. Für die deutsche Presse sind dies die deutsch-französischen Beziehungen und die außenpolitische Haltung Großbritanniens im Ost-West-Konflikt, für die britische Presse sind dies die Thematik um die Freihandelszone bzw. EFTA sowie die erstarkende Position der BRD als ("gleichberechtigter", "dominanter") NATO-Partner. Die überregionalen Leitmedien folgen demnach den außenpolitischen Kurs der jeweiligen Regierung. 10. Kapitel: Hinwendung zu Europa? Großbritannien und die EWG ab 1960 Der dritte Diskursstrang behandelt schwerpunktmäßig die diskursive Aushandlung des britischen Selbstbildes in seiner Hinwendung zu Europa gemäß der britischen Außenpolitik. Mit der zunehmenden und schnell wachsenden Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft, die zur politischen Union werden soll, verliert die von Großbritannien gegründete EFTA an Kraft. Neben Kennedys Wunsch nach einer Europäischen Integration, die Großbritannien als Mitglied der EWG sehen will, wird die Einheit der westlichen Allianz gegenüber der Sowjetunion auf die Wirtschaft übertragen. Bei Macmillans Besuch in Washington im April 1961 wird dieser Prozess beschleunigt, als der britische Premier am 31.07.1961 im Unterhaus verkündet, ein Beitrittsgesuch zur EWG in Brüssel zustellen. Der Diskursstrang ist zunächst in drei Phasen zu teilen: 1) Deutsch-britische Annäherung zwischen EWG und EFTA von Januar 1960 bis Februar 1961, 2) Erwägung und Beschluss des britischen EWG-Beitrittes: März bis Dezember 1961, 3) Wachsende Skepsis und Distanz Adenauers zum britischen EWG-Beitritt: Januar bis Oktober 1962. Das der Diskursstrang eine starke Fokussierung auf dem britischen Selbstbild besitzt und das Verhältnis Großbritannien vermehrt gegenüber den EWG-Staaten und weniger bilateral behandelt wird, wurde hier auf eine Feinanalyse verzichtet. Ziel der Strukturanalyse ist es, vor dem Hintergrund der zeitweiligen Abwesenheit außenpolitischer Differenzen zwischen beiden Ländern eine starke Verbesserung des Tenors in der britischen und westdeutschen Presseberichterstattung festzustellen, wobei es im Februar 1961 zu einem berichteten "Höhepunkt" im deutsch-britischen Verhältnis beim bilateralen Treffen zwischen Adenauer und Macmillan in London kommt, der neben dem positiven Tenor auch gerade in der positiven Darstellung Adenauers in der britischen Presse zeigt. Die positive Darstellung Adenauers ist mit seiner Befürwortung eines britischen EWG-Beitrittes verbunden. Auch hier kommt das deutsch-französische Verhältnis zum Tragen: die britische Presse erhofft sich mit Adenauer einen Fürsprecher gegenüber de Gaulle zu haben bzw. die deutsch-französische Achse aufzuweichen. Adenauer dagegen ist über die positive Haltung der Briten gegenüber einer Europäischen Integration positiv gestimmt. Während sich in der zweiten Phase des Diskursstrangs die bilaterale Aushandlung der deutsch-britischen Beziehungen entfernt, da die britischen Zeitungen etwa das Selbstbild um den Verlust der eigenen Souveränität aushandeln und die Berlin-Krise mit dem zweiten Chruschtschow-Ultimatum vom Juni 1961 und der darauf folgenden Abriegelung des Ost-Sektors von Berlin im August 1961 die Aufmerksamkeit der westdeutschen Zeitungen auf den Ost-West-Konflikt richten. Die dritte Phase ab Januar 1962 wird eingeleitet durch Macmillans Besuch in Bonn Anfang Januar 1962. Dabei werden erste Verschlechterungen in der beiderseitigen Berichterstattung deutlich, die sich um die Stationierungskosten der britischen Rhein-Armee ranken, die aufgrund der Teilung Deutschlands im Rahmen der NATO aufgestockt werden muss. Im März äußert sich Adenauer erstmals öffentlich gegenüber einem französischen Journalisten kritisch dem britischen EWG-Beitritt gegenüber. Politische Dokumente vom Dezember 1961 belegen, wie sehr Adenauer de Gaulles distanzierter Haltung zu einem britischen EWG-Beitritt zustimmt, da sonst das politische Konzept der EWG nicht umgesetzt werden könne. Im Juni 1962 äußerte sich der Bundeskanzler erneut konkret kritisch, indem er behauptet, dass eine wirtschaftliche Assoziierung Großbritanniens zur EWG nicht gleich eine Vollmitgliedschaft des Vereinigten Königreiches bedeuten muss. Die westdeutsche Presse distanziert sich zunehmest von Adenauers kritischen Äußerungen wohingegen die britischen Zeitungen Ludwig Erhards und von Brentanos Zustimmung zitieren. Mit Adenauers Staatsbesuch in Paris Anfang Juli und der zelebrierten deutsch-französischen Aussöhnung in der Kathedrale von Reims kommen Feindbilder gegenüber den militanten Deutschen in der britischen Presse erneut hervor. Adenauer wird für die britische Europapolitik zur Bedrohung, da eine demonstrierte Aussöhnung mit de Gaulle gleichbedeutend sei mit einer Distanzierung Bonns vom britischen Anliegen und von einer Fürsprache Adenauers bei de Gaulle für die britische Sonderstellung. Weitere kritische Äußerungen Adenauers im August 1962 verstärken diese Haltung. Die westdeutsche Presse distanziert sich dabei nachweislich von den Äußerungen des "alten Herrn" und folgen dem Konsens der Bonner Außenpolitik. Mit dem Beginn der Commonwealth-Konferenz in London im September und dem aufkommenden Konflikt der Kuba-Krise endet der Untersuchungszeitraum dieser Arbeit. 11. Kapitel: Ergebnisse und diskursanalytische Schlussfolgerungen Zu den zentralen Schlussfolgerungen zählt die Aussage, dass die britische und westdeutsche überregionale Presse den allgemeinen Konsens der Außenpolitik verfolgt. Abweichende Haltungen einzelner Personen, auch gerade die der Regierungsoberhäupter, werden gegebenenfalls ausgegrenzt. Somit hält der überregionale Pressediskurs die Funktion einer Korrektur inne. Einflussnahmen der Politikerebene auf den Tenor der überregionalen Berichterstattung wurden kenntlich gemacht, etwa ab September 1959 vor dem Adenauer-Besuch in London. Die Formulierung negativer Fremdbilder und Stereotype ist in den Zeiten des außenpolitischen Konfliktes quantitativ erhöht. Ein interessantes Ergebnis ist die Dichotomie der tradierten Bilder von Adenauer und Macmillan: im April 1959 stilisiert die westdeutsche Presse Macmillan als "weich" und "flexibel" wohingegen die britischen Zeitungen Adenauer als "rigid" und "authoritarian" charakterisieren. Die Herausbildung negativer Stereotype ist damit zu begründen, dass die fremde Nation zur Bedrohung für die eigenen Interessen wird, wie im Fall von Macmillans Moskau-Reise oder Adenauers zunehmender Distanzierung zum britischen EWG-Beitritt. In Zeiten der akuten Bedrohung ist zusätzlich eine quantitative wie qualitative Abhängigkeit der britischen und westdeutschen Presseartikel festzustellen. So verlaufen beide Diskursstränge parallel zueinander. Aus qualitativer Sicht finden zahlreiche direkte und indirekte Bezüge der westdeutschen Presse zu britischen Artikeln sowie umgekehrt statt. Im dritten Diskursstrang, der vor dem Hintergrund der vorläufigen Abwesenheit von bilateralen Spannungen artikuliert wurde, treten die direkten Bezugnahmen zwischen der britischen und westdeutschen Presse zurück. Darüber hinaus verbessert sich der Tenor nachhaltig. In dem Moment, als erneut Spannungen auftraten, wie ab Juni 1962, tritt sogar das Bild des militanten Deutschen erneut in der britischen Presse auf. Somit hängen negative Fremdbilder vom außenpolitischen Kurs der Regierung und der Position der anderen Nation im bilateralen Verhältnis in den überregionalen Zeitungen ab. Zudem werden Forschungsausblicke vorgelegt, die sich auf einen Vergleich etwa des dritten Diskursstrangs mit dem gegenwärtigen EU-Austritt Großbritanniens beziehen oder sich mit den Dynamiken des deutsch-französischen Verhältnisses beschäftigen. 12. Kapitel: Ausblick: Wandel der Stereotype in der deutsch-britischen Presseberichterstattung(?) Das Kapitel möchte einen Ausblick zum Wandel bzw. zur Beständigkeit von den hier untersuchten Bildern des Anderen im gegenwärtigen deutsch-britischen Verhältnis liefern. Dazu werden einerseits Parallelen zum gegenwärtigen EU-Austritt Großbritanniens gezogen. Andererseits werden mittels der Aussagen von Interviewpartnern aus dem deutsch-britischen Verhältnis Ergebnisse und Ausblicke vorgelegt, die zur weiteren Erforschung der deutsch-britischen Pressebeziehungen einladen sollen. ; This doctoral dissertation examines the use of national stereotypes used in British and West German quality newspapers during the second Berlin Wall Crisis (1958 to 1962). As the Berlin Wall Crisis represents the tensest controversy within Cold War history, the national press coverage of West Germany and Great Britain is highly defined by reports on the political events. These are temporarily characterised by the direct confrontation between the West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer and the British Premier Harold Macmillan. The density and acuteness of this Cold War crisis, however, reduces the respective press releases on German and British affairs to a mere political coverage; thus, the analysis of the prevailing British and German newspapers can be regarded as a political discourse analysis. The methodological approach employed in this work follows the Critical Discourse Analysis according to Ruth Wodak [1], Norman Fairclough [2] and Sara Mills [3] with the aim of displaying the mutual use of auto- and hetero-images of "the Germans" and "the British" in the respective national media and consequently, the discursive construction of national identity. The discourse analysts' view is supplemented here by the imagologist approach of Manfred Beller [4], which concerns the construction of national images of the Self and the Other in public national discourse. Referring to the above-mentioned dominance of politically related reports in past national press coverage, Critical Discourse Analysis represents a highly suitable methodological approach as it aims at examining the discursive mechanisms of power and ideology in which a text is set. Considering this, Sara Mills defines Critical Discourse Analysis as a "political analysis of text" [5]. The time period examined in this work does not only mark the peak of the East-West conflict but also implements the substantial formation and structure of the European Union as it is still prevalent today. Major negotiations in the national press of that time, such as the entrance of Great Britain into the European Economic Community (EEC) beginning in the late 1950s, reveal arguments, attitudes and images in national press coverage about European affiliation of which many are still valid today. This can be currently noticed in British demands for a European reform as well as in a possible exit from the European Union in 2017. Accordingly, the diachronic view from the news coverage between Germany and Britain during the Berlin Wall Crisis is accomplished by this present outlook on German-British relations. This double-tracked approach allows both a complex portrayal of the historical development of German-British relationship and a definition of the mechanisms of auto- and hetero-images as they occur and change in trans-national media discourse. References: [1] Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (Eds.). Methods of Critical Discourse Studies. London: Sage, 32016. [2] Norman Fairclough. Critical Discourse Analysis. The Critical Study of Language. Edinburgh: Longman, 22010. [3] Sara Mills. Discourse. London: Routledge, 1997. [4] Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Eds.). Imagology. The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters. A Critical Survey. New York: Rodopi, 2007. [5] Mills: Discourse, p. 131. ; Arrogante und nüchterne Briten, ein Bundespräsident, der nicht deutsch sein kann, da er den Briten sympathisch ist oder militante Deutsche, die gemocht werden wollen - so schreiben die überregionalen britischen und westdeutschen Tageszeitungen während einer der brisantesten Krisen des Kalten Krieges übereinander. Die zweite Berlin-Krise (1958 bis 62) repräsentiert dabei eine schicksalhafte Zeit sowohl für die Bundesrepublik als auch für das Vereinigte Königreich. Themen wie die Suche nach einer gemeinsamen westlichen Strategie als Antwort auf sowjetische Ultimaten und die Teilung Deutschlands, die ambivalente britische Außenpolitik gegenüber Berlin, die deutsch-französischen Annäherungen und die Einbindung des Vereinigten Königreiches in die kontinentaleuropäische Wirtschaft dominieren die Pressediskurse beider Nationen. Diese Studie untersucht die diskursiven Mittel, mit denen die überregionale Presse außenpolitische Ereignisse in den eigenen nationalen Referenzrahmen integriert, und welche Rolle dabei textuelle Stereotype und Charakterisierungen spielen. Mithilfe der Methode der Kritischen Diskursanalyse will diese Arbeit anhand qualitativer und quantitativer Darstellungen jeweils diskursive Mechanismen der westdeutschen und britischen Tagespresse aufzeigen und damit ein kleines Stückchen Licht in die mediale Tradierung eines komplexen deutsch-britischen Verhältnisses bringen.

The Modern Language Association (MLA) report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007) recommended that the language disciplines decenter off literature and design programs that are more directly related to "real world" contexts. This recommendation has awoken renewed discussion about how best to promote and develop multilingualism and intercultural competence in the United States. In order to change undergraduate offerings, it would be necessary to change the focus of graduate programs. Changing the focus of graduate programs is a delicate and high stakes task, which can influence both the nature of intellectual production in the United States as well as impact the employability of thousands of new PhDs. Will the MLA 2007 report stimulate any lasting change? Will the number of jobs which deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields merit redesign of graduate programs to train future professors to meet this demand? The MLA Foreign Language Job Information List contains a plethora of data that can provide answers for some of these questions. This article seeks to create insights into a significant subcategory of the Foreign Language profession by presenting an analysis of job announcements for Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 15 Language for Specific Purposes Job Announcements from the Modern Language Association Job Lists: A Multiyear Analysis Mary K. Long University of Colorado at Boulder Abstract: The Modern Language Association (MLA) report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007) recommended that the language disciplines decenter off literature and design programs that are more directly related to "real world" contexts. This recommendation has awoken renewed discussion about how best to promote and develop multilingualism and intercultural competence in the United States. In order to change undergraduate offerings, it would be necessary to change the focus of graduate programs. Changing the focus of graduate programs is a delicate and high stakes task, which can influence both the nature of intellectual production in the United States as well as impact the employability of thousands of new PhDs. Will the MLA 2007 report stimulate any lasting change? Will the number of jobs which deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields merit redesign of graduate programs to train future professors to meet this demand? The MLA Foreign Language Job Information List contains a plethora of data that can provide answers for some of these questions. This article seeks to create insights into a significant subcategory of the Foreign Language profession by presenting an analysis of job announcements for Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). Keywords: jobs, job announcements, Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), Modern Language Association (MLA), non-tenure track (NTT), tenured/tenure track (TTT) Introduction Since its release five years ago, the Modern Language Association (MLA) report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007) has awoken renewed discussion in the profession about how best to promote and develop multilingualism and intercultural competence in the United States. The suggestion that the language disciplines should decenter off literature and design programs that are more directly related to "real world" contexts has caused both consternation and excitement as well as much discussion about what steps would be necessary to redesign both undergraduate and graduate programs in order to train future faculty to teach within the proposed new scenarios (e.g., Porter, 2009; Rifkin, 2012). Changing the focus of graduate programs is a delicate and high stakes task that can influence both the nature of intellectual production and international understanding in the United States as well as impact the employability of thousands of new PhDs. Thus, those in the profession are wise to move deliberately and to consider the multiple angles. From the point of view of preparing future professors, some very pragmatic issues of job market demand must be considered. For example, will the MLA 2007 report stimulate any lasting change? Are departments truly moving to transform their undergraduate offerings away from literature? If so, in what ways are they redefining their programs and who will teach these courses? What is the balance between tenured/tenure track (TTT) and non-tenure track (NTT) jobs LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 16 in these areas? Will there be steady demand for future faculty trained to meet the new scenarios? Are new research fields emerging? If so, what do they look like? Will the number of jobs that deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields merit redesign of graduate programs to train future professors to meet this demand? Or, is it more a question of helping future professors to enhance the traditional fields of specialization with new pedagogical approaches and secondary content expertise? The MLA Foreign Language Job Information List contains a plethora of data that can provide answers for some of these questions and be used to gauge the direction of the Foreign Language professions. In fact, the MLA itself releases yearly summaries of many of the overarching themes, such as number of jobs overall, changes in demand between languages, and so forth, but the potential exists to provide much more detailed analysis, which will be useful—and even crucial—to shaping the future of Foreign Language education in the United States. Along those lines, this article seeks to create insights into a significant subcategory of the Foreign Language profession by presenting an analysis of MLA Job List announcements with a focus on Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP). Since the late 1940s, the LSP field has been meeting the 2007 MLA report's stated goals of increasing the number of "educated speakers who have deep translingual and transcultural compentence" as well as the ability to carry that competence beyond the classroom into the world (MLA, 2007, p. 3). The LSP field continues to represent a significant area of Foreign Language Education in the United States. The national survey "Evolution of Language for Specific Purposes programs in the United States: 1990–2011" conducted by Long and Uscinski (2012), shows that, since the early 1990s, overall offerings of LSP have remained stable at 62% while at the same time the sophistication and variety of offerings have become deeper and more focused in response to the nuanced needs within different multilingual settings. The LSP faculty profile created as part of this survey indicates a more or less even split between TTT faculty and NTT faculty. In addition, while 20% of faculty listed LSP as their primary field of academic preparation, a dramatic 80% indicated another field as their primary field of academic preparation. Of these, the majority listed Literature as their primary focus, with Linguistics and Cultural Studies running a distant second and third (Long & Uscinski, 2012, p. 183). In part, this mix of primary fields has a very pragmatic explanation since as new fields develop, there will necessarily be a large number of "ground breakers" who are willing and able to expand their research and pedagogical skills beyond their original areas of content expertise. But, in addition, and more importantly, this mix of expertise is by definition one of the advantages and challenges for any interdisciplinary field. Recent volumes focused on LSP (e.g., Gueldry, 2010a, Gueldry 2010b; Lafford, 2012; Pérez-Llantada & Watson, 2011) showcase the rich research potential of the LSP focus for a variety of fields and point to the advantages of interdisciplinary research for addressing many of the complex intercultural issues faced in today's "global setting." These publications also provide significant insights into the history, current state and future potential for the LSP field. One of the difficulties highlighted in this body of work is that interdisciplinary work often blocks the professional progress of faculty since tenure and promotion structures are more suited to single focus research fields. Against this backdrop of past practices, the following analysis of LSP job announcements will shed light on how the profession envisions the future of the LSP field as well as offer insight LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 17 into what provisions (if any) are being made in the design of new positions to support and promote the professional success of faculty who possess highly needed interdisciplinary expertise. Methodology The job announcements have been analyzed for two "snap shot" moments: the online MLA Foreign Language Job Information list September 2008–January 2009 and the online MLA Foreign Language Job Information list from September 2011–June 2012 (and, one chart shares additional data on Spanish for Business from September 2007–January 2008). It should be noted that in 2008–2009 there was an historic decline in job announcements that continued into 2009–2010. Since 2010–2011, there has been a "tentative climb upwards" (Lusin, 2012, p. 95). Because of the unique moment represented by the job market during these years, and because only two years of data are presented, there has been no analysis performed to determine if changes in raw numbers or percentages represent statistically significant changes overtime. Rather than attempting to track statistical changes, the goal of this current project has been to have a more clear understanding of the quantity and specific profiles of jobs in the LSP field both in relation to the overall job market, and within the LSP profession itself. The data was collected as follows: the search function included in the electronic posting of the job list was used to first search each language for the total number of jobs for all ranks and regions in each language (both expired and current listings). The categories offered on the MLA job list that were searched are: Arabic, Chinese, French, German and Scandinavian, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian and Slavic, Spanish, Other languages, Linguistics and ESL, Generalist, and Other. After establishing the total number of jobs for each language, several new searches were conducted per language using the keyword function to limit results. For the 2008–2009 list, the search was repeated for each language using the keyword 'business,' and this keyword brought up announcements that also contained other LSP terms such as 'professions,' 'translation,' 'medical,' etc. For the search of the 2011–2012 MLA list, a more expanded set of keywords was used. Each language was searched separately for the following keywords: business, translation, medicine, medical, professions, professional and specific/special purposes. To avoid double counting of announcements that included several of the search words and to eliminate "false positives" when the keywords were used in non-LSP contexts, once they were identified, the LSP announcements were read individually and hand-sorted. After extracting the number of LSP jobs in relation to the overall number of jobs for each language, further analysis was conducted on the specific nature of the LSP jobs, whether the LSP field was listed as primary or secondary, the split between TTT and NTT positions within these categories, and in the case of jobs that list LSP as a secondary field, what primary fields are most often combined with LSP. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 18 Results Search terms. For the 2008–2009 search, even though additional search terms emerged through the key word 'business,' the majority of jobs were for 'language for business' with 'translation' coming in second. In 2011–2012, the highest results were for business, translation, professions, medical and specific/special purposes in descending order. 'Medicine' and 'professional' did not achieve any results in any language. This process revealed that when the keywords 'specific/special purposes' and 'professions' are used they are frequently followed by a parenthetical list of examples that duplicated other keywords (most often 'business' and 'translation') along with words not used in the search function. For example, for Spanish, other parenthetical examples included 'legal,' while for German, 'engineering' is a significant 'specific purpose.' 'Medical' only appeared in Spanish LSP job announcements, occasionally as a stand-alone term, but most often as one possible professional use. 'Translation,' on the other hand, was a stand-alone term that rivaled 'business' in Spanish, French, German, and Japanese. (In these cases, only non-literary translation positions were counted since there is a clear distinction in announcements between literary translation theory and applied professional translation.) Categories with LSP announcements. Categories that included jobs with an LSP focus in both 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 are Arabic, Chinese, French, German and Scandinavian, Japanese and Spanish. Categories that had no LSP jobs linked to the keywords in either sample are Hebrew, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Slavic, Other languages, and Generalist. The Linguistics and ESL heading had no LSP jobs in the 2008–2009 list, but in the 2011–2012 had 10 LSP jobs out of 120 total (8.3%), 2 in ESL and 8 in Spanish. However, since the focus of this article is not on ESL and the Spanish linguistics/LSP jobs have also been counted in Spanish and will be analyzed there, the Linguistics and ESL category will not be analyzed further in this article. In each of the years, the category 'other' has a few interdisciplinary opportunities with a professional focus that breaks away from categorization by language. Overall numbers. Table 1 shows the total number of jobs compared to total LSP jobs and percentages for all languages from the 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 samples. Overall, the LSP job offerings fluctuate between 2 and 9% of all jobs, depending on specific language and year. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 19 Table 1 Total jobs vs. total LSP jobs and percentages by language 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 Language 2008–2009 Total of all jobs in sample of MLA job list 2008–2009 Number of jobs with LSP element in sample 2008–2009 % of jobs with LSP element out of all jobs in sample 2011–2012 Total of all jobs in sample of MLA job list 2011–2012 Number of jobs with LSP element in sample 2011–2012 % of jobs with LSP element out of all jobs in sample Arabic 46 2 4.3% 46 1 2.1% Chinese 64 6 9.3% 79 4 5% French 150 6 4% 177 9 5% German and Scandinavian 90 4 4% 120 9 7.5% Italian - - - 59 0 0 Japanese ? 2 38 2 5% Portuguese - - - 39 0 0 Russian and Slavic - - - 34 0 0 Spanish 377 13 3% 365 29 7.9% Other languages - - - 64 0 0 Linguistics and ESL - - - 120 2 ESL and counted in Spanish 8 linguistics (5 required and 3 possible field) 8.3% Generalist - - - 34 0 0 Other ? 3 137 1 NA LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 20 Table 2 breaks down the total number of LSP jobs for both sample years into categories of LSP as a primary or secondary field of interest and also indicates whether the jobs are TTT or NTT. Table 2 Total number of LSP jobs compared to primary or secondary field and Tenured/Tenure Track (TTT) or Non-Tenure Track (NTT) by language for 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 Language 2008–2009 Total number LSP in sample 2008–2009 LSP as Primary field and TTT or NTT 2008–2009 LSP as secondary field and TTT or NTT 2011–2012 Total number LSP in sample 2011–2012 LSP as Primary field and TTT or NTT 2011–2012 LSP as secondary field and TTT or NTT Arabic 2 1 (NTT) 1 (TT) 1 0 1 (NTT) Chinese 6 2 (NTT) 4 (TTT) 4 1 (TT) 3 (2 TT/1 NTT) French 6 3 (2 TTT/1NTT) 3 (TTT) 9 2 (1 TT/1 NTT) 7 (3 TT/ 4 NTT) German and Scandinavian 4 4 (2TTT/2NTT) 0 9 1 (TT) 8 (4TT/3 NTT) Japanese 2 1 (NTT) 1 (TTT) 2 2 (1 TT/1 NTT) Spanish 13 6 (NTT) 7 (TTT) 29 13 (9 TT/ 4 NTT) 16 (11 TT/ 5 NTT) Other 3 1 (TT) Primarily business, PhD in applied linguistics or other fields of linguistics and MA in one of the World Languages) 2 post docs language open PhD field open; work on creating connection between the arts and the sciences and business 1 1 (TT) Director of a center for International Understanding Total 36 18 (5 TTT/13 NTT) 18 (16 TTT/2 post docs) 53 20 (14TTT/6NTT) 34 (21 TTT/ 13 NTT) LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 21 Table 3 transforms the raw numbers from Table 2 into percentages from the 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 samples of TTT LSP positions overall, and the split for jobs with LSP as the primary field or secondary field. In order to provide context, the percentages of TTT jobs by language for the overall profession from the 2011–2012 job list is also provided in this table. Table 3 2011–2012 percent of tenured/tenure track (TTT) for all jobs vs. 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 percent of TTT in LSP total and percentages of TTT with LSP as primary or secondary field Language 2011–2012 % TTT of total jobs in MLA sample 2008–2009 % TTT of total LSP in sample 2008–2009 % TTT LSP as primary within total LSP sample 2008–2009 % TTT LSP as secondary within total LSP sample 2011–2012 % TTT of total LSP sample 2011–2012 % TTT LSP as primary within total LSP sample 2011–2012 % TTT LSP as Secondary within total LSP sample Arabic 43% 50% 0% 50% 0% 0% 0% Chinese 47.5% 66% 0% 66% 75 % 25% 50% French 47.9 % 83% 33% 50% 44% 11% 33% German and Scandinavian 38% 50% 50% 0% 55 % 11% 44% Japanese 48% 50% 0% 50% 50 % 50% 0% Spanish 53% 53% 0% 53% 68% 31% 37% Overall 49% 58% 50% 8% 64% 25% 39% The percentages of TTT positions for the overall profession by language range from 38% (in German) to 53% (in Spanish). For 2008–2009 the percentages of TTT positions out of the body of LSP jobs ranged between 50% and 83% while in 2011–2012 the percentages ranges from 0% to 75%. When the LSP jobs are analyzed for TTT positions with LSP as a primary field or as a secondary field, the TTT positions with LSP as a secondary field are slightly more than LSP as a primary field for both samples. From 2008–2009 to 2011–2012 there would seem to be a decrease in the overall number of TTT primary LSP positions, but these numbers are misleading, since in 2008–2009 only two languages (French and German) had TTT primary LSP positions, while in 2011–2012 all languages except for Arabic have at least one TTT primary LSP position. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 22 Discussion of overall numbers. At first the overall percentages of LSP positions to total jobs may seem low, but it helps to contextualize them by briefly comparing with the percentages of other more traditional specializations within the language professions. So for example, from the 2011–2012 list, a search in late July for Spanish with keyword 'Mexico' reveals 18 out of 359 or 5% of jobs focused on this specialization, while the keywords 'Golden Age' yield 12 out of 359 or 3% of jobs, 'Modern Peninsular' appears in 16 out of 359 or 4.4%, 'Applied Linguistics' in 41 out of 359 or 11% of announcements, and 'Cultural Studies' tallies a dramatic 82 out of 359 or 22% of all jobs in Spanish. For French, the keywords '18th century' exist in only 5 out 175 or 2% of jobs, while '20th century' yields 12 out of 175 for 6%, 'Francophone' 54 out of 175 for 30%, 'Applied Linguistics' 11 out of 175 for 6%, and 'Cultural Studies' 57 out of 175 for 32%. In contrast, the 'Generalist' category defines 34 out of 359 or 9% of jobs for Spanish but for French only 6 out of 175 or 3%. One could continue to generate multiple different combinations of keywords. For the purposes of this article the point meant to be illustrated by this quick comparison of some literary and linguistic categories is to show that the percentages for job offerings requiring some LSP content, while not in the double digits, are as significant as many other smaller fields of specialization within the profession, and thus, LSP is a viable career enhancing area of expertise for those who have an interest or previous experience in an LSP area or who have access to LSP content and/or teaching experience through their graduate institution. In regards to the percentage of TTT positions, it appears that the ratio of TTT to NTT within the LSP profession is slightly better than in the overall job market. But, as stated earlier, no analysis has been done to determine statistical significance. What is clear, however, is that the ration of TTT to NTT for LSP is at least the same as for the overall market. However, the most important element in the analysis of TTT vs. NTT positions is the split between primary and secondary fields. In this case, the numbers do not seem to justify advising graduate students to focus exclusively on an LSP field. Rather, they should pursue LSP as a strong secondary field and be prepared in the case of primary LSP positions to expand on their LSP expertise further. This leads to the question of which primary fields are most often combined with a secondary interest in LSP in the job announcements. It is not possible to make overall generalizations about this, since the primary/secondary field combinations are quite specific to each language. So, in what follows, the results for each language will be presented and discussed individually. Arabic In 2008–2009, there were 2 LSP jobs out of a total of 46 announcements or 4.3% of jobs had an LSP element. One of these jobs was a tenure track position with a primary field listed as expertise in language, culture and civilization with business and comparative literature as desirable secondary fields. The other was a non-tenure track position with primarily a focus on Arabic for business and additional duties as administrator of the Arabic minor. In 2011–2012, the sample also revealed 46 jobs but just one (or 2.1%) had an LSP focus. This non-tenure track position offered a 3 year renewable contract but had a hefty list of requirements: LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 23 Required: Experience with the proficiency communicative approach; ability to teach at least one colloquial dialect in addition to Modern Standard and Classical Arabic at all levels, and content courses such as Newspaper/Media Arabic and Business Arabic; experience in curriculum development and supervision, along with full competency to teach language and content courses at all levels; completed doctoral degree by time of appointment. Chinese In the 2008–2009 sample, there were 6 LSP jobs out of a total of 64 for Chinese, which represented 9.3% of all jobs in this language. For the 2011–2012 sample, the percentage is lower at 5%, while the total number of jobs is higher at 79 only 4 positions mention LSP. In 2008–2009, there was one tenure track assistant level position and 3 tenured at the level of Associate or Full. All of these positions were at the City University of Hong Kong and listed cultural management communication as the primary field with business as a secondary area. The jobs that listed business as a primary field were both non-tenure track: one visiting professorship focused on policy and business and one non-tenure track full-time position, which also included administration of the minor. In 2011–2012, there were 3 TTT positions: two had a primary focus on LSP, one focused especially on "courses related to Chinese Business Language and Culture" the other specified that "research should focus on the knowledge and behavioral demands confronting nonnative speakers seeking professional level competencies in contemporary China, issues of cross-cultural communication between Americans and Chinese, and the development of pedagogical instruments for training in these areas." The other TTT position and the NTT position listed the interest in and ability to teach Chinese for business as a plus, while leaving the actual specialty open. French In the 2008–2009 sample, there were 6 LSP jobs out of a total of 150 for 4% and in 2011–2012, 9 out of 177 for 5%. The 2008–2009 positions were split equally between primary and secondary with a majority of the jobs (5) as TTT, and the only NTT was in the primary LSP category. The field combinations during this year were quite interesting with the primary fields being defined as "Business French and also Italian with a PhD in French from any field" and "open area able to teach Business French and Francophone cultural studies" for the TTT positions, and "French and Spanish able to interact with regional business" for the NTT position. When LSP was listed as a secondary field the primary fields were: 1) French literature and/or Francophone studies, in a program that had an Undergraduate major in Global studies, 2) 19th-and 20th-century literature or Francophone studies or linguistics, and 3) Post-1600 French studies and an "active participation in Language and Cultures for Professions and ability to create internships/study abroad." In 2011–2012 the French LSP positions were split 2/7 with a distribution of 1 TTT and 1 NTT in primary LSP and 3 TTT to 4 NTT in the category of secondary field. For the TTT primary LSP position, the description specified a Generalist, with preference being LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 24 given to specialists in Cultural Studies and Business French. The NTT position required a PhD or equivalent in French or related field but stated that the successful candidate: must be familiar with current business and economic issues in Francophone countries and the EU and be able to develop and maintain links to the Francophone business and cultural community in the Greater Atlanta area and also serve as academic advisor for students in the Language and Business concentrations and interest/experience with Study Abroad programs is a plus. For the jobs that specified interest in LSP as a secondary field, the specified primary fields were: 1) pre-20th-century French literature and culture and the LSP field was translation, 2) Linguistics and pedagogy, and 3) PhD in Spanish, French or Romance Languages, with preference for those who can teach both French and Spanish though candidates who can "teach only French will be considered." The NTT positions in the secondary LSP category listed language teaching, pedagogy and phonetics as primary interests and the LSP fields were translation and business. It is important to note that in the French announcements, when LSP capabilities are listed as secondary interest they are most often included in a list of possible secondary fields like phonetics, phonology and stylistics. Keywords 'business' and 'translation' predominate. It is also important to note the frequent combination of Francophone studies with LSP fields. German and Scandinavian In this category, all the LSP jobs were for German with 4 out of 90 or 4% from the 2008–2009 sample and 8 out of 120 or 6% for the 2011–2012 sample. In 2008–2009, all the jobs were for primary LSP field with 2 TTT and 2 NTT. The TTT positions listed the PhD field as open and emphasized the "ability to develop Professions Focus" for the first and phonetics and business for the second. For the NTT positions one had an open PhD field, and also asked for English in addition to German for Business, and the other NTT position, which was renewable, included the administrative task of directing the Business German PhD and required a PhD in Applied Linguistics with a focus on language and identity. In 2011–2012, the sample yielded one primary LSP job seeking a colleague with PhD in any area to contribute to a "new beginning in the German studies program." The primary interest was in "practical experiences" for the student such as "cultural studies (politics, society, business, media, film) literature and second language acquisition." The TTT LSP secondary jobs had primary fields of: 1) 19th- through 21st-century German Studies, the LSP fields of interest were film, professions (engineering and business) and language-across-the-curriculum, 2) German literature with an LSP field in translation, 3) German or German studies, and 4) German and German Cultural Studies. The NTT positions did not specify the PhD field and were primarily focused on general language teaching and some advising and administrative tasks. Of particular note in these announcements is the predominance of German studies or German Cultural studies over literature. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 25 Japanese In the 2008–2009 list sample, there were two LSP jobs (the overall number of Japanese positions is unclear). They are: one NTT primary LSP position to administer the Japanese for business minor and one TTT secondary LSP position which called for the ability to teach all levels of language, civilization, history, business, contemporary culture and literature. In 2011–2012, there were 2 jobs out of 38 or 5%. Both were primary LSP positions. The TTT position was for the University of Hong Kong and stated, "Those specializing in literature, film, translation, linguistics, business culture, anthropology, and/or religion are especially encouraged to apply." The NTT position clarified that the candidate is expected to work with faculty to design and develop content-based/thematic-based courses and/or Japanese language for special purposes. Spanish The data for Spanish LSP is more extensive since the majority of LSP jobs are in this language. Also, the data is drawn from three sample moments since in addition to the 2008–2009 and 2011–2012 sample used for the other languages, data was also collected for Spanish from the September 2007–January 2008 portion of the MLA list, which can be seen in Table 4. Table 4 Breakout of data for Spanish job listings for 2007–2008, 2008–2009, and 2011–2012 Spanish Total jobs 2007–2008 LSP jobs 2007–2008 Total jobs 2008–2009 (Sep–Jan 23) LSP jobs 2008–2009 Total jobs 2011–2012 LSP Totals 514 40 377 13 365 29 (5 specifically call for linguist) Primary LSP Focus 0 6 (NTT) 13 ( 9 TTT/ 4 NTT) Secondary LSP focus 40 7 (TTT) 16 (11 TTT/ 5 NTT) In the 2007–2008 sample (which was the year before the dramatic drop in job offerings), there were 40 LSP jobs out of a total of 514 Spanish positions, which equaled 9% of jobs. In the 2008–2009 sample, there were 13 LSP jobs out of 377 for 3% and in 2011–2012, 29 LSP jobs out of 365 for 7.9%. In 2007–2008, data was not collected for TTT vs. NTT positions, but all the LSP designations were listed as a preferred secondary field, 26 in the area of business, 15 for professional (non-literary) translation/interpretation, and 9 for medical. Typical announce-ments were "Assistant Professor of Spanish (Golden Age). . . . [S]trong preparation in LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 26 Golden Age literature. . . . [W]illingness to teach Business Spanish. . ." and "Tenure-track position. . . . [F]ield of specialization open, but generalist with Latin American studies preferred. Must be prepared to teach all levels of language (including business Spanish) as well as Hispanic Americana and Peninsular literatures and cultures." In the 2008–2009 list, though the overall numbers had dropped, the number of primary LSP positions had increased dramatically to 6, although all were NTT positions some requiring only a MA. The 7 secondary LSP positions were all TTT. The designated primary fields followed the standard areas of specializations of the Spanish profession with a predominance of literature positions and the announcements were characterized by the "laundry list" nature shown in the examples above. In the 2011–2012 sample, of the 29 positions 13 were for primary LSP positions and 9 of these were TTT. Of the 16 secondary LSP positions, 11 were TTT. There are some dramatic changes in the nature of the job announcements in this sample. For example, where as in previous job list samples 'business' was the primary word, and most often was a stand-alone term, this time none of the job announcements called only for 'business,' rather 'business' was always included in a list of options (e.g., medical, legal, interpretation, etc.) most often under the heading 'Spanish for the Professions.' 'Spanish for Health Professions' or 'Medical Spanish' seemed to gain ground, with 3 TTT positions (two primary LSP and 1 secondary LSP). Translation and interpreting studies showed a marked increase with 8 TTT positions of which 5 were primary LSP and 3 secondary LSP positions. Translation also appeared in 4 NTT secondary LSP positions. In addition, whereas earlier lists had predominantly shown literary fields combined with LSP, in this sample, applied linguistics showed significant gains with 4 jobs specifically designating a combination of applied linguistics and an LSP field (translation, interpretation, or medical) and 3 listing linguistics in general as one of the possible primary fields. Some of the announcements still combined seemingly disparate primary and secondary fields. For example "Contemporary Peninsular Literature with emphasis on theatres and /or poetry. . . . [E]xperience teaching Spanish for the Professions a plus" or "Preferred specialization Peninsular and Cultural studies; ability to contribute to Spanish for health professions (interest in interdisciplinary research/program development)." The mention of interdisciplinary research marks an opening up that is observable in many of the Spanish announcements. Yet, in spite of the mention of interdisciplinary research being a valued interest, in this sort of advertisement, there is really no clear vision of what that interdisciplinary research might look like. While it is true that this kind of open-endedness can be exhilarating and freeing for a creative professional, it can also be somewhat problematic at the time of tenure and promotion review. In contrast to this sort of announcement that has previously characterized LSP job descriptions, there were a number that had very specific and extensive LSP designations. Consider for example this announcement for an Assistant Professor in Spanish Applied Linguistics: The Department of Modern Languages and Literature at the University of [X] is seeking an innovator in Spanish applied linguistics or Latin American or Latina/o cultural studies research and pedagogy with interdisciplinary skills to engage the complex socio-cultural dimensions of health-related issues in South Texas. This position requires a willingness to develop a research plan and engage in cross-LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 27 disciplinary research in healthcare issues of particular importance to the region of South Texas, such as health literacy, diabetes, obesity, or health issues surrounding poverty, race, gender, class, immigration, or legality. The successful candidate will participate in teaching and mentoring in the Department's unique program in Medical Spanish for Heritage Learners, will collaborate with faculty from other departments in advancing research in healthcare, and will teach undergraduate and graduate courses in the area of specialization. A PhD in Spanish is required prior to start date in Fall, 2012. The successful candidate will have native or near native fluency in Spanish. The candidate must demonstrate potential for teaching excellence, research and publication, and grantsmanship. Or another from a criminal justice program "[X University] seeks an Assistant Professor of Spanish/Specialist in Translation and Interpreting (Foreign Languages), PhD in Spanish Translation, interpreting or related field." The specificity and focus of these job announcements mark a significant change in the envisioning of Spanish LSP fields and seem to create clear direction for the expected research agenda, which would allow the faculty member to develop a unified body of research and facilitate the path to tenure/promotion. One question that comes to mind when reading these more detailed job descriptions is how many candidates there might be for such jobs given the very specific qualifications (especially in the Applied linguistics ad for the medical field). Also, one is lead to ponder what the doctoral programs that are producing such specialists might look like. There are a few doctoral programs around the nation that are already preparing candidates for such positions and a description and analysis of these programs is material for another article. For our purposes here, these job announcements lead us to return to the questions posed at the beginning of the article. Conclusions Are departments truly moving to transform their undergraduate offerings away from literature? Are new research fields emerging? If so, what do they look like? What is the balance between TTT and non-tenure track NTT jobs in these areas? Will there be steady demand for future faculty trained to meet the new scenarios? Based on the information presented here, there does not seem to be a dramatic increase in the quantity of LSP positions, but rather a steady demand at a level that is similar to other less common research fields. However, there are indications that the LSP positions are becoming better defined as announcements move away from the "laundry-list" format to specific visions for new programs. Also, there is a slight increase in TTT primary LSP positions and these positions are also slowly becoming more focused on specific regional and/or discipline needs (i.e. health issues in South Texas, Francophone outreach in the Atlanta metropolitan area, translation and interpretation programs). The emergence of the phrase 'cultural studies' or 'specific area studies' (i.e., German, Francophone) in many of these LSP announcement and the large number of jobs in Spanish and French that come up with a keyword search for 'cultural studies' does suggest a shift away from literature. It seems that perhaps the cultural studies field might ultimately provide an umbrella for LSP programs that could afford LSP faculty a more LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 28 central institutional position. This data seems to echo Doyle's (2012) extensive and convincing argument in favor of a nomenclature change in the Language for Business field to Business Language studies. But, ultimately, will the number of jobs, which deviate from the traditional literature, linguistics and second language acquisition fields, merit redesign of graduate programs across the board to train future professors to meet this demand? Or, is it more a question of helping future professors enhance the traditional fields of specialization with new pedagogical approaches and secondary content expertise? In spite of the examples of very specific jobs given here, the number of these is still so low, that it would not seem feasible to suggest that all doctoral programs be transformed away from literature at this time, though certainly the PhD and Master's programs that have already developed these sorts of focus will become an ever more vital part of the foreign language education mission. What seems to be a more feasible approach for doctoral programs with a strong literature tradition is to begin a more gradual expansion into complementary areas. This can be accomplished by providing opportunities to doctoral candidates to develop secondary expertise in LSP content areas and to develop frameworks of practice that allow them to move between the theories of scholarly analysis to the practicalities of application to real world scenarios. The forum for such training can be graduate seminars and/or certificate programs through language resource centers. References Doyle, M. (2012). Business language studies in the United States: On nomenclature, context, theory and method [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 105–121. Gueldry, M. (Ed.). (2010a). Consistent incorporation of professional terminologies into the world's languages: The linguistic engine of a global culture. Lewiston, ME: The Edwin Mellen Press. Gueldry, M. (Ed.). (2010b). How globalizing professions deal with national languages studies: Cultural conflict and cooperation. Lewiston, ME: The Edwin Mellen Press. Lafford, B. (Ed.). (2012). Languages for specific purposes in the United States [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96. Long, M., & Uscinski, I. (2012). Evolution of languages for specific purposes programs in the United States: 1990–2011 [Special Issue]. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 173–189. Lusin, N. (2012). Trends in the foreign language Job Information List. ADFL Bulletin, 42, 195–197. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/bulletin/ Modern Language Association (MLA). (2007). Foreign languages and higher education: New structures for a changed world. Retrieved from http://www.mla.org/pdf/forlang_newspdf.pdf Modern Language Association (MLA). (2008). Foreign language Job Information List. September 2007–January 2008. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/jil/index.htm Modern Language Association (MLA). (2009). Foreign language Job Information List. September 2008–January 2009. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/jil/index.htm Modern Language Association (MLA). (2012). Foreign language Job Information List. LSP JOB ANNOUNCEMENTS FROM MLA JOB LISTS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 29 September 2011–July 2012. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/jil/index.htm Pérez-Llantada, C., & Watson, M. (Eds.). (2011). Specialized languages in the global village: A Multi-perspective approach. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Porter, C. (2009). The MLA recommendations: Can we get there from here? ADFL Bulletin, 41(1), 16–23. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/bulletin/ Rifkin, B. (2012). "Learners' goals and curricular designs: The field's response to the 2007 MLA report on foreign language education" ADFL Bulletin, 42(1), 68–75. Retrieved from http://www.adfl.org/bulletin/

THE CHOICE OF WORDS, TRANSITIVITY, AND IDEOLOGY OF THE HEADLINES IN THE JAKARTA POST REPORTING APEC IN INDONESIA 2013 Lydia Anggar Wati Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University lydia82012@gmail.com Lisetyo Ariyanti, S.S., M.Pd Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University lisetyo.a@yahoo.com ABSTRAK Penelitian ini fokus dalam menganalisa headlines mengenai berita APEC karena headlines menyimpan informasi penting dari peristiwa di dunia. Rumusan masalah diantaranya (1) apa saja word choice dalam headlines di Koran The Jakarta Post pemberitaan APEC di Indonesia 2013, (2) apa saja transitivity yang ditemukan di headlines The Jakarta Post pemberitaan APEC di Indonesia 2013, (3) sikap ideologis apa pada word choices dan transitivity di headlines The Jakarta Post pemberitaan APEC di Indonesia 2013. Penelitian ini menggunakan deskriptif kualitatif. Data dikumpulkan dari koran harian The Jakarta Post mengenai APEC tanggal 9 September 2013 sampai 9 Oktober 2013 (31 hari). Hasil penelitian ini: 1) word choice yang ditemukan dalam headlines ditulis dalam bentuk simple present tense menunjukkan peristiwa yang baru saja terjadi. Headlines ditulis dalam bentuk klausa penuh yang terdiri dari sedikitnya subjek dan kata kerja. Pada headlines terdapat bentuk omisi dari verba bantu be agar penulisan berita lebih efektif, 2) proses verba sebagian besar menggunakan material process. Sirkumtansi dalam headlines ditulis oleh frase nomina dan frase kata kerja. APEC sering disebutkan sebagai aktor atau pelaku dalam headlines yang memiliki verba positif seperti vows, talks, hopes, changers. Dari kata kerja tersebut terlihat kekuatan dominasi aktor pada tujuan. Kata Kunci: headlines, word choice, transitivity, ideology ABSTRACT This study focuses on the analysis of the headlines newspaper in APEC news event because headlines provide the main important information of the events in the world. The research questions are (1) what the word choice is found in the headlines of The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013, (2) what the transitivity is found in the headlines of The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013, (3) what ideological in word choice and transitivity found in the headlines of The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013. The study is descriptive qualitative. The data was collected The Jakarta Post daily newspaper about APEC news event from September 9th, 2013 until October 9th, 2013 (31 days). The study found: 1) word choice is found in headlines is written in simple present tense form to show the immediate past happening. The headlines are written by full clause form which consist of minimal a subject and a verb. There is omission in headlines as the aim of the effectiveness headlines writing, 2) the process of the verbs are mostly material process. The circumstances of the headlines are written by noun phrase and verb phrases. APEC is mostly mentioned as the actor or the doer in the headlines that has positive verbs such as vows, talks, hopes, changers. From those verbs that is seen dominance power in actor for the goal. Keywords: headlines, word choice, transitivity, ideology INTRODUCTION Language is very important in human life to make good interaction, people need language to communicate with other. The language in use for communication is called discourse (Cook, 1989:6). It means that all of the language to use for communicating with other people is named "discourse". In the recently times, Linguists' interest in discourse focus on the linguistic structure of the text into how texts draw in the social process. The reason is linguists' want to get satisfied more than analyzing linguistic text which focused in linguistic features only. The knowledge of understanding in grammar, syntax, morphology, semantic and phonology of the text have not need of understanding in a text. The rhetoric intent, the coherence, and the worldview that the author and receptor convey the similarity essential of the text (Kaplan, 1990) as cited in Taiwo (2007:218). Texts always produce and read in real world with all the complexity, not in the isolation area. Consequently, language can show the reality. Language delivers from word by word in written or oral a broad sense of meanings and the meaning delivers with those words in social, political, and historical condition. Language can bring the power that shows in written or spoken. Mass media, it means that delivery message. It has two types of mass media. There are printed mass media and electronic mass media. Printed media are newspaper, tabloids, and magazines. Electronic mass media includes radio, smart-phone, and television. It is used to communicate with other political as the instrument to convey idea, message, and political work program. It has hidden of power relation. As one of the printed mass media, newspaper become as one of the most popular mass media. It occurs because newspapers contain many variant of news every day. By using actions of outstanding figures and statement, newspapers have formed. Opinion leaders, government, newspaper editors, etc, play crucial role in shaping the issue in the society and setting the boundaries of what is talked about, how is talked about (Taiwo, 2007: 218). However, the critical reader frequently takes the new granted. The analysis focused on the analysis of the headline newspaper because the headline summarize the content of the news, and attract the reader to read the article. The writer of newspaper always makes the headline short but in a headline can describe the core of the complicated new story in a few words. In Richardson (2007), Van Dijk (1988) says that news headlines are particularly key for the way readers understand of news text, they stakes that monitor attention, perception and reading process. The study concerned on headlines since daily newspaper provides the main important information of events in the world. Nevertheless, it is difficult for readers to read all of the news articles in the daily newspapers because all the variant news are very interesting and the time restraint. Therefore, they have to be selective by looking on the headline. The main function of news headline is to make the readers easily to know the main content of the news and the general picture of the news stories although they do not read all news stories. The study chooses The Jakarta Post daily newspaper as the sources of data since The Jakarta Post is the leading daily English language newspaper in Indonesia that published since 1983. The newspaper was launched on April 25th 1983. The paper is owned by PT Bina Media Tenggara, and the head office is in the nation's capital, Jakarta. It is the largest English language newspaper in Indonesia with an average circulation of around 50,000 copies. (www.wikipedia.com/jakarta-post). The analysis of headlines reporting APEC (Asia-Pacific Economy Cooperation) 2013 in Bali, Indonesia was the focus of the research since the news in September 2nd 2013 until October 14th 2013. In that day, Indonesia prepare everything what is needed to annual meeting of APEC in this year held in Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia. APEC is established in 1989 which has the aim to strengthen economic growth and strengthen the community of nations in the Asia Pacific. In the annual meeting in this year, APEC generate seven agreement. APEC have the important role in economic global. In that meeting, there are delegates 21 state leader who are important people in their country as presidents and a hundreds business people from whole the world. However, there are many particular world of economy-politic that they used. (http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerja_Sama_Ekonomi_Asia_Pasifik) The study has There are two similar studies. First, a similar studies was conducted by Kirana (2009). She conducted a study entitled "Critical Discourse Analysis of Headlines in The Jakarta Post Reporting Invasion in Gaza". Kirana's study and this study are quite similar on the analysis of headlines. The difference is sited of the data. She uses the data of the event of conflict in Gaza. However, this study analyzes headlines in story event of APEC 2013 that held in Indonesia. Second, a study was conducted by Yunianti (2010). She conducted a study entitled "Critical Discourse Analysis in The Jakarta Post Reporting Ruhut's Behavior During Parliament Inquiry Session On The Bank Century". The difference between this study and Yunianti's study, we have the same case (power and ideology), but this study analysis newspaper headlines while her study analyses newspaper's article. In the end of her study, she found ideological value that is showed by kinds of syntactical and word choice features utilized by articles The Jakarta Post newspaper. Furthermore, this study analyzes the headlines as the aim was attempt to look at how the language is used headlines to show particular social ideologies and power relations. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as the method of Discourse Analysis was used as the approach to show development of linguistics features which is used in the headlines focused in studying and analyzing the linking between linguistics analysis and social analysis, the ideology, and power relations. The analysis headlines are produced by actual and social matters. CDA was considerably useful to show the source of power, dominance, abuse, inequality and bias and how these sources are initiated, maintained, reproduced and transformed within specific social, economic, political and historical context. More specifically, the study focused on the analysis of ideological representation in the headline present in examining the word choice and transitivity, particularly transitivity of the headlines. Therefore, this study is written to know the ideological distance underlying the linguistics forms existed in the headlines in The Jakarta Post newspaper reporting APEC in Indonesia. Hence, the study wants to analyze the word choice and transitivity of the headlines in The Jakarta Post newspaper reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013 so that the research questions are as follows: 1)What word choice is found in the headlines of The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013?, 2)What transitivity is found in headlines of The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013?, 3)What ideological stance in the word choice and transitivity found in headlines of The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013?. Moreover, the purposes of the study are: 1)To describe the word choice found of headlines in The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013. 2)To describe the transitivity found of the headlines in The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013. 4)To reveal the ideological stance in the word choice and transitivity found of headlines in The Jakarta Post reporting APEC in Indonesia 2013. The study intends to analyze word choice items and transitivity of the headlines APEC in The Jakarta Post by using CDA theory. The study is expected to be able to give theoretical and practical contribution to the area of applied linguistics and CDA. By conducting this study, the study greatly expects that the finding will be useful to enrich the awareness of how language assists especially through mass media in the particular social ideology and power relations. METHODE The study will be conducted by using qualitative research. The study approaches to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). Furthermore, Fairclough (1989:26) states that CDA has three dimension, or stages, of critical discourse analysis: which include the relationship between texts, interactions, and contexts. Thus, there are three steps in analyzing discourse are through description, interpretation, and explanation. Data analysis in this study was also done in three steps which then results in three forms of analysis: first, the analysis of the text; second the analysis of the discourse practice which refers to the process of text production, text distribution and text consumption as commonly happen in the culture in which the writer and the participants live; third, the analysis of the social practice of the society in which the writer and participants live. The source of data in this study is taken from The Jakarta Post newspaper on alternate days from September 9th, 2013 until October 9th, 2013 (31 days). The data are the headlines which taken from The Jakarta Post newspaper. The study chooses the story event of APEC 2013 which held gathering in Indonesia. The data consist of 10 headlines. The data analysis technique in this research was applied descriptive analysis. The aim of the study was to describe certain phenomena occurred in this research setting. The certain phenomena probably occurred in terms of linguistic features. The stages of CDA are proposed by Fairclough (1989:26) was used in this research in the following procedure: 1)Description, In this stage which is concerned with formal properties of the text. There are several steps to describe the texts: Analyzing the word choice: the choices meaning of words used in the headlines, including all types of words, but particularly nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs which carry connoted and denoted meanings. Analyzing the transitivity: sentence construction. There are three components to discuss in transitivity, they are the participant, the process, and the circumstance; 2)Interpretation, It is focused in relationship between text and interaction by seeing of the text as the product of a process of interpretation, notice that is used as the term interpretation for both the interactional process and a stage of analysis; 3)Explanation, It is focused in relationship between interaction and social context by determination of social process of production and interpretation, and their social effects. Then, the data collect based on the focus of this research. After that the data are analyzed based on word choice and transitivity. Thus, the data are interpreted descriptively and argumentatively by using critical discourse analysis devices in order to reveal the ideological stance of headlines of The Jakarta Post newspaper reporting APEC 2013 in Indonesia. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION In line with study, the research question one, two, and three will be answered in this section. The data consist of 10 headlines which are displayed by three parts. In part A, the data will be analyzed by word choice, then part B analyzes transitivity and the last is part C that the data will be investigated by the ideological stance. Data 1: Protest in motion amid poor security (The Jakarta Post, Monday, September 30, 2013) In data 1, the situation is three days before APEC summit. APEC was held in Bali that got negative response from the activists and students Hundreds of activists and students came together on Sunday to plan protests against the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit in Bali amid signs of heightened security at the venues that will host the powwow of 21 Pacific-rim leaders this week. Activist Ni Luh Gede Yastini from the Bali Legal Aid Foundation, confirmed that hundreds of activists from more than 30 local and international non-governmental organizations under the Indonesian People's Alliance would carry out protests against the summit. They had not been determined because they were aware that security forces could possibly block the moves as they could be considered a disturbance to the summit. In addition, the alliance will probably raise issues such as the environment, migrant workers, human rights and fair trade. Other issues will also include religious intolerance, unsolved killings of activists, alleged human rights abuses in Papua and foreign occupations of domestic natural resources. Activists reject "the liberalization of investments" which would provide red carpets to foreign businesses to easily exploit Indonesia's natural resources. Dozens of students had already staged a small "anti-APEC" rally outside the Ketapang Port in Banyuwangi, East Java, on Sunday. The port is the gateway for those who travel by land from Java to Bali. (The Jakarta Post) a. Word choice The headline in data 1 is written in simple present tense which omits being of the verb. The headline (3) may read: Protests in motion [is] amid poor security. The omitting being of the verb (is) as the aim to make the headline writing more effective so that it can shows clear, short, and interesting. The headline (3) consists of a subject protest in motion as noun phrase and the complement object amid poor security as prepositional phrase. The word protest means that to the expression strong disagreement with or opposition to something. Protest refers to the act that doing by hundreds activists and students who against APEC summit 2013 in Bali. b. Transitivity The headline in data 1 is written in active sentence which uses relational process. The headline (3) consist of a carrier protest in motion (noun phrase) and attributive amid poor security (prepositional phrase). The omission (is) is classified into relational processes, process of being abstract relations such as have, seem, and be (is), which involve an agent and attributive (e.g. 'You are x'; I have y'). The carrier is protest in motion and the attributive amid poor security. In the other written, it can be said that protest in motion is among poor security. Look at the fraction below: Protest in motion [is] Amid poor security Carrier Process: relational Attributive c. Ideological stance The headline in data 1 is negative side for delegates of APEC, 21 state leaders. In this case, it can unsafe for them. The summit is crucial to discuss economy growth. The headline tries to show protest motion that is done by hundreds activist and student to against APEC summit. Dozens of students had already staged a small "anti-APEC" rally outside the Ketapang Port in Banyuwangi, East Java, on Sunday. The port is the gateway for those who travel by land from Java to Bali. In the text tells who is the doer, the one who against APEC summit. Data 2: No game changers at APEC summit (The Jakarta Post, Wednesday, October 02, 2013) In data 2, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) officials may drive a hard bargain to produce new tangible trade policies as the bloc's prestigious annual summit kicked off on Tuesday amid perturbing signs in the US economy that, once again, sent jitters across the globe. For the duration of the concluding senior officials meeting (CSOM), which will run from Oct. 1 to 2, officials from the 21 Pacific-rim economies would have to show their commitment to the "Bogor Goals" of free, open trade and investment. Officials expect no "big surprises" in the attempt to progress on the liberalization of trade, but are aware of several contentious issues that have the potential to hurt Indonesia and other emerging economies, if not addressed properly during the negotiations. According to documents obtained by The Jakarta Post, there are five deliverables to be discussed as first priorities of the summit. These include Indonesia's initiative to include crude palm oil (CPO) and natural rubber on the list of environmental goods subject for liberalization. Indonesia, which holds the rotating APEC chairmanship, has several requirements for businesses to use local products for certain industries, such as oil and gas. Economist Sri Adiningsih of Gadjah Mada University's APEC study center said Indonesia should focus on taking advantage of existing commitments rather than trying to push for a new agenda. While the summit is likely to produce few benefits for domestic interest, it is crucial to help facilitate other APEC priorities such as commitments to help avoid another round of impasse in the upcoming World Trade Organization (WTO) ministerial conference in December in Bali. APEC accounts for about 55 percent of the world's gross domestic product (GDP), some 44 percent of global trade and 40 percent of the world's population (The Jakarta Post). a. Word choice The headline in data 1 is written in full clause, consists of a subject no game (noun phrase), a verb changers (infinitive +s) and an complement at APEC summit. No classified in adverb, it means that used with a following adjective to imply a meaning expressed by the opposite positive statement, game (common noun) means a physical or mental activity or contest that has rules and that people do for pleasure, the verb changers means to replace with another. The verb summit means international meeting; a meeting or series of meetings between the leaders of two or more governments, so that the complement at APEC summit means that International organization meeting. b. Transitivity The headline in data 1 is written in active sentence. According to SFL: Transitivity, the process of the sentence is intransitive action which consists of only one participant no game, the actional verb changers which is intransitive verb which does not need object and circumstance at APEC summit, an additional information of the purpose of the action. The processes of doing in the physical world are shown in material processes that show the power of the doer of doing something to the real world, unlike mental processes which are abstract. Look at fraction below: No game Changers At APEC summit Actor Process: material Circumstance: purpose c. Ideological Stance The headline in data 6 is positive toward APEC. the word no as the negation of the verb game. APEC is the International organization. In this case no game can be changers in this International meeting. Indonesia no longer pushes for green goods. Another summit priority, is the US initiative to discuss barriers to trade, which includes opposition against local-content requirements implemented by several APEC members, including Indonesia. Indonesia, which holds the rotating APEC chairmanship, has several requirements for businesses to use local products for certain industries, such as oil and gas. While the summit is likely to produce few benefits for domestic interest, it is crucial to help facilitate other APEC priorities such as commitments to help avoid another round of impasse in the upcoming World Trade Organization (WTO) ministerial conference in December in Bali. The headline is definitely positive toward APEC. To know furthermore of the information, the study classified the analysis of the headline in the table below. No Headlines Word Choice NP FC Process Ideology 1. Competitive SMEs 'crucial' to APEC's growth Compe-titive SMEs - P Relational process Positive 2. Nusa Dua closed for tourists during APEC Nusa dua - P Relational process Positive 3. Protest in motion amid poor security Protests - P Relational process Negative 4. SBY to have bilateral talks with Obama in Bali SBY - P Verbal process Positive 5. APEC agrees to joint efforts to develop renewable energy APEC - P Material process Negative 6. No game changers at APEC summit No game - P Material process Positive 7. RI hopes for deal on rubber shattered RI - P Mental process Negative 8. Challengers force APEC to adjust Challen-gers - P Material process Positive 9 Giants exert clout at APEC Giants - Material process Negative 10 APEC vows to avoid mishaps APEC - Material process Positive Table 1. Word Choice, Transitivity, and Ideology *Note: NP= (Noun Phrase); FC= (Full Clause) Discussions Table 1 the word choice, transitivity and ideology of the headlines into who is the actor or doer, writing headlines, involving in which process, in the end of the analysis it can conclude that what the ideology inside of headlines. First is classified into who is the doer in that event which can show the subject or the doer regularly appear in headline newspaper. Here are the headlines which actors are APEC, it shows in headline in data 5 and data 10. Data 5: APEC agrees to joint efforts to develop renewable energy Data 6: APEC vows to avoid mishap APEC is classified in proper noun which is abbreviation from Asia Pacific Economy Cooperation. Proper noun is a word which is the name of person (e.g. Lisa, John, Marry, etc), a place (e.g. Surabaya, California, Sydney, etc.), an institution (State University of Surabaya, Oxford University, etc.), etc. And it is written with a Capital Letter wherever its located in a sentence. In these headline, the proper noun APEC refers to the International economy meeting summit. The member of APEC consist of Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, United States, Chinese Taipei, Hongkong, China, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Chile, Peru, Russia, Vietnam. Meanwhile, APEC as the doer or participants above, it is essentially useful to quantify the types of clause and verb processes used and their distribution across sampled newspaper. The table above is clearly that shows the principle difference between the headline: the ratio of noun phrase (NP) headlines to choose containing full clause (FC). All the headlines APEC summit 2013 in Bali are written in full clause, no one of the headline is written in noun phrase. Full clause consist of minimal one subject and one verb. The headline is written in full clause as the aim to give emphasize the actor or the doer who does the action towards the goal, not only states the noun phrase of the doer, the goal or the result that the doer does. Furthermore, classifying into processes that the processes which have four main verb processes across the headline. The process has four type which consist of material process, verbal process, mental process, and relational process. Look at the headlines below: Data 1: Competitive smes 'crucial' to APEC Data 2: Nusa dua closed for tourists during APEC Data 3: Protest in motion amid poor security The example of headlines above is classified in relational process which can show the typically retain the source responsible for the statement. The headlines is written in shorter, punchier headlines, and the omission of be (is, am, are) as the aim to make effectiveness in headline writing is classifies into relational process, process of being in the world abstract relations. According SFL: Transitivity, the abstract relationships generally finds between two participants associated with the process is regarded, however it is different from material process, a participant does not influence the other participant in a physical sense. The omission (is) is classified into relational processes, process of being abstract relations such as have, seem, and be (is), which involve an agent and attributive (e.g. 'You are x'; I have y'). The verbal process is used in this headline: Data 4: SBY to have bilateral talks with Obama in Bali The word talks is classified in verbal processes, a process of saying such as speaking, shouting, or singing. The word "talk" support of (Halliday 1994: 107) that the verbal process expresses the relationship between ideas constructed in human consciousness and the ideas enacted in the form of language. A verbal process is the process of saying, and it exists on the borderline between mental and relational processes. The participants roles associated with verbalization processes are the sayer, the individual who is speaking and that of the target, the addressee to whom the process is directed. This may be added with verbiage, that which is said. The mental process is used in this headline: Data 7: RI hopes for deal on CPO rubber shattered. From the headline in data 7, it can be shown that the headline includes Mental processes. That is the fact that theory from (Halliday, 1994: 117) that Mental processes are "internalized" processes which exists in processes of doing and speaking. The example are such as thinking, dreaming, and deciding. Mental process by encode the meaning of feeling or thinking. Mental process verbs can be subcategorized into three types; Cognition (verbs of thinking, knowing, understanding), Affection (verbs of liking, loving, fearing, heating), and Perception (verbs of seeing, hearing). The word "hopes" includes in dreaming as the article of the text tells that RI has dream or hopes to lift barriers to the trade in Crude Palm Oil (CPO). The material process is used in this headline below: Data 5: APEC agrees to joint efforts to develop renewable energy Data 6: No game changers at APEC summit Data 8: Challenges force APEC to adjust Data 9: Giants exert clout at APEC Data 10: APEC vows to avoid mishap According SFL: Transitivity, the headlines above belongs to the material process, processes of doing in the physical world. Material processes have two inherent participants involved in them. The first of these Actors, which is an obligatory element and expresses the doer of the process. The second is the Goal, which is an optional element and expresses the doer of the process. In addition to these two inherent participant roles, there is an extra element called Circumstance, which provides additional information on the "when, where, how, and why" of the process. Furthermore, the circumstance associated with the process also contribute to an ideological representation of the APEC summit. In the sampled headlines, the circumstance regularly exists in prepositional phrase which can be used to modify both noun and verb phrases, providing extra details on the time, place or the manner in which the action described in the process. They are identified by a preposition (e.g. 'in', 'of', 'on', 'for', 'to', 'with', 'as' etc). The use of preposition in each of these headlines is highly ideological. In each case, the prepositional phrase is underlined: Competitive smes 'crucial' to APEC Challenges force APEC to adjust The reporters or the publication is most often positive toward APEC. The headlines state APEC as the doer which has dominate power which does the actions towards the goal. It can be shown of 10 headline that the headlines writer does not want to cover or hide the subjects or the doers or the actions even the circumstances of the events. Actually, it is the fact that the way of reporting is very ideological since wants the readers to be clear on who is the doer is, the action and the effected entity. The writer wants the readers have the same thinks. Thus, most of the sample headlines have positive ideology towards APEC. Besides APEC, to increase the economy of 21 economies in Asia Pacific, there is Small and Medium Enterprises to unleash economic potential and drive growth. Smes is very useful to the advancement of the ASEAN community and the global community in 2020. Most of all the 21 APEC leaders had proposed bilateral meetings with Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono as the president of Indonesia. APEC was held in Indonesia has positive towards Indonesia so that's way the ideological stance is shown of the headline writer, in this case the editor of The Jakarta Post who represents the ideological stance of the institution. The Jakarta Post newspaper is daily English newspaper in Indonesia has budget of selection news which is showed for world so that people in the world will know Indonesia actually with reading The Jakarta Post newspaper. It is built in 1982 as the collaboration between four Indonesian media under the demanding of minister of information Ali Moertopo and politician Mr. Jusuf Wanandi, who represented the government-backed Golkar newspaper Suara Karya. Minister Moertopo mentioned the possibility of publishing an English-language newspaper of the highest editorial quality. The Jakarta Post newspaper is more than a decade of opening up the economy to the global community but more importantly one that would be able to provide an Indonesian perspective to counter the highly unbalanced Western-dominated global traffic of news and views. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion The data consist of 10 headlines about news event of APEC. The study finds word choice in headlines that the headlines are written in simple present tense that is shown the immediately past event. The headlines that consist of 10 headlines are written by full clause (FC) form which consist of minimal a subject and a verb. The subject or the doer of the headlines are mostly APEC which can be seen that the focus of news reporting is APEC. From the subject or the doer of headlines, APEC is shown as active doer that has dominance power in APEC news event that APEC summit 2013 in Nusa dua, Bali. The most dominance verbs are mostly infinitive+s with singular subject that consist of such as the verbs talks, efforts, changers, hopes, vows. From the verbs are describe the active action for the power relation in the doer and the goal. Furthermore, the process of the verbs are mostly material process which have two inherent participant involved in them. According SFL: Transitivity material process is process of doing in the physical world. There are some omission in headlines as the aim of the writing of headlines more effective. The circumstance in the headlines are written by noun phrase and verb phrases, supplying extra details on the time, place or the manner in which the action described in the process. They are identified by a preposition (e.g. 'in', 'of', 'on', 'for', 'to', 'with', 'as' etc). The use of preposition in each of these headlines is highly ideological which concluded of the analysis in headlines that the study has positive appreciation, feeling, and judgment with APEC summit 2013 in Bali. APEC is mostly mentioned as the actor or the doer in the headlines that has positive verbs such as vows, talks, hopes, changers. From those verb that is seen dominance power in actor for the goal. Suggestion The study analyzes the headlines in The Jakarta Post newspaper which is as the object of study. The headlines are elaborated based on the word choice features, transitivity, and the end of the analysis can be investigated the ideological distance. It can be shown by the object of sentence in headlines. For the future, the study hopes the deeper investigation to have a more critical analysis and useful for studying critical analysis to be better. REFERENCES Brown, Gillian and Yule, George. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cook, Guy. 1992. Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, David. 1997. Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics 4th Edition. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers. Ltd. Fowler, R. 1991. Critical Linguistics. In: Halmkjaer, K. (ed.), The Linguistic Encyclopedia. London/ New York: Routledge. 89-93. Fairclough, Norman. 1989. Language and Power. Essex: Longman Group Ltd. Fairclough, N, L. 1995a. Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. Harlow, England: Longman. Fairclough, N, L. 1995b. Media Discourse. London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K. 1994. An Intoduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd Edition. London: Edward Arnold. Kirana, Dhinuk Puspita. 2009. Critical Discourse Analysis of the Headlines in The Jakarta PostReporting Invasion in Gaza. Unesa: Unpublished Kress, G. and Hodge, B. 1979. Language as Ideology. London: Routledge. Mills, Sara. Feminist Stylistics. 1995. USA and Canada: Routledge. Pasha, Talaat. (2011). Islamists in The Headlines: Critical Discourse Analysis of The Representation of The Muslim Brotherhood In Egyption Newspapers. The University of Utah. Richardson, E. John. 2007. Analyzing Newspaper. An Approach from Critical Discourse Analysis. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Taiwo, Rotimi. 2007. Language, Ideology and Power Relation in Nigerian Newspaper Headlines, from(www.noblewords.biz/images/Taiwo2.pdf). Taiwo, Rotimi. 2004. "Speech as Headline in Nigerian Newspaper", in Segun Awonusi and E. A. Babalola, eds The Domestication of English in Nigeria. (Lagos: University of Lagos Press 323-325), from (www.noblewords.biz/images/Taiwo1.pdf) Van Djik, T. A. 1993. Elite Discourse and Racism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Van Djik, T. A. 1998. News as Discourse. (Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.