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This article develops a conceptual framework for analyzing the international activities of internet companies. It focuses specifically on the question of whether internet companies' activities are examples of business diplomacy, by examining cases of conflict between corporate actors and the Chinese government and their negotiations under a divided set of loyalties. In so doing, the article seeks to re-examine notions of sovereignty as applied to cyberspace, and to engage in a conceptual discussion of critical issues on the role of business diplomacy in the internet governance debate. Ultimately, it argues that while their activities are more commercial than diplomatic on the whole, internet companies cannot be neutral actors outside of international politics. The article thus makes a case for greater engagement by companies in business diplomacy on a country-to-country basis.

Intro -- Preface -- Introduction -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Artificial Intelligence: To Strengthen or to Replace Traditional Diplomacy -- Introduction -- The Research Methodology -- State Policy and the Functionaries Which Are Implementing It -- Diplomacy and Its Position Inside State Policy Framework -- Technologic Progress and Its Impact on States and Diplomatic Services -- Internet and Diplomatic Action Typology Transformation. The Role of Artificial Intelligence -- Artificial Intelligence and the Twenty-First Century Diplomacy: New Tendencies and Developments -- Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: Artificial Intelligence: A New Tool for Dimplomats -- Introduction -- Artificial Intelligence: A Realrevolution -- Diplomacy Boosted by AI:Concrete Examples -- AI as an Assistant to Consular Services -- Strengthening and Facilitating Communication -- Strengthening the Security of Diplomatic Missions and Verifying Information -- AI-Assisted Negotiations -- Crisis Prevention -- The Challenges of Using AI in Diplomacy -- Organizational Challenges -- Technical Challenges -- Ethical Considerations -- References -- Chapter 3: Data Sovereignty: New Challenges for Diplomacy -- Introduction -- From the Advent of Algorithms to Data Capitalism -- Data Capitalism: The Growing Power of Data -- The Role of Data Brokers in Economic Surveillance -- Risks Relating to the Economy of Surveillance -- Data Sovereignty: What Does It Mean? -- Solution Currently Proposed by States Against Surveillance Capitalism -- Some Proposals for Mapping out a Data Protection Strategy -- Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4: Cyber Security New Threats for Diplomacy -- Introduction -- The Impact of the Information Revolution on International Relations -- Cyber Crime as a Global Threat -- Towards the Cyberlaw -- Improving the Regional System of Collective Cyber Security.

The EU has historically sought to project outwards its identity, values and raison d'etre during times of uncertainty and crisis. One of the core values stated to be at the heart of the EU's identity is gender equality. Yet, whilst gender equality features more visibly in the EU's external discourse as it seeks to position itself as a global leader in equality and human rights, the internal challenge posed by crisis presents a real obstacle to future developments in this area. This article examines digital diplomacy, specifically twitter presence, as a discursive site for constituting meaning. We thus take the digital space afforded by Twitter as a site where the EU's internal and external identity is constructed in a process of articulation and contestation. Digital diplomacy is now a salient part of public diplomacy, increasingly prioritised over 'traditional' approaches. Using data gathered from Twitter on the EU's 60th anniversary and International Women's Day in 2017 this paper provides the first in-depth study of the EU's approach to digital diplomacy. We find the marginalisation of gender issues from the EU's core narratives bringing into question the place of gender equality as a core value of the EU.

Summary
Studies examining the digital disruption of diplomacy focus on the micro level of diplomats' working routines. This article investigates the new practice of 'domestic digital diplomacy' to explore interactions between micro- and macro-level disruptions. The practice of domestic digital diplomacy stems from the digital disruption of government ministries that embrace an outward-looking stance. Domestic digital diplomacy also impacts society as diplomats create a prism through which citizens can make sense of their world. Few studies have investigated how ministries of foreign affairs (MFAs) create such a domestic prism. This study addresses this gap by analysing the images shared on Twitter by the British Foreign Office following Brexit. Using Barthes's semiotic approach to image analysis, this study demonstrates that MFAs can use images to shape their citizens' worldviews, values and beliefs. The study concludes that investigating digital disruption in diplomacy requires that scholars focus on interactions between micro- and macro-level disruptions.

The paper introduces concepts relative to digital international relations, including the following clusters as data/digital diplomacy; cyber security and cyber diplomacy; global internet governance; and, finally, digital voting. All these elements have come under the pressure of datalization that is the growth of digital actors and of big data analytics used often for political purposes. This paper focuses on one of the elements of digital international relations, notably the digital diplomacy. The authors discuss new challenges including digital uncertainty, fractured digital reality, and framing. Based on the analysis of data retrieved from social media by computational algorithms, the authors test these new challenges in case studies related to the digital diplomacy conducted by the United States, Russia and China in such countries as Afghanistan, Syria and Iran in various timelines. The authors reveal that multiple digital bloggers, mass-media, various entities, etc., can diminish the effectiveness of governmental digital diplomacy. At the same time, the datalization, digital uncertainty, and fragmentation allow the official diplomacy of the states to promote values through specific policy of framing discussed in the paper. Based on the empirical data, it can be concluded that the current stage of digitalization of international relations compels the states to introduce new binding agreements to draw "cyber red lines" or, equally, to maintain internet freedom that will contribute to shaping a balance of power in cyberspace.

Abstract
The article addresses the diversity of digital diplomatic strategies used by governmental actors to fight international stigmatization. Faced with structural limitations, the leaders of small states use it to defend their political project's image or reputation when they come under international criticism for deviating from or transgressing international norms. Borrowing from Erving Goffman, I draw on the idea that social networks can be conceptualized as orders of interaction, in which digital diplomatic strategies can be put in place and international politicization and normative debates can develop. An examination of Salvadoran president Nayib Bukele's Twitter posts from January 2019 to May 2022, during a period of increasing international criticism regarding the authoritarian–populist drift in El Salvador, improves our knowledge of the diversity of digital diplomatic strategies. Consequently, this enlightens us on the constitutive elements of how small states manage their relationship with external actors, their image and status, and eventually how they challenge the international order, international norms and powers.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Digital Diplomacy in the OSCE Region -- Chapter 2. Digital Diplomacy in Azerbaijan: Lessons Learned and Future Opportunities -- Chapter 3. Balkan Style Digital Diplomacy -- Chapter 4. Digitalisation in Central Asia: Progress and Potential -- Chapter 5. German Digital Diplomacy -- Chapter 6. A New Frontier in Diplomacy: Digital Diplomacy Implementations in Kazakhstan -- Chapter 7. Digital Diplomacy in Spain: A Steep Learning Curve -- Chapter 8. Türkiye's Digital Diplomacy Initiative: Challenges and Opportunities -- Chapter 9. UK Digital Diplomacy -- Chapter 10. The Impact of Twitter on Digital Diplomacy in the Context of International Media -- Chapter 11. The Impact of Digital Diplomacy on Security: the Case of the Russia-ukraine War -- Chapter 12. Bringing Diplomacy to the Digital Age -- Chapter 13. Essential Attributes Guiding the Danish Practice of Digital Diplomacy on Global Affairs -- Chapter 14. Diplomacy and Challenges in the Digital Age: the Italian Case Study.-Chapter 15. Data-informed Diplomacy: Adapting to the Digital Age in International Relations and Implementation in the OSCE Region.