Suchergebnisse

Issue 20.6 of the Review for Religious, 1961. ; Carl ]. P]ei]er, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 398 plan of all liturgical worship: 1) the service is begun with a reading; 2) after the reading follows singing; 3) and the service is ended with a prayer. Among the early Christians all prayer services and devotions were carried out accord-ing to this basic plan, and since the third 6r fourth cen-tury this has been the ruling principle of all liturgical services.-" Such a plan is not merely arbitrary, nor is an accidental or aesthetic arrangement of elements. Ac-cording to Father Jungmann: ¯. it is in character with the essential nature of the Christian plan of redemption. Our salvation, typified by the divine word which we receive in the reading, comes from God. It descends from heaven to earth and stirs within the hearts of the faithful the echo of song. Thereupon the prayers and petitions of the Christian community are gathered up and brought back to God on high by the priest. There is something dramatic about this arrangement; through it we actually come to realize what is meant in saying that the liturgy is the public worship of the Church? This structure--reading, song, prayer--is filled out ac-cording to basic themes central to Christian revelation. In the Christian message of salvation and the prayer of the Church, certain themes appear as focal, around which all other truths are centered and from which they receive their meaning.' One of these themes centers on the love and kindness God shows His people. Freely, out of love, He created man; freely and out of even greater love He has worked out man's salvation. Such generous and unmerited good-ness demands a response of love and thanksgiving. Grati-tude is thus ~een as a fundamental attitude of man, and more so of a Catholic: "O give thanks to the Lord, for He is good" (Ps 135:1). It is this scriptural theme of God's love calling forth our grateful response that runs through the proposed Thanksgiving Day "bible vigil." Perhaps a fuller explanation will be helpful. Reading God's plan of salvation is effected and manifested to us by His Word, and according to Scripture this redemptive plan is realized gradually. Somehow man's redemption was to be achieved through Israel, the Lord's chosen peo- -"J. A. Jungmann, s.J., Liturgical Worship (New York: Pustet, 1941), p. 67. Father Jungmann devotes most of this book to a dis-qussion of the basic liturgical groundplan. See also Louis Bouyer, Liturgical Piety (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame' Press, 1955). ~ Jungmann, op. cit., p. 80. * For a fuller treatment of the structure and themes of Christian revelation see Johannes Hofinger, S.J., The Art o] Teaching Chris-tian Doctrine (Notre Dalne: University of Notre Dame Press, 1957) and Mary Perkins Ryan, Key to the Psalms (Chicago: Fides, 1957). Most useful for constructing "bible vigils" is Reading the Word ol God by Lawrence Dannemiller, S.S. (Baltimore: Helicon, 1960). pie. After centuries of intimate relations with Yahweh, this nation brought forth a:Savior; from this race the Word Himself took flesh. And when in the fulness of time God became man, He suffered, died and rose from the dead that men might die with Him to sin and .rise with Him to forgiveness and grace. His redemptive activity continues on through the centuries in His new people, the Mystical Body of Christ, the Church. Finally, He is to come again bringing the divine plan to its fulfillment in the new and eternal Jerusalem. The .plan itself is one; likewise the revelation of the plan is unified in the unique Word of God. The Old Testament, then, is not just a collection of interesting and sometimes edifying stories, but the gradual manifestation of God's plan for our sal-vation. The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is also our Father in heaven. He is the one Lord of History, as the Church teaches us in the. liturgy of the Easter Vigil: "O God, we behold your ancient wonders shining even to our own time. For that which the power of your right hand did for one people in freeing them from Egyptian bondage you accomplish now for the salvation of all men by the waters of rebirth." Throughout the Old Testa-ment run basic themes "about God and man's relationship to Him. Although the stories vary,~ the basic relationships do not. Central to the religion o-f the Israelites was the belief that their God, Yahweh, moved by love alone, not-by any merit on their part, had called them, chosen .them out from among the nations, to be .His people_. "You shall be My people, and I will be your~ God" (Ez 36:26). The initiative was wholly on His~part. This call, given initially to Abraham, found its highest expression through Moses in the Exodus, the focal point of Jewish religious history. Their God saved them from slavery, destroyed their pur-suers, and leading them through the desert, formed and purified them into a nation, His chosen people, and fi-nally brought them to the promised.land. The initiative was all His. He perpetuated His call in a covenant with His people, a promise.eternally binding, freely offered out of love. This covenant was prepared for and initiated in the first act of creative love. It became more definitive in the Garden, then with Noah, later with Abraham, and finally with Moses. From then on, it was renewed ritually each yegr by the Hebrew people. Such a covenant renewal ceremony is found, in the book of Nehemiah, 9: 1-55. This then will be the first selection to be read. It is a prayerful remembrance of God's initia-tive in. forming and saving His people, a remembrance of His covenant, His love. After a short period for silent, prayerful reflection on the first reading, a selection from the New Testament is ÷ ÷ ÷ Thanksgiving Da~ Service VOLUME 20, 1961 399 Carl ]. P~ei]er, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS read. It indicates the continuation of God!s plan and its culmination in Christ. In Nehemiah the ritual renewal of the covenant-between Yahweh and His people is re-corded in which' the fundamental beliefs of Israel's reli-gion were proclaimed to the assembled nation. These same ideas are fundamental to our belief, for, as we saw, God's salvific plan continues into our era and culminates in Christ. What went before Christ was not accidental to God's plan, and hence, not accidental to our own reli-gious education and worship. Rather it was a preliminary stage, preparatory to the coming of the great High Priest and His priestly people. In Him all history finds its mean-ing. This is the substance of what is expressed in the second selection, taken from Paul's letter to the Ephe-sians. For what God did for His chosen people through Abra-ham, Moses, and the prophets, He continues now in a more perfect manner for us, the new Israel, through Christ. The Jews wer6 set apart by Yahweh, a chosen nation; we are adopted as His sons, made members of His eternal Son, temples of His Spirit. The Jews He led out of Egyptian slavery; He frees us from the power of Satan. The manna of old is replaced by "bread from heaven," and the vague prophecies of the Old Law have given away to the full revelation of the Word. And in-stead of a promised land "flowing with milk and honey," we look forward to-the eternal banquet, where "eye has not seen, nor ear heard . " Such is the great love of our Father in heaven for us His new people. "He would have all future ages see, in that clemency which he shewed us in Christ Jesus, the surpassing richness of his grace" (Eph 2:8). Song Filled with the realization of the goodness of our Father, of His love for us sinful creatures, we sing out in gratitude, making use of Hig own revealed words, Psalm 135. Joined together in a worshipping community we re-spond to His word, which has just taken vital form through 'its proclamation in our midst. We sing now, the new Israel, an ancient Jewish hymn of thanks. And as it recalls Yahweh'S great deeds for His ~oeople, we make the words our own, singing our thanks for His even more wonderful deeds toward us. Our song of gratitude is rooted in faith, faith in the Word we have just heard. This faith is our response to God's call and covenant; it, is our total, personal commitment to our Father, a total giving of self to God in return for His gifts. As with Abraham and the Israelites, this faith is the fundamental virtue of our Christian life. God calls, elects, chooses. To him whom He chooses, He freely offers His graces, eve~ ! Himself. Our response is faith, belief in what He says, but also belief in Him, personal dedication to Him, flow-ing over into gratitude, confidence and joy? Prayer Our gratitude now takes the form of prayer. We exer-cise our priestly role, proper to us who share the priest-hood of Christ by our baptism and confirmation. And we enumerate with gratitude the gifts of the new covenant. God's plan of salvation, begun in the Jewish nation, cli-maxing in the Incarnation and Redemption of Jesus Christ, continues on to us through the Mystical Christ, the Church. It is only by pertaining to this Body of Christ that the saving action of God reaches us through Christ our Lord. Through membership in the new people of God we are in personal contact with our Redeemer. His word is proclaimed in our midst, His grace is shared with us in our personal encounters with Him in His sacra-ments. Through our union with Him we are enabled to offer our Father a suitable thank-offering, the Mass. And through our ever increasing share in His life we have al-ready a ~beginning of that glory which awaits us with Him in heaven. And all of this, prefigured in Yahweh's rela-tionships with His chosen people, is a completely free gift of our Father. United, then, in one worshipping commu-nity, we offer our thanks to our Father in our united prayer. Finally, after a moment of silent prayer following our vocal prayer, the priest gathers up our grateful expres-sions and offers them to God for us. Christ's mediatorship is continued through His ordained priests. They stand between us and God, not as barriers, but as the normal means by which God comes to us and we reach up to God. Through the priest His Word is proclaimed and finds living reality; through the priest Christ allows us to come directly in contact with Him in the sacraments--a per-sonal encounter between us and our Savior. And through the priest Christ offers our prayers to the Father. Hence the service ends with the priest's prayer as our representa-tive. The particular prayer chosen dates from the year 215 A.D. and was composed by Hippolytus of Rome as a sample that migh~ be used in the first Mass of a newly consecrated bishop. It is one of the earliest extant formu-laries for the Prayer of Thanksgiving, or Eucharistic Prayer, now more commonly called the Canon of the Mass. The text has been somewhat adapted for use in this "bible vigil"; the words of consecration, for example have been omitted, as have other references to sacrifice. What remains is a beautiful prayer of thanksgiving for God's ~ For,a further treatment of faith as a personal response to God, see Jean Mouroux, I Believe (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1959). + 4- 4- Thanksgiving Day Se~vi~e VOLUME 20, 1961 401 Cad 1. Pleiler, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 402 redemptive work through the llfe, death, and resurrection of His Son, Christ Jesus, our Lord. Such, then, is the suggested biblical-liturgical service. Its structure leads to an appreciation of the meaning and purpose of public worship, while its content manifests an essential theme of Christian life an.d revelation. In 'this case, the theme is suited to Thanksgiving Day, Similar "bible vigils" can be worked out for almost any occasion and allow for much variety within the basic group plan of reading, song, prayer. For example, a homily may be preached after the reading(s). And although the Psalms~. are admirably suited to such services, any hymn that fits the theme may be substituted. The priestly prayers of the Mass (Collect, Secret, Preface, Postcommunion) are a rich source of acceptable prayers, as is the Raccolta. And the service may be concluded with Benediction or some other suitable rite. For example, a service constructed on the theme of Baptism might fittingly be concluded with blessing and sprinkling with holy water. So much for the explanation of the ser.vice. The text follows in full, with hymns added at the beginning: and end to round out the basic structure. If used in full, it should take about twenty minutes; verses of the Psalms may be omitted to reduce the time. ENTRANCE HYMN: [stand] Psalm 22" (All sing the antiphon after the cantor and after each verse): HIS GOODNESS SHALL FOLLOW ME ALWAYS, TO THE END OF MY DAYS. My shepherd is the Lord; there is nothing I shall want. FreSh and green are the pastures where he gives me repose. Near restful waters he leads me, to revive my drooping spirit. [Antiphon] He guides me along the right path; he is true to his name. If I should walk in the valley of darkness no evil would I fear. You are there with your Crook and your staff; with these you give me Comfort. [Antiphon] You have prepared a banquet for me in the sight of my foes. My head you have anointed" with oil; my cup is overflowing. [AntiPhon] OThe text of the three psalms used in the service is taken from Joseph Gelincau, S.J., Twenty-Four Psalms and a Canticle (Toledo: Gregorian Institute of America, 1955) with permission of the pub-lishers~ Surely goodness and kindness shall follow me all the, days of my life. In the Lord's own house shall' I dwell for ever and ever. [An[iphon] To the Father and Son give glory, give glory to the Spirit. To God who is, who was, ,:and who will be forever and ever. [Antiphon] ' ¯ GOD'S GIFTS IN PREPARATION: [sit] Nehemiah 9: 1-15, 32.' ~ '~ ¯ Then, ~n the twenty-fourth day of this same month~ the men of Israel met together, fasting, and with sack-cloth about them, and sprinkled with dust, ~nd the whole breed of Israel severed itself from all contact with alien, folk. :. This was the prayer offered by the Levi.tes . Up, friends, .and bless the Lord, your God, as blessed he musE be from the beginning to the end of timel.,Blessed be thy. glorious name, O Lords that is beyond all blessing, and all praise! Heaven is of thy fashioning, and the heaven o~ heavens, and all the hosts t.hat dw~ell there, earth and sea~, and all that earth and sea hold; to all these thou givest the life they have; none so high in heayen but must pay thee worship. It was thou,-Lord God, that didst make' choice of Abram, and beckon ~him away from Chaldea, from the City of Fire. And now~ thou. wouldst call~ him Abraham; a loyal servant thou. did~st find him, and didst make a covenant with him, promising that his race should inherit the lands of .Chanaanite and Hethite, Amorrhite and Pherezite, Jebusite, and Gergesite. That promise, in thy faithfulness, thou didst make good, Thou hadst an eye for the affliction our fathers suffered in Egypt, an ear for their cry of distress at the Red Sea; the pride~of Pharao and Pharao's court and all his people, had not passed unregarded; there were porte.nts, an£ cnarvels, and thy name won renown, as it has w~on renown this day: Thou didst part ~the,w~ters.at their coming, so that' they crossed the sea dry-shod, didst hurl their pursuers into the depths of it, so that they sank like a stone be-neath the rushing waves. Thou thyself didst lead thy people on their journey, hidden by day in a pillar of cloud, by night in a pillar of fire, to light the path they must tread. There, on mount Sinai, thou didst keep tryst with them; thy voice came from heaven to teach them thy just decrees, thy abiding law with all its observance.s, all its wholesome bidding. There thou didst reveal to them ~ From the Old Testament, volume i, in the translation of Mo~: ~ignor Ronald Knox, Copyright 1948, Sheed and Ward, Inc, New York. , ,, + Thanksgiving Day Service VOLUME'20, 1961 ÷ ÷ ÷" Carl 1. Ptei~er, $.], REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 404 how thy sabbath should be kept holy; law and observance and award thou, through Moses, didst hand down to them. When they were hungry, thou didst give them bread from heaven; when they were thirsty, thou didst bring water out of the rock; and for the goal of their journey didst beckon them on to take possession of this same land, which thou hadst sworn .to give them . To thee, then, we turn, who art our God, to thee, the great, the strong, the terrible God, who didst not forget thy covenant, or the mercy thou hast promised. A MOMENT OF SILENT PRAYER [kneel] GOD'S GIFTS IN FULFILLMENT: [sit] Ephesians 1:3-14; 2:4-10.8 Blessed be that God, that Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us, in Christ, with every spiritual blessing, higher than heaven itself. He has chosen us out, in Christ, before the foundation of the wbrld, to be saints, to be blameless in his sight, for love of him; mark-ing us out beforehand (so his will decreed) to be his adopted children through Jes~us Christ. Thus he would manifest the splendor of that ggace by which he has taken us into his favor in the person of his beloved Son. It is in him and through his blood' that we enjoy redemption, the forgiveness of our sins. So rich is God's grace, that has overflowed upon' us in a full stream of wisdom and~ discernment, to make known to us the hidden purpose of his will. It was his loving design, centered in Christ, to give history its fulfillment by resuming everything in him, all that is in heaven, all that is on earth, summed up in him. In him it was our 10t to be called, singleff out before-hand to suit his purpose, (for it is he who is at work every-where, carrying out the designs of his will); we were to manifest his glory, we who were the first to set our hope in Christ; in. him you too were called, when you listened to the preaching of the truth, that gospel which is your salvation. In him you too learned to believe, and had the seal set on your faith by the promised gift of the Holy Spirit; a pledge of the inheritance which is ours, tO re-deem it for us and to bring us into possession of it, and so manifest God's glory . How rich Godis in mercy, with what an excess of love he lok, ed usI Our sins had made dead men of us, and he, in'giving life to Christ, gave life to us too; it is his grace that has saved you; raised us up too, enthroned us too above the heavens, in Christ Jesus. He would have all future ages see, in that clemency which he shewed us in~ Chri'st Jesus, the surpassing richhess of his grace. Yes, it was grace that saved you, with faith for its instrumen.t; it s From the New Testament in the translation of Monsignor Ron-aid Knox, Copyright 1944, Sheed and Ward, Inc., New York. '/ did not come from yourselves, it wa~ God's gift, not from any action of yours, or there would be room for pride. No, we are his design; God has created us'-in Christ Jesus, pledged to 'such good actions as he has prepared befor~- hand, to be the employment of ~3ur lives. OUR GRATEFUL RESPONSE IN SONG: [stand] Psahn 135 (All sing the following refrain after each phrase of the cantor): FOR HIS' GREAT LOVE IS WITHOUT END O give thanks to the, Lord for he is go~d, FOR HIS GREAT LOVE IS WITHOUT END. Give thanks to the God of gods . Give thanks to the Lord ,of lords . Who alone has wrought marveilous works . whose wisdom it was made the skies,. who, spread the earth on :the seas, . It was he that made ~the great lights,. the sun to rule in the day . the moon and the stars in the night,. The first-born of the Egyptians he smote . brought Israel out from their midst . arm outstretched, with power in his hand . He divided the Red Sea in two . made Israel pass through the midst,. flung Pharaoh and his ~orce in the sea,. Through the desert his people he led . Nations in their greatness he struck . Kings in their splendour he slew . He let Israel inherit their land . On his servants their land he bestowed,. He remembered us in our distress . And he snatched us away from our foes,. He gives food to all living things . To the God of heaven give thanks . OUR GRATEFUL RESPONSE IN PRAYER: [kneel] ~lifford Howell, s.J.~ Priest: O Lord God, we thank you. People: ~O LORD GOD, WE THANK YOU. Pr: We thank you *°that our Lord Jesus Christ still lives on in His Church. ~ The text of the people's prayer is qubt¢d with pei'mission of the publisher from the leaflet by Clifford H6well, S.J., You are Christ's Body (St. Louis: Pio Decimo Press, 1949), p. 3. ÷ Thanksgiving DWy Service VOLUME 20, 1961 4o~. 4, 4, + Carl 1. P]eif~r," $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 406 Pe:,.WE THANK YOU * .,THAT THROUGH HIS CHURCH *' HE CONTINUES HIS ACTIV-ITIES AMONG MEN. Pr: We thank You * that when the C[aurch teaches * it is Christ who teaches. Pe: WE THANK YOU * THAT WHEN THE CHURCH SACRIFICES * IT IS CHRIST WHO SACRIFICES. Pri We thank You Christ ~vho doe~ all these things * through the Church, His Mystical Body. Pe: WE THANK YOU * THAT~WE HAVE BEEN MADE MEMBERS * OF THIS MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST. Pr: We thank You * that as members of this Body * we can worship You through Christ our Head * in the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. Pe: WE THANK YOU * THAT WE MAY OBTAIN ALL GRACES * FROM YOUR HOLY SACRA-MENTS. Pr: We thank You * that through Your Church we may attain to Eternal Life. Pe: O LORD GOD, WE THA.NK YOU~ * TO YOU BE PRAISE IN YOUR CHURCH * AND IN JESUS CHRIST * FOR EVER AND EVER. * AMEN. A MOMENT OF SILEN~ T PRAYER. OUR PRAYERFUL RESPONSE OFFERED TO GOD THROUGH THE PRIEST: [stand] Hippolytus oI Rome?° Priest: The Lord be with you. P~eople: AND WITH YOU ALSO. Priest: Lift up your':h~arts. People: WE HAVE. LIFTEI~ THEM UP TO THE LORD. Priest: Let us give thanks to the Lord. People: IT IS RIGHT AND JUST. Priest: We give thanks to You, O God, "through Your be-loved servant, Jesus Christ, whom You have sent dtoe eums eirn a tnhde smee lsassetn tgimere° so fto Y boeu or ucro usanvsieol.r Haned i sre- Your Word, inseparable from You; thrqugh Him You have made all things and in Him You are well pleased. You did send Him from heaven into, the womb of the Virgin; carried in her womb He was made flesh and was manifested as Your Son; being born of the Holy Ghost and,. of the Virgin. FulfilIing,your Will and acquiring for You a holyl people He stretched out His hands in suffering in~ lo The full text of this thanksgiving prayer can be found in J. A Jungmann, s.J., Public Worship (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1957j~] pp. 92-3.if' order that He might free from suffering those who believed in Him . He was handed over to volun-tary suffering to rob death of its power, to break the bonds of the devil, to tread hell underfoot, to give light to the just, to set up a boundary stone and an-nounce the resurrection . Remembering there-fore His death and resurrection., we thank You that You have considered us worthy to stand before You and to serve You. And we pray that You will send down the Holy Spirit on Your Church. Be-cause You gather all together in unity, we pray that You will grant the fulness of the Holy Spirit to all the saints., that their faith may be strengthened in truth, and that we may praise and glorify You through Your servant Jesus Christ, through whom honor and glory be unto You, O Father, with Your Son and the Holy Spirit in Your Holy Church both now and for ever and ever. People: AMEN. CONCLUDING HYMN: [stand] Psalm 99 (All sing the antiphon after the cantor and after each verse.): ALLELUIA, ALLELUIA, ALLELUIA Cry out with joy to the Lord, all the earth. Serve the Lord with gladness. Come before him, singing for joy. [Antiphon] Know that he, the Lord, is God. He made us, we belong to him, we are his people, the sheep Of his flock. [Antiphon] Go within his gates, giving thanks. Enter his courts with songs of praise. Give thanks to him and bless his name. [Antiphon] Indeed, how good is the Lord, eternal his merciful love; he is faithful from age to age. [Antiphon] Give glory to the Father AJmighty, to 'his Son, Jesus Christ, the Lord, to the Spirit who dwells in our heartsY [Antiphon] n For further information on "bible vigils" see "Organizing a Bible Vigil," by Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B., in Worship, February, 4. 1960, pp. 144-48 and the article by the present writer, "Popular 4. Devotions--a New Look!" to be published soon in Homiletic and Pastoral Review. Examples of such vigils can also be found in Wor-ship, January and March, 1959; March, 1960; January, 1961. Tiuml~giving Day Serv~e VOLUME 20, 1961~ 407 RICHARD M. MCKEON, S.J. ' Human Relations in Religion ÷ ÷ ÷ Richard M. McKeon, $.J., is the director of the Institute for In-dustrial Relations at Le Moyne College, Syracuse $, New York. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 408 The title of this article may seem strange to many. Cer-tainly a great deal has been written about the human factor as applied to the religious and the priestly life. But we wonder if there has ever been a systematic study of human relations in religion similar to the hundreds which are being made in the field of industry. Before me .is book, Human Relations in Management, numbering over 750 pages. Subject to correction, I doubt if there is a similar book concerning human relations in religious management. The following are some of the topics treated in the book: the human factor in industry, the philosophy management, conditions of effective leadership, motiva-tion and increased productivity, work group behavior, basic psychological factors in communication, the psy-chology of participation, dealing with resistance to change, empathy--management's greatest need. If great accent is being placed on human relations "as a systematic, develop-ing body of knowledge devoted to explaining the behavior of industrial man," should there not be a similar body knowledge based on the best findings of the behavioral sciences to explain the human relations factor.in religious and priests? The history of industrial relations shows how the human element was sorely neglected up to the start of the twenti-eth century. That was why in 1891 Leo XIII issued his famous encyclical letter On the Condition of the Working Class. Up to World War II there were some noted ad-vances in this field, as the Hawthorne Studies and the im-petus prompted by the passage of the National Labor Relations Act show. But from 1945 to the present the study and application of human relations in industry has been phenomenal. With these thoughts in mind I shall make comment on an article, "The Human Relations of a Foreman," pub-lished in the Monthly Letter of the Royal Bank of Canada for May, 1961. By applying some of the topics to the re-ligious and priestly life, the need for further exploration will be evident. "Why is the supply of men of supervisory capacity so thin?" Why have so many superiors in religion been lacking in the qualities which make for good administra-tion? Many answers will be given and I have listened to them for over forty years. Some will point out men who have been advanced with no worthwhile achievement behind them--merely because they were sources of no trouble. Is there also a chance that,administrative pro-motion in religion is connected with nepotism and cliques? It is true, of course, that the principles and rules of re-ligious life will sustain su~cient order in a community even under a poor administrator; the vow of obedience is the great foundation here. But in this article let us set aside the supernatural side and try to view human re-lations in the light of modern industry. Let us begin by remarking that just as a foreman in a factory needs "poise, wisdom, suppleness of mind, courage, and energy, besides the know-how of his technical special-ity," so also are these qualities to be hoped for in a su-perior. A superior is called upon to be an executive. Do the current methods of selecting a superior prove that he possesses executive talent for this or that particular position? Take, for instance, the priest who has charge of the ma-terial things in a seminary or a religious house where the teachers and students number one hundred or more, As far as shelter, food, and material services are concerned, such an institution is like a hotel. While custom, tradition, and discipline will keep things going, it is evident that such a priest would do a far better job if he had a course in hotel management. We all know the grand rush for our priests and religious to go on for higher studies in order that Catholic intellectual life be improved. This is to be commended. But is it not logical also to send those in charge of the ordinary living conditions of religious and priests to special studies to improve such conditions? Such training should result in better economical operation as well as in better living conditions. Have you ever tried to dry yourself with the moisture-proof towels found in certain communities? "Good human relations is people getting along well to-gether." It is not enough to rely on the religious or the priestly garb to command proper respect. Respect should b'e won by "intelligence, administrative competence, and the power to make men follow him~ because of personal attributes." All evidence of playing a policeman's role mnst be avoided. + + + Human Relations VO~-UME 20, 1961 409 4. o÷ R. M~ McKeon, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 410 Every religious and priest is a person; the superior must show a. sincere interest in each one; he must give him a sense of really belonging to the team--the institution under the superior's charge. The superior's chair must not be turned into a throne; around it there should be an atmosphere empty of fear but rich with sympathetic un-derstanding. "The best company to work for, and the company that gets the best work done, is the company with a strong company-group feeling." There are and will be divided religious communities; they are not pleasant places to live in.,How can such a situation be remedied? One answer is by superiors "who obtain the collaboration of people in their work-groups through loyalty and liking and coopera-tion." A superior will assign a subject a task; the subject will obey. But it is certain that the job will be better clone if the superior has excited enthusiasm, initiative, loyalty. "However.tall a man may stand in the hierarchy of management, he is not a successful executive unless he un-derstands the points of view and the problems of the rank and file of his workers." This statement is equally true of the religious superior. Unless his interest is sincere and sympathetic, subjects may do their work; but human na, ture being what it is, we wonder how good the work will be. ~A superior must prove himself superior; otherwise his authority is bound to suffer. It is necessary to strengthen that authority by personal performance and demonstrated ability, Good managers ask their workers for counsel and help. They know, that fine ideas are often buried in the mind waiting for the right tapping. The post-war growth of suggestion systems is proof that industry values the min'd of subordinates. It gives courteous hearing to such ideaS; it allows workers to take part in decisions. By such action workers feel that their jobs are important and that they share in responsibility. A few words abou~ discipline. In his own development, a manager should learn to obey. "But discipline is more than blind obedience. The word itself comes from ,the same root as the word 'disciple,' and a disciple is one who follows the teachings and the example of a respected leader." A good manager will have discipline because he is fair in the allotment of work and in the handling of grievances and because he inspires. He is not worried about "losing face" by appearing too human. In a crisis he will be forceful but friendly. The same things will be true of a good superior in reli-gion. Moreover, in his case there is the supreme examplel of Christ in His handling of His disciples to drive home many a lesson applicable to religious life. Christ con7 demned, sin; He had love and mercy for the sinner. "Probably foremost among the techniques of handling men is .the building of morale through praise and en-couragement. Commendation by a superior is of great consequence. It breeds loyalty and it inspires the worker to follow "through." Religious and priests are human and will remain so till their dying breath. Human nature likes encouragement especially when skies are dark. Religious and priests are also humble; when just praise from su-periors is lacking, they will console themselves by remem-bering the words of our Lord: ~'Even so you also, when you have done everything that was commanded you; say 'We are unprofitable,servants; we have done what it _was our du_ty to do.' " But praise justly won for doing one's duty weli means a. great deal in religious life. It does boost morale and it .strengthens self-confidence. It makes~a man willing to as-sume more difficult work. Moreover, when a superior gives credit to his community on the occasion of his in-stitution receiving public praise, he will build up initia-tive and a mutual sense of responsibility. I believe that the words of Peter F. Drucker, an. expert in management matters, should be applied to a religious superior. He writes: "Who is a manager can be defined only by a man's function and by the contribution he is expected to make. And the function which distinguishes the manager above all others is his educational one. The one contribution he is ~uniquely expected to make is'to give others vision and ability to perform:It is vision and moral responsibility that, in the last analysis, define the manager." In the previously mentioned textbook, Human R~la-tions in Management, over one hundred pages are de-voted to communication. I am willing to wager that no treatise on the religious life has a quarter amount of'this topic developed as it should be. If successful communica-tion is necessary for the functioning of industry, it should be equally, true for the religious life. Effective communication can build up a stronger com-munity spirit. How embarrassing it has been for religious and priests to be among lay people and hear, for ex-ample; that a new building will be built on the campus about which they have heard nothing. XVhen special work is assigned, it is,well for superiors to give the subject all information possible or refer him to one. who can help him. When information is passed through several superiors, measures should be'.taken to keep the original information intact. If the lower superiors are not able to explain clearly the.orders and policies of the "top brass," confusion will be more confounded among the rank and file. Communication is a two-way street. A good superior will listen to his subjects. Many have excellent brains + ÷ + Human Relations VOLUM.E 20, 196,1 ÷ ÷ 4. R. M. McKe~n~ $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 412 and are trained in special fields. To pose as all-knowing and not to recognize the interest and contribution of such subjects for the common good is a fatal error. As.I was writing this article, the new president of the college called a special meeting of the community to in-form them about plans for three proposed buildings and for the future development of the entire campus. Three members of the architect's firm spent over two hours ex-plaining intimate aspects of the plans and answering ques-tions. Then followed an informal discussion for another h6ur. As a result, the entire community has a greater in-terest. The president said very little outside of thanking the architects; but he was responsible for this excellent,job of communication. "Sound administration is the sum total of mature imagination, mature perception, mature judgment, and mature humanism." It is well to remember that maturity is not a matter of years of service but of mental develop-ment. It calls for self-discipline manifested by regularity in work habits, exactness in execution, and alertness; More-over "healthy self-criticism and continued willingness to learn are among the important attributes of the foreman" --and likewise for the religious superior. One purpose of this article is to call attention to the great number of books and magazines dealing with the human aspects of industry. In them will be found a wealth of material which can be applied to the religious and priestly life. It is also true that we of the Church, if prop-erly trained, can give to industry the constructive princi-ples of our Christian heritage: the Sermon on the Mount, for example; can be developed into a powerful treatise in industrial relations. What holds for leadership in industry is also true in religion. "Leadership means to initiate, to instruct, to guide, to take responsibility, to be out in front . The joy of leadership and the thrill of being in charge of a group of people does not consist in doing a terrific iob yourself, but in spending your last ounce of energy and encouragement to see the group crack through to success." There have been magnificent leaders in the priesthood and religious life as history testifies. But certainly the Church would make better progress in these critical times if our leaders were well vbrsed in human relations within their respective groups. If the development of human nature studies in industry can be of help to the Church, let us be humble and sincere in translating the best things into the priestly and religious life. SISTER MARTHA MARY, c.s.J. The, Wisdom of Praise Why is p?aise such a welcome sound in our ears? Is it be- Cause we are so egotistic or is it rather that we, as social beings, have such a deep need for the approval of others? St. Thomas remarks that dependence on others is typical of the rational creature. Security in the companionship of our family and associates is our first and most enduring need as a human being. No amount of food, entertain-ment, or suhshine will take th~ place of this ingredient of life. Every li¢ing person needs to know that he is loved and appreciated; and if such recognition is not forthcoming, life loses much of its meaning. He feels that he is'maimed in some interior and frightening way, for deep in his heart everyone agrees with the poet's words: "No man is an is-land." It is interesting to note that our Lord praised people without any hesitation. He praised the widow for her in-significant contribution in the, temple, Mary Magdalene for loving much, the centurion for his faith. What glow-ing words He had for St. John the Baptist, a supposed rivalI1 Sometimes He made these remarks in the presence of the person praised; sometimes not. What is important is that we know our Lord did communicate to others who were with Him the conviction that He appreciated them. He did it by words of praise in many recorded instances. True, He warned against flattery, but that was something quite different, the antithesis of praise--false praise. Jesus Christ was always the enemy of hyp.ocrisy; He was always on the side of truth because He is truth. The qnly true praise is truth. Thus flattery is ruled out from the start. How could it have any meaning when it has no basis in truth? Praise is based on real accomplishment or at least the capacity for ~ Lk 21 : 2-4; 7 : 44--~0; 7 : 9; 7 : 26-28. Sister Martha Mary, C.S.J., teaches religion and English at St. Jos-eph Academy, 1015 South Monroe Avenue, Green Bay; ,Wisconsin. VOLUME 20, 1961 41.~ 4. 4. Sister Martha Mar~ REVIEW ~:OR RELIGIOUS 414 this achievement; flattery is an appeal to another's vanity. Praise flows from principle; flattery comes from policy. Praise is genuine; flattery, is counterfeit. Yet, just as no one rejects all currency because he knows that counterfeit money is in circulation,, so no one would wisely reject all praise simply because flattery does exist. Praise is a great goo~ because it is the straightforward recognition of the cooperation of another with the grace of God. Every worthwhile deed a person accomplishes is brought to fruition under the grace of God without whom no one can do the ~lightest thing. This awareness of the good in others is made tangible by words of praise and by the pleasant relationship which these words set up. Praise be-comes the externalization of the empathy within the heart. It is a combination of joy, gladness, and great-heartedness. It is the visible expression of love and admiration. It is the positive keeping of the eighth commandment which is so closely connected with the great commandment. The Christian is so busy bearing true, glowing, enthusiastic witness to the neighbor that he chnnot bear false witness. To praise, then, is to be virtuous. But is praise not t~o be considered_ dangerous to hu-mility? Will it not be aft inducement to pride? Will it not draw us away from God and focus our attention on self? St. Thomas allays our fears on this point. He says that praise can be a very good thing, and this for several rea-sons. Rightfulpraise is iri reality the praise of God through whose power the good ~eeds have been performed. Sec-ondly, the praise of good may stimulate others to emulate these good acts. Finally, prhise is a means by which one can come to recognize good qualities in himself, the talents which God has entrusted to him. Once recognized, these talents can be developed and the person possessing them can thank God in all humility for the many gifts he has received. How could he be grateful if he did not know what God had given? Awareness brings gratitude. In these words, St. Thomas points out that praise is a means to an end; it i's not to be sought as an end in itself.2 God is the end, but praise is a very powerful stimulant to approach Him more quickly. The theological viewpoint receives strong support from psychologists who agree that vanity, conceit and other un-desirable qu.aliti~s flourish widely where recognitiofi is not given, for they serve as modes of self-defense when a per-son's sense of personal worth is or is thought .to be under attack. Humility flourishes best in an atmosphere of loving approval, and the normal means for making known this approval is praise. Regarding this, Sister Annette spoke at some length to religious superiors at the 1959 Institute of Spirituality: ¯ Summa theologiae, 1-2, q. 132, a. 2. All that you have to do to demonstrate that there really is no incompatibility between humility and a sense of personal' worth is to work very hard and consistently for a while at giv-ing your Sisters a sense of personal worth. Show your appreci-ation, of ~hat they are. doifig. Give. them praise whenever, p.os-s~ ble . And you will see more evidences of genuine humility than you did before this principle of psychology was applied so assiduously in your hguse. You see, it is the secure S~ster, the Sister who feels that she counts for something with her superior and with her community, who can afford to be humble. She is not continually being called upon to defend herself . A sense of p.ersonal worth is not only ~ao detriment to the virtue of hu-mility but it is also a natural help to. the .acquisition of humility.8 Father Nuttin notes that individual, actions tend to be repeated in .proportion to the success achieved: ~Experimental data about the way human personality de-velops from past experience show that normal forms of be-havi'our and the dyndmic forces which lie behind them, tend,to develop according to the success achieved; that is to say, forms of behaviour which lead to a satisfactory result are maintained by theoorganism, whilst the kinds of behaviour~ that end in fail-ure or a comparatively unsatisfactory result are increasingly eliminated.' If such is the case, ignoring good actiom, or worse yet, condemning them, may be a p6sitive deterrent to the praiseworthy development of another; Whether we wish to be or not, we constitute someone else's env~ironment. Now the question can be asked: Who should praise? Theologians and psychologists agr~ee that"~ tO produce its most desirable effects, praise must be given'by those who matter to us. Father Lord, in perhaps his greatest pamph-let, In Praise of Praise, comments thus: I should be quick to praise and eager to approve those who are connected with me by blood and kinship. The nearer the re-lati. onship, the more spontaneous and generous should-be my praise. I should gladly praise those who in the slightest .way depend on me. Their dependence extends to a real need for a state-ment that I like them and their work. I should be quick to notice and point out the good work of associates. Assoctation can easily turn out to be less the'occasion for friendship than for rivalry. That is tragic. Men and women thrive under the approval of those who work at their side. I am wise if I.praise those who are or could be my rivals. I may be sure the praise given to them is not stolen from me. Indeed, if I were to play a calculating and selfish game, I can remember that when I praise a rival and speak well of work that parallels my own, I am displaying my own generosity of soul.8 ~ Sister Mary Annette, C.S.J., "Environmental Factors Conditioning Personal Development," in Proceedings oI the 1959 Sisters' Institute o] Spirituality, edited by Joseph E. Haley, C.S.C. (Notre Dame: Uni-versity of Notre Dame Press, 1960); pp. 105-06. ¯ ' Joseph Nuttin, Psychoanalysis and Personality (New.York: Sheed and Ward, 1953), p. 185. ~ Daniel A Lord, S.J., In Praise o[ Praise (St.Louis: Queen's Work, 1953), pp. 47-8. + ÷ + VOLUME "20, 1961 415 $ist~ Ma~tha Ma~y REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 416 It is a known fact that many persons in the United States, even religious, go to 'a psychiatrist to have selbconfidence restored. How has it been lost? Might not a steady diet of apreciation have helped to prevent such personality starv-ation? The duty to praise is far'reaching indeed. It includes family, superiors, associates, everyone--in varying degrees. But for those in a pgsition of authority, the duty is more pressing because the results are more telling. What about religious superiors? Where praise exists, there is a smooth-running, happy community. Where recognition is never given, the virtue of the subjects is tested to the extremes; duty is made very difficult. A much-lo~ed superior general used to say to her subjects: "Do this, Sister dear, with the grace of God and your own smartness." She made her subjects feel that the cooperation they gave to God was tremendous and that they were great persons. They left her presence feeling that they could conquer the world for Christ. Deep in their hearts they felt, too, that perhaps their cooperation had been somewhat defective in the past, but that such a thing would never happen again. Such attitude of mind is healthy. Just the opposite is the de-flation felt when one has been told how inconsequential" one,s achievements and capabilities are. There is no to de better, just a dead feeling that one's clay feet match the rest of one's anatomy. There is always', the danger too, that since religious regard superiors the special representatives of God in their lives, unguarded and thoughtless remarks may be taken very seriously. The commitment of a religious demands excellence performance because what is done for Christ should be' perfection itself. However, a superior who takes the ex-cellent performance of her subjects for granted, does not establish a happy community feeling. The mere fact she provides a well-balanced diet for them, comfortable sleeping quarters, and the proper medicine for them when~ they are sick, does not compensate for a lack of confidence' and trust. Sisters value such comments as: "You did that well, Sister"; "I heard Dr~ Jones comment on your "The talk you gave at assembly was splendid"; "That apple pie tasted just like my mother's." When~ such remarks are made, the small talk of religious becomes, big talk because it makes each member feel that she is necessary person in her religious family, Does this mean that the praise must be all on the side the superior? Should the subject praise the superior? Ob-viously, since praise which is true praise is merely aspect of 19ve, the subject ought to show her appreciationl! for her superior. Too often this manifestation of regard classified as "polishing the apple" or "getting a stand-Yet, in religious communities no one ever aoes anyt alone. Subjects must back their superiors, not just from a sense of duty but in a happy manifestation of esprit de corps. This is best done when appreciation is shown on both sides; therefore, subjects ought not to fear to tell their superiors that a job has beefi well done, that they ap-preciate kindnesses. On the whole, superiors receive less praise than they should. They need kind words to counter-balance the worry and responsibility they have to shoulder. Superiors do a better job when they feel the warmth of subjects' love and admiration. When is the best time to praise a person? Obviously there is no pat answer for this; still it seems that praise should be given as soon as possible after achievement as it is a powerful tonic for relieving the fatigue concomitant with difficult work. It should be given, also in the tedium of steady progress toward distant goals, and it should be given at the moment of failure when discouragement may overwhelm one. In fact, there is no time unsuitable for praise; yet, it is of least value when it is prefaced by un-kind remarks simply because there is little likelihood that it will be believed. Praise, then, we may conclude, is a powerful incentive to virtue when it comes from one who matters to us, when it concerns a good action in an aspect of life which is im-portant to us, and when it is rightly timed. Praise is pre-cious and abundantly at hand. Then why is there so little of it in circulation? Observation will furnish the answer. Praise cannot thrive where there is selfishness, thoughtless-ness, and jealousy, It does not spring from misinterpreted moral principles. Praise is choked in the worldliness of our product-conscious age. All our superlatives have been cheapened in advertisements of such things as cars, beer, patent medicine, soap, and toothpaste. The people who invented these things have usually never been heard of. It seems that only diseases are named for their discoverers. Since the product has taken precedence over the person, we praise the product and ignore the person who devised it. This subtle and damaging form of worldliness can not only creep into religious communities but even thrive un-der the protection of ill-applied moral principles. The extent of the damage which results is almost impossible to gauge. This is true because very few people in the world have enough self-confidence to compensate for not receiving it from others. In our age, most people, rather than tending to pride, seem to be on the opposite side. They tend to be too afraid, infantile, immature, or in a Thomistic sense, pusillanimous. We are more like the man in the parable of the talents who buried his one talent. It is an odd, Jansenistic notion, I suppose, that makes many of us afraid to encourage others for fear we will make them ÷ ÷ Prate VOLUME 201 1961 proud. This is least likely to happen in our age. Rather we seem to need true encouragement to help us along the way.~ The need that is most basic,to our spirit is the need to be loved. We cannot live normally without it, It is being loved by others that gives us our sense of personal worth. Why should we hesitate to let this love shine through our words? Granted that praise does good to others. Does it help the one who bestows it? Yes. Praise dilates the heart. It fills us with love. It makes us outgoing. It makes us want to live life, not just to undergo it. Hearts that sing with praise are far removed from the dry rot of egotism. St. Thomas in explaining why God demands our praise and worship for Himself, underlines the fact that we are the ones who are benefited~ not God. Praise opens us up to God so that we can make contact with the divine. An analogous thing happens when we praise our neighbor. We praise God when we praise what He has made. Thus true praise finds its beginning in the worship of God. °Charles A. Curran, "Some Basic Factors in the Formation of Feminine Character and Spirituality," in Proceedings o! the 1959 Sisters" Institute o[ Spirituality, edited by Joseph E. Haley, C.S.C. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1960), pp. 59-60. 4- Sister Martha Mary REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 418 FATHER AIDAN, C.P. The Examination of Conscience Cemeteries are not, I suppose, places to which we would willingly go to 'pass our time. It is true that the grave-zligger in Hamlet sang at his grave-making, but theh 'custom hath made it in hima property of easiness"; less frequent visitors find light-heartedness the least of their emotions. If the churchyard is well=kept, colorful, and dive with flowers; the contrast between what it looks like ~nd what it serves' as is themore marked; if on the other ,Land it is neglected and untended, theatmosphere of g'en;., eral mournfulness and melancholy befitting the place is dl the more enhanced. No doubt Gray's "Elegy" has done .nuch to contribute to this association of ideas, but the ,~ensive sadness he found in his churchyard is a feeling =ommon to nearly all. I wonder whether a religious about to make his examen ¯ f conscience ever finds himself oppressed by much the ame sensation. Here we are---daily invited to 'attend and :arefully inspect the tombs of our buried ~hopes, our luickly perished good resolutions, our infant virtues; to emember carefully all the ills and diseases that did them o swiftly to death, and thereby to guard more effectively ,gainst the future attacks which we know to be inevitable. 1~o return again and again to the scede of so many defeats, o behold repeatedly evidences of such .feeble efforts--it an be a depressing pilgrimage, so depressing that th6 de- ,otion essential to any pilgrimage quickly evaporates,and ve fall into a routine performance of a task which ought o be, must be, fulfilled: And: tlien, perhaps, our resolutions, like everything me-hanical, begin to wear down. We become less convinced ,f the utility of the practice;, after all, we know ourselves ~retty welt by flow, so wliavis the point of this cons'~ant elf-analysis? Our duties keep us busy, our day is a full ohm, ,nlooked-for circumstances rob us of our precioffs~ mo-aenis; they surely can not be squandered on so profitless ÷ ÷ ÷ Father Aidan, C.P., teaches English at. St. Gabriel's College, Blythe Hall, Orraskirk, Lancs., England. VOLUME 20, 1961 419 Father Aidan, C.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 420 and dispiriting an employment. It can well be treated more cursorily, shortened, even omitted altogether. We are amazed to read what great store has been set on the examen by spiritual writers-~quite reputable ones, too~ and we can only feel that they are given to pious exaggera-tion. Yet for all our specious reasoning, the examen is an es-sential feature in our spiritual life, Perhaps it is not merely our practice of it, but our attitude towards it that stands in need of re-orientation. Perhaps we should remember more firmly that it represents not a solo effort with our-selves as judge and jury, plaintiff and defendant, but a joint partnership between ourselves and Christ. After all, the dead we mourn in our own little cemetery were also once His. He is concerned about all those abortive efforts, those frustrated failures, those sadly neglected promises. The sorry wreckage we contemplate so ruefully is not merely the ruin of our own hopes; it is also the thwarting of His loving desires for us. If we remember His presence,~ His concern in what we do, then perhaps we shall not find it too heart-breaking or too strength-sapping a task. When we look out of a window at a view beyond, we, are really lo~king at two things. We see the window itself,I and through it we see the landscape. Our gaze, it is true,,, is focused on the view, and we are aware of the windowl only secondarily, in a vague sort of way. Further, the more magnificent and appealing the view, the less conscious we are ot~ the intervening glass. There is a certain analogy here with our examen. Our souls should be like clear glass, through Which can be seen the magnificent spectacle of God. Too often, however, that unclouded pane becomes speckled and spotted with dust and dirt, so that it steadily grows opaque. It is to removing the source of that dirt that our examen is directed, so that~ we may look beyond to the splendor of divine brightness, Obviously, to clean merely for the sake of cleaning, like a fussy house-proud housewife, is a soulless occupation. The window is cleaned so that it may be seen through-~ that the beholder may gaze in full enjoyment at the beauty beyond. And when we are once convinced that the view is really worth looking at, surely we labor more eagerly at the window cleaning. In other words, when we attend to keeping clean the window of our soul, we must have our gaze steadily focused on the sight of our Divine Lord beyond. We should not rest in a sterile contemplation of our own limitations-- that way lies discouragement--but should compare them, at once with the unlimited virtues in the Sacred Heart Of Christ. He can, and He will, help us to remove those limitations, if we sincerely will to allow Him to do it. The sincere will to let Him have His way--perhaps i.t, ~as been the lack of this that has made our examens in the past so tedious, so disheartening, so~ fruitless. So easy to allow a gush of self-pity to drown the good resolution; so easy to stand idle, paralyzed with dismay, at the revela-tion of our utter weakness; so e~igy to forget our Divine Partner in the examen, that "combined. operation" that is nothing less than the accomplishment, together with Him, af the redemption He has died to bring, us. This should be remembered even if our examen ,has lacked more than sincere good will, and has been only a perfunctory formality--a mere lip-service without any ,eart-searching.: A few pet imperfections hurriedly re-clewed, their number estimated vaguely if at all, some nechanical acts~of sorrbw and petition, and we rise hastily _o get on with the real business of the dayRsomething for which we can see some positiveresult and tangibl~.fruit Of :ffort. Never a substitute for sincerity; formality has, llere ~. fossilizing effect; every subsequent examen only serves _o add a further stratum in the soul and renders future ~clamation more and more remote. Yet if with us works Dne for whom no obstacle exists, save only in our own tardened wills, we can not doubt the outcome. ~ There can be no excuse of "parvity of matter"~in our .elf-analysis. We are never likely to run short of raw ma, erial.'Our vows, our duties, the virtues we should practice, ,ur attitude to and our contacts with our neighbor--all ,r0vide us with food enough for reflection, and after re, iection, action. If it seems otherwise, then we know with ertainty that we are deceiving ourselves. Five loaves and wo fishes seemed at first a scanty meal for a few men; yet, _~lessed by our Divine Lord, they provided ample nourish- ,-tent for five thousand--and still there were left twelve ~askets of fragments. If we complacently survey our soul :nd can see little therein to engage our attention for long, ;'e need the blessing of Christ upon our efforts to detect ,ur infidelities; then we shall be kept busy indeed. Our poverty, for instance--what can we check on there? .~o great breach, perhaps, but are there no ,lesser infideli-ies? A practical distrust of Providence, for example; else ;,hy do we so often hoard up so much for such~remote ontingencies? How about our spirit of detachment? Why 11 those knick-knacks and bric-a-brac that so drearily ollect the dust in our rooms? They would be at home no loubt in a drawing room, but in a religious cell?. "But, ,f course, I should willingly give them up if the superior sked me for them." And how likely is that? Superiors rave surely more sense than to ask their subjects for lbums-of photographs, tawdry little souvenirs, showy ittle gewgaws, or even that battered copy of the New I'estament, guarded so jealously since profession day-- or its sentimental value only. VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ~ Or, as superiors, have we put purposes before persons; The purpose we have in mind, that is, before the .persons we should have in mind, those under us whom we are responsible to bring closer to Christ. Have we neglected to give them what we might have done well to give them, with the excuse that necessary retrenchments must be made in order to meet the expenses of some pet project of ours? Has there been an over-cautious pruning of certain preliminary expenses, which in the long run will impair the success of the complete scheme as a whole? We must be poor after the manner of Christ. The key: note of His way of living was simplicity. He did not create artificial needs; He did not hanker after what conduced' merely to comfort. He 'accepted what was given, when it was .given, and did not repine; He slept how, when, and Where He could, and was content; born in another man',, stable, He was buried in another man's tomb. All through His life, His indifference about means shines out: "Do no~ fret~ over your life"; "Be not solicitous, therefore.,' He showed practically His self-aband0nment to the provi: dential.care of His heavenly Father. Analysis of our practice of obedience is another useful mine of self-information. Perhaps our faith here has bei come imperceptibly weaker over the years; we are more conscious of the ,human limitations of the superior ~than we are of the fact that he represents Christ for us. (Yet suppose our Lord had seen the cross merely as a painful instrument of an ignominious death?) Would we not go freely and willingly to Christ to discuss our ideas, plans, suggestions-not trying to catch Him at an off-moment of distraction or when we know He is in a "good mood;!' or when we have paved the way for a successful issue b careless hints? Would we not abide by His decision, after discussion, He gave judgment against our petition~ so obviously to us the best for all concerned? If He were to order us tosome employment which we felt would only expose us to almost certain failure, with all its consequem mortification, we would surely not ~'twist and turn frenzied efforts at evasion. He needs our efforts to do Hi., work about as much :as the sun needs a candle to light thb world; but He does look 'for our good will. Or as superiors, remembering that the sole purpose ot the authority we hold from Christ is to bring those ~ndel us nearer to Him, have we really tried to understand sym pathetically the capabilities and limitations of those dis ciples of His? "Splendid isolation, may be all very well a~ a political slogan; it should be far from the mind of superior. The crown of thorns round the brow is probab!: inevitable; but no prickly thickets round the heart shouR render access difficult and even impossible. Man is, cording to Shakespeare, "dressed in a little brief autho~l ity," and should not play "such fantastic :tricks before high heaven As make the angels weep:" The donkey that bore our Lord into Jerusalem had his moment of triumph, felt the garments under his feet, saw the palm branches being waved as he passed, heard the hosannas and shouts of joy; but he would have been an ass indeed to assume that it was for him that the people were rejoicing. The manner in which we obey provides a wide field for examination. "Prompt, blind, and cheerful" is cer-tainly a high enough ideal. We need to ~be on our guard against any "delaying tactics" ("He may think better of it in a day or so") and against any disinclination to carry out what our own intelligence does not dommend. And if the Lord loves a cheerful giver, how much more is He pleased by. a hearty, willing obedience? Yet~how much disobedi-ence may be dignified by the name of manly self-assertion; and how often may pusillanimity usurp, the title of obedi-ence? We must obey as Christ obeyed. Had He not been obedient "unto death, even the death of the cross," we should not have been redeemed at all. He saw the will of His Father in everything that" befell Him, and "the things that are pleasing to Him.I' do always." Authority, even when vested in unworthy holders of office, whether malicious like Caiphas or weak like Pilate, always re-ceived from Him its due recognition, without servility or consideration of human motives. He knew that even such as these "would have no authority, unless it were given from above"; and since from above it.had been given, He submitted to itowith obedience and dignity. Yet even He, Son of God as He was, had to "learn obedience by the things He suffered." ¯ Our third vow, chastity, is perl~aps, best considered under its~ aspect of love, since serious failure here will not require examination, being self-evident. It is possible to allow our very pursuit of purity to blind us to its wider implications. If we. do not find in ourselves anything con-trary to our vow, we should thank God: "I could not other-wise be continent, except God gave. it." Yet are we in-tolerant and censorious of the peccadilloes of others? The "heart of iron for chastity" must not preclude the "heart of flesh for charity"; for "chastity-without charity shall be chained in hell." A mortal sin again~st charity.will kill the soul no less effectively than a mortal sin against chas-tity. Purity means that we long to love only God and for His sake all others. If self-complacent purity should lead to bitter, wounding remarks and unkind lack of considera-tion, we are completely missing the end of the sacrifice entailed by the vow; we might well ask: "To what purpose was this waste?" Again, it is surely only an incomplete view to confine ÷ ÷, ÷ Ex~mi~tlon o Comci~nce VOLUME 20, 1961 423 ÷ ÷ ÷ our warfare against "the flesh" to sexual temptations alone, Perhaps we may not indeed have offended here; but if faith wanes dim, and love waxes cold, there is the danger of the law of compensation creeping upon us unawares. We may tend to grow self-indulgent in smaller matters: to prolong our sleep unnecessarily, to be fussy over what we have to eat and drink, to be fastidious and finical about what we are given to wear, to show a marked disinclina-tion for work that is boring, disturbs our ease, or does not suit us. Purity should not preoccupy us so much that freedom from its grosser infringements blinds us,to the necessity of mortifying our senses--also "the flesh"--our taste, touch, ease, vanity. Nor should our natural propensity for friendship lead us to exclusiveness or to the loss of the spirit of prayer. Our human affections must not be put down, but put straight; they must not be kept under, but kept under con-trol. Controlled affection can be made to serve Christ's purposes; uncontrolled, our inclinations court disaster. What of Christ? His love was not jealous, mean, or petty; but magnanimous, and universal in its sweep. He did not shrink from self-denial in showing His love; He did not fear running the risk of others failing Him, as others did, like Judas,, Pilate, and the unknown "rich young man." All-embracing in its scope (although He too had His "special friends": John, Martha, Mary), His love went out to beggar and well-to-do, Pharisee and publican, virtuous and vicious. He showed no antipathy, no con-tempt towards any one of His creatures; there was nothing forced or spurious about His love, which was the perfect flowering of the all-holy purity of the Man-God. Our examen is, after all, the mirror we hold up to na-ture; a poor weak human nature,.no doubt, but one that all the more on that.account needs the mirror to reflect faithfully all its deficiencies. If we undertake this work more sincerely, more generously, in partnership with Christ, perhaps we shall find what we thought to be stumbling-blocks transformed by Him into ~stepping stones. Our examen will no longer have the dismal charac-ter of a solitary.visit to a desolate cemetery, but the hopeful quality of a pilgrimage with a Friend eager to help us. We may still discover dry bones aplenty on the face of the plain, but if faithfully we do our part, even of them also it may be said "I will give you spirit and you shall live." ~ Father A/dan, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS MARTIN A. STILLMOCK; C.SS.R. Two Century Masterpiece "Of all my spiritual works, I should call this' one the best." These are the words spoken by St. Alphdnsus Maria de Ligouri on July 24, 1760, about his book, The True S~ouse ol Jesus Christ. When we consider that of the ope hundred eleven books and pamphlets written by the saint sixty-four ar6 ascetical works, this statement commands attention. The book in question could hardly be given higher praise. To understand why St. Alphonstis made this' remarl~- able utterance, it will' be well to consider the background of this book. As a founder of a religi6us congregation of missionary priests, as a popular and skilled retreat ~aster, and later as a bishop, St. Alpho. nsus was deeply concerned that llis priests and all priests should be learned and holy. To help priests in the field of learning he wrote his famous Mm:al Theology. To help prie,sts in their spiritual life he wrote his well known Selva which treats of the dignity and duties of the priest. All Christians know that there is no salvation for the world except through Jesus Christ. Now the ordinary channel of the world's salvation is the priesthood whic.h Christ instituted. Hence it was that Alphonsus loved so much to preach to priests and seminarians. And hence also it was that he wrote for them. He knew that the sanctification of one priest could mean the saving of thousands of souls that perhaps otherwise would not be saved. Alphonsus know he could put weapons into the hands of priests: weapons of theological learning, sermon material, ~naterial for retreats, missions, novenas. He could give them food for spiritual thought by combing spiritual writers, especially the fathers of the Church, and presenting their writings and ideas in a popular and interesting way. He could point out to priests the road to sanctity and the ways and means to attain holiness. All these weapons as well as many more St. Alphonsus, following Catholic tra-dition, put into the hands of pastors and missionaries for converting the world to Jesus Christ. But to insure success, he thought it necessary to supplement these weapons by Martin A. Stillmock, C.Ss:R., is engaged in parish work at St. A1- phonsus Church, 1118 North Grand Boule-vard, St. Louis 6, Mis-souri. ~OLUME 20, 1961 425 ÷ M. A. Stillmock, C.$s.R. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the prayers of all those who are consecrated to God by religious profession: In every day and age it has been difficult for people to understand the n~cessity and value of the contem-plative life. To mauy it seems a pious waste of time. The problem is that many of these people understand little or nothing of the communion of saints, even though they may believe in it as they profess in the Apostles' Creed. Consequently, they do not understand or even -begin to realize the value of intercessory prayer or suppli-cation. Why God created such an institution as the cloister and why He calls religious to lead lives of penance and pr.ayer is beyond them. But the saints understand the value of these" things; and Alphonsus, from long experience in working for the most. abandoned souls, realized fully how much priests and missionaries need the help of prayers for success in their priestly and missionary work. Whenever Alphonsus had a difficult mission before him, or when he knew strong resistance would be forthcoming from the great enemy of souls, he recommended himself to the prayers of ~:eligious who spend their lives in the presence of God. Alphonsus himself had founded an order of contem-pla'tive nuns, the Redemptoristines. For him they were the second branch of his apostolic congregation, the Redemptorists, While the missionaries were on the front battling [or souls whd were often deep in the clutches of the devil, these nuns raised their minds to "heave/i, like Moses on the mountain, and by 'their prayers and pen-ances obtained the victory. . It was thoughts such as these which impelled A1- phonsus to write The True'Spouse of Jesus Christ. In the volume he says to the religious souls for whom he is writing: You should be :useful to all, especially by yqur prayers. A!l the spouses of our Lord should be zealous for His honor. He Himself said to St. Teresa: "Now that you are My spouse, you must work with zeal for My glory." Indeed, if the souls so ~logely united to Jesus do not take His interests to heart, who will do so? Our Lord has promised to hear anyone who prays to Him. In your prayers, then, at your communions, during the visit to the Blessed Sacrament, recommend to God all poor sinners, infidels, heretics~ and those Who live without God. And Alphonsus goes.on to say: Our Lord Himself asks this of His. special servants. He said to a venerable nun one day: "Help me by your prayers to save souls"; and to St. Mary Magdalene of Pazzi: "See, My daughter, how Christians are in the hands of the evil onel If My elect did not deliver them by their prayers, they would become the prey of that monster." This prompted the counsel which she gave to her religious: "My dear sisters, God has withdrawn, us from the world to save our own' souls, of course, but also that we may satisfy His mercy by interceding for sinners. We shall have to account for the loss of many souls if we neglect to recommend them to God." For this reason she never let an hour of the day go by without prayir[g /0r sinners. Another servant of our Lord did penance for forty years and applied it all to the salvation of souls in need of divine grace. Oh, how many sinners there are who owe their conversion not so much to the sermon of the preacher as to the prayers of some holy re-ligiousl It was revealed to a celebrated orator that the conversions apparently worked by him were not attributable to his elo-quence but to the prayers of the lay brother who sat at th~ foot of the pulpit. Pray then for sinners, and pray also for priests that they may work with true zeal for the salvation of souls. But if religious are to be powerful intercessors with our Lord, it can be only on condition that they be His true spouses. Therefore, just as he did for priests, A1- phonsus treats at length of the duties of religious women. While reading this book, weshould keep in mind that in the eighteenth century many abuses had crept into the cloister. The spirit-of the times breathed laxity, tepidity, and worldliness. A1phonsus was not one to use half meas-ures, and in many instances his language is strong. But his one big purpose is to preach holiness. He does this by pointing out what virtues should be specially practiced, and he prescribes, the means for wiping qut abuses. It may be thought that St. Alphonsus wrote Thk True Spouse solely for cloistered or contemplative nuns. He certainly had° thegn in :mind, but not exclusively. In his preface the saint himself tells us: This work, as appe.ars from the title, is intended particularly for nuns. However, only a small part of it is directed exclusively to them; the remainder, but especially what regards the ob-servance of the vows of religion, regular discipline, and the per-fection of the religious state, is equally suitedto religious of all congregations; and what regards the Christian virtues will be found highly useful even for seculars. What is to be found in The True Spouse? Practically every facet of the spiritual life is treated, The saint starts off his work by treating of the merits of virgins who have consecrated themselves to God. He goes on to state the advantages of the religious state and how religious should belong wholly to God. He speaks of the desire religious should have for perfection and then warns that imper-fect religious are exposed tb danger. The necessity of combating self love is treated. After treating of interior mortifications, the saint goes on to speak of exterior mortification of the appetite, of the senses of hearing and touch, and of the eyes. The book also contains a long treatise on poverty, its perfection, its degrees and practice, the detachment it involves from relatives and other persons. Closely allied to poverty is humility; the saint here discusses its ad-wmtages, the nature of humility of the intellect, heart, and will, and patience in bearifig contempt. ÷ ÷ ÷ Two Century Masterpiece VOLUME 20, 1961 4. M. d. Stillmo¢l¢, C.Ss.R. There is a beautiful chapter on fraternal charity, fol-lowed by one on patience, a virtue that leads to resig-nation to the will of God. Then follows a treatment of mental prayer, its necessity as well as its practice. From there the saint points out the importance and necessity of silence, solitude, and the presence of God. The topic of spiritual reading forms a chapter in itself. The True Spouse contains a long treatment on the frequentation of the sacraments of confession and com-munion. Under confession the saint has a consoling and practical treatise on scruples: what they are, how they are hurtful, their remedy and a practical application. Prayer and purity of intention form two more chapters. A work of this type would not be complete for St~ Alphonsus unless he devoted some space, to the Holy Mother of God. First, Alphonsus contends that no true servant of Mary can be lost; then he goes on to show who are to be considered true servants of Mary. Following the chapter on devotion to Mary is one on the love of Christ, the obligation of a religious to iove Him, and the means of acquiring this love. The saint concludes his work with particular admoni-tions for superiors, novice mistresses, and so on. In the last chapter he gives a rule of life for the religious who desires to become a saint. This includes the treatment of such things as the Divine Office, hearing of Mass, exami-nation of conscience, necessity of banishing melancholy, recreation. The True Spouse even has an appendix con-taining such considerations as a summary of the virtues which the religious who wishes to become a saint should practice, spiritual maxims for religious, and aspirations of love for Christ. Very few books written almost exclusively for religious women handle such a wide and practical range of treat-ment. As one German translator of The True Spouse observes: This book, written as it is with great fo~'ce and piety, contains the.q.uintessence of ascetic theology and is a practical ex-posmon of the virtues of the religious life. I have no hesitation in saying that the reader will find in it all that has been written by ancient and modern writers on the subject of spirituality. It sums up a multitude of books and gives all that the holy author has developed at greater length in other writings on the same matters. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 428 MARCEL MARCOTTE; S.J. Health and Holiness Father, it seems that for the majority of priests, a person suffering from neurosis is condemmed to stand in one spot marking time with no chance of advancing in the spiritual life. I take it that you are not of that opinion, and 1 am so glad. Your opinion confirms my own per-sonal experience and that ol others who have confided in me. When a person is unbalanced in some way, one at once thinks that there has been some frustration in the past of his emotional needs. In most cases this is true. But do not certain neuroses grow worse because of a conflict be-tween the profound need of God which we experience on the one hand and, on the other, the behavior we are led to persist in, sometimes, under the influence o[ the guidance we receive? It seems to me that the more aspir-ing and straightforward a soul is, the more woeful can be certain mistakes in spiritual direction. I think that there is a tendency among religious and priests to make too little of the needs of the soul. Spiritual writers teach clearly that in order to reach God, the soul must proceed by a series of purifications suited to its spiritual progress. But how many spiritual advisors grasp that when the time comes? They seem to think that this was written more for initiates in the spiritual life. But I think that such ideas could be carried over with great profit into many ordinary .lives. Don't you agree? IfI we sidestep debating certain merely incidental ele-ments in this letter so as to throw into relief its main point, the question it asks can be put thus: Does our sanctification depend on our psychological balance as well as, in some degree, on our bodily health and the sound condition of our nerves? Pascal, who was all his life a _very sick and anxiety-haunted man, declared that "ill, ness impairs the judgement and the senses . " "If great 1:This article is translated with permission from Relations, March, . 1961, pp. 64-66. The translation is by George Courtright. 4. 4. 4. Marcel Marcotte, S.J., teaches at the ColI~ge Sainte Marie, 1180 rue Bleury, Montreal 2, Canada. VOLUME 20, 1961 Mar~e! Mav¢otte, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 430 illness," he says plainly, "visibly alters them, I have no doubt at all that minor illnesses have a proportionate fect." This opinion, dictated by the personal experience of a man of genius who was, also, in his own way, a kind of saint, ought doubtless to be kept in mind. How-ever, recent discoverie~ in psychology together with the teaching of experience and certain data of theology lead us to qualify it. Does our relationship with God really depend upon our physical and psychological formation, which, while in us, is, for all that, not us? Are we to be marked in ad-vance for sanctity or for spiritual mediocrity by reason of our temperament, i the condition of our endocrine glands, certain accidents of education, or traumas ex-perienced in the course of life which definitively open or close to us the approaches"to Christian perfect~ion? "The will of God," says St.Paul, "is ,that' you become saints." But is this divine will concerned only with people who have perfectly healthy and well-balanced bodies and minds? Does sanctity reser~b!e some sort of royal feast to which only a small number of chosen guests--great lords and noble ladies with impressive names--are to be in-vited, while the great mass of the faithful must be satis-fied with the crumbs of the banquet? This would be .a surprising and rather scandalous thing. God, in His giving, remains free, but when once He has granted, in baptism, the first, essential gift ("if you knew the gift of Godl" Jesus said to the Samaritan woman), then that spring of living water, which has just penetrated by grac~ into the Christian soul, must inexhaustibly "gush from his breast into eternal life." For the gift of God is nothing else but God Himself, from whom life pours out, diffuses itself, and irresistibly increases in the Christian so as to make him achieve his full height, his complete stature in Christ. S~ill, we must yield to the evidence: Not all Christians are saints--far from it--for indeed if God's gift is to produce its fruit of sanctity in the soul, the Christian must cooperate freely with the ~ace that is offered him. But the usual effects of original sin make this free co-operation very difficult for the normal Christian. Besides this, in many instances, the exercise of freedom is en-cumbered by" special difficulties which render infinitely more unpredictable the conformity of our acts in life to moral standards and the higher dem~inds of sanctity. "It is hard to practice Christian virtue," Alexis Carrel says, "when one suffers from a glandular deficiency." Edu-cators, judges,-moralists, and spiritual directors realize today how important a role the body plays in the origin and development of certain 'kinds of moral, social, and spiritual weaknesses. Chrtesian dualism no longer has currency; we have learned to, recognize ;and admit the. reciprocal influence of the body and the soul~ on .the physical and mental health of human beings. Psycho-somatic medicine, for its 'part, is ready to take into ac-count complications on the physical and bodily level arising from the psychic; why should not .Catholic moral-ity and spiritual teaching,, in turn, take into account the, repercussion of sick organs and nerves upon the interior, psychic life? "Man," says Pascal again, '~is neither angel nor beast, and ill luck would have it that he who would play the angel plays the beast."-" Furthermore, physical health: is not alohe concerned here. Depth psychology has shown (doubtless to the. point;, of sa.t.iety) that the evolution of a religious and moral personality, is linked to the dynhmic'drives of ifiapulses and tendencies of instinct, and emotion which we carry along with us from earliest infancy to adult life. Ac-cording as the liquidation of ce.rtain psychi~ conflicts has been more or less successful, habit~ and moral or spirit-ual attitudes assume very different characters. In certain instances, repression and sublimation will facilitate ,the practice of virtue and thai.pursuit'of sanctity; in others, they will make virtue and holiness, at least in appearance, very difficult or even altogether impossible. Therefore, in the quest for God, the-Christian must not only adapt himself to his nature as he finds it, but, in ad-dition, undergo to a degree very difficult to estimate the inbuilt necessities springing from the past. Why seek to deny it? There are ill-favored creatures who, so far from being naturally equipped to live a truly spiritual life, are not even fit to live a life in accordance with common morality. They will never be so thoroughly good as they might otherwise be simply for lack of discipline and con-tr61 aiid will drag along through weakness after weakness t6'~the end of their lives. Their sense of judgement is warped, their wills debilitated: how can they aspire to personal holiness? Yet, is sanctification to be made de-pendent on the chance that on~ has or has not a healthy hormone balance, or that one is blest in one's psycho-logical makeup or has been guccessfully educated? Some-times, it takes so little (a thyroid'deficiency, the awkward or rough meddling of a teacher) to change the course of one's life. "If Cleopatra's nose had been shorter . " Is the longing of a Christian for sanctity to be similarly sub-ject to accident, to that "grain of sand in the ureter" which, according to Pascal, upset the, Whole map of Europe? To avoid so scandalous a notion, we must first take care to have a right idea of the meaning of sanctification. We must not'confuse it with the attainment of purely human perfection or even~ with the moral perfection Health and Holiness VOLUME 201 1961 43! ÷ ÷ ÷ Marcel Marcotte, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 432 which makes saints so attractive. In essence, sanctification is the act by which God divinizes man. This action occurs in the spiritual order, an order the harmonies of which are not necessarily echoed in the outward behavior and visible appearance of the man God has sanctified. In re-lation to this action, one's psychological makeup is of no importance. Whether a man be endowed with a nature favorable to the acquiring of virtue or is a neurotic ob-sessed by the flesh or by guilt or scruples, it is enough for him to say "Yes" to God, to cling to Him in his soul of souls, beyond all temptation, all childish fear, in order to be swathed in divine grace and himself made divine. On this point, Saint Francis de Sales says: It is beyond question true that our souls ordinarily take on something of the traits and tone of our bodily lower nature . A body weakened and distracted by much pain cannot but in-hibit the vigor and spontaneity of the soul in its performances. But nothing of this is in anyway prejudicial to the spiritual actions of the soul. As pleasing to God as such actions can be when done among all tlie pleasures of the world, they are even more so when done with greater trouble and pain . We must not be unjust to ourselves and demand more of our-selves than we can do. When our bodies and our health give us trouble, we must, at such a time, expect of the soul only acts of submission and resignation and that holy union of ou~' wills with the good pleasure of God, which is formed in the highest reaches of the soul. As for our outward actions, we must direct and perform them as best we can and be conr tent therewith, though our hearts mislike it and the going be slow and heavy. Nevertheless, the fac( remains that sanctity, in the usual sense of the word, requires certain conditions, which are not given to everyone. For example, an idiot finds himself, as such, incapable of that renunciation of sin and of that assent to grace which are essential ,in the spiritual life. Just as a certain healthiness of the nervous system is needed before the moral consciousness can un-fold, So, too, in the order of sanctity, a certain psychologi-cal healthiness is necessary before that love, thanks to which one renounces sin in order to give oneself utterly to God, can unfold. In what does this healthiness consist, without which sanctity becomes impossible~not that sanctity which exists in the hidden mystery, of the sou! but the sanctity we find in the faces, in the words and the actions of those whom we call saints? There are certain characteristics, certain somatic and psychological qualifications which are necessary so that the fruit Of divine grace .may grow and show itself in the form of Christian virtues: for ex-ample, mildness, temperance, purity, brotherly love. If there are serious deficiencies in one's makeup, the soul will struggle vainly to remain faithful; all its efforts, at least in appearance, will remain useless. True, in the eyes of God, "who searches the reins and the heart," all these struggles, endlessly abandoned and endlessly lost, will have contributed to the sanctification of the soul. But for the bystander, and often for the soul itself, hypnotized by its own weakness, this mystei~ious but real sanctifica-tion will never be verified. It will not even be verifiable. It may even happen that priests and experienced spiritual directors will fail to recognize the value and the merit of these hard-fought spiritual battles which always end in a checkmate. But such a lack of understanding--wit-ness the lives of the saints---often forms a part of the means God uses for the spiritual progress of souls. It is a kind of night added to that night in which souls struggle only to make the darkness darker and faith more meri-torious. Yet, the darker the night, the nearer, the more lovely the stars. "Close your eyes, and you will seel ." God has a way all His own of dealing with the emptiness surrounding the soul. It is at the moment when He ap-pears to be forevermore far away that He is often closest. "If you had already found Me," God says to Pascal, "you would not look for Me." The important thing, then, is the search for God, the effort, as the accepted phrase is, toward sanctity while trying evermore in one's life to accept the divine will, even when that will rules that we make our way toward God stumblingly, foundering in the earth like plough-oxen, we who were made to fly high in the heavens like eagles. There are two kinds of saints, says Father Beirnaert. There are the saints with ill-favored and difficult personalities, that mass of people ridden with anxiety, aggressiveness, and love of the body, all those who bear the intolerable weight of having been born as they were, those whose blighted hearts will al-ways be nothing but a knot of snakes, unlucky because they were born with repulsive faces, or because they have never been able to identify themselves with a father. They are those who, unlike St. Francis, will never in their lives charm a bird or pet a wolf of Gubbio; those who sin and will sin again; who will grieve till the day they die, not because they lost their temper a little but because they keep on committing the same filthy, unmentionable action. They are that vast crowd whose sanctity will never shine out in this world through their personalities, who will rise up only on the last day to glitter, finally, in eternity. They are saints without the honor of the name. At their side are the saints blest with attractive personalities, the pure, strong, sweet saints, the model saints, the canonized saints and the saints fit to be canonized, saints with hearts as free and wide as the seasho~'e; saints whose being, like a per-fectly tuned harp, forever sings out the glory of God; wonderful saints, who encourage the advances of grace and in whom we touch a grace-transfigured nature--the recognized, the cele-brated, the great saints, who trail a shining splendor through history. Both kinds of saints are brothers. Those saints whose per- 4- 4- 4- l;ealth and Holiness VOLUME 20, 1961 sonalities are haunted by m'onsters and those in whom angels dwell have the same basic experience, and they speak Of God and of themselves in the same words. They are of the same bourn, the same world; a world where the only grief is to find oneseff so unworthy of God, and the only happinesg is to be loved by Him and to try to give Him love for love. For us, here below, they are different. Before God, they are alike. And we shall see this in the day of the Lord Jesus (Etudes, t. 266, pp. 63-64). Once more, pure holiness can and sometimes must adapt itself to certain bodily and psychological states which will give their stamp to the outward aspect and ac, tions of a Christian, without, for all that, compromising his inner adherence to the divine will and, therefore, without hurting the life of charity in him. "In the evening of'life," says St. John of the Cross, "we shall be judged~on our love." For each and all of us, it is simply a question of love and, therefore, of choosing, according to the meas-ure of freedom that has been given us, between good and bad, between the perfect and the imperfect. In propor-tion to this, God Himself comes to meet us so as to share His life more intimately with us, before finally, bringing us into His beatitude. ÷ ÷ .÷ Marcel Marcotte, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 434 THOMAS DUBAY, S.M., ' ' The ,Superior's Predept and God S Will One of the first pro~ositions a.tyro meets in a religious novitiate ,is one to the~effect that a '~superior's directive is "an expression of God's wilV' for .him': If'a religious wishes to know what God' desires of him,~ he need only listen to;accept, and execute the~precepts of his superior. Unfortunately, this early lesson'-'is subject to ambiguity and confusion. And more unfortunately, it can happen that the novice may embrace for life an incorrect interpre-tation of the~,ambiguity or he may simply, practice reli-gious obedience in a pekdffring cloud ofmisunderstand-ing. Does a superior "manifest,God's will" to a subject? If. he does, what does the expression mean? If he does not, ought we to modify our instruction°on this facet of obe-dience? Before attempting an immediate answer to" these, ques-tions, I should like to ask the reader to consider'a philo-sophical and theological antecedent; namely, the problem of how a man can conform his will to the divine will. A conference or retreat master ,can easily advise his listeners to conform their wills to the will of God, but to what ex-tent this conformity is possible and how itls to be achieved is not at all so simple as might appear on the surface. And-, yet a mature and accurate understanding of religious obe-dience would seem to require that we delve beneath the surface and discover~ what-precisely~ we are doing when we obey. For the attainment of this understanding we can follow no better guide than St. Thomas Aquinas. To tinderstand the Angelic Doctbr's doctrine on the precise °fiaanner in which a man is bound to conform his will to the divine will, we must, as Thomas does, dis-tinguish betweeh what may be called a material and a formal conformity.1 In an act of willifig we notice that there are two elements involved: the thing willed and the 1 Summa theologiae, 1-2, q. 19, a. 10~, c. ÷ ÷ ÷ Thomas Dubay, S.M., is spiritual director at Notre Dame Seminary, 2901 South Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans 18, Louisiana. VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ Thomas Dubay,. S.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 436 motive for willing it. Willing an act of kindness, for ex-ample, implies first of all, the sundry components of the benign deed, and, secondly, the motive or reason for willing that deed. The activity willed (here, the kind deed) is called the material element, while the motive or the reason~why (for example, love for God) is the formal element. It can happen that even when they will opposite real-ities two created wills can be good provided their- motives are good. St. Thomas uses the example of ttie execution of a thief. The judge wills his death, whereas the thief's wife does not will it. The wills are opposed as regards the material element, the fact of the executiori; but they can both be good provided the judge wills the death for a good reason (thecommon welfare) and the wife opposes that death for some evil consequent on it (for example, harm to her family). Because the judge has care for a more universal good, the community, and the wife for a less universal one, her family, both can will opposites and yet be good as long as their reasons are worthy. The° reader will understand that we .are not suggesting that any action at all may become morally good merely by the presence of a good motive. A man may not stem five dollars in order to buy his wife an anniversary gift. We are simply stating that two wills can at times be opposed regarding one action and yet both be willing rightly. We are now in a position to apply this principle to our problem of conformity to God's will. As St. Thomas points out, God as the Maker and Governor of the whole universe knows and wills .whatever He wills under the aspect of the universal good, which is His very goodness. A created will, on the other hand, knows some particular good and sometimes wills it for some reason that is good on a particular scale but not good from the point of view of, the more universal. For example, the avoidance of a spanking is a good from the particular or limited aspect of a child's physical well being, but itsoadministration may be better from the universal and wider aspect of his whole welfare and that of the family. In orde~ for a man to Will well some particular good he must refer it somehow, to the universal good; that is, to God. This referral, this motivation to the last end is the formal element in willing and must be present in a volitional act in order for that act to be rightly ordered. A man, therefore, conforms0his will to the divine will when he refers all that he does to God, since God Himself refers all to His own glory. This is a formal conformity and must always be present in a human act. A man, how-ever, need not and cannot always materially conform his will to the divine will as regards particular acts. It is sufficient that those particular acts be good in themselves and be referred to God, for in so acting man is operating as God wants him to operate~ even though God may not actually will this or that particular act. Hence, a material conformity to the divine will is ,not always required or even possible. Why do we say that a material Conformity to God's will is not always required or even possible? The reason is simple~ We often do not know what God wills as re-gards particular acts. We surely know that He wills us to do all for His sake, but that is a formal conformity, the ordering of all to Him. On.the other hand,.we~frequently do not know whether He .prefers.us to do on~ thing rather than another. I know He wants me'to tell-the truth when I am rightly questioned, but I do not know with certitude whether in ten minutes I should still be writing or visit-ing the BlesSed Sacrament. I know He wants me to obey canon law and my religious rule/but I may not know whe!her He really desires that I make~ tfii.s or that ex-cepaon to them. What ought I to do in these cases? I shbuld use my reason, follow the principles~of.sound ~asceticai theolggy, and exercise the virtue of supernatural prudence. God undoubtedly wiils that I do these latter, but the fact re-mains that once I have made my decision there may or may~ not be a material confOrmity between my will and His. Such,' however, is quite a Satisfactory situation pro-vided that what I do is good and is ordered to Him. In other words, material .conformity may' be lacking, but formal conformity may not. , ~pp!ication to Religious Obediencei: Can we, then, say that a religious Superior manifests tile will of God when he gives' a directive to his subjects? Surely, if the superior merely reiterates a precept of the natural or divine laws, he is indicating the divine will, but he is hardly manifesting it. ,That will is usually al-ready manifested to the subject, 'remotely by human tea, son or supernatural revelation, and proximately by in-struction he has received. As regards other matters (and they are commonly practical on~s) the superior cannot be said tO manifest the divine intention for the obvious rea-son that he does not know what the divine intention' is. If Father Superior tells Father Jones to suspend convert instruction classes during the summer, he is not neces, sarily manifesting God's will to Father Jones. Short of a private revelation Father Superior cannot know with certitude whether God really desires that suspension or not. All he can °do is.Use his experience, reason, and supernatural prudence in coming to a,decision and then hope he is doing what God wants. When Mother Pro-vincial assigns Sister Alice to teaching rather than to ÷ ÷ ÷ The Superior's Precept VOLUME 20, 1961 437 ÷ ÷ ÷ Thomas Dubay, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS nursing, Mother is not necessarily declaring the divine mind, because God may actually know that Sister Alice is better fitted to be a'nurse. I would say, then, that, simply speakin.g, a religious superior does not manifest God's will when he issues a command. In an improper sense, however, the superior may be said to manifest God's willAn his precept insofar as God wishes the subject to carry~ out what His representative has commanded. While it is true-that the fulfillment of this command is willed by God, yet the command itself does not properly manifest'anything but the superior's intention. I think it would be re.ore correct to say that by his precept a superior gives his subject the opportunity to do God's will, that is, to obey. It would seem wise, therefore, not to use this.expr~ession in an improper sense because it is misleading and confusi.ng. There-is no mani-festation of what we may call the content of God's will. By his obedience, then,, a religious conforms his will formally to the divine will when he orders his obedience to the divine glory through the virtue of charity. There is, secondly, a material conformity insofar as God wills this precept to, be carried out. There may or may not be, thirdly, a material conformity as regards the content of the precept. The reader will notice that our whole position on the superior's inability to manifest with certitude the con-tent of the ~livine will rests on his ignorance of that will. Hgw can~we establish that ignorance? Really, it needs no establishing because it is obvious on a moment's" reflec-tion. St. Thomas himself saw no difficulty about the matter. "Although we cai~not know a proper end, we can know the ultimate end from whom issues all the goodness found in proximate ends, so t.hat we may direct all we do to God, who made all things for Himself."z "The just on earth, whose will clings to the divine goodness, and yet do not so perfectly contemplate it (as the blessed do) that they clearly see the ordering ofoevery actiop to it, are conformed to the divine will as regards thos_e things whose character th~ey perceive . ,,s The Saint's last remark is most clear: "In particulars we do not know what God wills, and a~s regards.these we are not bound to conform our will to the divine will.''4 ~ St. Thomas readily admits our ignorance of the divine will in many details of human life, the proximate ends as he calls them. We need. only apply his thought to reli-gious obedience and _we have the basis on which our above explanation rests. But can a superior because of his sharing in the divine 1 Sententiae, d. 48, q. l, a. 3, ad 6; see also article 4. De veritate, q. 23, a. 8, c. Summa thkologiae, 1-2, q. 19, a. 10, ad I. ruling authority somehow claim to set forth what we have called the content of the divine will? I think not. No man, be he superior, equal, or inferior, can rightly claim to manifest the mind of God unless God in some way re-veals His mind and ratifies, the claim. God's mind is God and~He is unsearchable. Hence, if a mere man may be said to make known God's mind or His will, that man must have some divine-assurance that such is the case. Does the religious superior have this assurance when he directs his subordinates in the observance of their vows and constitutions? The teaching Church, the Roman~ Pontiff and the bishops in union with him, certainly enjoy this assurance when they intend tobind in their authentic teaching (See Mt 16: 16"19; 18: 18; Lk 10: 16; Jn 20:21).~But does a re-ligious superior as such share in these divine commissions in any way that would permit him to claim that he, too, reflects the .divine will in 'his decisions? We ~may note, first of all, that on the one hand a religious superior, qua : talis, does not possess any special teaching authority in : the Church. On the other, Plus XII made it clear that the i ruling power of ~'eligious superiors is,;a participation in the divinely received ruling power of the Supreme Pontiff ~ himself. Speaking to.the superiors general of orders and .~ to other religious superiors, the Holy Father remarked -" thgt "you have been appointed tO a certain participation " in Our apostolic office," and then enlarged his thought: "Thus in this,.part of Our office, most beloved sons, delegating to you some of Our supreme jurisdiction, either directly by the code of canon law or by your insti-tutes and their rules approved by Us, and setting the foundations of your power which is called 'dominative,' We have assumed you as sharers in Our supreme office. Hence, it is that We are .very much concerned that you exercise your authority according to Our mind and that of the Church.'5 Does this participation in the apostolic governing power give a religious superior some capability to manifest God's will? To answer this last question we must distinguish be tween a mere ruling power and a teaching pbwer. Even the Church herself~, does not claim infallibility in as, pects of her universal laws unconnected with doctrine, and therefore, she does not claim in them to bg represent-ing what we have been terming the content of the divine mind. In setting twenty-four years as the minimum age for the reception of the priesthood even the Holy See would not'claim that it knows the content of the divine mind on that question. While God may conceivably prefer some other age limitation, yet it is His will that 6 Translated from L'osservatore romano, February 12, 1958, p. I. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Superior'$ Precepg VOLUME 20, 1961 439 ÷ Thomas Dubay, $.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 440 bishops obey the Church's actual determination of twenty-four years. If the hierarchy itself, divinely endowed with a right to govern men to eternal life, cannot at times be sure that its laws express exactly the divine preference, it can come as a surprise to no one that we deny any such certainly to a religious superior who merely participates in the Church's ruling authority on a delegated basis. When a provincial superior of religious men appoints a priest to the mission band or when a local superior of religious women directs a sister to wax the floors on Saturday morning, it is not objectively sure that the priest is best suited for mission work or that the sister ought not rather be doing background reading in her teaching field. Yet it remains true that both the priest and the sister may be sure that God wills them to give missions and wax the floors respectively. While the two superiors may not6 have manifested the content'of the divine will, both of them have issued directives that God, as a matter of fact, wants implemented by two religious who have received two specific precepts. Even though the religious superior does rule through a participation in a divinely-given governing authority, he has nonetheless received no divine assurance that his commands are always going to conform to the objective truth of things. The subject, then, sees God in his supe-rior not in the sense that the superior's word must be taken as God's own word, but only in the sense that the superior's command is .given by one who has God's authority to give it. The distinction is important. On the one hand it obviates the untenable conclusion that a re-ligious superior is immune from error in his decisions as superior, and on the other it preserves the necessary postulate that a superior's precept is given on no mere human basis. In view of what we have said one could hardly miss the conclusion that a religious superior ought to weigh carefully the directives he gives. Even though it would be unreasonable to expect him to be objectively right in each of his decisions, yet he should make every effort consonant with the gravity of the matter.to be objectively right. Because he rules with a divinely authorized delega-tion, he should take care that his directives be as closely in accord with the divine intentions as possible. Reli-gious government by whim, directives issued by worldly prudence, commands based on favoritism, prejudice, or misinformation are wholly unbecoming in men and women who rule in such wise that their precepts some-e Our use of the word "may" indicates naturally enough that the two superiors may, as a matter of fact, be indicating the content of the divine will. "May not" suggests also "may." how flow from a divine authorizati+n. Traits of the good superior, then, most assuredly include supernatural pru-dence, a personal selflessness, and a willingness to take and follow counsel. We must note correlatively~that what we have said in this article does not absolve a subject from a perfect obedience to his superior. The fact that God may not "agree" that the decision contained in a particular com-mand is the wisest of all choices does not mean that the subject does well in refusing an obedience of execution, will, and intellect (the last, insofar as it is possible). In other words, our discussion is meant to clarify, not to damage the perfection of our obedience. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Superior's Precept VOLUME 20, 1961 44! R. F. SMITH, S.J. Survey of Roman Documents ÷ ÷ R. F. Smith, S.], REVIEW FOR REI.IGIOUS In this article those documents will be summarized wliich appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis during June and July, 1961. All page references in the article will be to the 1961 Acta (v. 53). A New Encyclical On May 15, 1961 (pp. 401-64), Pope John XXIII is-sued a new encyclical, Mater et Magistra (Mother and Teacher), to commemorate the seventieth anniversary of Pope Leo XIII's encyclical on social matters, Rerum Novarum. In the introduction to his encyclical, the Pope observed that just as Christ, though primarily interested in the spiritual welfare of men, was also concerned with their material welfare, so also the Church takes care of the spiritual good of men without neglecting their ma-terial, economic, and cultural needs. Passing to the first of the four parts into which the encyclical is divided, His Holiness sketched the evils of the economic and social situation of the nineteenth cen-tury, evils which occasioned Rerum Novarum. The Holy Father then listed the chief principles of Catholic social doctrine as laid down by Leo XIII and as afterwards en-larged and amplified by Pius XI and Pius XII. In the second part of Mater et Magistra, the Vicar of Christ took up and developed certain points of the teach-ing found in Leo XIII's document. While the economic order/ he pointed out, is the. creation of the personal initiative of private citizens, still the State must see to it that economic development benefits all the citizens. This, however, must be done in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity enunciated by Pius XI in Quadragesimo Anno, a principle which protects the personal initiative of individual persons. In this connection the Pontiff con-sidered the matter of modern economic and social plan-ning which involves public authorities in matters as crucial as the care of health or the controlling of pro-fessional careers: Such planning, he remarked, brings many advantages and satisfies many personal rights;, how-ever, it also makes juridical control of hurfian relations more detailed and creates an atmosphere which makes initiative and responsibility difficult. Hence, such plan-ning should be realized in such a way as to draw from it all its advantages and to remove or restrain its disadvan-tages. ¯ .," Pope John then turned to consider the question of "the remuneration to be given to workers. ~AI1 workers, he af-firmed, should be given a wage that:allows them to live a truly human, life and to face with dignity their family responsibilities. Other factors;~.however; must alsb be considered: the worker's effective contribution to produc-tion, the economic state of the enterprise, ~he require-ments of the common good,both of the country and of the entire world~ " The economic'wealth of a people,., the Pontiff went on to say, must not be judged merely.by, its total aggregate wealth, bht also by its efficacious distributidn~throughout the entire populace. One of the most desirable ways of achieving this distribution~ is to permit th~ w6~kers to participate in the ownership of the enterprise. One last necessity for a just economic system was,underscored by the P6pe'when he obseiwe6that~if the structure of an economic system is suEh~that it compromises human dig-nity by systeinatically removing a" sense of-responsibility and of initiative in the 'worker, then .the system is un-just, even though through it riches are accumulated and distributed according to the rules of justice and equity. Hence the continuing importance today of artisan and co-operative enterprises. And in large enterprises, workers should have an active part, the enterprise becoming a real community with relations between employer and employee marked by mutual appreciation, understand-ing, and co-operation and by a mutual,grasp, of,:th~ en-terprise not,merely as a source of income but,,as the ful-fillment of a duty and°the rendering of a service.:~Workers, he.said, should not be reduced to being merely execu'tors of work, entirely passive in regard to decisions that regu-late their activity. Here the Pope stressed the desirability of associations of workers and the need that the influence of workers'should be extended beyond the limits of~their individual productive units. The Holy Father turned next to the matter of. private property, observing that the modern growth of the dis-~- tinction between the ownership of capital and the man: agement of the larger economic entities, the increase of social insurance and security, and the greater confidence in income and rights from, labor,rather'than from capital ÷ ÷ ÷ Roman, Documen~ VOLUME ;'0, ÷ ÷ ÷ R. F. Smith, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 444 do not diminish the natural right of private ownership. This right, he said, is fouflded on the priority of individ-ual human beings as compared with society,,is necessary for free and personal initiative in the economic field, and prevents the stifling of freedom. Not only must the right to private property be recognized; equally neces-sary is the recognition of the natural right of its effective distribution among all social classes; added to this must be the acknowledgement that a social function is intrinsi-call~ linked with the right, of private property, for the goods of the earth have been destined by God for the worthy support of. all human beings. In the third part of the encyclical, Pope John took up a consideration of new socio-economic problems that face the modern world. First among these is the extensive exo-dus of farm populations to urban centers. While many reasons lie behind this exodus, the Pope pointed out that among these reasons is the fact that the farm sector lags behind other sectors, in productivity of labor and in living standards. Hence public authorities should see that essential services (education, roads, utilities, and so forth) in the country are suitably developed. Improved produc-tion methods and selective agriculture should be encour-aged. In the assessment of taxes, it should be remembered that in ,farming returns come slowly and are exposed to greater risks; the same considerations should lead to a special credit policy for farmers. Social security and in-surance systems should not give farmers allowances sub-stantially lower than those granted to industrial and other' sectors; there should be an effective system to protect farm prices. At the same time, rural workers should keep in mind the rights and interests of other types of workers as well as those of the common good. They should con-ceive their work both as a vocation and as a mission, as a call ~from God and as a contribution to human civili-zation, The Holy Father next took up the matter of relations between developed and underdeveloped countries. Hu-man solidarity as. well as the doctrine of the Mystical Body forbids that political communities with abundant resources remain indifferent tO the misery and hunger of underdeveloped-areas. Countries with an excess of consumer goods, especially farm products,, should give emergency, aid to the indigent and needy of other coun-tries. This, however, should be ,accompanied by scientific, technical, and financial help to remove the causes of *underde~elopment. In the execution of this aid, social progress should grow simultaneously With economic progress, the native characteristics of the country should be respected, and political interestedness--another name [or colonialism--should be avoided. In giving such aid, it should always be remembered that technology, economic development, and material well-being are and must re-main secondary to spii~itual values. At this point the Pontiff showed how the entrance of the Church into a country has always restilted in social and econbfiaic better-ment. With regard to the problem of the increase in popula-tion and the sufficiency of mea'ns of sustenance, the Vicar of Chi'ist remarked that in a view of the world as a whole there does°not seem tobe at least for the moment and the near future a great difficulty. In any.case ~here is no need for solutions such as birth control which offend the moral order established by God. Even in individual countries and regions where there is an actual dispib'- portion between population arid means of sustenance, such means can not be used. The true solution is to be found only in economic development and in social prog-ress brought about in a moral atmosphere. "A provident God," he stated, "grants sufficient means to the human race to solve in dignified fashion even .the many and del-icate problems attendant upon the transmission of life." The last of the problems to be considered by the Pope was that of world co-operation. All problems of any importance, he began, present today supranational and often world dimensions. Hence the different political -communities can not solve such problems on their own and by themselves; accordingly there is a need for mutual °understanding; such understanding, however, is pre-vented today because of the mistrust and fear among nations. This mistrust exists because some political leaders do not recognize the existence of a moral order that is based or/ God. And without God, c6ncluded the Pontiff, science and technology are powerless to con-struct a civilization. In the fourth and last part of the encyclical, the Pope insisted that whatever technical and economic progress there may be, there will be neither justice nor peace in the world until men return to a sense of their dignity as creatures and sons-of God. This is why the Church is a herald of a way of life that is ever modern. From .her doctrine of the sacred dignity of the individual, she has drawn a social teaching that takes into consideration the realities of human nature, the various dimensions of the temporal order, and the characteristics of contem-porary society. This social teaching, he said, is an integral part of the Christian conception of li~[e and should be known, spread, and put into observance by all Catholics. The executibn of this doctrine will be the work especially of the laity whom, in the concluding sections of the en-cyclical, the Pontiff urges to remain close to. the doctrine of Christ and His Church. ÷ 4- 4- Roman Documents VOLUME 20, 1961 445 R. F. Smith~ S,]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOU, S 446 Miscellaneous° Documents O~a July 22, 1960 (pp. 3~1-43)~ Pope John" issued an apostoli~ constitution dstablishing an exarchate foi: Ukranians of the Byzantine Ri~e living in .France. The see of the exarch will be in Pari~ and~he will be a ~uffr~igan of the archbishop of Paris; the power of the exarch will be exercised cumulatively with that of the loc'al ordinaries of France. On the sameday (pp. 343-44) a similar exarch-ate was estabhshed for those of the Armeman Rxte hwng in France. On April 23, 1961 (pp. 314-18), Hi~ Holines~ spoke to members of various Oriental rites, exl~ressing his admiration for the grandeu~ of Eastern Christianity and the hope that it will find'in the Pope "the sweetness of David and the wisdom of Solomon." On Pentecost, May 21, 1961 (pp. 358-62), His Holiness delivered an al-locution after he had consecrated fourteen mi.ssionary bishops from Africa, America, and Asia. He told his listeners tha t the. riew bishops w.ere the flowers of the new churches of Africa and Asia,~urged the new bishops to study the cultures and histories of their peoples and to work and firay that these be~b'enefited by the redemotion, and re'~all'ed the centenary of the dea'th of Bish~)p de Mazenod, founder of the Oblates 9f Mar~ Immaculate, one o~ the gre.at nanies in the modern renaissance of mission.activity. On November 24, 1960 (pp. 346-'50), the Holy Father'issued an apostolic c6nstitution establishing the hi.erarchy in Vietnam- with a division into three ecclesiastical provinces. On May 27, 1961 (p. 388.),. the Sacred .Cong~egation'bf Rites issued a declaration according to _which a ferial of the fourth class i~ never to be commemorated in a festive or votive Mass,. even though it be a conventual,, one. Accordingly~the f611owing numbers of the new code of rubrics are to ~be modified to read: N.-26. All ferials not mentioned in Nos. 23-25 are ferials of the fourth class; these ar~never commemorated. N.-289_. [At the beginning] On all'ferials of the fourth clasS . there may be said without a commemoration of the ferial. N. 299. [Second part] On bther ferials the Mass of the pre-cedin~ Sunday is said unless the rubrics provide otherwise. On May q l, 1961, the Feast of the Ascension (pp. 289- 95), Pope John XXIII solemnly canonized Blessed Mary Bertilla Boscardin'(1888-1922), virgin, of the School Sisters of St. Dorothy, Daughters of the Sacred Hearts. Her feast day is to be kept on October-22. In the hom.ily after the canonization, the Holy Father pointed out that the new saint is a l~sson to the~great and wise of this world, for she achieved greatness through humility and ,heroism through hidden sacrifice. He also stated that her sanctity was founded on her family where she learned the secret of constancy, on her catechism which taught her true wisdom, and on her religious vocation which allowed her to give herself entirely to God and to her neighbor. On April 26, 1961 (pp. 381-85), the Sacred Congregation of Rites affirmed the heroic virtue ol~ the venerable Servant of God, Leonard Murialdo (1828-1900), professed priest and founder of the Pious Society of St. Joseph. On'the same day (pp. 385-88), the congregation also affirmed the heroic virtue o1: the venerable Servant of God, Gertrude Comensoli (1847-1903), ~oundress of the Sacramentine Sisters. ~ On April 21, 1961 (pp. 308-14), the Holy Father ad-dressed the First National Italian Congress for Ecclesiasti-cal Vocations. He laid great stress on the influence of priests on vocations, the importance of seminaries for the developing of the human and Christian virtues of future priests, and the need to labor with discretion and zeal for the increase of vocations. On M~rch 25, 1,961 (pp. 371-80), the Sacred Congregation of Religious issued an instruction and statutes to govern extern sisters of monasteries of nun

Tese de Doutoramento em Arquitetura com a especialização em Desenho e Computação apresentada na Faculdade de Arquitetura da Universidade de Lisboa para obtenção de grau de Doutor. ; Os aglomerados urbanos em rápido crescimento contribuem e enfrentam hoje, as consequências de crises globais, como a poluição, as alterações climáticas, a diminuição dos recursos naturais, conflitos sociais e migrações em massa. O planeamento e projecto do ambiente construído são essenciais para uma correcta organização da vida urbana, de modo a reduzir a poluição, distribuir recursos de maneira justa, fortalecer laços sociais e comunitários e prosperar economicamente. Projectar cidades incentivando a pedestrianização como meio de transporte constitui uma contribuição para esses objectivos, facilitando a mitigação da poluição, o acesso livre e democrático aos recursos urbanos, revitalizando as ruas e consequentemente apoiando as economias locais. Embora a investigação sobre a pedestrianização e caminhabilidade do ambiente construído já tenha décadas, temos hoje dados urbanos atualizados e ferramentas mais precisas do que nunca, que permitem uma análise detalhada dos factores que promovem a pedestrianização, podendo suportar decisões baseadas em evidências para o desenvolvimento de uma mobilidade mais sustentável. Tais ferramentas de planeamento viabilizam também uma melhor integração destes dados nos processos de projecto bem como a sua comunicação aos vários agentes participantes na decisão. Esta dissertação defende a necessidade de um método de análise 3D à escala da rua para informar soluções flexíveis de projecto urbano baseadas em dados urbanos rapidamente actualizáveis e acessíveis remotamente, obtidos sem a necessidade de pesquisas no local. Este método preenche uma lacuna existente na literatura propondo um fluxo de trabalho semi-automático. Este fluxo de trabalho propõe-se solucionar a desconexão entre a investigação no campo da pedestrianização, as ferramentas existentes e os processos de planeamento e projecto urbano. Argumenta-se que essa desconexão resulta da priorização de preocupações financeiras nos processos de planeamento e desenho urbano e da falta de métodos de avaliação rápidos e práticos aplicáveis nas várias etapas e escalas de projecto e de um modo fragmentado ou holístico. Além disso, os métodos existentes de avaliação da caminhabilidade que avaliam contextos urbanos nestas escalas e detalhe, não são capazes de avaliar ruas através de dados urbanos acedidos remotamente, recorrendo geralmente a auditorias ou pesquisas onerosas e morosas no local. O fluxo de trabalho proposto neste estudo visa responder a esta necessidade; combina um modelo 3D de uma unidade de vizinhança desenvolvido num ambiente de programação visual, SIG e códigos personalizados, e utiliza um modelo de análise morfológica chamado Convex e Solid-Void, combinado com técnicas de Web-scrapping e reconhecimento de imagem. A dissertação contribui para a investigação sobre caminhabilidade, propondo um fluxo de trabalho de análise de caminhabilidade em escala micro, em 3D, e remotamente aplicável, além de distinguir indicadores aplicáveis a ruas com diferentes formas e usos. O método promove o modelo computacional de análise urbana, Convex e Solid-Void, apresentando a sua primeira aplicação ao problema urbano da caminhabilidade. Também demonstra a integração de fontes de dados acessíveis remotamente, incluindo imagens de Street View obtidas de uma plataforma de mapas on-line e dados de redes sociais geo-localizados, para a avaliação quantitativa dos espaços urbanos. De futuro, pretende-se desenvolver o método para permitir o acesso remoto da avaliação a várias dessas fontes de dados. Tal é possível pelo uso combinado de SIG com representações espaciais 3D e ferramentas de programação integradas no mesmo fluxo de trabalho. Estes ambientes, que facilitam a associação de elementos espaciais com informações semânticas por meio de bases de dados, possibilitam a utilização de quaisquer dados que possam ser processados em análise espacial para alimentação de processos de projecto gerativo. O resultado desta pesquisa apresenta-se na forma de recomendações de planeamento e desenho urbano e também pretende ser um recurso prático a ser usado em projectos de reabilitação urbana. Como parte do modelo Convex e Solid-Void usado neste estudo, apresenta-se uma nova unidade espacial 3D "Street-Void", na qual todos os dados coletados são agregados para análise. Identificam-se indicadores específicos para avaliar com mais precisão os espaços das ruas, primeiro distinguindo entre ruas e praças e depois avaliando quantitativamente espaços semelhantes a ruas e espaços semelhantes a praças, e ainda espaços residenciais e de uso misto. Com base nos resultados da aplicação do método a quatro bairros estudados nas cidades de Istambul e Lisboa, e uma classificação das ruas usando os indicadores identificados, apresenta-se um conjunto de recomendações, que se atribuem a intervalos de valores próprios das tipologias específicas de ruas. Estas recomendações são formuladas para que possam ser aplicadas holisticamente ou de maneira fragmentada em diferentes fases de projecto ou cenários de melhoria urbana. Este estudo amplia o conhecimento sobre pedestrianização, sugerindo diferentes indicadores e faixas de valor para a avaliação de ruas, relacionando caminhabilidade com a variação das suas formas e usos. A tese está organizada da seguinte forma. No capítulo de introdução, são apresentados brevemente os objetivos da pesquisa, a contribuição e importância para o tema, metodologia, resultados e conclusão. No segundo capítulo, são apresentadas as questões de investigação a que a tese responde e a hipótese construída sobre essas questões. Estas questões podem ser listadas da seguinte maneira. Como podem a caminhabilidade e seus critérios serem integrados nos processos de desenho urbano (à escala do bairro)? Quais as qualidades do ambiente urbano construído que devem ser consideradas para a avaliação da caminhabilidade, para que as decisões de projecto possam ser informadas com mais eficácia? Como podemos avaliar a pedestrianização de um bairro num ambiente urbano complexo e em constante mudança? O terceiro capítulo apresenta uma revisão da literatura no tema da pesquisa, incluindo os temas do projecto urbano centrados no ser humano, investigação existente sobre a medição da caminhabilidade e sobre ferramentas de projecto algorítmico desenvolvidas para a escala urbana e em particular para a escala do bairro. No quarto capítulo, são explicados o método do estudo realizado e os princípios do fluxo de trabalho acima apresentados. Discute-se o processo de selecção utilizado para determinar os atributos quantitativos para a medição da caminhabilidade. As "características" sob as quais esses atributos são agrupados são a densidade, diversidade, conectividade, escala humana, complexidade, clausura (enclosure), forma, inclinação, permeabilidade e infraestrutura. Estas características e atributos são reduzidos posteriormente através de um processo de eliminação aos seus componentes principais. O quinto capítulo apresenta os estudos de caso dos bairros que são utilizados no desenvolvimento do fluxo de trabalho de medição, a interpretação dos atributos de caminhabilidade face aos dados medidos e uma análise inicial desses dados quantitativos. No sexto capítulo, o uso de dados de redes sociais e imagens street view como representantes de caminhabilidade são testados por métodos estatísticos e os espaços das ruas analisados são classificados com base nos atributos medidos (através de um método de clustering). Tipologias de rua com atributos específicos são identificadas nas várias classes (clusters) obtidas. Os atributos são avaliados com base na comparação de seus resultados quantitativos para cada tipologia de rua e são reduzidos através de um processo de filtragem. O sétimo capítulo inclui uma reclassificação das ruas com base em suas formas e usos e uma avaliação das medidas dos seus atributos com base na comparação dos seus resultados para essas classes. Através dessa avaliação, diferentes intervalos de valores foram determinados para serem aplicados aos diferentes atributos das ruas, e as descobertas obtidas por este método foram convertidas num guia destinado a informar os processos de desenho e planeamento urbano. O oitavo capítulo resume a produção geral da tese, a sua contribuição para o conhecimento, bem como para os processos de projecto e planeamento urbano. Partindo dos seus aspectos inovadores, fornece também uma visão geral dos estudos futuros que a tese pode proporcionar. No presente desenvolvimento, o método proposto nesta tese para a medição da caminhabilidade e respectivas recomendações para os processos de projecto e planeamento podem ser utilizadas como parte de serviços de consultoria a ser prestados a municípios, consultoria particular e a profissionais de projecto e planeamento. Em estudos futuros, pretende-se tornar o fluxo de trabalho apresentado numa ferramenta que pode ser utilizada diretamente por projectistas e planeadores. Prevê-se que tais estudos sejam desenvolvidos através da multiplicação dos contextos estudados, melhorando a qualidade e a precisão dos dados urbanos utilizados, aumentando o nível de detalhe capturado pelo modelo de análise e aplicando a análise a fenómenos urbanos que não sejam somente a caminhabilidade. Devido às semelhanças dos seus ambientes construídos, os bairros utilizados no presente estudo, que são Kadikoy e Hasanpasa em Istambul e Chiado e Ajuda em Lisboa, permitiram a avaliação de um conjunto consistente de ruas, oferecendo variedade suficiente. Mais especificamente, devido às semelhanças em termos de escala e uso, quando os espaços das ruas desses bairros foram classificados com base nos atributos utilizados, revelaram-se 6 tipologias diferentes de espaços de rua. Prevê-se que essas tipologias sejam multiplicadas pela aplicação do método a contextos diferentes em termos de escala, forma e uso. Devido à disponibilidade de dados detalhados e a uma variedade de espaços nas ruas em termos dos critérios mencionados, Nova York, Singapura e Amsterdão são exemplos de cidades que poderão ser estudadas como novos casos de estudo. ; ABSTRACT: Today, rapidly growing urban populations both contribute to global crises such as pollution, climate change, diminishing natural resources, social conflicts and mass migrations and face the consequences. The built environment, its planning and design are critical in organizing urban life so that we pollute less, distribute our resources fairly, strengthen social and communal ties and thrive economically. Designing our cities to support walking as a means of transport contributes in these goals through facilitating pollution free and democratic access to urban resources, supporting local economies and enlivening the street. While research on walkability of the built environment is decades old now, we have more up-to-date, accurate and large-scale urban data than ever and our developing tools make it possible to feed this data into design and management processes to create and sustain more walkable environments. This dissertation argues for the necessity of a street-scale, 3d analysis method to inform flexible urban design solutions based on rapidly updatable and remotely accessible urban data obtained without the necessity of on-site surveys, proposing a semi-automated workflow to fill this gap in existing literature. The workflow combines a 3d neighborhood model in a visual programming environment, GIS and custom codes, utilizing a morphological analysis model named Convex and Solid-Voids, together with web scraping and image recognition techniques. A 3d street space unit "Street-Void" is presented within the Convex and Solid-Void model in which all gathered data is aggregated for analysis. Specific indicators are identified to more accurately assess street spaces, first by distinguishing between and then quantitatively evaluating street-like and square-like, residential and mixed-use streets. Based on the findings from the application of the workflow to four neighborhoods studied in the cities of Istanbul and Lisbon and a classification of street spaces using the proposed attributes, a set of recommendations are presented, with value ranges applicable to specific street typologies. These recommendations are formulated so that they can be applied holistically or in a fragmented way at different stages of planning and urban improvement scenarios with their projected impact grouped under direct/physical or indirect/perceptual. The dissertation contributes to walkability research by proposing a micro-scale, 3d and remotely applicable walkability analysis workflow as well as distinguishing between indicators to be applied to street spaces of different shapes and uses. It furthers the computational urban analysis model Convex and Solid-Voids by presenting its first-time application to the tangible urban problem of walkability. It also demonstrates the integration of remotely accessible data sources including street view images from an online map platform and location based social network data to the quantitative evaluation of urban street spaces. With urban planning and design recommendations, it demonstrates the practical application of the findings to urban improvement scenarios. The study is envisioned to be developed by future work through multiplying the contexts that are studied, improving the quality and accuracy of urban data utilized, increasing the level of detail captured by the morphological analysis model and applying the analysis to other urban phenomena other than walkability. ; N/A

Gli eurobond non sono un tema nuovo. Sono presenti nella letteratura economica, meno in quella giuridica, da oltre trent'anni, con denominazioni che spesso mutano a seconda delle formulazioni proposte. Rientrano in quella categoria di idee che hanno valore non solo sotto il profilo della tecnica finanziaria o della finanza pubblica, ma anche perché rappresentano un primo passo verso la realizzazione di un'unione politica dell'Europa. I favorevoli vedono in questo tipo di proposte non solo una risposta alla crisi attraverso il finanziamento degli investimenti pubblici, ma anche la costruzione di una politica fiscale europea da affiancare a quella monetaria della Banca centrale europea. Gli scettici pongono, invece, l'accento sui tempi troppo lunghi che tali proposte richiederebbero per essere attuate e sul consenso non unanime che esse riscuotono da parte dei Paesi dell'Eurozona. L'introduzione degli eurobond presenta, infatti, ostacoli legali e distributivi. Quelli legali hanno a che fare, in particolare, con l'articolo 125 del Trattato sul Funzionamento dell'Unione europea (TFUE), che dispone il divieto di salvataggio da parte dell'Unione a favore di un Paese membro in difficoltà e, in particolare, vieta a ciascuno Stato membro di rispondere o di subentrare nei debiti di altri Stati membri (cosiddetta "clausola di no bail out"). Gli ostacoli distributivi sono legati alle modalità di partecipazione dei Paesi membri alle emissioni congiunte dei titoli del debito europeo in termini di risorse finanziarie e ai timori dei Paesi virtuosi del Nord Europa di dover fornire un contributo maggiore rispetto ai Paesi meno virtuosi del Sud Europa. La tesi affronta, innanzitutto, il tema della fragilità della costruzione europea, che dipende essenzialmente dall'aver creato – contrariamente a quanto avvenuto nella storia dei popoli – "una moneta senza Stato". Questa circostanza ha condotto, alla fine del 2009, alla crisi dell'euro e dei debiti sovrani. Per rimediare a tale fragilità istituzionale, bisognerebbe por mano a una serie di riforme come il rafforzamento del ruolo della Banca centrale europea come prestatore di ultima istanza, il completamento dell'unione bancaria, l'approfondimento dell'unione del mercato dei capitali, l'allargamento del bilancio europeo e l'accentramento delle politiche fiscali nazionali. Tra queste riforme rientra anche quella di dar vita all'emissione congiunta di debito sovrano a livello di Eurozona, o, in alternativa, a schemi che non prevedono la mutualizzazione del debito. Al riguardo, la ricerca prende in esame l'esistenza di eventuali basi giuridiche per emettere un debito federale dell'Unione europea, distinto dal debito degli Stati membri o, in alternativa, per procedere alla mutualizzazione dei debiti degli Stati membri. La tesi passa, poi, in rassegna le varie proposte avanzate in tema di eurobond, classificandole in due gruppi principali, a seconda che prevedano o meno la mutualizzazione del debito. Nell'ambito delle proposte che si basano sulla mutualizzazione del debito rientrano gli eurobond in senso stretto, gli union bond, gli stability bond, le obbligazioni blu e rosse. Tali proposte, in quanto fondate sulla mutualizzazione del debito, non sono compatibili con l'articolo 125 del TFUE e richiederebbero pertanto la sua modifica. Nel secondo gruppo di proposte – che non contemplano la mutualizzazione del debito e pertanto non richiedono la modifica del TFUE – rientrano il programma PADRE (Politically Acceptable Debt Restructuring in Europe), il Fondo di ammortamento del debito a livello europeo (European Redemption Fund), gli European Safe Bond - ESB (acronimo inglese di "Titoli europei sicuri"), i Sovereign Bond Backed Securities - SBBS (acronimo inglese di "Titoli garantiti da obbligazioni sovrane"). La ricerca esplora i possibili approcci alla prosecuzione del progetto europeo: la via della riduzione del rischio (risk-reduction), la via della condivisione del rischio (risk-sharing), la via della sintesi tra riduzione e condivisione del rischio. Quest'ultima via appare a chi scrive come l'unica politicamente percorribile. La stessa unione monetaria si è realizzata come combinazione tra i due approcci: il processo di convergenza delle finanze pubbliche (risk reduction) ha condotto alla creazione di un'unica banca centrale con il compito di mettere in atto un'unica politica monetaria e del cambio (risk sharing). Vi è però la necessità per l'Italia di fare la propria parte invertendo la traiettoria del rapporto debito-Pil attraverso un serio e rigoroso piano pluriennale di rientro dal debito (risk reduction), per acquisire, agli occhi dei principali partner europei, quella credibilità necessaria per convincerli a dar vita a un vero e proprio debito federale europeo (risk sharing). Gli eurobond non sono l'unico mezzo per raggiungere la finalità di una unificazione politica dell'Europa ma hanno il pregio di mettere insieme l'approccio funzionalista dei passi graduali con quello federalista della meta finale. Analogamente a quanto avvenuto nella storia di alcuni popoli (in particolare negli Stati Uniti d'America) in cui il processo di unificazione dei debiti ha segnato la nascita dello Stato, anche nel vecchio continente l'europeizzazione del debito degli Stati membri, al di là della valenza in termini di finanza pubblica, potrebbe assurgere a un vero e proprio atto "costitutivo" di un futuro Stato federale europeo. Sotto il profilo metodologico, la ricerca è stata condotta attraverso la strumentazione propria dell'analisi economica del diritto, nella consapevolezza che il mercato – vale a dire il meccanismo economico che orienta il comportamento di individui e gruppi – da solo non è sufficiente ma ha bisogno di regole per poter funzionare. Anzi, se ben regolato, il mercato può essere fattore di sviluppo e di benessere. Questo ragionamento vale anche per il mercato comune e per la moneta unica europea, che da soli non bastano più. Come si è tentato di mostrare in questo lavoro, anche l'Eurozona, per poter sopravvivere e progredire, ha bisogno di un adeguamento delle proprie istituzioni che passa anche attraverso l'emissione congiunta di debito sovrano. Coerentemente con tale impostazione, l'indagine cerca di avere un approccio critico al tema degli eurobond, tentando di analizzarne i singoli aspetti con indipendenza di giudizio. La stesura dei capitoli e dei singoli paragrafi è stata preceduta da un lavoro di documentazione e consultazione di testi, riviste specializzate e articoli. Le conoscenze teoriche acquisite e le idee maturate sono state verificate sul campo, grazie ad un confronto diretto con i dirigenti che, nell'ambito del Dipartimento del Tesoro del Ministero dell'Economia e delle Finanze, hanno la responsabilità dell'emissione e della gestione del debito pubblico italiano. Chi scrive lavora presso la direzione del Debito pubblico del Dipartimento del Tesoro; cionondimeno, le opinioni che qui esprime sono personali e non rappresentano o impegnano in alcun modo l'amministrazione di appartenenza. Alla luce delle considerazioni svolte, si ritiene che davvero gli eurobond possano spingere l'Eurozona verso una maggiore integrazione politico-istituzionale. L'analisi economica e giuridica può dare il proprio contributo alla comprensione della questione, ma la scelta dei passi da compiere in concreto spetta alle leadership politiche europee in quanto investite del consenso popolare. Il ricercatore può esporre gli effetti che derivano dall'adozione di una particolare misura o di uno specifico strumento. Oltre non può andare. ; Eurobonds are not a new topic. They have been present in the economic literature, less in the legal literature, for thirty years, with denominations which change according to the proposed formulations. They are relevant not only in terms of financial economics or public finance, but also because they represent a first step towards the realization of a political union of Europe. Those in favor look at eurobonds not only as a response to the crisis through the financing of public investments, but also as a tool to build up a European fiscal policy in addition to the monetary policy of the European Central Bank. On the contrary, the skeptics underline the fact that such proposals would require too mach time to be implemented and the fact that they have short consent in the Eurozone countries. The introduction of eurobonds presents legal and distributive barriers. The legal barriers are linked to the Article 125 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), which provides for so-colled "no bail out clause" ("A Member State shall not be liable for or assume the commitments of central governments, regional, local or other public authorities, other bodies governed by public law, or public under¬ takings of another Member State"). The distributive obstacles, on the other hand, are linked to the way in which Member States could participate in joint issuance of European debt securities. In particular, the virtuous countries of Northern Europe are afraid that they would pay a greater share than the less virtuous countries of the Southern Europe. First of all, the thesis analyzes the fragility of the European institutions, which depends essentially on having created – contrary to what has happened in the history of peoples – "a currency without a State". In the end of 2009, this fragility led Europe to the crisis of euro and sovereign debts. To face this fragility, some institutional reforms should be carried out, such as the strengthening of the role of the European Central Bank as a lender of last resort, the completion of the banking union, the deepening of the capital market, the enlargement of the European budget and the centralization of national fiscal policies. These reformes also include the joint issuance of sovereign debts of Eurozone Member States. In this regard, the research examines the existence of possible legal bases for issuing a federal debt of the European Union, different from the debt of the Member States or, alternatively, for joint issuing the debt securities of the Member States. Secondly, the thesis examines the various proposals of eurobonds, classifying them in two main groups. The first group, based on the joint issuance of debt, includes eurobonds in the strict sense, union bonds, stability bonds, blue and red bonds. These proposals, being based on the joint issuance of debt, are contrary to Article 125 of the TFEU and therefore would require its modification. The second group of proposals – which do not contemplate the joint issuance of debt and therefore do not require the modification of the TFEU – include the PADRE program (Politically Acceptable Debt Restructuring in Europe), the European Redemption Debt Fund, the European Safe Bonds, the Sovereign Bond Backed Securities. Thirdly, the research explores the possible approaches to the continuation of the European project: the risk-reduction path, the risk-sharing path, the synthesis between risk reduction and risk sharing. This third path seems to be the only politically feasible. As we know, also the monetary union was realized as a combination of the two approaches: the process of convergence of public finances (risk reduction) led to the creation of a single central bank with the task of managing a single monetary policy (risk sharing). However, Italy has to reverse the trend of the debt-to-GDP ratio through a serious and rigorous long-term debt reduction plan (risk reduction), in order to convince the main European partners to issue European federal debt (risk sharing). Eurobonds are not the only tool to achieve the goal of a political unification of Europe but they have the merit of putting together the functionalist approach based on the gradual steps with the federalist approach based on the final goal. Similarly to what has happened in the history of some peoples, such as the United States of America, where the process of unification of debt of the single States has marked the birth of the federal State, even in Europe the consolidation of debt of the Member States might be a constitutive act of the United States of Europe. Methodologically, the research is based on the economic analysis of law. According to this view, market – the economic mechanism which guides the behavior of individuals and groups – is not enough but needs good regulation. Indeed, if it is well regulated, market may be a factor of development and welfare. This way of thinking is also valid for the European single market and for the euro, which are no longer enough. As we have tried to show in this work, also the Eurozone institutions need a deep reform – including the joint issuance of sovereign debt – for their surviving and progress. This work tries to have a critical approach to the topic of eurobonds. The theoretical knowledge and ideas have been checked thanks to a direct dialogue with managers who, within the Treasury Department of the Ministry of the Economy and Finance, are responsible for issuance and management of the Italian public debt. The author of this research works in the Public Debt Directorate at Treasury Department; nevertheless his opinions are personal and do not represent the Treasury Department. For these considerations, eurobonds might really push the Eurozone towards a greater political and institutional integration. The economic and legal analysis may give its contribution to the debate, but the actual choices are up to the European policy-makers.

Au cours des dernières décennies, l'Indonésie a connu des transformations spectaculaires des terres avec une expansion des plantations de palmiers à huile au détriment des forêts tropicales. L'Indonésie est actuellement l'une des régions ayant le plus haut taux de transformation de la surface terrestre dans le monde à cause de l'expansion des plantations de palmiers à huile et d'autres agricultures qui remplacent les forêts à grande échelle. Comme la végétation est un modificateur du climat près du sol, ces transformations à grande échelle ont des impacts majeurs sur les variables biophysiques de surface telles que la température de surface, l'albédo, les indices de végétation (NDVI), sur le bilan énergétique de surface et le partitionnement énergétique. Ce travail de thèse vise à quantifier les impacts des changements d'usage des terres en Indonésie sur les variables biophysiques de surface. Pour évaluer ces changements à l'échelle régionale, des données de télédétection sont nécessaires. Étant une variable clé de nombreuses fonctions écologiques, la température de surface (LST) est directement affectée par les changements de la couverture terrestre. Nous avons analysé la LST à partir de la bande thermique d'une image Landsat et produit une carte de température de surface avec une haute résolution (30m) pour les basses terres de la province de Jambi à Sumatra (Indonésie), une région qui a subi de grandes transformations au cours des dernières décennies. La comparaison des LST, albédo, NDVI et évapotranspiration (ET) entre sept différents types de couverture terrestre (forêts, zones urbaines, terres incultes, plantations de palmiers à huile jeunes et matures, plantations d'acacias et de caoutchouc) montre que les forêts ont des températures de surface inférieures à celles des autres types de couvert végétal, ce qui indique un effet de réchauffement local après la conversion des forêts vers des plantations. Les différences de LST atteignaient 10,1 ± 2,6 ºC (moyenne ± écart-type) entre les forêts et les terres déforestées. Les différences de températures de surface s'expliquent par un effet de refroidissement évaporatif des forêts, qui compense l'effet de réchauffement de l'albédo. Basé sur des différences observées dans les variables biophysiques entre les plantations de palmiers à huile jeunes et matures, nous avons analysé trois images Landsat couvrant une chronoséquence de plantations de palmiers à huile pour étudier la dynamique des variables biophysiques de surface pendant le cycle de rotation de 20-25 ans des plantations de palmiers à huile. Nos résultats montrent que les différences entre les plantations de palmiers à huile à différents stades du cycle de rotation du palmier à huile se reflètent dans les différences du bilan énergétique de surface, du partitionnement énergétique et des variables biophysiques. Au cours du cycle de rotation des plantations de palmiers à huile, les différences de température à la surface diminuent graduellement et se rapprochent de zéro autour du stade mature de la plantation de palmiers à huile de 10 ans. Parallèlement, le NDVI augmente et l'albédo diminue à proximité des valeurs typiques des forêts. Le bilan énergétique de surface et le partitionnement énergétique montrent des tendances de développement liés aux variables biophysiques et à l'âge des plantations de palmiers à huile. Les nouvelles plantations et les jeunes plantations (<5 ans) ont un rayonnement net plus faible que les plantations de palmiers à huile matures, mais ont des températures de surface plus élevées que les plantations de palmiers à huile matures. Les changements dans les variables biophysiques, le bilan énergétique et la répartition de l'énergie au cours du cycle d'une rotation du palmier à huile peuvent s'expliquer par l'effet de refroidissement évaporatif précédemment identifié dans les forêts, qui compense l'effet de réchauffement de l'albédo. L'un des principaux déterminants de ce mécanisme est la couverture végétale au cours des différentes phases du cycle de rotation du palmier à huile. Le NDVI en tant qu'indicateur du couvert végétal a montré une relation inverse cohérente avec LST de différentes plantations de palmiers à huile âgés, une tendance qui est également observée pour différents types d'utilisation des terres dans cette étude. Une analyse régionale et à plus long terme de la tendance LST entre 2000 et 2015 basée sur les données MODIS montre que dans la journée la température moyenne de Jambi a augmenté de 1,05 ºC, suivant la tendance des changements observés et dépassant les effets du réchauffement climatique. Afin d'évaluer les effets de l'expansion du palmier à huile sur le climat, le bilan énergétique de surface, le partitionnement énergétique et les processus biophysiques jouent un rôle important et le cycle complet de rotation des plantations de palmiers à huile doit être envisagé. Basé sur nos résultats, nous construisons le cycle de rotation des plantations de palmiers à huile et les changements qui se produisent au cours du développement de la végétation de palmiers à huile. Cette étude fournit des preuves que l'expansion des plantations de palmiers à huile et d'autres cultures commerciales entraîne des changements dans les variables biophysiques, réchauffant la surface du sol et augmentant ainsi l'augmentation de la température de l'air à cause du changement climatique. En utilisant des données Landsat à haute résolution, nous avons pu inclure les effets du changement d'utilisation des terres sur les variables biophysiques. Comprendre les effets du changement de la couverture terrestre sur les variables biophysiques peut soutenir des politiques concernant la conservation des forêts existantes, la planification et l'expansion des plantations de palmiers à huile et les mesures de boisement possibles. La connaissance des variables biophysiques, du bilan radiatif et de la répartition énergétique au cours du cycle de rotation du palmier à huile peut inclure de nouvelles pratiques de gestion susceptibles de réduire les conditions environnementales et microclimatiques extrêmes dans la phase initiale des plantations de palmiers à huile. ; In den letzten Jahrzehnten hat Indonesien umfassende Veränderungen der Landnutzung mit einer Ausweitung von Ölpalmplantagen auf Kosten tropischer Wälder erlebt. Derzeit ist Indonesien weltweit eine der Regionen mit der höchsten Umwandlungsrate der Landnutzung, die mit der Ersetzung von Wäldern durch Ölpalmplantagen und andere Nutzpflanzen verbunden ist. Da die Vegetation ein Einflussfaktor für das Bodenklima ist, haben diese großflächigen Landtransformationen große Auswirkungen auf die biophysikalischen Variablen wie Landoberflächentemperatur (LST), Albedo, Vegetationsindizes (z.B. der normalisierte Differenzvegetationsindex, NDVI) und auf die Energiebilanz und die verschiedenen Komponenten der ausgetauschten Energie. Trotz des großen Umfangs der bereits vollzogenen und von der Regierung geplanten Landtransformationen in Indonesien hin zu Ölpalmplantagen und anderen Nutzpflanzen, ist dies die bisher erste Studie, welche die Auswirkungen dieser Landtransformation auf die biophysikalischen Variablen in Indonesien quantifiziert. Um solche Veränderungen auf regionaler Ebene zu bewerten, werden Fernerkundungsdaten benötigt. Als einer der Hauptantriebsfaktoren für viele ökologische Prozesse ist die LST direkt von Veränderungen der Landnutzung betroffen. Wir analysieren die LST aus dem thermischen Band eines Landsat-Bildes und erstellen eine hochauflösende Oberflächentemperaturkarte (30 m) für das Tiefland der Provinz Jambi auf Sumatra (Indonesien), eine Region die in den letzten Jahrzehnten eine große Landumwandlung hin zu Ölpalmen und anderen Nutzpflanzen erfahren hat. Der Vergleich von LST, Albedo, NDVI und Evapotranspiration (ET) zwischen sieben verschiedenen Landbedeckungstypen (Wald, städtische Gebiete, Brachland, junge und reife Ölpalmplantagen, Akazien- und Kautschukplantagen) zeigt, dass Wälder niedrigere Oberflächentemperaturen haben als die anderen Landbedeckungstypen, was auf einen lokalen Erwärmungseffekt nach der Umwandlung des Waldes in einen anderen Landbedeckungstyp hindeutet. Die LST-Unterschiede betrugen bis zu 10,1 ± 2,6 ºC (Mittelwert ± Standardabweichung) zwischen Wald und Brachland. Die Unterschiede in den Oberflächentemperaturen lassen sich durch einen Verdunstungskälteeffekt, der den Albedo-Erwärmungseffekt kompensiert erklären. Auf Grundlage der beobachteten Unterschieden in den biophysikalischen Variablen zwischen reifen und jungen Ölpalmplantagen, analysieren wir drei Landsat-Bilder, die eine Chronosequenz von Ölpalmplantagen enthalten um die Entwicklung von biophysikalischen Oberflächenvariablen während des 20-25 jährigen Rotationszyklus der Ölpalmplantagen zu untersuchen. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich die Unterschiede zwischen Ölpalmplantagen in verschiedenen Phasen des Ölpalmen-Rotationszyklus in Unterschieden in der Energiebilanz, Energiepartitionierung und biophysikalischen Variablen widerspiegeln. Während des Lebenszyklus der Ölpalmplantage nehmen die Oberflächentemperaturunterschiede allmählich ab und nähern sich grob den Werten der reifen Ölpalmphase mit einem Alter von 10 Jahren. Gleichzeitig nimmt der NDVI zu und der Albedo ab und beide Größen nähern sich den typischen Werten von Wäldern. Die Energiebilanz und die Energiepartitionierung zeigen einen Entwicklungstrend, der mit den biophysikalischen Variablen und mit dem Alter der Ölpalmplantagen zusammenhängt. Neu etablierte und junge Plantagen (<5 Jahre) haben eine geringere Nettostrahlung als reife Ölpalmplantagen, aber eine höhere Oberflächentemperaturen als reife Ölpalmplantagen. Die Veränderungen der biophysikalischen Variablen, der Energiebilanz und der Energieaufteilung während des Ölpalmen-Rotationszyklus können durch den zuvor identifizierten Verdunstungskälteeffekt erklärt werden, durch den der Albedo-Erwärmungseffekt kompensiert wird. Eine Hauptdeterminante in diesem Mechanismus ist die Vegetationsbedeckung während der verschiedenen Phasen im Rotationszyklus der Ölpalme. Der NDVI als Proxy für die Vegetationsbedeckung zeigt einen inversen Zusammenhang zur LST der Ölpalmplantagen unterschiedlichen Alters; ein Trend, der auch für andere Landnutzungstypen in dieser Studie beobachtet wurde. In einer auf MODIS Daten basierenden regionalen und langfristigeren Analyse des LST-Trends zwischen den Jahren 2000 und 2015 zeigt sich, dass die durchschnittliche Tagesoberflächentemperatur in der Provinz Jambi um 1,05 °C gestiegen ist, was dem Trend der beobachteten Landbedeckungsänderungen folgt und die Auswirkungen der Klimaerwärmung übersteigt. Um die volle Auswirkungen der Ölpalmenexpansion auf das Klima abzuschätzen, spielen die Energiebilanz, die Energiepartitionierung und biophysikalische Prozesse eine wichtige Rolle, wobei der gesamte Rotationszyklus von Ölpalmplantagen berücksichtigt werden muss. Basierend auf unseren Ergebnissen entwickeln wir eine Struktur des Rotationszyklus von Ölpalmplantagen der die während der Entwicklung der Ölpalmenvegetation auftretenden Veränderungen darstellt. Diese Studie belegt, dass die Ausweitung von Ölpalmplantagen und anderen Nutzpflanzen zu Veränderungen der biophysikalischen Variablen führt, die die Landoberfläche erwärmen und somit den Anstieg der Lufttemperatur aufgrund des Klimawandels verstärken. Durch den Einsatz von hochauflösenden Landsat-Daten konnten wir die Auswirkungen von Landnutzungsänderungen auf biophysikalische Variablen in unserer Analyse einbeziehen. Ein besseres Verständnis der Auswirkungen von Landbedeckungsänderungen auf die biophysikalischen Variablen kann Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung der bestehenden Wälder, zur Planung und zum Ausbau von Ölpalmplantagen und zu möglichen Aufforstungsmaßnahmen unterstützen. Wissen über biophysikalische Variablen, Strahlungsbilanz und Energieaufteilung während des Rotationszyklus der Ölpalme können verwendet werden, um neue Managementpraktiken einzubeziehen, die die extreme ökologischen und mikroklimatischen Bedingungen in der Anfangsphase der Ölpalmplantagen reduzieren könnten. ; Over the last decades, Indonesia has experienced dramatic land transformations with an expansion of oil palm plantations at the expense of tropical forests. Indonesia is currently one of the regions with the highest transformation rate of the land surface worldwide related to the expansion of oil palm plantations and other cash crops replacing forests on large scales. As vegetation is a modifier of the climate near the ground these large-scale land transformations have major impacts on surface biophysical variables such as land surface temperature (LST), albedo, vegetation indices (e.g. the normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI), on the surface energy balance and energy partitioning. Despite the large historic land transformation in Indonesia toward oil palm and other cash crops and governmental plans for future expansion, this is the first study so far to quantify the impacts of land transformation on biophysical variables in Indonesia. To assess such changes at regional scale remote sensing data are needed. As a key driver for many ecological functions, LST is directly affected by land cover changes. We analyze LST from the thermal band of a Landsat image and produce a high-resolution surface temperature map (30 m) for the lowlands of the Jambi province in Sumatra (Indonesia), a region which experienced large land transformation towards oil palm and other cash crops over the past decades. The comparison of LST, albedo, NDVI, and evapotranspiration (ET) between seven different land cover types (forest, urban areas, clear cut land, young and mature oil palm plantations, acacia and rubber plantations) shows that forests have lower surface temperatures than the other land cover types, indicating a local warming effect after forest conversion. LST differences were up to 10.1 ± 2.6 ºC (mean ± SD) between forest and clear-cut land. The differences in surface temperatures are explained by an evaporative cooling effect, which offsets an albedo warming effect. Young and mature oil palm plantations differenced in their biophysical. To study the development of surface biophysical variables during the 20 – 25 years rotation cycle of oil palm plantations, we used three Landsat images from the Jambi province in Sumatra/Indonesia covering a chronosequence of oil palm plantations. Our results show that differences between oil palm plantations in different stages of the oil palm rotation cycle are reflected in differences in the surface energy balance, energy partitioning and biophysical variables. During the oil palm plantation lifecycle the surface temperature differences to forest gradually decrease and approach zero around the mature oil palm plantation stage of 10 years. Concurrently, NDVI increases and the albedo decreases approaching typical values of forests. The surface energy balance and energy partitioning show a development patterns related to biophysical variables and the age of the oil palm plantations. Newly established and young plantations (< 5 years) have less net radiation available than mature oil palm plantations, yet have higher surface temperatures than mature oil palm plantations. The changes in biophysical variables, energy balance and energy partitioning during the oil palm rotation cycle can be explained by the previously identified evaporative cooling effect in which the albedo warming effect is offset. A main determinant in this mechanism is the vegetation cover during the different phases in the oil palm rotation cycle. NDVI as a proxy for vegetation cover showed a consistent inverse relation with the LST of different aged oil palm plantations, a trend that is also observed for different land use types in this study. On a regional and longer time scale, the analysis of the LST trend between 2000 and 2015 based on MODIS data shows that the average daytime surface temperature in the Jambi province increased by 1.05 ºC, which followed the trend of observed land cover changes and exceed the effects of climate warming. In order to assess the full climate effects of oil palm expansion the surface energy balance, energy partitioning and biophysical processes play an important role and the full rotation cycle of oil palm plantations need to be considered. Based on our result we construct the rotation cycle of oil palm plantations and the changes that occur during the development of oil palm vegetation. This study provides evidence that the expansion of oil palm plantations and other cash crops leads to changes in biophysical variables, warming the land surface and thus enhancing the increase of air temperature because of climate change. By using high-resolution Landsat data we were able to include the effects of land use change on biophysical variables. Understanding the effects of land cover change on the biophysical variables may support policies regarding conservation of the existing forests, planning and expansion of the oil palm plantations and possible afforestation measures. Knowledge of biophysical variables, radiation balance and energy partitioning during the rotation cycle of oil palm can be used to including new management practices that could reduce the extreme environmental and microclimatic conditions in the initial phase of the oil palm plantations.

Life and death in the daily: reflections with the professional of health was written with the purpose of contribute with the project of the State Politics of Humanization of the assistance and of the Health Management of the State of the Ceará, that defines in your guidelines " to provide the appropriate preparation to the experience of losses, of suffering, of dying and of the death ". The work is organized in thematic about of the senses of the death and of dying in the occident. It presents four chapters that talk about the life and the death in a valuable contribution about the understanding of the death as indispensable part of the life and your inclusion in the cares offered by the professionals of the health. The authors provoke in a competent and sensitive way the rethinking about the subjects of the death and of the dying, starting from the reality lived by the professionals. They put in evidence an indispensable theme for taking care humanized in the practices of health and not give the reference to the patients and your relatives, which in some way share with the professionals of the process of taking care. The first chapter: the death and the dying in the life and your senses, contains teachings retired of the poets that through your music and poems portray the death in the most different ways, but recognizes it as part of the life in your fullness. They present an abbreviation revision about the death´s history, the transformations happened along of the time and your several meanings. Concluding the chapter the authors reminds the fact that the man is the only animal that knows that will die and this conscience provokes fear and solitude feelings. They also portray importants subjects as the aging, the losses and your implications, that are going happening along the life, and last they talk about the science´s power, that tries to postpone the death considering that in this moment the biggest part of die´s process is the professional's of the health responsibility.The second chapter: the professional of the health before the death, treats of the professional's unpreparedness, it presents some basic concepts as euthanasia, medical futility, to discuss to subjects of the emotion, of sense of the life and of the death for each person, of the need of moments for that the professionals can to reflect on the own death. To think in the own death means to reflect about the life as not as a group of vital signs that have to be monitored. The reading invites us to consider the death as not as enemy, but as a complement of the life, in that life and death form the totality of being. The third chapter: the appeal to the re-humanization of the death. The authors reflect about the technological progress of the Medicine that at every cost tries the prolongation of the life and that not always those actions are accompanied of help for a good death. They point out, in this context, the solitude, the impersonal and the inhumanization of the Being that is dying. In this same chapter is discussed still the relevance of the palliative cares and the twelve beginnings for a good death published in England.>In the fourth chapter, practical application: like this in the life as in the death, the authors propose a series of practical activities for be developed in groups, with the objective of to sensitize the professionals to share, in wheels of chats in the services of health about the life and the death. The organization of this activities is in the workshop format meddled by appreciation of poems, music and support texts.In the final considerations the prominence is given for the fact that the most important seems to be a solidary attitude together to the Being that is dying. Besides, the authors also consider important the invigoration of the Public Politics and the consolidation of the Palliative Cares.It is treat of a work with clear style, objective, easy reading, that maintains us in the expectation of reaching the end. We recommend the reading of this book is recommended to the teachers of the courses of the health, professionals of health, students, as well as for people that are interested in enlarging knowledge about the subjects of the death and of the dying. ; La vida y muerte en el periódico: las reflexiones con el profesional de la salud fue escrito con el propósito de contribuir con el proyecto de la Política Estatal de Humanización de la Atención y de la Gestión en la Salud del Estado del Ceará, que define en sus directrices "proporcionar la preparación apropiada a la vivencia de pérdidas, de sufrimiento, de el morir y de la muerte."La obra es organizada en temáticas sobre los sentidos de la muerte y de el morir en el occidente. Presenta cuatro capítulos que abordan cuestiones sobre la vida y la muerte en una valiosa contribución sobre la comprensión de la muerte como la parte imprescindible de la vida y su inclusión en los cuidados dados por los profesionales de la salud. Los autores provocan de una manera competente y sensible o repensar sobre las cuestiones de la muerte y de el morir, a partir de la realidad vivieron por los profesionales. Ponen en la evidencia un tema imprescindible para el cuidar humanizado en las prácticas de salud y no si da la referencia a los pacientes y sus parientes que en alguna manera comparten con los profesionales del proceso de cuidar.El primer capítulo: la muerte y el morir en la vida y sus sentidos contiene las enseñanzas retirados de los poetas que a través de sus músicas y los poemas retratan la muerte de las más diferentes maneras, pero a reconoce con la parte de la vida en su plenitud. Presentan una breve revisión sobre la historia de la muerte, las transformaciones pasaron a lo largo del tiempo y sus varios significados. Concluyendo el capítulo los autores recuerda el hecho que el hombre es que el único animal que sabe cuando se morirá y esa conciencia provoca sentimientos de miedo y soledad. Retratan también asuntos importantes como el envejecimiento, las pérdidas y sus implicaciones, que van pasando a lo largo de la vida, y último abordan el poder de la ciencia, que intenta posponer la muerte considerando que en este momento la mayoría del proceso del morir es responsabilidad el profesional de la de salud.El segundo capítulo: el profesional de la salud enfrente de la muerte trata de el desarreglo de los profesionales, presenta algunos conceptos básicos como la eutanasia, el distanasia, para discutir los asuntos de la emoción, del sentido de vida y muerte para cada persona, de la necesidad de momentos para que los profesionales puedan reflejar sobre la propia muerte. Pensar en la propia muerte significa reflejar sobre la vida no como un conjunto de señales vitales que se debe supervisar. Considerar la muerte no come al enemigo, pero como un complemento de la vida. La vida y la muerte forman la totalidad del ser.El tercer capítulo: la apelación para la re-humanización de la muerte. Los autores reflejan sobre el progreso tecnológico de la Medicina que a todo costo los intentan la prolongación de la vida y que no siempre esas acciones se acompañan de ayuda por una buena muerte. Resaltan la soledad, la impessoalidad y el deshumanización de el Ser que está muriendo. Presentan la relevancia de los cuidados paliativos y los doce principios para una buena muerte publicados en Inglaterra.En el cuarto capítulo, la aplicación práctica: así en la vida como en la muerte, los autores proponen una serie de actividades prácticas para sean desarrolladas en los grupos, con el objetivo de sensibilizar los profesionales a compartir, en las ruedas de conversas en los servicios de salud sobre la vida y la muerte. Los talleres son organizados con la apreciación de poemas, música y textos de apoyo.En las consideraciones últimas los autores creen que el más importante parece ser una actitud solidaria junto al Ser que está muriendo. Considera ser importante también al fortalecimiento de las Políticas Públicas y la consolidación de los Cuidados Paliativos.Se trata de una obra con el estilo claro, objetivo, fácil lectura, mantiene la expectativa de alcanzar a lo fin. Se recomienda la lectura de este libro a los maestros de los cursos de la salud, a los profesionales de salud, a los estudiantes. Es recomendado también para las personas se interesen en agrandar el conocimientos sobre los asuntos de la muerte y de el morir. ; Vida e morte no cotidiano: reflexões com o profissional da saúde foi escrito com a finalidade de contribuir com o projeto da Política Estadual de Humanização da Atenção e da Gestão em Saúde do Estado do Ceará, que define em suas diretrizes "proporcionar a preparação adequada à vivência de perdas, de sofrimento, do morrer e da morte."A obra está organizada em temáticas sobre os sentidos da morte e do morrer no ocidente. Apresenta quatro capítulos que versam sobre a vida e a morte numa valiosa contribuição sobre a compreensão da morte como parte imprescindível da vida e sua inclusão nos cuidados prestados pelos profissionais da saúde. Os autores provocam de forma competente e sensível o repensar sobre as questões da morte e do morrer, a partir da realidade vivida pelos profissionais, colocando em evidência um tema imprescindível para cuidá-lo humanizado nas práticas de saúde e não se da referência aos pacientes e seus familiares, que de alguma forma compartilham com os profissionais do processo de cuidar.O primeiro capítulo: a morte e o morrer na vida e os seus sentidos, contém ensinamentos retirados dos poetas que por meio de suas músicas e poemas retratam a morte das mais diferentes formas, mas a reconhece como parte da vida em sua plenitude. Estes apresentam uma breve revisão sobre a história da morte, as transformações ocorridas ao longo do tempo e seus diversos significados. Finalizando o capítulo os autores lembram o fato de que o homem é o único animal que sabe que vai morrer e essa consciência provoca sentimentos de medo e solidão. Retratam também questões importantes como o envelhecimento, as perdas e suas implicações, que vão ocorrendo ao longo da vida, e por último abordam o poder da ciência, que a todo custo tenta adiar a morte considerando que neste momento a maior parte do processo de morrer é responsabilidade do profissional da saúde.O segundo capítulo: o profissional da saúde diante da morte trata do despreparo dos profissionais, apresentando alguns conceitos básicos como eutanásia, distanásia para discutir a questões da emoção, do sentido de vida e morte para cada pessoa, da necessidade de momentos para que os profissionais possam refletir sobre a própria morte. Pensar a própria morte significa refletir sobre a vida não como um conjunto de sinais vitais que se deve monitorar. A leitura nos convida a ponderar a morte não como inimiga, mas como um complemento da vida, em que vida e morte formam a totalidade do Ser.No terceiro capítulo: apelo à re-humanização da morte, os autores refletem sobre o avanço tecnológico da Medicina que a todo custo tentam o prolongamento da vida e que nem sempre essas ações são acompanhadas de ajuda para uma boa morte. Ressaltam, nesse contexto, a solidão, a impessoalidade e a desumanização do Ser que está morrendo. No referido capítulo é discutida ainda a relevância dos cuidados paliativos e os doze princípios para uma boa morte publicados na Inglaterra.No quarto capítulo, aplicação prática: assim na vida como na morte, os autores propõem uma série de atividades práticas para serem desenvolvidas em grupos, com o objetivo de sensibilizar os profissionais a compartilhar, em rodas de conversas nos serviços de saúde sobre a vida e a morte. A organização de tais atividades é no formato de oficinas mediadas pela apreciação de poemas, músicas e textos de apoio.Nas considerações finais o destaque é dado para o fato de que o mais importante parece ser uma atitude solidária junto ao Ser que está morrendo. Além disso, os autores consideram importantes também, o fortalecimento das Políticas Públicas e a consolidação dos Cuidados Paliativos.Trata-se de uma obra com estilo claro, objetivo, fácil leitura, que nos mantém na expectativa de chegarmos ao fim. Recomendamos a leitura deste livro aos docentes dos cursos da saúde, profissionais de saúde, estudantes, assim como para pessoas que se interessam em ampliar conhecimentos sobre as questões da morte e do morrer.

Life and death in the daily: reflections with the professional of health was written with the purpose of contribute with the project of the State Politics of Humanization of the assistance and of the Health Management of the State of the Ceará, that defines in your guidelines " to provide the appropriate preparation to the experience of losses, of suffering, of dying and of the death ". The work is organized in thematic about of the senses of the death and of dying in the occident. It presents four chapters that talk about the life and the death in a valuable contribution about the understanding of the death as indispensable part of the life and your inclusion in the cares offered by the professionals of the health. The authors provoke in a competent and sensitive way the rethinking about the subjects of the death and of the dying, starting from the reality lived by the professionals. They put in evidence an indispensable theme for taking care humanized in the practices of health and not give the reference to the patients and your relatives, which in some way share with the professionals of the process of taking care. The first chapter: the death and the dying in the life and your senses, contains teachings retired of the poets that through your music and poems portray the death in the most different ways, but recognizes it as part of the life in your fullness. They present an abbreviation revision about the death´s history, the transformations happened along of the time and your several meanings. Concluding the chapter the authors reminds the fact that the man is the only animal that knows that will die and this conscience provokes fear and solitude feelings. They also portray importants subjects as the aging, the losses and your implications, that are going happening along the life, and last they talk about the science´s power, that tries to postpone the death considering that in this moment the biggest part of die´s process is the professional's of the health responsibility.The second chapter: the professional of the health before the death, treats of the professional's unpreparedness, it presents some basic concepts as euthanasia, medical futility, to discuss to subjects of the emotion, of sense of the life and of the death for each person, of the need of moments for that the professionals can to reflect on the own death. To think in the own death means to reflect about the life as not as a group of vital signs that have to be monitored. The reading invites us to consider the death as not as enemy, but as a complement of the life, in that life and death form the totality of being. The third chapter: the appeal to the re-humanization of the death. The authors reflect about the technological progress of the Medicine that at every cost tries the prolongation of the life and that not always those actions are accompanied of help for a good death. They point out, in this context, the solitude, the impersonal and the inhumanization of the Being that is dying. In this same chapter is discussed still the relevance of the palliative cares and the twelve beginnings for a good death published in England.>In the fourth chapter, practical application: like this in the life as in the death, the authors propose a series of practical activities for be developed in groups, with the objective of to sensitize the professionals to share, in wheels of chats in the services of health about the life and the death. The organization of this activities is in the workshop format meddled by appreciation of poems, music and support texts.In the final considerations the prominence is given for the fact that the most important seems to be a solidary attitude together to the Being that is dying. Besides, the authors also consider important the invigoration of the Public Politics and the consolidation of the Palliative Cares.It is treat of a work with clear style, objective, easy reading, that maintains us in the expectation of reaching the end. We recommend the reading of this book is recommended to the teachers of the courses of the health, professionals of health, students, as well as for people that are interested in enlarging knowledge about the subjects of the death and of the dying. ; La vida y muerte en el periódico: las reflexiones con el profesional de la salud fue escrito con el propósito de contribuir con el proyecto de la Política Estatal de Humanización de la Atención y de la Gestión en la Salud del Estado del Ceará, que define en sus directrices "proporcionar la preparación apropiada a la vivencia de pérdidas, de sufrimiento, de el morir y de la muerte."La obra es organizada en temáticas sobre los sentidos de la muerte y de el morir en el occidente. Presenta cuatro capítulos que abordan cuestiones sobre la vida y la muerte en una valiosa contribución sobre la comprensión de la muerte como la parte imprescindible de la vida y su inclusión en los cuidados dados por los profesionales de la salud. Los autores provocan de una manera competente y sensible o repensar sobre las cuestiones de la muerte y de el morir, a partir de la realidad vivieron por los profesionales. Ponen en la evidencia un tema imprescindible para el cuidar humanizado en las prácticas de salud y no si da la referencia a los pacientes y sus parientes que en alguna manera comparten con los profesionales del proceso de cuidar.El primer capítulo: la muerte y el morir en la vida y sus sentidos contiene las enseñanzas retirados de los poetas que a través de sus músicas y los poemas retratan la muerte de las más diferentes maneras, pero a reconoce con la parte de la vida en su plenitud. Presentan una breve revisión sobre la historia de la muerte, las transformaciones pasaron a lo largo del tiempo y sus varios significados. Concluyendo el capítulo los autores recuerda el hecho que el hombre es que el único animal que sabe cuando se morirá y esa conciencia provoca sentimientos de miedo y soledad. Retratan también asuntos importantes como el envejecimiento, las pérdidas y sus implicaciones, que van pasando a lo largo de la vida, y último abordan el poder de la ciencia, que intenta posponer la muerte considerando que en este momento la mayoría del proceso del morir es responsabilidad el profesional de la de salud.El segundo capítulo: el profesional de la salud enfrente de la muerte trata de el desarreglo de los profesionales, presenta algunos conceptos básicos como la eutanasia, el distanasia, para discutir los asuntos de la emoción, del sentido de vida y muerte para cada persona, de la necesidad de momentos para que los profesionales puedan reflejar sobre la propia muerte. Pensar en la propia muerte significa reflejar sobre la vida no como un conjunto de señales vitales que se debe supervisar. Considerar la muerte no come al enemigo, pero como un complemento de la vida. La vida y la muerte forman la totalidad del ser.El tercer capítulo: la apelación para la re-humanización de la muerte. Los autores reflejan sobre el progreso tecnológico de la Medicina que a todo costo los intentan la prolongación de la vida y que no siempre esas acciones se acompañan de ayuda por una buena muerte. Resaltan la soledad, la impessoalidad y el deshumanización de el Ser que está muriendo. Presentan la relevancia de los cuidados paliativos y los doce principios para una buena muerte publicados en Inglaterra.En el cuarto capítulo, la aplicación práctica: así en la vida como en la muerte, los autores proponen una serie de actividades prácticas para sean desarrolladas en los grupos, con el objetivo de sensibilizar los profesionales a compartir, en las ruedas de conversas en los servicios de salud sobre la vida y la muerte. Los talleres son organizados con la apreciación de poemas, música y textos de apoyo.En las consideraciones últimas los autores creen que el más importante parece ser una actitud solidaria junto al Ser que está muriendo. Considera ser importante también al fortalecimiento de las Políticas Públicas y la consolidación de los Cuidados Paliativos.Se trata de una obra con el estilo claro, objetivo, fácil lectura, mantiene la expectativa de alcanzar a lo fin. Se recomienda la lectura de este libro a los maestros de los cursos de la salud, a los profesionales de salud, a los estudiantes. Es recomendado también para las personas se interesen en agrandar el conocimientos sobre los asuntos de la muerte y de el morir. ; Vida e morte no cotidiano: reflexões com o profissional da saúde foi escrito com a finalidade de contribuir com o projeto da Política Estadual de Humanização da Atenção e da Gestão em Saúde do Estado do Ceará, que define em suas diretrizes "proporcionar a preparação adequada à vivência de perdas, de sofrimento, do morrer e da morte."A obra está organizada em temáticas sobre os sentidos da morte e do morrer no ocidente. Apresenta quatro capítulos que versam sobre a vida e a morte numa valiosa contribuição sobre a compreensão da morte como parte imprescindível da vida e sua inclusão nos cuidados prestados pelos profissionais da saúde. Os autores provocam de forma competente e sensível o repensar sobre as questões da morte e do morrer, a partir da realidade vivida pelos profissionais, colocando em evidência um tema imprescindível para cuidá-lo humanizado nas práticas de saúde e não se da referência aos pacientes e seus familiares, que de alguma forma compartilham com os profissionais do processo de cuidar.O primeiro capítulo: a morte e o morrer na vida e os seus sentidos, contém ensinamentos retirados dos poetas que por meio de suas músicas e poemas retratam a morte das mais diferentes formas, mas a reconhece como parte da vida em sua plenitude. Estes apresentam uma breve revisão sobre a história da morte, as transformações ocorridas ao longo do tempo e seus diversos significados. Finalizando o capítulo os autores lembram o fato de que o homem é o único animal que sabe que vai morrer e essa consciência provoca sentimentos de medo e solidão. Retratam também questões importantes como o envelhecimento, as perdas e suas implicações, que vão ocorrendo ao longo da vida, e por último abordam o poder da ciência, que a todo custo tenta adiar a morte considerando que neste momento a maior parte do processo de morrer é responsabilidade do profissional da saúde.O segundo capítulo: o profissional da saúde diante da morte trata do despreparo dos profissionais, apresentando alguns conceitos básicos como eutanásia, distanásia para discutir a questões da emoção, do sentido de vida e morte para cada pessoa, da necessidade de momentos para que os profissionais possam refletir sobre a própria morte. Pensar a própria morte significa refletir sobre a vida não como um conjunto de sinais vitais que se deve monitorar. A leitura nos convida a ponderar a morte não como inimiga, mas como um complemento da vida, em que vida e morte formam a totalidade do Ser.No terceiro capítulo: apelo à re-humanização da morte, os autores refletem sobre o avanço tecnológico da Medicina que a todo custo tentam o prolongamento da vida e que nem sempre essas ações são acompanhadas de ajuda para uma boa morte. Ressaltam, nesse contexto, a solidão, a impessoalidade e a desumanização do Ser que está morrendo. No referido capítulo é discutida ainda a relevância dos cuidados paliativos e os doze princípios para uma boa morte publicados na Inglaterra.No quarto capítulo, aplicação prática: assim na vida como na morte, os autores propõem uma série de atividades práticas para serem desenvolvidas em grupos, com o objetivo de sensibilizar os profissionais a compartilhar, em rodas de conversas nos serviços de saúde sobre a vida e a morte. A organização de tais atividades é no formato de oficinas mediadas pela apreciação de poemas, músicas e textos de apoio.Nas considerações finais o destaque é dado para o fato de que o mais importante parece ser uma atitude solidária junto ao Ser que está morrendo. Além disso, os autores consideram importantes também, o fortalecimento das Políticas Públicas e a consolidação dos Cuidados Paliativos.Trata-se de uma obra com estilo claro, objetivo, fácil leitura, que nos mantém na expectativa de chegarmos ao fim. Recomendamos a leitura deste livro aos docentes dos cursos da saúde, profissionais de saúde, estudantes, assim como para pessoas que se interessam em ampliar conhecimentos sobre as questões da morte e do morrer.

Linnard Holston, photo taken at Marshall White Center, November 8, 2013 ; The New Zion Community Advocates worked with community members age 80 years and older to have contributed to the history of Ogden city. The interviews looked at the legacy of the interviewees through armed services, work, social life, church, NAACP and educational systems in an environment where their culture was not predominant. This program has received funding from the Utah Humanities Council and the Utah Division of State history. ; The following is an oral history interview with Linnard Holston conducted on March 18, 2014 by Debbie George. ; 17p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Linnard Holston Interviewed by Deborah M. George 18 March 2014 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Linnard Holston Interviewed by Deborah M. George 18 March 2014 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The New Zion Community Advocates worked with community members age 80 years and older to have contributed to the history of Ogden city. The interviews looked at the legacy of the interviewees through armed services, work, social life, church, NAACP and educational systems in an environment where their culture was not predominant. This program has received funding from the Utah Humanities Council and the Utah Division of State history. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Holston, Linnard, an oral history by Deborah M. George, 18 March 2014, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Linnard Holston, photo taken at Marshall White Center November 8, 2013 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Linnard Holston conducted on March 18, 2014 by Debbie George. DG: Ok, today we are at the Marshall White Community Center and we'll be talking with Mr. Linnard Holston. So could you tell me your full name? LH: That's it Linnard Holston. DG: No middle name? LH: No middle name. DG: And your birthday you told me was? LH: January 10, 1930 DG: OK, and are we related in any way? LH: Not that I know of. DG: And tell me, what are you doing now? LH: Babysitting at the Marshall White center. DG: Can you explain a little bit more about the babysitting? What do you do, do you work in the gym? LH: Well ya, I work in the gym. DG: Any particular classes in the gym that you work with? 1 LH: No they, Just kind of overall. Overall we play a little pickle ball every now and then. Basketball, they jump too high for me, I can't even. So I've been in the gym quite a few years. I was a boxing coach 15 years, and I boxed 10 years my self Golenberns Champion, AAU Champion, 165 pound. That's about it, and I used to take the kids to Idaho Wyoming Montana. DG: Was that part of the? LH: Recreation, yes. DG: So what are the most important lessons you've learned through life. LH: Be fair and honest with everyone and even with yourself. DG: So what are you most proud of in your life? LH: Fishing and hunting. DG: Do you have a lot of trophies or eat most of what you catch? LH: I eat, what I don't eat I turn them loose and put them back. But I love hunting, I have hunting dogs. DG: What kind. And you have two of them? LH: Two of them. I take other people with me and then one dog, but with two you get better results. DG: So how long have you lived in Ogden? 2 LH: Ever since the 40's, 1940 something. I don't know what year it was, but came from Hope Arkansas DG: And what brought you to Ogden? LH: My uncle Henry. DG: What did he tell you to persuade you to come to Ogden? LH: He just told me to come over here with them. DG: How has Ogden changed over the years? LH: Oh lot of changes. DG: What was the biggest change? LH: I would say the streets, about all I can say. More streets, bigger streets. More streets, more one way streets DG: What was it like when you first got here? LH: Just like any other city. DG: Go to school? LH: Ya, went to school then came home and did the chores and that was it. DG: What high school did you go to? LH: Mount Ogden high, and I went into the military, went up to Weber Weber State was on 25th street, so everything's all changed. 3 DG: So what do you miss most about the way it used to be in Ogden? LH: I never had no trouble. Everything seems the same enough to me. DG: So no difficulty? LH: Never had no run ins I just mind my own business and let the other fellow mind his own business. DG: Do you remember any of the character around Ogden? You know, some who were kind of a flash and you thought "oh, wow" LH: Not really DG: You don't remember any great characters from here? LH: I used to have a center, the wall avenue community center and they used to have dancing and things and games so that changed. DG: Yes it has changed. LH: You remember that? DG: Yes I just loved it. Do you remember any stories or legend in Ogden? No? Ok did you have a nick name? LH: No DG: Well who were some of your best friends? LH: The Edmunds, Charles Edmunds and junior Edmunds, my neighbors. 4 DG: And what were they like? LH: Nice people, musicians, Charles Edmunds was into music. DG: What did you do for fun? LH: I played basket ball. DG: Did you play in high school or college? LH: No. DG: Just for fun. LH: They jumped too high for me. DG: What are some of your best memories from grade school? LH: Oh that's way back. DG: Or high school? LH: Oh nothing special. I played basketball and the industrial league. That was the basketball I did, playing in the industrial league. DG: And where was that? LH: Oh different places. Different high school. Lewis and Washington DG: So here in Ogden? LH: Yes. DG: So did you meet your spouse here? 5 LH: Yes I did, right here in Ogden. DG: How did you meet? LH: Playing ball. DG: Oh was she a fan? LH: She used to play, my wife used to play. DG: So she'd play with you? LH: Well they had a ladies league; they played in a different gym. DG: So she just swept you off your feet? LH: Oh don't know about that. DG: But she became you wife. Did you have any kids? LH: Yes I have one son. DG: And how did being a parent change you or did it change you? LH: It didn't change too much. You just kept your same fairness and honesty about you and raised them to be the same. DG: So what did you do for a living? LH: Worked for the southern pacific railroad. DG: For how long? LH: 37 years. 6 DG: And what did you do? LH: I was a supply man, handy man, hostler, helper, switchman, anything to make the day go. DG: Ok, so what did you want to be when you grew up? LH: Just normal. Just wanted to be normal and that's all. DG: You didn't have a profession you thought you definitely wanted to do? LH: No ma'am. DG: Whatever came your way, you made it work. So were you in the military? LH: Yes, two years. DG: Which branch? LH: Army, in the Korean War. DG: Where were you stationed? In Korea? LH: First in Fort Ord, California and them from Fort Ord we went to Korea DG: Did you see any battles? LH: I was an artillery outfit. DG: So I guess you did. How did the war change you? LH: It didn't change me. I did what I was told and that was it. Never got in trouble, never went AWOL, never got called into the office, nothing 7 DG: Do what your told stay, stay out of trouble LH: That's for sure. DG: So what lesson did you learn from your life. Did the war teach you something? Or just living in Ogden teach you something? LH: Just the regular things. Mind my own business and leave others business alone. I never been arrested, never been in jail. I never went AWOL in the military. DG: So what made you stay here at the Marshal White center? LH: Well I love sports and I missed the Mr. Billines, and Marv Casteel, and sledding, they all talked me into coming to work here and I've been here very since. And I've enjoyed it. I've met a lot of nice people. And I've seen a lot of kids grow up since I've been here for forty some odd years DG: And you talked about how you love fishing and hunting. Is that mainly bird hunting? LH: Yes pheasants, sage grouse, rustle grouse DG: Do you teach other people how to hunt? LH: I'd take a friend out but he passed away last year, the guy. DG: So you just go yourself now LH: I'm going to have to find another hunting partner. I don't like to hunt alone. I used to by myself a lot but that's not a good idea, to go nowhere by yourself hunting. Too much 8 can happen, so I'm going to find someone to hunt with coming up this fall. I have two dogs already DG: So you're already then LH: Plenty of shot gun shells as well DG: So you are all set. Is there anything else you'd like to tell us that we didn't cover in the questions? Things about you that say this is Lenard Holston and this is who I am? LH: No DG: No? LH: I don't have anything. DG: Like you said you just stay to yourself LH: I stay in my business. Never been arrested, never been to jail, and I'm too old to go now, too old. Don't want to get in trouble. DG: Anything to ask Melissa? MJ: I was wondering do you know what brought your uncle to Ogden. LH: I think it was a job; he was working at the navy base. There used to be a navy base. That's why he came here and then he sent for me. That was why he came, to work at the navy base MJ: So he thought it was good and told you to come on up LH: I have been here ever since. Did my military here and stayed. 9 DG: Well thank you, if there isn't anything else then I guess that's it and we thank you for your time. LH: Well thank you for interviewing me. 10

Inhaltsangabe:Introduction: General Definition and Justification of Issues and Objectives: The publication of the Modigliani and Miller (MM) capital structure irrelevance theorem in 1958 and the subsequent preference of purely debt financing due to tax advantages in 1963, was in contradiction to traditional approaches which suggested an optimal capital structure. Meanwhile the theories of MM are academically accepted and out of competition with other approaches, since the underlying assumptions, especially the existence of perfect capital markets, is considered as unreal. However, in every economic boom, when access to capital becomes easier, financial markets seem to come close to the conditions of perfect markets, characterised by high competition and prosperity. It is found that the western economic order is marked by asset bubbles that resulted in over one hundred crises over the last three decades and which bring companies back to reality with a hard landing. Access to capital becomes extremely restricted and uncertainty dominates as the collapse of Lehman Brothers in September 2008 showed. Although signs were evident in 2007, the change from prosperity to depression can come overnight, where free market policy shows its true face, with unpredictable damages deeply wounding in the economy, and seeming to paralyse even the most experienced economists. Since liquidity becomes a scarce resource and consumption declines, free cash flows that were previously available to finance an amply corporate structure, dividends and bonuses, are likely to fall. As debt, if any, must still be paid back – often to worse conditions than before – corporations might run out of liquidity, as has happened to major US companies during the last twelve months. Also, investments that ought to ensure future profits are likely to be reduced or to come to a still stand, sending firms and the economy in a downward spiral. However, as experienced and predicted by Copeland and Greenspan, systematic organisations which are considered as 'too-big-to-fail' are offered bail-outs at the cost of society. This work aims to investigate the impact of the capital structure on the profitability of large capitalised US companies. It does not, therefore, aim to test existing theories, nor does it try to find a model to predict one or another capital structure, since numerous attempts have previously been made that have so far struggled to capture the full complexity of the real world. Rather, it focuses on correlations between capital structure and profitability and major profitability-associated measures that can have an impact on a firm's survival, i.e. liquidity, dividends, investments and the impact of an industry-related target gearing ratio as a potential systematic risk. Thus, this work is supposed to contribute to the understanding of how resistant companies are to financial distress, and it provides evidence on the extent to which vulnerability can be reduced to prevent major systemic crises by means of their capital structure adjustments through the awareness of shareholders and corporate governors. Research Questions and Methodology: The basis of this research project is a selection of secondary performance data over the period from 2004 to 2008 of firms listed in the Standard Poor's 500 index (SP 500) in January 2004. The index represents the 500 largest capitalised US companies among ten sectors that reflect the whole US market. The combination of the US market and the SP 500 companies, who have access to the widest range of financial sources, is expected to give a highly reliable result to find empirical evidence for the following research questions. Question 1. According to the MM theorem and the pecking order theory that relies on information asymmetry between insiders and investors, leverage should not depend on the industry a firm is in. However, evidence suggests that firms in different industries operate with different capital structures. Thus, the first hypothesis (H1) is to verify whether industry-specific leverage exists. Question 2. Since revenues are likely to decrease in an economic downturn, this reduces a firm's ability to meet debt payments, which is expected to have a negative impact on profitability. The second and central hypothesis (H2) is, therefore, that a negative correlation between gearing ratio and profitability exists, i.e. higher geared firms are less profitable. As this research question is the centre of attention, it merits a deeper investigation than all other hypotheses, especially for the years 2007 and 2008. Question 3. Most of the companies are affected by financial distress, not because they are not unprofitable, but because they have no liquidity. If cash inflows decline, firms are likely to be unable to finance current expenses, including the interests on debt. Hence, the third hypothesis (H3) is the existence of a correlation between gearing ratio and liquidity. Higher geared firms are supposed to have lower cash positions, especially in 2008. Question 4. Investments in RD are crucial for survival and competitiveness of firms within some industries. Since higher geared firms must concentrate more to the avoidance of financial distress, they may tend to reduce expenses in long-term RD projects that have no immediate effects. The aim of the fourth hypothesis (H4) is to prove whether a correlation between gearing ratio and RD expenditure exists, especially in 2008, that is expected to have a negative influence on future profits. Question 5. Highly geared companies are encouraged to pay out higher dividends by transferring wealth from bondholders to shareholders, although managers should have an incentive to reduce them if liquidity becomes a scarce resource. The fifth hypothesis (H5) is, therefore, to find evidence of the existence of a correlation between gearing ratio and dividend policy, especially in 2008. Overview and Organisation of Chapters: This dissertation is organised into seven sections, each with a brief statement at the beginning and the end of the issues previously and subsequently discussed. Although this might seem repetitious, it enables the reader to go through in multiple sessions. The following few paragraphs give an outline of the next six sections. After the introduction and definition of the above stated research questions, section 2 attempts to review the existing literature on capital structure with a discussion of the main theories, after which a more detailed focus on the fields in respect of the research questions is provided. Section 3 discusses and justifies the methodology used to answer the research questions, which refers to data sampling and data collection, the treatment of missing values, the variables defined and applied hypothesis testing methods. Section 4 outlines the key findings in respect of the hypotheses initially stated, which are then analysed and discussed. Where appropriate, the results found are related to the most relevant findings discussed in the literature review. Section 5 recalls the research objectives and findings previously obtained. After that, it concludes with the underlying assumptions required for the implications drawn from those findings, which are part of the next section. Section 6 attempts to identify management implications and recommendations to solve the issues. Based on the results revealed from the sample, it aims to identify measures in reducing vulnerability and systematic risk in order to achieve sustainable economic growth without adverse effects for society. Section 7 points to the achievement of the objectives of this study, its strengths and weaknesses. Ultimately it gives insights to the personal development drawn from the execution of this research project with reference to difficulties faced.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Abbreviations4 Acknowledgements5 Abstract6 1.Introduction7 1.1GENERAL DEFINITION AND JUSTIFICATION OF ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES7 1.2RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY9 1.3OVERVIEW AND ORGANISATION OF CHAPTERS10 2.Existing Theories and their Predictions12 2.1EXISTING THEORIES12 2.1.1The Trade-Off Theory14 2.1.2The Pecking Order Theory18 2.2PREDICTIONS OF EXISTING THEORIES21 2.2.1Capital Structure and Industry21 2.2.2Capital Structure and Profitability24 2.2.3Capital Structure and Liquidity27 2.2.4Capital Structure, RD and Tangible Assets28 2.2.5Capital Structure and Dividend Policy30 2.3A FINAL COMMENT32 3.Methodology34 3.1DATA SAMPLING34 3.2DATA COLLECTION35 3.2.1Missing Values and Adjustments36 3.3VARIABLES AND THEIR DEFINITIONS37 3.3.1Leverage and Gearing37 3.3.2Profits and Return39 3.4HYPOTHESES AND HYPOTHESES TESTING39 3.4.1H1: Capital Structure and Industry40 3.4.2H2: Capital Structure and Profitability41 3.4.3H3, H4 and H5: Capital Structure, Liquidity, RD and Dividend Policy42 4.Findings and Analysis44 4.1H1: THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRY ON CAPITAL STRUCTURE AND ASSOCIATED VARIABLES44 4.2H2: THE EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION BETWEEN LEVERAGE AND ROCE54 4.3H3: THE EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION BETWEEN LEVERAGE AND LIQUIDITY59 4.4H4: THE EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION BETWEEN LEVERAGE AND RD62 4.5H5: THE EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION BETWEEN LEVERAGE AND DIVIDENDS66 5.Conclusions71 5.1CAPITAL STRUCTURE71 5.2PROFITABILITY72 5.3LIQUIDITY72 5.4INVESTMENTS73 5.5DIVIDENDS74 6.Recommendations76 7.Reflections80 7.1OBJECTIVES80 7.2STRENGTHS81 7.3WEAKNESSES AND LIMITATIONS81 7.4PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT83 Bibliography84 Appendix ASP 500 industries, January 2004 and June 200991 Appendix BMissing values of dead firms, based on balance-sheet records92 Appendix CSignificant year-by-year correlations of core factors with Gearing 293 Appendix DIndependent t-test of delisted and non-delisted firms94 Appendix EIndependent t-test of the ten lowest and highest geared firms95 Appendix FIndependent t-test of the ten less and most profitable firms105 Appendix GMann-Whitney test of the ten lowest and highest geared firms115Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 2.2.5, Capital Structure and Dividend Policy: Shareholders expect a return on their investments, either in the form of an increase in share prices or through dividends for placing equity at the disposal of a business. Since some organisations, such as pension funds and charities, periodically require revenues, dividends might be preferred that also reduces transaction costs. This reality might be overseen in the simplified MM argument of 1961, according to which, dividend policy does not matter in perfect markets. Dividend announcements, due to information that they contain, influence stock prices and thus the market value of a firm which has an impact on equity issues, according to the pecking order. This concept was approved by Asquith and Mullins on a sample of 168 publicly listed US companies from 1964 to 1980, who began to pay dividends. Also Baskin argues that '[d]ividends provide signals both to current and future earnings' and found that higher dividend payments in 1965 resulted in considerably higher debt levels in 1972. He (ibid.:31) observed that the level of dividend payouts is rather stable, since '[s]erial correlation after twelve years is 0.714 and amounts to about 50% explained variance'. In contrast, Antoniou et al. find a negative correlation of gearing and dividend payments for US firms only, while Lintner argues that dividends depend on profits and successful investment strategies that allow a stable compensation for shareholders. Also Rozeff argues that more investment opportunities lead to lower dividend payout ratios that, however, do not reduce agency costs, which are offset by higher transaction costs for debt issuance. Thus, according to the pecking order theory, dividends contain information about the future that makes dividend policy a 'sticky' subject, 'while capital spending varies over the business cycle' that increases debt levels. According to Baskin, 'the need to adhere to stable dividend policy appears to be much stronger than those motivating adherence to some statically defined optimal capital structure." In a severe downturn, however, where profits and financial resources shrink, it is worth questioning whether a firm should stick with dividend policy or would be better selling undervalued assets to generate liquidity. An observation made by Graham is that 'dividend-paying firms issue debt more conservatively than do non-dividend-paying firms, even though they presumably have less severe informational problems.' This implies higher leverage for non-dividend-payers as is confirmed by Frank and Goyal. Thus, firms who pay dividends do not only have less interests to pay, but would also be able to reduce dividend payments in bad times and thus are able to avoid financial distress, while for them it is easier to continue investments. Another explanation is that non-dividend-payers have more growth opportunities, requiring new investments that are leveraged with external debt, while mature firms do not always have the possibility to invest in profitable projects. Baskin states that 'an increase in equity issues necessarily results in greater dividends, and greater dividends in turn give rise to a larger burden of personal taxation.' As a result, investors would prefer lower dividends in favour of faster growing share prices. While young firms with large growth potential do not have these problems with free cash flows, rational investors of mature firms expect dividends to avoid over-investment. Also large firms, who generally pay higher dividends, tend to expand more slowly than small ones, as observed by Baskin, which implies higher dividend payouts.

AbstractProspective educators who completed a course about social work with disabilities were participants in a study that investigated whether attitudes toward individuals with mental retardation (MR) would be enhanced by the information provided in the course. The quasi‐experimental design of the study involved a control group together with a pretest and a posttest, and several demographic and experiential variables. The study used a version of the Mental Retardation Attitude Inventory‐Revised that Kandari and Salih (in press) adapted for the Kuwaiti culture. Results revealed that the course did not influence students' attitudes toward individuals with MR. The authors discussed the findings in relation to determining the changes needed in the course's curriculum and evaluating the information provided for prospective educators in order for them to support the integration of individuals with MR into mainstream society.Throughout history, society's attitude towards individuals with Mental Retardation (MR) has been predominantly negative. Society has created an 'out‐group' of people who may be seen as less than human because they are disadvantaged in terms of some abilities and characteristics such as intelligence, self‐consciousness, and the ability to have human relationship that the majority of its citizens possess. The history of segregation of individuals with MR has reinforced this notion by adopting the term 'handicap' or 'disability,' which signifies the presence of an inherent difference between them and other people. Such segregation can negate the fact that one is a human being; depriving him\her of enjoying the benefits afforded to those without disabilities (Philip, 1992).Smith (1981) provides an example of the danger of society's beliefs about individuals with MR as being less than human. He brings to attention that fetuses with Downs syndrome are usually aborted because, when they are born, they would not meet certain minimum requirements for being human. They would be severely mentally retarded and uneducable, and would thus be a burden on their families and society. The danger of such beliefs is that individuals with MR may begin to internalize these inaccurate assumptions and thus tend to fulfill the society's expectations (Phillip, 1992).Over the last few decades, a strong movement in special education and related human services fields toward 'normalization' has given people with MR more opportunities to participate in various activities with people without disabilities. Changes in the provision of services to persons with disabilities have focused on increased inclusion in educational, employment, and social arenas (Antonak & Livneh, 1988). However, barriers, including the attitudes of educators, employers, co‐workers, and others, still stand between persons with MR and full inclusion (Geskie & Salesk, 1988).In Kuwait, the law of the disabled (13\96) assures the right of persons with disabilities to be included in different settings (e.g., schools, workplace, social activities, and wider community). Although Kuwaiti government has shown growing interest in the integration of individuals with MR, the chances of these individuals to integrate into mainstream society would depend on the attitudes of others (e.g. students, prospective educators, teachers, co‐workers, social workers, professionals) toward them. These attitudes, as found in many Western studies (e.g. Antonak & Harth, 1994; Gordon, Tantillo, Feldman & Perrone, 2004) are for the most part negative, which may contribute to negative outcomes on the part of individuals with MR (Byon, 2000, Special Olympics, 2003). For example, Parent, Hill and Wehman (1989) found that non‐disabled co‐workers focused on the disabled personal characteristics rather than specific job competencies. The impact of these negative attitudes may have significant consequences for both social and vocational lives of persons with MR. Mest (1988) have found that negative attitude leads to self‐isolation of persons with MR. Rusch, Hughes, Johnson and Minch (1991) found that stigma negatively affected social relationships between workers with MR and their peers without MR.As literature has shown, the provision of educational and social opportunities for individuals with disabilities can be legislated, but acceptance from other people cannot be ensured. Experts agree that complete integration and acceptance of individuals with disabilities might happen following long‐term changes in attitudes (Beattie, Anderson & Antonak, 1997). According to Langer's (1989) theory of 'mindfulness', changing people's attitude depends on providing enough information relevant to the problem of interest. People change their understanding of concepts based on their becoming mindful of them. Taba (1966) suggests that concepts' formation involves three stages: (1) Identifying information relevant to a problem, (2) grouping information on the basis of some similarity, and (3) developing categories and labels for the groups (Taba, 1966). With regard to MR, people might change their attitudes if they are encouraged to identify the construct of MR and then group subsequent information with enough details to form groups of categories without simply stereotyping. This is because people usually stereotype others and judge them without enough information and reflection (Langer, 1989).Thus, only continued mindfulness toward individuals with MR can eliminate stereotypical thinking and lead to their acceptance as fellow human beings in various settings. Gordon, Feldman, Tantillo, and Perrone (2004) suggested that greater awareness of disability issues results in improving social attitudes about disabilities and helps in removing attitudinal barriers. Henry, Keys, Balcazar, and Jopp (1996) also found evidence that training in inclusion philosophy increases awareness associated with positive inclusion's attitudes among staff members who work in mental disability settings, when compared to general population.There is some evidence showing that as they gain more information about individuals with MR and their conditions, their attitudes become more positive (Lawrence, Glidden & M‐Jobe, 2006; Sadek & Sadek, 2000). Conaster and Block (2001) found that instructors who taught aquatics classes to students with disabilities felt able to handle their academic coursework and experiences during the academic year. Teachers who felt competent had also more favorable beliefs and positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities. In a related finding, Irish physical educators showed significant positive attitudes related to their previous experiences in teaching students with mild‐moderate MR (Meegan & Macphail, 2006). Folsom‐Meek and Rizzo (2002) claimed that educational preparation helps to enhance attitudes toward working with individuals with disabilities. Castoria (1986) found that understanding of the intent and concept of mainstreaming, and adequate‐to‐good training emerged as positive factors that influenced elementary and junior high school teachers' attitudes toward youngsters with special‐needs.Based on the above arguments, perceptions and attitudes of prospective educators can be enhanced by the provision of appropriate coursework related to disabilities. Otherwise, prospective educators would continue, like many people, to believe that individuals with MR are not capable of dealing with the everyday facets of life (Hunt, 2004). More seriously, educators may feel uncomfortable dealing with students with MR who happen to enroll in their classes. A study of community attitudes in one state of Australia found that up to 86% of respondents reported feeling 'uncomfortable' when interacting with individuals with disabilities (Enhance Management, 1999). Another study (European Commission, 2001) found that 40% of Europeans reported feeling 'uneasy' in the presence of people with disabilities.The coursework would thus help to increase prospective educators' willingness to work with individuals with MR, interact with them, and support their integration into society (Horne, 1985). Lack of interest and negative attitudes on the part of prospective educators may directly influence their abilities to interact with individuals with MR in a disability‐related job (Schlachter & Duckitt, 2002). Hatton, Emerson, Rivers, Mason, Swarbrick and Mason (2001) claimed that lack of interest in MR by staff members (e.g., social workers, counselors) usually discourages them from dealing with individuals with MR, and may result in their leaving the job. Although researchers (e.g. Hatton, Emerson, Rivers, Mason, Swarbrick and Mason, 2001; Larson and Lakin, 1999) found that low salary and high job stress can lead staff members to leave their jobs, Osborne and Williams (1982) indicated that lack of interest in MR was the major reason of leaving the job among social workers.Providing coursework related to disabilities increases prospective educators' awareness of disability. Gaining this awareness, they can identify and counter inequality of opportunities for individuals with MR, inaccessibility of resources, and other environmental influences that add to their powerlessness. Prospective educators usually play an active role in social change and in changing public opinion. The awareness of the disability would help them to change society's response to persons with MR, as it is affected less by public policy and more by the prevailing societal attitudes. Myers, Ager, Kerr, and Myles (1998) suggested that increasing people's awareness of individuals with disabilities would present them as having worth and value as human beings no matter how they may differ from what society considered the "norm".Prospective educators need to become aware of handicapist language, stereotypes, and prejudices that exist in literature so that they might better promote understanding and appreciation of people with disabilities. A course dealing with disabilities would be helpful for educators to encourage understanding by accurately and respectfully portraying well‐adjusted and productive individuals with MR, due to the fact that most literature presents and reinforces prejudicial and stereotypical images of characters with MR (Catlett, Martin, and Craig, 1993; Marsh, 2003).As part of the graduation requirements, Kuwait University requires prospective educators in the Social Work Department to take courses that focus on provision of educational, social and health services to special needs groups, such as the Social Work With Disabilities (SWWD) course which has two broad goals: (a) To increase prospective educators' knowledge of individuals with disabilities, and (b) to improve prospective educators' skills to deal with individuals with disabilities in the jobsites. These goals are accomplished through a combination of presenting information, guest speakers and direct contact with the instructor.Although the course deals with different types of disabilities (learning disabilities, MR, behavior and emotional disorders, and physical disability), the present study focuses on MR and students' attitudes toward them. In a study of Ahmad (2004) in Kuwait, findings showed that 40% of respondents in 15 workplaces related to mental disabilities reported a shortage of Kuwaiti professionals (social workers, counselors, psychologists) who work with the individuals with MR, and 46.7% of them reported lack of volunteers who are in direct contact with those individuals.Most research on attitudes toward MR in educational settings has focused on assessing attitudes of individuals (e.g., Lyons & Hayes, 1993; Corrigan, Green, Lundin, Kubiak, & Penn, 2001), with little attention given to effective strategies to promote positive attitudes toward individuals with MR. The assessment of attitude of prospective educators and whether it is affected by the SWWD course is important for several reasons. First, as educators, we have the opportunity to evaluate the course with regard to an important learning outcome. This evaluation could lead to a deeper analysis of the students' learning needs, and modification of the course's performance objectives, instructional materials, instructional strategies, and assessment strategies (Miller, 1996).Second, knowing whether the course has an effect on changing students' attitude would thus help professionals and social service providers to know whether educators would have the potential to contribute to or hinder the independence of persons with MR (Antonak & Livneh, 1988). Third, as the service model in Kuwait begins to emphasize the role of persons with MR in designing and requesting services that foster independency, the role of prospective educators in this process is likely to be affected by their attitudes as an intervening variable or variable that might indirectly influences behavior (Miller, 1996). Negative attitudes, as an intervening variable, might not directly cause negative behavior toward individuals with MR, but is likely to affect behavior in an indirect way, and hence affect the opportunity for inclusion in the lives of persons with MR. Attitude can motivate behavior in either a dynamic or directive manner (Miller, 1996).The broad question of the present study was: Would teaching the SWWD course improve prospective educators' attitudes toward individuals with MR? The present study investigated this question by assessing the attitudes of prospective educators (experimental group) toward individuals with MR before and after studying the course. The study also assessed the attitudes of another group of students (control group) who were, at the same time, taking another course. The present study anticipated that the attitudes of prospective educators toward individuals with MR would become positively different, as they gain more information about MR during the course of study. We thus hypothesized that taking the SWWD would improve attitude of a prospective educator toward people with MR.

The mount Cameroon region is experiencing rapid and continuous changes mainly due to anthropogenic influences (wood extraction and agricultural extension). The changes occur at varying spatial scales most often not more than 250 m for small scale farms and extraction of fuelwood; extending to hundreds of hectares for plantation agriculture and commercial logging. Given the importance of land use and land cover data in conservation planning, accurate and efficient techniques to provide up-to-date data are required. Techniques based on multi-temporal, multi-spectral, satellite-sensor-acquired data have demonstrated great potential as a means to detect, identify, map and monitor forest cover and forest cover changes irrespective of their causal agents. Nevertheless variable opinions still exist about the value and appropriateness of these techniques due to landscape complexities of study areas and data used. Moreover, forest cover change is a location specific problem with the effect, pattern and magnitude of identified drivers not just differing from country to country but also from one region to another. Consequently, it is absolutely necessary to devise techniques that empirically determine the extent and identify the magnitude at which factors identified, influence the continuous changes in forest cover patterns. Furthermore, given that many different factors influence changes in forest cover and that these factors operate at different levels, mixing up the factors of various levels generally leads to a wrong specification of the causal relationships between variables. It is thus of utmost importance to understand the role of each of these factors on forest cover change. The thesis summarises the methods and results of applying different thematic information extraction algorithms as well as different change detection algorithms to monitor forest cover and forest cover change in the mount Cameroon region. Furthermore, the study sought to explain the forest cover changes detected using spatial geophysical variables extracted from available remote sensing and GIS data. The research mainly focuses on determining, suitable techniques for monitoring forest cover within the difficult Cameroonian context - lack of decent soft- and hardware, unavailability of satellite imagery, lack of personnel etc. Bi-temporal Landsat imagery (Landsat TM 1987 and ETM+ 2002) coupled with ancillary GIS data were employed to pursue the objectives shortlisted. The scenes were geometrically and radiometrically corrected and the time series co-registered to avoid erroneous changes. They were subsequently enhanced spectrally and spatially to obtain ancillary information pertaining to forest cover distribution. The supervised pixel-based classification using Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC) and the Nearest Neighbour (NN) object-based classification were implemented to map the tropical forests of the mount Cameroon. The efficacy of both approaches was assessed based on the accuracy of the respective thematic maps and a visual evaluation of the delineation of land cover/use categories. Five change detection procedures were also tested to determine their effectiveness in detecting and delineating forest cover changes. The following techniques were implemented: univariate image differencing using bands 4 and 5, transformed band differencing (NDVI), post classification comparison, change vector analysis using tasseled cap as biophysical parameter and multi date change detection using binary mask (analysis of differencing in classification results). The accuracy of the resultant change maps was assessed based on information procured during field study. The algorithms were compared based on their ability to identify quantitative and qualitative changes. Moreover, aspects like ease of implementation of technique and interpretability of results were also taken into consideration – important considerations for transferring remote sensing technology to local and international governmental and non-governmental organisations as well as being a sustainability requirement for community forest management initiatives. Finally, univariate statistical models were developed to understand the effect of certain spatial variables on forest cover change. Nearness to roads, nearness to watersheds, nearness to settlement, aspect, slope and soil types were extracted from available remote sensing and GIS data and implemented in this study. The implementation of the object oriented approach did not lead to substantial improvements in the results. On the contrary, the pixel-based technique had slightly better overall accuracy results than the object-oriented approach (89.39 % as against 87.12 %). Nevertheless the strength of the object-oriented approach in classifying heterogeneous land cover categories was confirmed. The highest overall accuracy from a single change detection technique was achieved with the band 5 differencing 89.6 %. Post classification comparison also produced substantially good results (89.4 %), with a Kappa coefficient better than that of the Band 5 differencing (0.86 against 0.79). The other techniques produced modest results with overall accuracies of 72.7 %, 70.1 %, and 61 % for the NDVI differencing, CVA and Band 4 differencing respectively. Nevertheless, each algorithm has its own merits with respect to facility of implementation, information content and interpretability of results. The high complementarity between different change detection methods makes it possible to combine algorithms and improve efficacy in detecting changes. The hybrid approach (multidate change detection procedure using binary mask) produced optimal qualitative and quantitive results – providing "from-to" information as well as high location accuracy of change areas. Despite requiring a number of steps (hybrid method), it reduces change detection errors and provides "from-to" change classification information. The efficacy of the method depends on the "change/no-change" binary mask. Nearness to road proved to be the most influencial factor on forest cover change followed by nearness to settlement and slope. Nearness to watersheds had an insignificant effect on the changes while the variables aspect, soil type had no effect on forest cover change. Nevertheless, it was proven that the spatial variables implemented in this work failed to interpret the change of forest land to industrial plantations therefore suggesting the implementation of other socio-economic and political variables to better explain their occurrence. ; Die Studie folgt den Bemühungen Wissenschaftler aus aller Welt, die tropischen Ökosysteme zu schützen und somit die globalen Klimaänderungen abzumildern. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden zahlreiche Versuche unternommen, die tropischen Wälder auf globaler Ebene zu kartieren. Heutzutage versucht man zusätzlich auf regionaler Ebene zu agieren. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde analysiert, inwiefern der Einsatz hochauflösender Satellitendaten und Bildinterpretations-Algorithmen die Deutung der kontinuierlichen Waldveränderungen am Mount Kamerun verbessern kann. Im Forstsektor mit mangelnden Informationen über den Zustand der Wälder, kann die Anwendung von Fernerkundungstechnologien die Grundlage eine effektivere Bewirtschaftung gewährleisten. Robuste und leistungsfähige Interpretations-Algorithmen wurden mit dem Beginn der Satellitenerdüberwachung entwickelt. Die Algorithmen ermöglichen, die Flächen der Landbedeckungskategorien nach Ähnlichkeit zu unterscheiden. Es wurden daher verschiedene Algorithmen entwickelt um Vegetation zu kartieren und zu analysieren. Der Einsatz dieser Algorithmen führte zu unterschiedlichen Ergebnissen, weshalb verschiedene Meinungen über den Wert und die Effektivität der jeweiligen Algorithmen bestehen. Im Zusammenhang mit dieser Forschungsarbeit wurden Fernerkundungs- und GIS-Daten sowie erhobene terrestrische Daten evaluiert, um eine quantitative und qualitative Einschätzung von klein- und großräumigen Waldveränderungen des Mount Kamerun zu erfassen. Dabei standen die kleinräumigen Veränderungen im Vordergrund. Es wurde analysiert, inwiefern diese Veränderungen mit verschiedenen Bildinterpretations-Algorithmen sichtbar gemacht werden können. Heutzutage erfordert nachhaltige Waldbewirtschaftung genaue Ressourcen-Daten, die kontinuierlich aktualisiert werden müssen. Leider fehlen solche Informationen im kamerunschen Forstsektor. Präzise Informationen über das Ausmaß der Walddegradierung können über Luftbilder festgestellt werden. Die Kosten der notwendigen wiederholten Erfassung sind jedoch sehr hoch. Außerdem haben Luftbilder in Kamerun einen restriktiven Status und sind sehr schwer Zugänglich. Vor diesem Hintergrund muss das Potential anderer Formen der Fernerkundungsdaten und Techniken sondiert werden. Das Hauptziel der aktuellen Forschung war die Ermittlung der besten Konstellation von Klassifikationsvariablen zur Feststellung, Abgrenzung und Kartierung der Waldflächen sowie deren Veränderungen in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten durch den Einsatz von multi-temporären Landsat TM und ETM Satellitendaten. Testen von verschiedenen Klassifikationsvariablen, um die vorhandene Vegetationsklassifikation zu verbessern, Einsetzung von Änderungs-Detektion Techniken, um Waldveränderungen besser zu kartieren, Entwicklung von Veränderungsmodellen anhand von Indizien aus Fernerkundung- und GIS-Techniken, um die Veränderungen ausreichend zu verstehen und zu erklären, Bestimmung möglicher Waldveränderungsflächen Die folgenden Fragen wurden beantwortet: Stellt der Einsatz von objekt-basierter Klassifizierung eine wesentliche Verbesserung der Waldklassifikation im Gegensatz zur pixel-basierten Technik dar? Ist das Vergleich nach Klassifizierungs-Verfahren optimal, um Waldflächenveränderungen feststellen zu können? Welche Zusammenhänge bestehen zwischen Waldflächenveränderungen und räumlichen Faktoren wie die Entfernung zu Straßen, Entfernung zu Gewässern, Entfernung zu Siedlungen, Hangneigung, Aspekt und Bodentypen? DAS UNTERSUCHUNGSGEBIET Das Untersuchungsgebiet liegt südwestlich des Mount Kamerun und grenzt an den Atlantik. Die Vegetation besteht aus tropischem Regenwald, montaner und submontaner Vegetation. Landnutzungstypen sind prinzipiell kleinräumige Agrarfelder (Banane, Mais usw.) und großräumige Plantagen (Kakao und Palmen). Die Temperatur liegt im Jahresdurchschnitt zwischen 28° C und 33° C und die Luftfeuchtigkeit beträgt über 70 %. Der Niederschlag ist mit 10 000 mm jährlich sehr hoch. MATERIAL UND METHODE Bei der Untersuchung wurden Landsat TM und ETM Bilder eingesetzt. Das TM Bild wurde am 18.03.1987 erfasst, während das ETM am 30.01.2002 erfasst wurde. Zusätzliche Materialien: Topografische Karte (Russian Quandrangle) 1:500 000 mit 50 m Höhenlinien (bestellt von East View Cartographic), Digitale topografische Karte (Buea/Douala index) – 20 m Auflösung mit 40 m Höhenlinien, Alte Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungs-Karten. Bodenkarte Kameruns 1:1 000 000 (bestellt von East View Cartographic). In Bezug auf die beschriebenen Ziele, lässt sich die Methodik in drei Teile gliedern: erstens das Testen von verschiedenen Klassifikationsvariablen, um die Klassifikation der Vegetation zu verbessern; zweitens der Einsatz von verschiedenen Änderungs-Detektion Algorithmen, um Waldflächenveränderung festzustellen; drittens die Erstellung eines Univariat-Modells, um den Verlauf der Waldflächenveränderung zu interpretieren. Zu Interpretation von Satellitenbildern werden sogenannte "Ground Truth" Informationen, die durch terrestrische Aufnahmen erhoben werden, benötigt. Die terrestrischen Aufnahmen erfolgten in zwei Phasen: zunächst erfolgte eine Pilotstudie im Dezember 2003, gefolgt von einer Studie von Dezember 2004 bis Februar 2005, in welcher die hier verwendeten Daten erhoben wurden. Punkte aus Wege-Kreuzungen wurden erhoben um die Geometrie der Bilder zu rektifizieren. Zusätzliche Punkte wurden auf allen verschiedenen Landbedeckungskategorien des Gebiets erfasst, um "Training" und "Accuracy Assessment" Datensätze zu erstellen. Ein Klassifikationsschema wurde anhand der terrestrischen Daten erarbeitet. Die folgenden Landbedeckungs-Kategorien wurden betrachtet: "mature secondary forest, young secondary forest, mono-dominant forest, mid-elevation forest, bare ground, forest regrowth". Für die Veränderungsanalyse wurden Flächen, die später entstanden sind, gemessen und die terrestrische Messung wurde als Basis für die Beurteilung der verschiedenen Änderungs-Detektion Algorithmen verwendet. Zusätzliche Daten in Bezug zur Waldveränderung wurden durch Interviews manche Dorfbewohner erfasst. Vor der Interpretation der Bilder wurden sie vorprozessiert, indem die Geometrie korrigiert wurde. Der Einfluss der Topographie auf die digitalen Werte auf Grund von Sonnenwinkeln wurde mit dem C-Faktor-Algorithmus korrigiert. Ein DGM wurde erstellt, nachdem die Höhelinien der topographischen Karte extrahiert und interpoliert wurden. Das DGM wurde für die topographische Korrektur angewendet. Verschiedene räumliche und spektrale Techniken wurden angewandt, um zusätzliche Informationen aus den Bildern zu gewinnen. Das hochauflösende panchromatische Band des Landsat ETM-Bildes wurde mit den spektralen Kanälen der ETM-Daten fusioniert, um zusätzliche Informationen zu erhalten. Das objekt-basierte Verfahren mit der Erstellung von Segmenten und der Kategorisierung der Segmente anhand des "Nearest Neighbour"-Algorithmus sowie das pixel-basierte Verfahren mit dem Einsatz des "Maximum Likelihood"-Algorithmus für die Klassifizierung der Pixels wurden für die Kartierung der Landbedeckung des Mount Kamerun Gebiets eingesetzt. Die Genauigkeit der beiden Verfahren wurde anhand einer "Error Matrix" überprüft (Klassifizierte Punkte wurden mit Terrestrischen Daten gekreuzt). Die Gesamtgenauigkeit, der Kappa Koeffizient so wie die Ersteller- und Benutzer-Genauigkeiten wurden ermittelt. Fünf verschiedene Änderungs-Detektion Verfahren wurden angewendet, um die Waldflächenveränderungen festzustellen. (Band-Differenzierung mit Kanälen 4 und 5, NDVI-Differenzierung, Change Vector Analysis, Vergleich nach Klassifikation und Vergleich nach Klassifikation mit einer binären Maske auf dem zweiten Bild). Die Verfahren wurden nach folgenden Kriterien verglichen: Lage der Veränderung, Typ und Natur der Veränderung, Einsetzbarkeit des Verfahrens und Interpretierbarkeit der Ergebnisse. Ein räumliches Univariat-Modell wurde entwickelt, um den Zusammenhang zwischen den Veränderungsflächen und einigen räumlichen Faktoren zu erklären. Die folgenden räumlichen Faktoren wurden betrachtet: - Entfernung zu Straßen - Entfernung zu Gewässern (Flüsse, Bäche, Seen) - Entfernung zu Siedlungen - Hangneigung und Aspekt - Bodentypen ERGEBNISSE UND SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG Multi-temporäre und multi-spektrale Bilder können eingesetzt werden um die Waldflächenveränderung im Mount Kamerun Gebiet zu überwachen und festzustellen. Die beiden Klassifikations-Verfahren, das objekt-basierte und das pixel-basierte Verfahren haben gute Ergebnisse für die Klassifizierung der Landschaft geliefert. Das pixel-basierte Verfahren hat das Gebiet mit einer Gesamtgenauigkeit von 89,36 % kartiert, während das objekt-basierte Verfahren das Areal mit einer Gesamtgenauigkeit von 87,12 % kartiert. Die Kappa Koeffizienten betragen jeweils 0,86 und 0,83 für das pixel- bzw. das objekt-basierte Verfahren. Die objekt-basierte Klassifizierung führte nicht unbedingt zu einer Verbesserung der Vegetationskartierung. Es eignet sich besser bei der Kartierung von heterogenen Flächen, als das pixel-basierte Verfahren. Dass die meisten "ground truth points" aus homogenen Flächen aufgenommen wurden und die mäßige räumliche Auflösung des Landsatbildes, waren natürlich einen Vorteil für das pixel-basierte Verfahren. Die hauptsächlichen Waldveränderungen in Mount Kamerun Gebiet – Umwandlung von Wäldern zu Agrarfeldern - konnten beobachtet werden und wurden mit großen Präzision mit Hilfe einfacher Fernerkundungstechniken gekennzeichnet. Dies gewinnt, angesichts der Schwierigkeit, die Wälder Kameruns mit Fernerkundungs- und GIS-Techniken zu überwachen, an Bedeutung. Die Verfahren bieten eine Kosten-günstige Alternative, wenn viele Informationen gebraucht werden, die Mittel aber begrenzt sind. Dies ist meist der Fall bei kommunaler Waldbewirtschaftung. Mit allen angewendeten Verfahren konnten die meisten Waldflächenveränderungen lokalisiert werden. Jedes Verfahren hat seine Vorteile und offensichtlich gibt es kein optimales Verfahren um Änderungs-Detektion durchzuführen. Vielmehr hängt es von den jeweils verfolgten Untersuchungszielen (Lage, Typ, oder Natur der Veränderung) ab, welcher Verfahren geeignet ist. Die höchste Genauigkeit wurde mit der Band 5-Differenzierung und dem Vergleich nach Klassifikation- erzielt: jeweils 89,61 % and 89,12 %. Die NDVI-Differenzierung hatte eine Gesamt-Genauigkeit von 72,73 %; die Change Vector Analyse ergab 70,13 % während die Band 4-Differenzierung die niedrigste Genauigkeit von 61,04 % hatte. Die Univariate und NDVI-Differenzierungs- Techniken sind einfach und direkt einzusetzen. Sie identifizieren Veränderungen ohne zusätzliche Informationen über deren Typ und deren Natur. Die CVA und der Vergleich nach Klassifikation haben den Vorteil, qualitative Informationen über den Typ und die Natur der Veränderung abzuliefern. Der Vergleich nach Klassifikation ist die einzige Technik, die, Waldflächenveränderung mit höher Präzision identifiziert und abgrenzt, und gleichzeitig qualitative Informationen liefert. Die Genauigkeit kann durch das Hybrid Verfahren mit der Band 5-Differenzierung verbessert werden. Dieses kombinierte Verfahren bietet eine genaue Lokalisierung und zusätzliche qualitative Informationen. Die komplexe und dynamische Natur der Landschaft und die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Einflussfaktoren auf gleichen und verschiedenen Ebenen verlangt eine kontinuierliche Beobachtung mit Fernerkundungsanalysen und Feldforschungen. Waldflächenveränderungen in Kamerun werden von insgesamt drei Hauptfaktoren beeinflusst: dem Ausbau von Siedlungen, der Nutzung von Holz und der Verbreitung von Agrarflächen. Diese Faktoren treten in verschiedenen Formen auf und unterscheiden sich in den unterschiedlichen Regionen: Extraktion von Brennholz, kommerzielle Holzausbeutung, Einrichtung kleinräumiger Agrarfelder und Gründung von Agrarplantagen. Im Mount Kamerun Gebiet sind die Verbreitung von Agrarflächen für kommerzielle oder private Zwecke die Hauptursachen der Waldvernichtung. Während die kommerziellen Plantagen eine permanente Beeinträchtigung der Wälder zu Folge hat, hängt diese bei den kleinräumigen Agraraktivitäten von der Intensität, in der diese Aktivitäten durchgeführt werden, ab: je länger eine Flächebrach, desto wahrscheinlicher ist es, dass die Bodennutzung nachhaltig wird. Von den räumlichen Faktoren hat die Entfernung zu Strassen den größten Einfluss auf Waldflächenveränderung. Obwohl eine starke positive Korrelation zwischen Waldflächenveränderung und Entfernung zu Strassen, Entfernung zu Siedlungen sowie Hangneigung existiert, beeinflussen andere geophysische und sozioökonomische Faktoren die Waldvernichtung stärker als die räumlichen Faktoren, welche hier dargestellt sind. Andauernde Wolken sind weiterhin ein Hindernis für das optische Fernerkundungs-Monitorring der Vegetation in den Tropen. Diese Region ist dafür bekannt, dass sie mit optischen Fernerkundungsmethoden schwer zu überwachen ist, weil Wolken fast ganzjährig die Sicht versperren. Die Aufnahme wolkenfreien Bilder ist praktisch unmöglich. Die Region ist bekannt für die Schwierigkeit, sie mit optischen Fernerkundungsdaten zu überwachen. Es ist sinnvoll adäquate Möglichkeiten von aktiven Sensoren wie Radarsat, SAR, JERS in Zusammenhang mit passiven Sensoren zu erforschen, um die Wälder Mount Kamerun besser überwachen zu können.

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; Introducción Durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, el concepto Innovación ha estado intrínsecamente ligado a universidades, centros de investigación y departamentos de Investigación y Desarrollo de grandes empresas. Los procesos, investigaciones y resultados se ocultaban o protegían mediante Propiedad Intelectual para mantener la competitividad y posición dominante de la empresa en el mercado. Los cerebros más brillantes, la gente más imaginativa e innovadora pertenecía a la organización, y su permanencia en la empresa durante toda la vida profesional era un factor clave en el mantenimiento de la posición dominante de la compañía y evitando que el conocimiento escapase del control de la empresa. El modelo arriba descrito, o modelo de Innovación Cerrada según H. Chesbrough, tiene gran éxito en el siglo pasado, y existen múltiples ejemplos de éxito de estas empresas a la vista, como compañías farmacéuticas, de armamento o de bienes de consumo. Sin embargo, a finales del siglo XX este modelo se enfrenta a factores externos que erosionan sus resultados. El acceso a formación universitaria y la mayor tasa de doctorandos e investigadores; la mayor movilidad de los trabajadores entre empresas y la posibilidad de arrastrar los conocimientos y la experiencia adquiridos; el incremento del flujo de dinero disponible a través de las compañías de capital de riesgo (Venture Capital); y la mayor formación de los consumidores junto con la necesidad de reducir el tiempo de desarrollo son los principales factores que han reducido la validez del modelo de Innovación Cerrada. Ante esta pérdida de valor, ciertas empresas han visto necesario aplicar un nuevo modelo que complementa al modelo anterior para conseguir una vuelta al crecimiento y a la innovación dentro de la compañía: el modelo de Innovación Abierta. viii El modelo de Innovación Abierta busca incluir a actores exteriores a la empresa para ayudar a resolver los problemas o desafíos de la empresa bajo un punto de vista diferente y sin estar afectados por la cultura, valoración interna o la asunción del modelo de negocio de la empresa. Las soluciones o tecnologías presentadas desde el exterior serán combinadas con las internas para conseguir un desarrollo más rápido hacia el mercado de cualquier producto o servicio. Además, el modelo de Innovación Abierta busca que las empresas distribuyan, de la manera que crean conveniente, aquellos desarrollos que, aún investigados dentro de los departamentos de I+D propios, no han sido utilizados o no constituyen una tecnología clave para mantener la posición de mercado o el futuro liderazgo. Este proyecto define una estrategia de implementación del modelo de Innovación Abierta en la empresa de servicios públicos, en este caso de distribución y trasmisión de electricidad, SP Energy Networks, con presencia en el sur y centro de Escocia y norte de Gales, donde sirve a más de 3,5 millones de consumidores de electricidad, para resolver los retos a los que se enfrenta la red eléctrica. SP Energy Networks tiene un gran compromiso con la innovación para resolver los retos a los que se está enfrentando la red eléctrica actualmente y los grandes cambios que se esperan en el futuro. El crecimiento inesperado en la generación renovable, el despliegue de generación distribuida, el salto de calidad y coste de sensores que permite una implantación masiva, el tratamiento y análisis de los datos obtenidos en la red y la introducción del vehículo eléctrico son, entre otros muchos, los retos que están cambiando el estado de la red, como esta se comporta y los perfiles de los usuarios. Metodología El proyecto realizado por el alumno define una estrategia de implementación del modelo de Innovación Abierta en la compañía para buscar el éxito de esta iniciativa, y que el proyecto sirva como modelo para futuras implementaciones en otras empresas de la misma industria o de otras industrias. Se estudia amplia literatura sobre Innovación Abierta, y tres casos de éxito en la implementación de procesos de Innovación Abierta como son Procter&Gamble, NASA y GE. ix Posteriormente se lleva a cabo la preparación y definición de una estrategia de implementación de Innovación Abierta en SP Energy Networks, estudiándose los mecanismos, actividades y procesos necesarios a implementar, modificar, mejorar o eliminar, y los riesgos asociados al cambio de modelo de Innovación y la respuesta por parte de los empleados a dicho cambio. La estrategia de implementación se divide en 6 Paquetes de trabajo que se puede observar en la imagen siguiente. El paquete WP1 incluye la definición de la estrategia, de la que es parte el proyecto Innovación Abierta en el Negocio Regulado. Gracias a la estrategia preparada en este proyecto, la implementación de Innovación Abierta en SP Energy Networks ha comenzado, una vez firmado el plan y autorizado por las autoridades de la empresa. Esto ha permitido contar con el apoyo de la organización y tener acceso a los primeros resultados sobre la implementación, que permite de manera todavía muy ligera tener conclusiones sobre la validez de la estrategia. También por ello se tiene muy en cuenta la necesidad de comunicar a los empleados de la empresa los cambios que el nuevo modelo puede suponer, como ellos pueden dar su apoyo o pasar a formar parte del nuevo modelo. Esta parte de la estrategia ha supuesto el mayor reto, ya que una parte importante de los empleados no están enterados de los procesos, tecnologías o nuevos desarrollos que se hacen desde el equipo de innovación de SP Energy Networks, el equipo de Redes Futuras. Por ello se ha dedicado un paquete de trabajo solamente a dar a conocer las nuevas x oportunidades a los empleados y recabar su soporte, ideas y futuro uso de las tecnologías que el modelo introduzca en la empresa. Resultados La definición de Innovación Abierta precisa y única para el sector de los servicios públicos, donde se engloba SP Energy Networks, ha sido probada y validada. "El principal objetivo de Innovación Abierta es cambiar la cultura innovadora en SP Energy Networks, ampliando la selección de proveedores para la compañía y la red eléctrica en Reino Unido, incrementando la conciencia y el apoyo de los empleados hacia la innovación, buscando siempre mejorar el servicio dado a los clientes, mejorando la calidad, la eficiencia y la eficacia, junto con un compromiso firme para reducir la huella ambiental de las actividades de SP Energy Networks. El socio elegido ha sido, en un primer momento, y con la posibilidad de añadir alguno más en el futuro, Energy Innovation Centre (EIC), con el que se han llevado a cabo ya una Llamada de Innovación con éxito, relativa a un nuevo proceso para monitorizar el estado de cimentaciones de las torres eléctricas de trasmisión y distribución. EIC es una empresa sin beneficios cofundada por todos los operadores de energía en el Reino Unido, enfocado en buscar empresas que puedan resolver las necesidades de estos, ya sea como conjunto, o en forma de retos individuales. El caso concreto de la Llamada de Innovación para la monitorización de las cimentaciones de las torres permite observar la gran oportunidad que presenta el modelo de Innovación Abierta. Debido a la falta de los resultados, se ha optado por un criterio conservativo respecto a las cifras tomadas y por confidencialidad, las cifras son todas indicativas del orden de magnitud. Concepto Coste Unitario (£) Cantidad Anual Total Coste anterior £9.000 600 £5.400.000 Coste posterior (Innovación Abierta) £6.000 600 £3.600.000 Anterior Total £5.400.000 Posterior Total £3.600.000 Ahorro estimado por año £1.800.000 Monitorización de la Cimentación de las Torres Eléctricas xi Se puede llegar a conseguir un ahorro superior a 1,5 millones de libras por año, sin tener en cuenta las mejoras en el conocimiento del estado de las cimentaciones, lo que permite mejores decisiones respecto a las necesidades de reparación, inversión o renovación. Respecto a la comunicación de la Innovación tanto interior como exterior se han llevado a cabo ya las primeras acciones con resultados muy prometedores, sobre todo en la aceptación por parte de los empleados de la compañía. El parcial desconocimiento anterior se ha visto sustituido por interés real por saber las posibilidades que la Innovación puede aportar a su trabajo del día a día. Los resultados que se pueden mostrar en este proyecto son aún muy limitados, ya que la implementación se encuentra en sus primeras etapas, y únicamente según pase el tiempo seremos capaces de entender el valor real del modelo de Innovación Abierta en el caso particular de SP Energy Networks. Conclusiones Este proyecto sirve como introducción a una metodología adecuada y probada de éxito para la implementación de la Innovación Abierta, sin necesidad de grandes inversiones ni cambios dramáticos dentro de la empresa, minimizando por tanto el cambio para los empleados, pero fomentando su participación y realizando un cambio en la cultura interna de la empresa y en la comunicación entre las diferentes partes que la componen. La estrategia presentada es válida, ya que se ha podido comprobar como el uso de un socio externo permite encontrar soluciones diferentes, muchas veces por empresas que no están muy lejos de la empresa interesada, pero que no ha entrado en ese sector por diferentes motivos. El desarrollo de la implementación basado en la estrategia durante los próximos años servirá para confirmar de manera más documentada y extensa la validez del modelo y de la estrategia presentada. ; Introduction During the XX century, innovation concept has been linked with universities, research centers and large Research & Development departments inside the big corporations. Processes, researches and results were kept hidden to the rest of the world to maintain the competitive position and the leadership in their respective markets. Brightest brains, most imaginative and innovative people had to be maintained working for the firm for all their professional life, to keep the knowledge and know-how under the control of the company. Closed Innovation model had a huge success, and there are multiple examples of companies that profited from the model, such as pharmaceutical, weaponry companies or consumer goods companies. However, at the end of XX century, it is observed that the model faces external factors that erode the results. The growing mobility of highly experienced and skilled people; higher number of graduates and PhDs, allowing knowledge to spill out of the corporate central research labs; the growing presence of private venture capital (VC), experts in create companies that commercialized external research that can become competitors for established companies and fast time to market and customers with more knowledge are the main factors that erode the validity of Closed Innovation model. Considering the loss of value of Closed Innovation model, and to face the external erosion factors, some companies have applied a model that supplement Closed Innovation model to return to constant growth rates and long-term profit: Open Innovation model. Open Innovation model aims to add external actors to solve the challenges and problems that appear inside a corporation or company, under a different point of view and without being affected by the company culture or own valuations or business model. Solutions and technologies presented or submitted would be combined with internal developments to get a faster path to market for any product or service the company is willing to commercialize. xiv Moreover, Open Innovation model expects companies to distribute, in a convenient way, those technologies or processes that have been developed inside the company, but have not been found an internal use for products and services, and that are not part of a key technology to maintain leadership position in the market currently or in the future. This project defines an implementation strategy for Open Innovation model in a utility, in the electricity distribution and transmission industry, SP Energy Networks, with presence in Central and Southern Scotland and Northern Wales, with more than 3,5 million customers. SP Energy Networks has a great commitment with innovation to solve the challenges that electricity network currently faces and the drastic changes that it would have in the future. An unexpected growth in renewable generation, the wide deployment of distributed generation, the quality of the new sensors with a reduced cost that allows a massive deployment, the processing and treatment of the data generated, or the introduction of the electric vehicle are some of the challenges that are moving forward the network, how it behaves and the consumption load profile of the customers. Methodology The project done by the student is pioneer, because it uses the opportunity given by SP Energy Networks to develop a strategy for the implementation of Open Innovation in a company in the regulated business. The project would serve as an example and case study for later implementations. The project is inside an initiative developed by the government agency Scottish Enterprise to increase innovation in Scotland through SMES and get them more contracts with the big corporations participating in the Open Innovation Award initiative. The report by the student takes a look about the literature about Open Innovation, and three of the most successful case of implementation of Open Innovation, Procter&Gamble, NASA and GE. Then, the preparation, study and plan of a implementation strategy for Open Innovation in SP Energy Networks is done, studying the mechanisms, activities and processes xv needed to be implemented, modified, improved or deleted. Also the risks related to the changes and to the innovation model are studied, together with the countermeasures to avoid their negative effects and to convince the employees of the need of change. The implementation strategy is divided in 6 Work Packages that are showed in the following picture for the 4-year duration of the project. Work package 1 includes the definition of the strategy, from where Open Innovation in the Regulated Business appears. In parallel to the drafting of the project, the student has start with the implementation tasks of Open Innovation in SP Energy Networks, at the moment the strategy was signed and approved by the management of the company. This fact has allowed to count on the support of the organization and to have access to the first implementation results that would allow reaching certain conclusions to the validity of the strategy. The need to communicate the employees the change that the new model could mean to their normal work has been really important, as they can support and take part in the new model. Gain the support of the employees has been one of the hardest part of the strategy, as they were not fully aware of the process, technologies and solutions that the innovation team has developed in last years, Future Networks team in SP Energy Networks. To solve this problem, a whole work package has been dedicated to spread and disseminate the work of the team, and gain support to the new model. xvi Results The definition of Open Innovation for the utility industries, in which SP Energy Networks is part, has been proven and validated. "Open Innovation main aims is to change the innovative culture in SP Energy Networks, broadening the pool of solvers for electricity networks challenges, and increasing the awareness and engagement of the employees on innovation, looking always to improve the service given to the customers, improving the quality, the efficient and the efficacy, together with the highest commitment to reduce the environmental print of the activity". The partner chosen is the Energy Innovation Centre (EIC) and the first Innovation Call has been successfully launched, related to tower foundation monitoring. In the future the use of other extra partner is possible as a different approach or pool of solvers could help. EIC is a non-profit organization cofounded by United Kingdom energy operators, focusing its aims to search and scout for companies that could solve the need of the energy operators, as a whole or individually. The concrete case of the Call for Innovation related to tower foundation monitoring allows having a first view of the opportunities Open Innovation model has. Due to the lack of real results, a conservative criterion has been used in the numbers taken, together with the need to maintain confidential part of the data. Concept Unit Cost (£) Quantity Total Former Cost £9.000 600 £5.400.000 Open Innovation Cost (Future) £6.000 600 £3.600.000 Former Total Cost £5.400.000 Total Open Innovation Cost £3.600.000 Expected Annual Saving £1.800.000 Tower Foundation Monitoring Up to around 2-million-pound savings could be achieved per year, not taking into account the improvement in the knowledge of the real state of the assets that allows for better decisions to repair, invest or refurbish. In respect to the communication of the change of model, both internal and external activities have been carried out with really promising results, mostly in the acceptance by xvii employees. The partial former ignorance has been substituted by a real interest to know more about the possibilities that innovation can contribute to their day-to-day job. The results showed in this project are really limited, because the implementation is in its first stages, and only as the time goes by, we would be able to understand the real value of Open Innovation model in the particular case of SP Energy Networks, Conclusions The project serves as an introduction to a correct and proven methodology of success for the implementation of the Open Innovation model, without the need of big investments or dramatic changes in the organization, limiting the change for the employees, but promoting their participation and changing the internal culture of the company and the communication media. Presented strategy is valid, as it could be confirmed. The use of an external partner allows finding different solutions, by companies that are close in distance but far away in terms of industry. The opportunity of Open Innovation allows them to enter in service with SP Energy Networks. The development of the strategy during the following year would serve to confirm in a more documented way the validity of the model and the quality of the strategy.

Introduction: After the Second World War, the political and economical block that today we call European Union started when six countries sought to ensure the peace among them. Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands put their heavy industries under a common management, with the Coal and Steel Treaty, so no one could build weapons or develop its war industry without the others knowing it. This experience led to the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and 50 years later the ideas of people, goods and service freedoms continue spreading around, and the European Union has become one of the best examples of economical, political and cultural integration, and a reference around the world to encourage other regions to group. Therefore, among others, the Latin America Free Trade Association (LAFTA) appeared in 1960, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in 1967; the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA), in 1991; and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in 1993. In the case of South America , in spite of their good intentions, the huge asymmetries between LAFTA members caused the apparition of sub-regional blocs: the Andeans Community (CAN) founded in 1969, and now grouping Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru; and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) founded in 1991, between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Nowadays, after more than 40 years of integration processes, there are still strong problems inside both sub-regional blocs. CAN Member States have several diplomatic discussions regarding their political models; and Peru, Ecuador and Colombia have or are negotiating independent Free Trade Agreements with external blocs, including USA and the EU. In the other side, MERCOSUR's main players -Argentina and Brazil- have commercial disputes at the World Trade Organization, surrounding their own sub-regional bodies . Nevertheless, these two sub-regional associations were the basis for the South American Community of Nations (CSN on Spanish) in 2004, and from that point, the present attempt to unify South-America: the South American Union of Nations (UNASUR, 2008), with the participation of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay and Venezuela. The integration levels in political and economical affairs in this latter group are expected to change the way international relations will be conduit in the future of South-America. This new regional bloc has an extension of 17 658 Km² and 383 million inhabitants (2007) . With a general GDP of $2348 953 (2007) and a GDP per capita of $6126 (2007), it is one of the regions with more perspectives of development, but it is also one of the regions with the highest degrees of economic asymmetry. While in 2007 Chile, Venezuela and Brazil had a GDP per capita (2007) of $9865, $8601 and $6819, there were other countries like Paraguay and Bolivia, with a GDP per capita (2007) of $1669 and $1342. These asymmetries have leaded to strong disagreements between South American countries during previous integration process. An example that just pooling economies is not the whole solution for development is the case of Paraguay, in the middle of MERCOSUR and with barely a quarter of the MERCOSUR's GDP $6642 (2007). 'Integration' will not always mean international governmental organizations where Member States have decided to transfer competitions and empowerment of supranational institutions; in this Master Thesis, the South American integration processes will be defined as '(...)the creation and maintenance of intense and diverse patrons of interaction between previously autonomous units.' Furthermore, 'Integration' in the context of the South American reality included two concepts: 'Regionalism' and 'Regionalization'. The first is related to the wave of thinking, the interaction projects and the political initiatives (the processes) and the second, to the institutions or the agreements that represent the integration (the result). This Master Thesis tries to be oriented to describe the processes more than the institutions or the agreements; nevertheless, it is not possible to present the first without the second and vice versa. What kind of integration can be expected in South America? What kind of goals, challenges and success can South-American Nations find in their way to a social, political and economical integration? Whereas the EU is -since its very beginning- a supranational initiative, South American regional and sub-regional blocs are characterised for being mostly, the result of intergovernmental agreements. Will this difference be determinant in the integration processes? In this thesis of Master in European Studies, the South American integration -processes and institutions- will be review under the framework of six dimensions that give the EU its character of integrated regional bloc and are advocated to deep the South America Integration. Three of them related to structural bodies: executive, judicial and legislative; and the other three related to the policies that defines a Union: Monetary Policy, Foreign and Security Policy; and, Social and Development Policy. In order to do not miss the main emphasis, the description and analysis of the executive supranational body will be deeper than the corresponding to judicial and legislative bodies and the three common policies. In addition, two cases of the South American Integration will be modeled, to present the best possible scenarios to foster the integration. By the comparison of the structures and policies, and by the scenario modeling; this Master Thesis attempts to demonstrate that the lack of supranational authority and law enforcement power will play a determinant role in the success or failure in the South American integration process. The analysis in this thesis can be divided in two sections, the descriptive part and the analysis of Case Study. The information for the descriptive part is mostly from published books, research papers, journals and case studies, the information for the Case Study comes mostly from News and Newspaper articles. The technique used in the analysis of the Case Studies is the Theory Game: a shared-decision model with two players that have different priorities for the same decision. The methodology for that is described more widely in section 4.1 Fundamentals of Game Theory. This Master Thesis presents the South American integration as a whole, and the UNASUR as the present meeting point of the Andean Community and MERCOSUR. Therefore, wherever South American Integration is mentioned, it is not limited to UNASUR, CAN or MERCOSUR analysis, because they coexist and overlap each other at the same time. Instead, time framework and integration approaches are considerations that need to be undeniably included. To write about the integration processes in South America is to review almost 40 years of history and political agreements and disagreements of twelve countries and the influence that they received from external factors, like Central-, North America and Europe. Nowadays, the remaining sub-regional blocs face the opportunity to pool agreements in a new attempt, together with the risk of breaking-off of the Treaties, by the influence of external agreements of Member States with third parties around the world. For reasons of space, and to focus in the present regional integration process, those external agreements, like the NAFTA or the negotiations between the CAN and the EU, and their influence in the South American regional integration process are not going to be covered in this Master Thesis. That does not mean that their influence is negligible, rather than that, in some cases, like the Free Trade Agreements between the USA and Colombia, or Peru, it means the risk of the end of the CAN as a sub-regional economic bloc. In addition, a commercial developments analysis of the South American integration process requires a separate review of each commercial category and each bilateral agreement and therefore, a deeper description of those topics is not included. Other issues that are not going to be covered in this Master Thesis are those integration processes or commercial agreements that are not part or do not lead to the South American Union of Nations, like the 'Bolivarian Alternative for Our Americas' (on Spanish ALBA) or the 'Commercial Agreement of the Peoples' (on Spanish TCP). Their own dynamic and priorities are quite interesting; nevertheless going deeper in these issues could mean to reduce attention in the main topics of this Master Thesis. This Master Thesis uses study cases to describe two facets of the South American Integration process under the Two-Person Model of the Game Theory. The model used in this Master Thesis is characterised for the intersection of two players with mutual influence and different priorities. Game Theory is a useful analysis tool with many applications in mathematics, economics and political fields; nevertheless, as a model, it is a simplification of the reality and therefore, some details like the simplicity of its initial assumptions, the deep of the analysis, outsider players and feedback, are limited, further details of these limitations are presented in section 4.2. The analysis of a play of a Game, under the Game Theory can also be made by a mathematical approach. That mathematical approach is not going to be considered in this Master Thesis in order to keep the focus in the integration process.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Content: Dedicatory and Acknowledgementsii Abstractiii List of Contentsiv List of Tablesv List of Figuresvi List of Acronymsvii I.INTRODUCTION1 1.1Introduction2 1.2Methodology4 1.3Remarks4 II.SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT6 2.1Political Framework Development towards the South-American Union of Nations7 III.SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION UNDER THE EU FRAMEWORK26 3.1'New Regionalism' and the functional approach of South American integration.27 3.2South American- and EU- Integration Structures and Policies34 3.2.1A Supranational Executive Body37 3.2.2Supranational judicial functions41 3.2.3Supranational legislative functions43 3.2.4Common Currency and Supranational Monetary Institution46 3.2.5A Common Foreign and Security Policy47 3.2.6A Common Social and Development Policy48 IV.GAME THEORY AND SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION CASE STUDIES50 4.1Game Theory51 4.1.1Fundamentals of Game Theory51 4.1.2Limitations of Game Theory54 4.2Case Studies55 4.2.1Case Study 1: Political Integration, the creation of the South American Energy Council (2007)55 4.2.2Case 2: Economical Integration, the Ecuadorian safeguards settlement (2009)62 V.CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL COMMENTS67 REFERENCES71 APPENDIXES Appendix A: South American figures78 Appendix B: Game Theory Glossary82 Appendix C: Combined priorities84 DISCLAIM89Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.2.1, A Supranational Executive Body: Regarding the legal order, Supranationalism means that sovereign states agree to abide by norms which are adopted at a higher level of organization. In the case of the European Union, Supranationalism is not referred to the transfer of sovereignty; it is only the transfer of the power to exercise that sovereignty. Together with that, the supremacy of the Community law and the principle of direct effect present that the legal system of the Community has a federal nature. Thence, a Supranational Institution has competences to exercise powers that belong to sovereign States. In addition, the exercise of this power should be in line with the principles of proportionality, i.e. No action shall go beyond that it is necessary; and subsidiarity, i.e. In competences that Supranational Institution shares with Member States, it does intervene only if the objective of the action cannot be achieved by the Member State. The interaction between national governments and EU Institutions, together with the freedom to act according to those competences, is the basis for the adoption of the EU rules. Beyond the legal order, Supranationalism may be employed in decision-making, monitoring and enforcement. Supranationalism can also be divided in decisional (pooling sovereignty) and normative (delegation of power). Decisional Supranationalism is referred to those decisions taken by voting procedures other than unanimity, and when governments decided to act either jointly or not at all. Normative Supranationalism refers to the delegation of power to autonomous institutions that are created by the Member States. Therefore, a Supranational Executive Body will be an Institution with the right to adopt normative decisions directly based on the Treaties, with the autonomy to execute those decisions, and without the need of approval by the Member States. Supranational actors contribute to the integration by different means and reasons. Moravscik presented that pooling or delegation in the EU, are means to assure that other governments will accept agreed legislation or enforcement in issue-areas, where joint gains are high and distributional conflicts are moderate, and where there is uncertainty about future decisions. Other contribution of supranational bodies to integration process is that they might reduce the transaction costs by institutionalizing the integrative dynamic and negotiating procedure; and, it may assist national governments in issues area in which there are reasonably clear added benefits working according to the rules, but with predictable temptations to chat in response to short-term pressures. In addition, supranational institutions bring mutual confidence; smaller countries, which want their interests taken in account, especially in multinational scenarios where there is not veto power, can relay in the impartiality of supranational actors, instead of intergovernmental decision-making procedures, where the most powerful Member States shape the process. Probably the best example of the contribution of a Supranational Executive Body to Regional Integration is in Competition Policy: The Commission received decision powers in the sphere of state aid, based on the EEC Treaty provisions, due to the necessity of an impartial and independent body to apply agreed rules to face national pressures. One of the earliest Community Regulations fixed the modalities by which the Commission would exercise that power directly to ensure that undertakings respected antitrust rules. A supranational executive body can also shape the process and foster the integration. An example is the development of the European Monetary Union (EMU). Monetary union was neither the uncontested solution to economic problems, nor an easily obtainable response to German reunification. Nevertheless, Commission officials successfully disseminated the notion that EMU altogether provided a coherent solution to the problems created by financial globalization and the end of the Cold War; furthermore, they were leading actors in the sudden proliferation of governmental initiatives in France, Italy and German in favour of the EMU. By doing that, they fostered solid political momentum behind an originally lukewarm and unfocused demand for monetary integration. There are several reasons and examples of the benefits of a Supranational Executive Body; nevertheless, South American Nations still working with Intergovernmental Structures. During the negotiations for the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty, its former General Secretary, Rodrigo Borja, presented a proposal for the authority and competences of UNASUR. In that document, member states, '(...) in exchange of the economical, political and geopolitical advantages that a common order can offer; agreed in the limitation of some of their sovereign faculties and will form the Union with common decision and executive multinational bodies'. The proposal was not accepted and finally, was part of the reasons of Borja's resignation. While in the case of the EU, the presence of a Supranational Executive Body is one of the strongest driving forces of the integration process, in the South American context, there is not yet a political will to pool sovereignty. Solón, pro-tempore General Secretary of UNASUR from 2006 to 2008, affirms 'Nobody doubts that in the future it will be necessary to move to supranational authorities (...) but today they want an agreement where everybody shall count with the other to have a meeting point'. Behind that attitude, the reasons that can be drawn are the political will of member states, driven by governments or national monopolies, which do not want to lose control over the process and the stagnation of the over-institutionalism in the past (Central America Common Market and the CAN). The stagnation of over-institutionalism drives member states to appeal to external bodies in the dispute settlement, continuing the weakening of the idea of a supranational body; the political will of member states, or its absence, could be explained for the existence of strong national political elites, allowed for the late trade liberalizations of national monopolies. Rajagopal refers to studies of how MERCOSUR member states have been primarily driven by domestic political considerations when they have furthered the integration process. This it could lead to conclude that they are not likely to develop the kind of supranational governance institutions present in the European Union; as policy elites in MERCOSUR, member states desire to maintain a great deal of domestic policy autonomy. In addition of its intergovernmental character, the faculties of the UNASUR Secretariat as Executive body are restricted by its small budget of 3 million US$/year, much more limited than the 5,4 million US$/year of the CAN General Secretariat ; and by the denial of the proposal of pooling the executive bodies of CAN and MERCOSUR. Another issue to consider is that the feasibility for South American countries to pool sovereignty or to delegate power varies from one Member State to another, according to their own constitutive and legal framework. In some cases, Constitutional texts are quite clear in stimulating regional integration and stressing the prevalence of regional law, like the Venezuelan Constitution that allows to 'confer on supranational organisations (...) the exercise of the powers necessary to carry out these integration processes (...)'(Art. 153, Venezuelan Constitution 1999). The Colombian external relations 'are based on national sovereignty (...) and on recognition of the principles of international law accepted by Colombia' and 'The State shall promote economic, social and political integration with other nations(…)', (Art. 19 and Art. 227, Colombian Constitution 1991). There are, however, other Member States whit Constitutions that needs amendment to pool sovereignty; like the Bolivian Constitutions which states 'The public authorities may not delegate the powers conferred on them by this Constitution, or confer on the executive branch powers other than those expressly conferred on them by it' (Art. 30, Bolivian Constitution). Therefore, the creation of a supranational executive body could not be totally accepted until the totality of the national Constitutions were in line with it. In addition to the considerations presented above, Chapter IV presents two Case Study based on the Game Theory to demonstrate the strong influence of an executive body with supranational competences in the integration process. Nevertheless, it is likely to expect that present integration structures will remain tied to intergovernmental political intentions, and the integration process will loose the benefits of a Supranational Executive Body.

This guide accompanies the following article: Doreen Anderson‐Facile and Shyanne Ledford, 'Basic Challenges to Prisoner Reentry', Sociology Compass 3/2 (2009): 183–195, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2009.00198.xAuthor's IntroductionCrime, incarceration and prisoner reintegration are pressing issues facing the United States today. As the prison population grows at record rates so, in turn, does the reentry of prisoners into society. The transition from prison to the outside world is often difficult for post‐release prisoners, their families, their communities and the larger society. Many formally incarcerated individuals do not have the skills or support to succeed outside prison walls. Unfortunately, when post‐release prisoners are not successfully reintegrated, they are often returned to prison and begin the cycle of incarceration.The following is a course designed around the basic challenges prisoners face upon reentry. The literature suggests that success depends in part on support and overcoming several barriers, such as homelessness and under/unemployment. This course begins with an examination of reentry barriers facing post‐release prisoners followed by an exploration of the relationship between prisoner reentry, race, gender, family, and employment and concludes with an assessment of ongoing research and public policy.Author RecommendsAnderson‐Facile, Doreen. (2009). 'Basic Challenges to Prisoner Reentry'. Sociology Compass, 3(2): 183–95.Anderson‐Facile's review of current research on prisoner reentry yields interesting results. Her article examines prisoner reentry as it relates to the barriers preventing successful reintegration. Anderson‐Facile begins with a look at incarceration and recidivism statistics leading readers through the barriers preventing reentry success. Barriers such as housing, family and community support, employment, and the stigma of a prison record make successful reentry difficult. Anderson‐Facile concludes with a look at current reentry programs. Anderson‐Facile highlights literature suggesting post‐release success begins with rehabilitation and ends with community support. The author notes that many successful programs are faith or character‐based. These programs focus on the individual and assist in substance abuse issues, vocational training, and transitional living arrangements. Finally, Anderson‐Facile notes that programs that work in one community may not show success in other communities, therefore concluding that matching programs with communities is a critical component for assuring post‐release success.Dhami, Mandeep K., David R. Mandel, George Loewesnstein, and Peter Ayton. (2006). 'Prisoners' Positive Illusions of Their Post‐Release Success'. Law and Human Behavior30: 631–47.Dhami et al. examine prisoners' forecasts of reentry success as this may have implications for how prisoners respond to imprisonment, release, and parole decisions. The authors examine sentenced US and UK prisoners' predictions for personal recidivism. The authors also asked UK prisoners how successful they will be compared to the average prisoner. Overall, both samples yielded overly optimistic, unrealistic beliefs about personal reentry success when compared to official data. The UK participants demonstrated a self‐enhancement bias by expressing that they would fair far better than the average prisoner. The authors conclude their article by discussing the implications of their findings and suggest future research possibilities.Holzer, Harry J., Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll. (2002). 'Can Employers Play a More Positive Role in Prisoner Reentry? Urban Institute's Reentry Roundtable'.The authors report that in the early 21st century over 600 000 prisoners were released each year from prison and three million or more ex‐prisoners were in the general population. Holzer et al. indicate that one of the greatest hurdles for a newly released prisoner is finding employment because, as applicants, they are faced with an aversion on the employers part to hiring ex‐offenders. Holzer et al. explore the extent and nature of this aversion. Holzer et al. maintain that interventions by other agencies can help mediate employer aversions to hiring post‐release prisoners.La Vigne, Nancy G., Diana Brazzell, and Kevonne M. Small. (2007). 'Evaluation of Florida's Faith‐ and Character‐Based Institutions'. The Urban Institute.La Vigne et al. produced a summary of the findings from a 'process and impact' evaluation of two of Florida's faith and character‐based programs, also known as FCBIs. The authors' note that FCBIs are founded on principles of self‐betterment and faith development and are often ran by volunteers. The authors gathered data in the following ways: one on one interviews, semi structured interviews with staff members at all levels, focus groups with inmates, administrative data/official documents, and telephone and email communications with state corrections personnel. The authors noted that at six months, male FCBI housed participants were more successful than post‐released prisoners housed in Federal Department of Corrections (FDOC) facilities.La Vigne, Nancy G., Rebecca L. Naser, Lisa E. Brooks, and Jennifer L. Castro. (2005). 'Examining the Effect of Incarceration and In‐Prison Family Contact on Prisoners' Family Relationships'. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice21(4): 314–35.In this article, La Vigne, Naser, Brooks and Castro look at the role of the family in recidivism rates. Specifically, they examine the role of in‐prison contact with family members on released prisoner success. This article first defines family and then looks at the quality of familial bonds at imprisonment and during incarceration. Next, they examine the inter‐personal bonds in relationships, i.e., parent–child vs. husband‐wife of these post‐released prisoners. The authors' findings were inconsistent. For example, in some situations in‐prison contact was detrimental on family relationships and ties, wherein other cases the same contact served to strengthen the family and create a tighter network of family support for the newly released prisoner. These findings suggest further research is necessary.Pager, D. (2003). 'The Mark of a Criminal Record'. The American Journal of Sociology108(5): 937–75.Pager examined the relationship between prior incarceration and race on employment on two teams of subjects. One team consisted of two 23‐year‐old, white men and the other team was two 23‐year‐old, African‐American men. The two teams were nearly identical in personality, appearance, skills and employment history. The variables were race and criminal record. The findings suggest that race and employment history are important factors on post‐released employment. Thirty‐four percent of white applicants without criminal backgrounds received a call back while only 14 percent of black applicants without criminal backgrounds got called back. Seventeen percent of white applicants with criminal records received call backs while only 5 percent of black applicants with criminal records received call backs. These findings indicate that race and not prison record is a greater determinant of employment.Parsons, Mickey L. and Carmen Warner‐Robbins. (2002). 'Factors That Support Women's Successful Transition to the Community Following Jail/ Prison'. Health Care for Women International23: 6–18.Parson and Warner‐Robbins simply state the purpose of their article is to describe the factors that support the successful reentry of post‐release women into the community. The authors look at a specific program called Welcome Home Ministries (WHM), a community‐based program. The authors examine the demographics of the population, the rising incarceration rates, issues that lead to incarceration, and support for post‐release mothers. Through qualitative interviews with women who were participating in WHM programs upon release many themes emerged. The authors argue that these themes lead to implications about what future programs need to support women who are transitioning from prisoner to general public.Seiter, Richard P. and Karen R. Kadela. (2003) 'Prisoner Reentry: What Works, What Does Not, and What is Promising'. Crime and Delinquency49(3): 360–88.Seiter and Kadela examine the nature of the reentry issue and explore which reentry programs show success in reducing recidivism. The authors note a swing from modified sentencing to determinate sentencing which increases length of incarceration as an additional factor in successful reentry. Seiter and Kadela define reentry, categorize programs for prisoner reentry, and use the Maryland Scale of Scientific Method to determine program effectiveness. The authors find that programs that emphasized vocational training and employment development yield the most success.Travis, Jeremy and Joan Petersilia. (2001). 'Reentry Reconsidered: A New Look at an Old Question'. Crime and Delinquency47(3): 291–313.Travis and Petersilia drive prison reform by providing research‐based implications for revamping the current system of prisoner management. While prisoners have always been arrested and released, the authors point out that the numbers of both are increasing. They believe this is a call to action. Travis and Petersilia look at changing sentencing policies, changes in parole supervision, and how the removal and return of prisoners influence communities. The authors highlight the astronomical increase of prisoners at a time when sentencing policies are changing and are often inconsistent. They examine parole, the demographics of transitioning inmates, and the links between reentry and five social policies. The findings provide guidance for development of reentry policies.Wacquant, Loic. (2002). 'Deadly Symbiosis: Rethinking Race and Imprisonment in Twenty‐ First‐Century America'. Boston Review27(2): 22–31.Waquant begins his article with three abrupt facts about racial inequality and imprisonment in the United States all of which point to a 'blackening' of the nations prisons. The author points out that the high percentage of black people incarcerated in the United States is a direct result of four institutions; slavery, the Jim Crow System, the organizational structure of urban ghettos and the growing prison system. One of the main findings, according to Waquant, is that when laws and social reform restricted segregation (technically ended), the prisons picked up where society left off. Essentially he argues that, as evidenced by the ghettos and increasing numbers of African‐Americans behind bars, the prison serves to reaffirm racial inequality.Online MaterialsDepartment of Justice http://www.usdoj.gov/Urban Institute http://www.urban.org/California Departmen of Corrections and Rehabilitation http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Bureau of Justice Statistics http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjsLloyd Sealy Library at John Jay College http://www.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/Pew Center http://www.pewresearch.org/Sample Syllabus Week 1: Introduction to Prisoner Reentry Anderson‐Facile, Doreen. (2009). 'Basic Challenges to Prisoner Reentry'. Sociology Compass 3/2: 183–95.Visher, Christy A. and Jeremy Travis. (2003). 'Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways'. Annual Review of Sociology29: 89–113. Week 2: Introduction to Prisoner Reentry Continued Travis, Jeremy and Joan Petersilia. (2001). 'Reentry Reconsidered: A New Look at an Old Question.'Crime and Delinquency 47/3: 291–313.The Urban Institute. 'Beyond the Prison Gates: The State of Parole in America. A First Tuesday Forum.'http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=900567, November 5, 2002. Week 3: Incarceration, Reentry, and Race Pettit, Becky, and Bruce Western. (2004). 'Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in US Incarceration.'American Sociological Review69: 151–169.Wacquant, Loic. (2002). 'Deadly Symbiosis: Rethinking race and Imprisonment in twenty‐first‐century America'. Boston Review 27/2 (April/May): 22–31.Marbley, Aretha Faye and Ralph Ferguson. (2005). 'Responding to Prisoner Reentry, Recidivism, and Incarceration of Inmates of Color: A Call to the Communities'. Journal of Black Studies 35/5(May): 633–49. Week 4: Incarceration, Reentry, and Gender O'Brien, Patricia. (2007). 'Maximizing Success for Drug‐Affected Women after Release from Prison: Examining Access to and Use of Social Services During Reentry'. Women & Criminal Justice 17/2&3: 95–113.Severance, Theresa A. (2004). 'Concerns and Coping Strategies of Women Inmates Concerning Release: 'It's Going to Take Somebody in My Corner"'. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 38/4: 73–97.Parsons, Mickey L. and Carmen Warner‐Robbins. (2002). 'Factors that Support Women's Successful Transition to the Community Following Jail/ Prison.'Health Care for Women International23: 6–18. Week 5: Incarceration, Reentry, and Family/ Home La Vigne, Nancy G., Rebecca L. Naser, Lisa E. Brooks, and Jennifer L. Castro. (2005). 'Examining the Effect of Incarceration and In‐Prison Family Contact on Prisoners' Family Relationships'. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 21/4 (November): 314–35.Pearson, Jessica and Lanae Davis. (2003). 'Serving Fathers Who Leave Prison'. Family Court Review 41/3(July): 307–20.Roman, Caterina Gouvis and Jeremy Travis. (2004). 'Taking Stock: Housing, Homelessness, and Prisoner Reentry,'The Urban Institute.http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411096, March 8, 2004. Week 6: Incarceration, Reentry, and Employment Pager, Devah. (2003). 'The Mark of a Criminal Record,'American Journal of Sociology 108/5 (March): 937–75.Solomon, Amy L., Kelly Dedel Johnson, Jeremy Travis, and Elizabeth C. McBride. (2004). 'From Prison to Work: The Employment Dimensions of Prisoner Reentry'. Urban Institute Justice Policy Center. October 2004, pp. 1–32. Week 7: Incarceration, Reentry, and Employment Continued Holzer, Harry J., Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll. (2002). 'Can Employers Play a More Positive Role in Prisoner Reentry? A Roundtable Paper'. The Urban Institute, March 20–21, 2002, pp. 1–16.Harrison, Byron, and Robert Carl Schehr. (2004). 'Offenders and Post‐Release Jobs: Variables Influencing Success and Failure'. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 39/3: 35–68. Week 8: Prisoner Reentry: What Works? MacKenzie, Doris Layton. (2000). 'Evidence‐Based Corrections: Identifying What Works'. Crime and Delinquency46: 457–71.Petersilia, Joan. (2004). 'What Works in Prisoner Reentry? Reviewing and Questioning Evidence'. Federal Probation 68/2 (September): 4–8.Seiter, Richard P. and Karen R. Kadela. (2003). 'Prisoner Reentry: What Works, What Does Not, and What is Promising,'Crime and Delinquency 49/3 (July): 360–88. Week 9: Incarceration, Reentry, Research and Public Policy Lynch, James P. (2006). 'Prisoner Reentry: Beyond Program Evaluations.'Criminology and Public Policy 5/2: 401–12.Pager, Devah. (2006). 'Evidence‐Based Policy for Successful Prisoner Reentry'. Criminology and Public Policy 5/3: 505–14.La Vigne, Nancy G. Diana Brazzell, and Kevonne M. Small. (2007). 'Evaluation of Florida's Faith‐ and Character‐Based Institutions'. The Urban Institute http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411561, October 1, 2007.Jacobson, Michael. (2006). 'Reversing the Punitive Turn: The Limits and Promise of Current Research'. Criminology and Public Policy 5/2: 277–84. Week 10: Incarceration, Reentry, and Outcomes Dhami, Mandeep K., David R. Mandel, George Loewenstein, and Peter Ayton. (2006). 'Prisoners Positive Illusions of Their Post‐Release Success'. Law and Human Behavior30: 631–47.Richards, Stephen C., James Austin, and Richard S. Jones. (2004). 'Kentucky's Perpetual Prisoner Machine: It's About Money'. The Review of Policy Research 21/1: 93–106.Suggested ReadingsEvans, Donald G. (2005). 'The Case for Inmate Reentry'. Corrections Today pp. 28–9.Lynch, James P. and William J. Sabol. (2001). 'Prisoner Reentry in Perspective'. Crime Policy Report3: 1–25.'One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008'. The Pew: Center on the States 2008, pp. 1–35.Petersilia, Joan. (1999). Parole and Prisoner Reentry in the United States, The University of Chicago.Petersilia, Joan (2003). When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0‐19‐516086‐x.Travis, Jeremy, Amy L. Solomon, and Michelle Waul. (2001). 'From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry'. The Urban Institute.Young, D. Vernetta and Rebecca Reviere (2006). Women Behind Bars. London: Lynn Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1‐58826‐371‐1.Focus Questions

 Think about the kind of crimes for which people are imprisoned. What types of crimes do you think the majority of the prisoners commit? What precursors would lead to someone being arrested and eventually imprisoned for these types of crimes? What is the likelihood that these factors remain upon release?
 Do you think prison should be rehabilitative or punitive?
 Do you think prison is always the best option for criminal behavior (in other words, is the old adage 'if you do the crime you need to do the time' valid?).
 Why are incarceration and recidivism rates different across race and class? How do you explain the disparities in incarceration rates for people of color?
 What kind of programs, if any, do you feel should be incorporated into a prison sentence (i.e. job training, counseling, AA, NA, religious opportunities, etc.). Suggested Culminating Activity: Students are to design a pilot program to assist prisoners successfully reenter into the community. Students must have the following parts in their report/ presentation: Prison/Community Summary (what population and community do you want to serve), Program Summary and Justification (what is the program – how does it work and why do you think it is a valuable program), Requirements for Participation in Program, Barriers to Success, Assessment/ Measurement of Success/ Failure, and Conclusion. Students must briefly site articles from this course to support their methodologies and indicate the problems they suspect they will face as they try to determine the success or failure of their program. Budgets and money are a non‐issue. In the 'real' world budgets are always an issue but for the purpose of this assignment they are not. However, when designing your program you should consider whether your design is financially feasible.. The goal of such an assignment is for students to recognize the barriers prisoners face to successful reentry, the evidence and research that goes into creating prisoner policies, and that a program must be multi‐faceted and comprehensive in order to provide a platform for former inmate success.

This sample syllabus above is modeled after a 10 week term. It is recommended for longer terms, that the following book be utilized:Irwin, John. (2005). The Warehouse Prison. California: Roxbury Publishing Company.ISBN: 1‐931719‐35‐7.John Irwin derived his data from a prison in Solano County, California. Irwin watched as incarceration rates doubled between 1980 and 2000 despite crime levels staying relatively stable. Irwin notes that most of the prisoners in his study were incarcerated for 'unserious' crimes and were often treated in unethical ways. Irwin begins by examining incarceration rates, the demographics of the prison population, problems prisoners faced while incarcerated, post‐release difficulties and hurdles, and the societal costs of the prison super‐structure. Irwin offers a thorough examination of why prisoners are incarcerated, what they face while inside prison walls, what challenges they face once released, and the financial implications of imprisoning people.

The rapid growth in Islamic Finance Industry such as in Islamic banking, takaful, waqf, and sukuk gain more awareness and interest from around the world including Islamic countries and non-Islamic countries such as Singapore, South Korea, Japan, Europe, Australia, Brazil, and America Latin. Based on Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) and Ernst & Young Report in 2016 it stated that Islamic finance industry had reached a gross value USD 1.88 trillion in 2015. In addition, it also maintained double-digit growth rates despite sustained low energy prices, geopolitical conflicts and economic uncertainty. Meanwhile, Global Islamic Finance Report 2017 reported that in December 2016 global Islamic financial service industry stood at USD2.293 trillion. According to El-Qorchi (2005) that highlights there have three motivation of shifting to Islamic finance because strong demand for Shariah compliant products and services, demand from Gulf region or oil rich nation for Shariah compliant investment and lastly non-muslim investor also attracted with competitiveness of Shariah compliant products and services. Furthermore, there have numerous capital structure modern theories that have been developed since 1958 begin with MM Irrelevance Theory and continue with Trade-off Theory, Pecking Order Theory, Agency Theory and Market Timing Theory. As an example, trade-off theory is encouraging the firms to use debt financing rather than retained earnings and equity financing in order to utilise the tax deduction benefit from interest on debt financing. Each of this theory has different vi approach to manage and oversee the capital structure decision. Unfortunately, not all these theories explain adequately the effect of capital structure on corporate performance for Shariah compliant companies. Therefore, the question that can been arisen which is the most appropriate and suitable capital structure theory under Shariah principles? Firstly, this study intends to determine until to what extent the capital structure of Shariah compliant companies (SCC) can be different from Non Shariah compliant companies (NSCC). Many studies have been done on capital structure. However, most of the studies focused on the capital structure determinants, impacts of capital structure on financial performance, how the tax affected capital structure and short-term debt during financial crisis period. All of these past studies using financial institution, small and medium enterprises (SME) and public listed companies (PLC) as samples in their study. Nevertheless, there are few studies relate to the impact of capital structures on corporate performance during financial crisis. Shariah compliant companies presume to be more resilent during financial crisis based on their characteristic. However, there is no study on how SCC manages their capital structure during financial crisis period. Therefore, in order to fill the research gap, it is necessary to carry out a study on impact of capital structure on corporate performance during financial crisis by using SCC as sample. The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of capital structure on corporate performance of SCC predominantly during financial crisis period. To the best of our knowledge, there is no such empirical study that has been conducted until nowadays. As information, Shariah compliant companies (SCC) are deemed to comply with Shariah principles, rules, values and restrictions when dealing with the financing activities. In order to ensure SCC comply with all the Shariah principles and free from prohibited elements such as interest (riba), gambling (masyar) and speculation (gharar), Shariah advisory board (SAC) are established to monitor the SCC's activities. Besides, before being listed in Islamic index all the firms must be complying with the qualitative and quantitative criteria for screening process that are set by the index provider. This study will take the sample from FTSE Shariah global index series, therefore under this index provider, Yasaar Ltd is an impartial consultancy and leading authority on handling Shariah matters including the screening process. Under quantitative screening, there have several financial vii benchmarks that the firms need to follow in order to acquire the shariah-compliant status. According to Haron and Ibrahim (2012) due to the benchmark that are set by index provider, it leads SCC to raise capital via equity financing. Empirically, firms that rely more on equity-based financing tend to be more resilient during financial crisis period. Gitman and Zutter (2012, p.508) defines the capital structure as "the mix of debt and equity maintained by the firm". Thus, the main concern is how the firm decision to optimize the capital structures by combining debt and equity financing. There have a number of previous studies that explored how the firms or financial managers determine the optimum capital structure to ensure they can maximize the firm's corporate performance. Based on the empirical results it shows that there has numerous factor that influenced the firms and financial manager in order to make the capital structure financing decision such as profitability, growth, size, tangibility, tax, leverage, liquidity, and industry. Meanwhile, this study will focus on some financial benchmarks in order to achieve the objective of this study. Such example this study uses corporate performance, debt to equity ratio, debt financing ratio (short-term debt ratio and long-term debt ratio), tangibility ratio, cash plus account receivables ratio, growth ratio, and size ratio. Corporate Performance In this study, two proxies will be used to measure the corporate performance of the firm. Firstly, this study decides to use profit before tax and zakat over total asset or it called pre-tax return on assets (Pre-tax ROA) to measure the firm's corporate performance. This ratio is to measures how the efficiency of the firm can earn on its investment in its assets. In other words, how the firm used its assets effectively to generate the income or profit from that assets. Like the previous study that have been used earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) over total assets and profit before interest and tax to measure the firm's corporate performance. Initially, this study intends to show the different significant impact to the firm's corporate performance if the firm paying taxes or zakat or both. It is due to the SCC has special taxes that are called 'zakat' under Shariah term and it viii has fixed-rate 2.5 percent from the net profit or income. However, until nowadays zakat still voluntary basis in most of the Muslim countries. Based on the sample in this study, Malaysia is the only country that implemented zakat system however it based on voluntary basis and none of the samples shows the zakat amount in their financial statement. The second proxy in this study for dependent variables that represents for firm's corporate performance is return on equity ratio (ROE) ratio. Based on the previous studies, there has been used net income after tax over total equity to measure the ROE in their studies. Therefore, this study also decides to use the same measurement as the prior studies. This ratio will measure by the firm's profitability using net profit after interest, tax and preference dividend divided by ordinary share capital plus reserves at the end of the financial year. ROE ratio is one of the main profitability ratios that concentrate on the firm's ordinary shareholders and compares the profit that has been earned and its capital. Some of the investors are using this ratio to measure the firm's ordinary shares desirability. Debt to Equity Ratio Some of the Islamic index provider set the financial benchmark that the total debt must be less than 33 percent from the total equity. Such an example, Dow Jones Global Islamic Index (DJIM) set the debt to equity ratio as one of their financial benchmarks. However, FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index does not include this benchmark under their screening process. Therefore, this study intends to use this benchmark to see whether there have significant differences between SCC and NSCC. This study decides to use total debt divided by total equity as a measurement of debt to equity ratio. It supported by other studies such as Margaritis and Psillaki (2010) and Memon et al., (2012) that also used the same measurement in their studies. This ratio is to evaluate a firm's financial leverage by measuring the degree of firm financing based on debt to equity or wholly-owned funds. In case if the company downturn, it measures the ability of the shareholder equity to cover all the debts in the firms. ix Debt Financing Under FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index quantitative screening, the debt ratio must be less than 33 percent of total assets. Due to this study's objective to determine the impact of capital structure on corporate performance during financial crisis, therefore the debt ratio divided into two categories, which are short-term debt financing and long-term debt financing. Based on Fosberg (2013) conducted a study on public listed companies in US and found that short-term debt financing increased from 1.3 percent in 2006 to 2.2 percent in 2008 which represent $34 million increase due to the financial crisis that are happened in 2008. It supported by numerous studies (see Brealey et al., 2008; Almeida et al., 2011; Federal Reserve, 2012; Fosberg, 2013) that during the stock market collapsed in 2008, the borrowing power of firms becomes fewer than before due to the credit supply was limited. Therefore, firms intend using more STD financing during financial difficulties. Hassan and Samour (2016) added that it highlighted that capital structure financing decision were impact during financial crisis period. Cheema et.al (2017) and Shahar and Shahar (2015) found that SCC using long-term debt (LTD) financing more than short-term debt (STD) financing. It might be due to the restriction for limited interest and risk sharing under Shariah guidelines. However, for NSCC, they are using more STD in order to meet the working capital requirement. On the other hand study by Sahudin, Ismail, Sulaiman, Rahman, and Jaafar (2019) found that SCC using more STD financing compared to LTD financing. STD financing is more widely used compared to LTD financing by the SCC in Malaysia because the majority of Islamic debt instruments issued short-term debt rather than long-term debt (Aggarwal & Yousef, 2000). This also supports agency theory whereby it justifies the function of STD financing as a mechanism to control the debt and mitigate the agency problem. Therefore, this study intends to examine the significant differences in financing patterns particularly before, during and after the financial crisis period. x Tangibility Ratio Tangibility assets become more popular as a measurement for bank viability after the financial crisis occurred. Bank viability means the bank's judgment on the ability of the firms to meet ongoing financial obligation with the additional investment and financing such as from the banks and investors. One of the reasons because tangible assets are liquid compared to intangible assets. It supported by Charalambakis and Garrett (2012) that stated tangible assets are the main point in explaining the capital structure within the firms. As a result, tangible assets have a higher value in the market and even if firms have financial problem or going to bankrupt, the firms can easily and quickly in selling their tangible assets. Scott (1977) and Titman and Wessels (1988) stated that less profitable firm intends to have a high value of tangible assets and the firms will use tangible assets as collateral in order to get more debt financing. Therefore, any firm that has higher tangibility ratio will issue more debt financing. This is in line with trade-off theory that highlight, firms need to enjoy the advantage of tax with issuing more debt financing while having more profit to the firm. Ahmad and Azhar (2015) added that this would give assistance to the firms that have default in their debt to use the tangible asset to avoid being bankrupcy. Cash plus Account Receivables Ratio Most of the previous studies used the liquidity ratio in order to measure the firm's ability to meet the short-term financial obligation. Even Thabet and Hanefah (2014) found in their study that liquidity were one of the factors that have the impact on the corporate performance to the firm. This ratio is important to ensure the firms have cut limit for total cash and account receivables in one time in order to avoid excess or lack of cash in the firms. In addition, it also to reduce the agency cost. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the impact on total cash plus account receivables over total assets (CashAR) to the corporate performance. This variable is chosen as an independent variable for this study due to the characteristics for SCC must be following and passed the benchmark in order to be listed in the Islamic index. Farooq xi and Alahkam (2016) also mentioned that the Islamic financial system was more stable and resilient because of the economy based on Islamic guidelines. Growth Ratio This study decides to use the different amount of this year sales minus last year sales divided by this year sales as a proxy of firm growth ratio. It is supported by prior studies (Salim and Yadav, 2012; Bundala, 2012; Proença et al., 2014; Cheema et al., 2017) that are also used the same measurement for growth ratio in their studies. According to Titman & Wessel (1988) and Rajan & Zingales (1995) shows that the firms with high future growth turns out to be used less leverage in the financing decision. It is because the firm will shift from debt financing to equity financing. In addition, growth ratio are influence by the profitability of the firm. This study will be focused on selected countries from Southeast Asia, which are Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore, and Thailand. The selection sample is justified that Southeast Asia is the most progressive region in the Islamic capital market in the Asia region (Yakcop, 2002). Initially, this study has identified 595 samples of Public Listed Companies under industrial sector in Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, 114 samples have been excluded due to the several reasons such as incomplete financial statement and change of accounting year during the period of study. Thus, the final samples selected are 197 PLC from Shariah-compliant companies and 284 PLC from Non-shariah compliant companies. All the sample are collecting through DataStream that is published by Thomson Reuter Eikon. This study gathers all the financial statements such as balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement in order to achieve the objective of this study. The unique for this study, the data is analyzed using Python Pandas programming software. This is the first study using Python Pandas to analyze the impact of capital structure on corporate performance during the financial crisis. As information, Pandas are the software library written for the Python programming language for data manipulation and analysis. Undoubtedly, Pandas offer data structures and operations for manipulating numerical tables and time series. Therefore, the first step to do to analyze the data by creating the coding system that is xii required for this study. In order to accomplish the objective in this study, the regression equations have been developed as follows: 1. Y (Pretax ROA) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7SIZEit + β8(X) + ε 2. Y (ROE) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7SIZEit + β8(X) + ε Whereby: Pre-tax ROA = Return on asset before tax ratio ROE = Return on equity ratio D/E = Debt to equity ratio STD = Short term debt ratio LTD = Long term debt ratio TANG = Tangibility ratio CASHAR = Cash plus account receivable ratio GRW = Growth ratio SIZE = Size ratio ε = Error term X = dummy variable 0: Non-Shariah Compliant Companies (NSCC) 1: Shariah Compliant Companies (SCC) The analysis begins with the multicollinearity test and the purpose of this test to ensure there is no problem of multicollinearity among the variables. Based on the result, none of the tolerances value is less than 0.2 and none of the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) is greater than 10. As a result, it found that there is no multicollinearity problem in this study. The analyses continue with the descriptive statistic analysis that found the corporate performance of Shariah compliant companies (SCC) is higher than Non Shariah compliant companies (NSCC) during the financial crisis and after the financial crisis for both proxies, pre-tax return on assets (Pre-tax ROA) and return on equity (ROE). However, for independent variables those are debt to equity ratio, short-term debt ratio, long-term debt ratio, cash plus account receivables ratio shows that SCC has lower ratio through out the periods which are before, during and after financial crisis. These results have been expected due to the benchmarks that are set xiii by index providers during the quantitative (financial) screening process. Furthermore, SCC requirements to follow all the time the benchmark in order to be listed in Shariah index and maintain as shariah status. Due to this reason, we can observe that SCC always has a lower leverage ratio compare to NSCC. In addition, firms that have lower ratio are better because high leverage ratio or debt financing ratio contributes to the high risk of solvency and instability of the firms. Tangibility ratio for SCC is higher than NSCC before, during and after the financial crisis period. This ratio becomes more important after the financial crisis period. It is because it uses as a measurement for bank viability and indicate the firm's collateral level. Therefore, SCC with a higher tangibility ratio can issue more debt financing. It becomes more secure in case of bankruptcy; the firm can sales its tangible assets in order to pay their debt financing. Cash plus account receivables ratio is lower than NSCC before, during and after financial crisis period. Even though high liquidity can attract more lender and manager to make investment easily however there have high risk of bankruptcy and high risk of non-payment. Besides, the lower liquidity can contribute to the lower agency problem. Growth ratio shows before and during financial crisis period NSCC have higher ratio than SCC. However, after financial crisis period, SCC demonstrates higher ratio than NSCC. It indicates that SCC's growth better after financial crisis period. In addition, it proved that SCC gets more attention from the investor after financial crisis period. The second major finding are from multiple regression analysis based on pre tax ROA as the first proxy for corporate performance. It found that all the independent variables are significant except for debt to equity ratio before the financial crisis period. However, during the financial crisis period, only long-term debt ratios not significant and after the financial crisis period both short-term debt and long-term debt do not significant. Shariah-compliant companies only have a significant level after the financial crisis period. The impact of capital structure on corporate performance, pre-tax ROA for SCC is 1.6617 times higher than NSCC after financial crisis period. xiv Second proxy of corporate performance is a return on equity (ROE). All the independent variables are significant with the ROE except for debt to equity ratio and cash plus account receivable ratio before the financial crisis period, while long-term debt ratio during and after the financial crisis period. SCC significantly with ROE before the financial crisis and it shows that the impact of capital structure on SCC for corporate performance, ROE is -2.9264 times lower than NSCC. However, after the financial crisis period, the impact of capital structure on corporate performance, ROE for SCC is 4.3171 times higher than NSCC. The findings in this study posed an important implications for academicians, researchers, regulatory bodies as well as the management of the firms particularly Shariah compliant and non-shariah compliant companies, as they pave for further exploration. It offers knowledge to the regulatory bodies and related government agencies to come out with the guidelines and framework regarding shariah compliant status. Therefore, in order to set up with the new regulations and guidelines, these agencies need to understand the needed of investors and the characteristics of SCC itself in order to develop new guidelines to attract more investors. Such cases in Malaysia, the government give incentive to the new shariah compliant companies with five years tax exemption. Other, in UK and France they have amended their tax structure to compatible with Islamic finance guidelines. There have several limitations encountered in conducting this study. This study did not take into consideration the effects of the Asian financial crisis because there have different impact between the countries due to the different level of development in the financial market, the policies of the government and the sensitivity of that country to external incidents. In addition, due to this was the cross country study, therefore the differences are expected due to difference law system and regulation, bureaucracy, dissimilar costs and benefits that the companies face in each country. These limitations have paved the way to future research. Therefore, in the future it hopes to take consideration for these limitations in order to fill the research gap in this area ; slami finans özellikle son zamanlarda, İslami bankacılık, tekaful, vakıf ve sukuk gibi bir çok alanda hızlı bir büyüme göstermektedir. İslami finans İslam ülkelerinin yanında, Singapur, Güney Kore, Japonya, Avrupa, Avustralya, Brezilya ve Amerika Latin gibi İslami olmayan ülkeleri de kapsayacak şekilde dünyanın dört bir yanından, gittikçe daha fazla farkındalık ve ilgi kazanmaktadır. İslami Finansal Hizmetler Kurulu (IFHK) ve 2016'da Ernst & Young raporuna dayanarak, İslami finans sektörünün 2015 yılına kadar brüt 1,88 trilyon ABD doları değerine ulaştığını belirttimektedir. Üstelik bu sektörün büyüme hızı, düşük enerji fiyatlarının sürmesine, jeopolitik çatışmalara ve ekonomik belirsizliğe rağmen, çift haneli büyüme oranlarını korumuştur. Örneğin, 2017 yılına ait Küresel İslami Finans Raporunda, Aralık 2016'da küresel İslami finansal hizmet sektörünün 2,293 trilyon ABD doları bulduğu raporlanmıştır. El-Qorchi'ye (2005) göre İslami finansa geçiş konusunda üç motivasyon bulunduğu vurgulamaktadır: Şeriat uyumlu ürün ve hizmetlere yönelik güçlü talep, Körfez bölgesindeki petrol zengini uluslardan gelen Şeriat uyumlu yatırım için talep ve ve son olarak Şeriat uyumlu ürün ve hizmetlerin rekabet gücünden etkilenen gayrimüslim yatırımcıların ilgisi. Ayrıca, 1958'den bu yana geliştirilen ve MM Teorisi ile başlayan ve Takas Teorisi (Trade-Off Theory), Finansman Hiyerarşisi Kuramı (Pecking Order Theory), Vekâlet Maliyeti Teorisi (Agency Theory) ve Piyasa Zamanlama Teorisi (Market xvi Timing Theory) ile devam eden çok sayıda sermaye yapısı teorisi vardır. Örnek olarak Takas teorisi, firmaları borcun faizinden faydalanmak için birikmiş karlar ve özkaynak finansmanı yerine, borç finansmanı kullanmaya teşvik etmektedir. Bu teorilerinin her birinin sermaye yapısı kararını yönetmek ve denetlemek için farklı bir yaklaşımı vardır. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, finansal kriz döneminde sermaye yapısının kurumsal performans üzerindeki etkisini incelemektir. İlk olarak, bu çalışma Şeriat uyumlu şirketlerin (ŞUŞ) sermaye yapısının Şeriat uyumlu olmayan şirketlerden (ŞUOŞ) ne kadar farklı olabileceğini belirlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Sermaye yapısı üzerinde çok sayıda çalışma yapılmıştır. Bununla birlikte, çalışmaların çoğu sermaye yapısı belirleyicileri, sermaye yapısının finansal performans üzerindeki etkileri, verginin finansal yapıdaki sermaye yapısını ve kısa vadeli borçları nasıl etkilediğine odaklanmıştır. Bu geçmiş çalışmalarda örneklem olarak, finansal kurumlar, küçük ve orta ölçekli işletmeler ve halka açık şirketler kullanmaktadır. Ancak Şeriate Uygun Şirketlerin sermaye yapıları ve sermaye yapısının finansal performans üzerindeki etkisi konusunda az sayıda çalışma vardır. Özellikle ŞUŞ'lerin sermaye yapıları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, bu şirketlerin kriz döneminde daha avantajlı olmaları beklenmektedir. Ancak ŞUŞ'lerin finansal yapılarının, fiannsal kriz döneminde onlar için nasıl bir avantaj sağladığı bugüne kadar bir araştırma konusu yapılmamıştır. Bu nedenle, araştırma boşluğunu doldurmak için, ŞUŞ'lerin örnek olarak kullanıldığı, finansal kriz sırasında sermaye yapısının finansal performans üzerindekini araştıran bir çalışma yapılması gerektirmektedir. Bildiğimiz kadarıyla, bugüne kadar yapılmış böyle bir ampirik çalışma yoktur. Şeriat uyumlu şirketler (ŞUŞ), finansman faaliyetlerini yürütürken Şeriat ilkelerine, kurallarına, değerlerine ve kısıtlamalarına uymaktadır. ŞUŞ'in tüm Şeriat ilkelerine uyması, ayrıca riba, masyar ve gharar gibi yasaklanmış unsurlardan arındırılmasını sağlamak için, Şeriat Danışma Kurulu (ŞDK) ŞUŞ'lerin faaliyetlerini izlemek üzere kurulur. Bunlara ek olarak İslami endekste listelenmeden önce, tüm şirketler, endeks sağlayıcısı tarafından belirlenen tarama süreci için nitel ve nicel kriterlere uymalıdır. Bu çalışmada kullanılan örneklem, FTSE şeriat küresel sermaye endeksinde yer alan şirketlerden oluşturulmuştur. Bu endeks sağlayıcısı altında, xvii tarama süreci de dahil olmak üzere Şeriat konularının ele alınmasında Yasaar Ltd. tarafsız bir danışmanlık ve lider otorite olarak kabul edilmektedir. Şirketlerin Şeriat uyumlu statüsünü elde edebilmesi için, nicel tarama başlığı altında, uyması gereken bir dizi finansal kriterler de vardır. Haron ve Ibrahim'e (2012) göre, endeks sağlayıcı tarafından belirlenen kriter nedeniyle, ŞUŞ'ler sermaye arttrırımı yoluyla finansmanı tercih etmek durumunda kalmaktadır. Ampirik olarak, özkaynağa dayalı finansmana daha fazla ağırlık veren firmalar, finansal krizler sırasında daha dirençli olma eğilimindedir. Gitman ve Zutter (2012, s.508) sermaye yapısını "firma tarafından tutulan borç ve özkaynak karışımı" olarak tanımlar. Bu tanım doğrultusunda asıl amaç, borç ve özkaynak finansmanını çeşitli bileşimleri ile sermaye yapılarının nasıl optimum hale getirileceğidir. Ayrıca, sermaye yapıları aslında borç sahiplerini borç sahipleri olarak, özkaynakları ise hissedarlar veya hissedarlar olarak temsil etmektedir. O halde ortaya çıkan soru, şeriat ilkeleri uyarınca en uygun sermaye yapısı teorisi hangisidir? Firmaların veya finansal yöneticilerin, şirket performansını en üst düzeye çıkarabilmelerini sağlamak için optimum sermaye yapısını nasıl belirlediğine dair daha önce yapılmış çok sayıda çalışma vardır. Ampirik sonuçlar, kârlılık, büyüme, büyüklük, maddi varlık, vergi, kaldıraç, likidite ve sanayi gibi finansman kararını vermek için firmayı ve finans yöneticisini etkileyen çok sayıda faktöre sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu arada, bu çalışmada, çalışmanın amacına ulaşmak için bazı finansal ölçütlere odaklanılacaktır. Bu örnekte, bu çalışmada kurumsal performans, borç / özsermaye oranı, borç finansman oranı, maddi duranlık oranı, nakit artı hesap alacakları oranı, büyüme oranı ve büyüklük oranı kullanılmıştır. Kurumsal Performans Bu çalışmada, kurumsal performansı ölçmek için iki bağımlı değişken kullanılmıştır. Şirketin kurumsal performansını ölçmek için il olarak vergi ve/veya zekat öncesi karın toplam varlığa olan oranıyla elde edilen ve varlıkların vergi öncesi getirisi (Vergi Öncesi Varlık Getirisi- Pre-tax Return of Asset) denilmektedir. Bu oran, işletmenin varlıklarına yaptığı yatırımdan elde ettiği getiri ile işletmenin xviii etkinliğini ölçer. Diğer bir deyişle, işletmenin varlıklarını gelir veya kârı elde etmek içine ne kadar etkin kullandığını gösterir. Önceki çalışmalarda olduğu gibi şirketin finansal performansını ölçmek için toplam aktifler üzerinden faiz ve vergi öncesi kazanç (faiz ve vergi öncesi kâr) kullanılmıştır. Öncellikle, bu çalışma, şirketin vergi veya zekat veya her ikisini birden ödemesi durumunda, işletmenin kurumsal performansının bundan önemli derecede etkilendiğini göstermeyi amaçlamaktadır. ŞUŞ'lerin Şeriat yönergelerine göre 'zekat' olarak adlandırılan, kâr veya gelirden yüzde 2,5 sabit oranda ödenen özel vergilere tabidir. Ancak, günümüze kadar zekat Müslüman ülkelerin çoğunda hala gönüllü olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmadaki örneklem ile ilgili olarak, zekat sistemini uygulayan tek ülke Malezya'dır. Ancak burada da gönüllülük temeline dayanmaktadır ve örneklemdeki şirketlerin hiçbiri mali tablolarında zekat miktarını göstermemektedir. Bu çalışmada, firmanın kurumsal performansını temsil eden ikinci bağımlı değişken, özkaynak karlılığı (ÖKK) oranıdır (Return Of Equity-ROE). Önceki çalışmalara dayanarak, çalışmalarında ÖKK'nı ölçmek için vergi sonrası toplam özsermaye üzerinden net kar kullanılmıştır. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma daha önceki çalışmalarla aynı ölçümü kullanmaya karar verilmiştir. Bu oran, faiz, vergi ve imtiyazlı temettü sonrası net karın kullanılması suretiyle şirketin kârlılığına göre hesaplanır. ÖKK oranı, firmanın olağan hissedarlarına odaklanan ve kazanılan kar ile sermayelerini karşılaştıran ana karlılık oranlarından biridir. Bazı yatırımcılar bu oranı firmanın adi hisse senedinin cazibesini ölçmek için kullanmaktadır. Borç / Varl k Ora Bazı İslami Finans Endeksleri, örneğin Dow Jones Küresel İslam Endeksi (DJIM) tarafından yapılan nicel gözetimde, finansal kriterlerden biri özkaynak oranıdır. Toplam borç, toplam özkaynağa göre % 33'ten az olmalıdır. Bununla birlikte, bu çalışmanda kullanılan 'FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index' serisi bu oranın gözetim sürecine dahil etmemektedir. Bundan dolayı, bu çalışmada, ŞUŞ'ler ve ŞUOŞ'ler arasında önemli farklılıklar olup olmadığını genel olarak görmek için, bu oranın kullanılmasına karar verilmiştir. Toplam borcun toplam özkaynağa bölünmesiyle bulunan özkaynak oranını, bağımsız bir değişken olarak çalışmada yer xix almıştır. Margaritis ve Psillaki (2010) ve Memon ve diğerleri, (2012) gibi diğer bazı çalışmalar özkaynak oranı için, aynı ölçümü kullanmışlardır. Bu oran, borç / özkaynak veya tamamen sahip olunan fonlara dayalı şirket finansman derecesini ölçerek, bir şirketin finansal kaldıracını değerlendirmektir. Bu gösterge, şirketin bir finansal sorun yaşaması halinde, özkaynakların şirketteki tüm borçları karşılama kabiliyetini ölçer. Borç Fi a s a FTSE Global Equity Shariah Index nicel gözetimi kapsamında borç oranı, toplam varlıkların yüzde 33'ünden az olmalıdır. Bu çalışmanın amacı nedeniyle, finansal kriz sırasında etkisini daha ayrıntılı görmek amacıyla, borç oranı ikiye ayrılmıştır. Nitekim Fosberg (2013), ABD'de borsada işlem gören şirketler üzerinde bir çalışma yürütmüş ve kısa vadeli borç finansmanının 2006'da yüzde 1,3'ten 2008'de yüzde 2,2'ye yükseldiğini ve bunun 2008'de meydana gelen finansal kriz nedeniyle 34 milyon dolarlık bir artışı temsil ettiğini bulmuştur. 2008 yılında borsada çöktüğünde, kredi arzının sınırlı olmasından dolayı, şirketlerin borçlanma gücünün daha önce olduğundan daha zayıf hale geldiği sayısız çalışma ile desteklenmiştir (bakınız Brealey ve ark., 2008; Almeida ve ark., 2011; Federal Rezerv, 2012; Fosberg, 2013). Bu nedenle, firmalar finansal zorluklar sırasında KVYK finansmanını daha çok kullandılar. Hassan ve Samour (2016) sermaye yapısı finansman kararının finansal kriz sırasında etkili olduğunu açıkça belirtmişlerdir. Cheema ve arkadaşları (2017) ve Shahar ve Shahar (2015), ŞUŞ'lerin uzun vadeli borç finansmanını kısa vadeli borç finansmanından daha fazla kullandığını bulmuşlardır. Bunun nedeni, Şeriat yönergelerine göre sınırlı ilgi ve risk paylaşımının kısıtlanması olabilir. Bununla birlikte, ŞUOŞ'ler, işletme sermayesi ihtiyacını karşılamak için daha fazla KVYK kullanmaktadır. Ancak Sahudin, Ismail, Sulaiman, Rahman ve Jaafar (2019) tarafından yapılan çalışma, ŞUŞ'lerin UVYK'a kıyasla daha fazla KVYK kullandığını buldurmuştur. Malezya'daki ŞUŞ'ler uzun vadeli borcuna kıyasla daha yaygın olarak kısa vadeli borç kullanılmaktadır, çünkü İslami borçlanma araçlarının çoğu uzun xx vadeli borçtan ziyade kısa vadelidir (Aggarwal ve Yousef, 2000). Bu aynı zamanda, kısa vadeli borç fonksiyonunun, borcu kontrol etme ve acente sorununu azaltma mekanizması olarak haklı kıldığı kurum teorisini de destekler. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma özellikle finansal kriz öncesinde, sırasında ve sonrasında finansman modellerindeki önemli farklılıkları incelemeyi de amaçlamaktadır. Maddi Varl k Ora Maddi duran varlıklar, bankaların finansal krizden sonra işletmelerin yaşayabilirliğini ölçtükleri için daha popüler hale gelmektedir. Bunun nedeni maddi duran varlıkların maddi olmayan duran varlıklara göre daha fazla likidit olmasıdır. Charalambakis ve Garrett (2012) maddi duran varlıkların firma içindeki sermaye yapısını açıklamada ana nokta olduğunu belirtmiştir. Sonuç olarak, maddi duran varlıklar piyasada daha yüksek değere sahiptir ve firmalar finansal problemleri olsa veya iflas ederse bile, firmalar maddi varlıklarını kolayca ve hızlı bir şekilde satabilmektedirler. Scott (1977) ve Titman ve Wessels (1988), daha az kârlı firmanın maddi duran varlıkların yüksek değerine sahip olma eğiliminde olduğunu ve firmaların maddi duran varlıklarını daha fazla borç almak veya daha fazla borç almak için teminat olarak kullandıklarını belirtmiştir. Bu nedenle, daha yüksek somutluğu olan herhangi bir firma daha fazla borç alacaktır. Bu işletmenin daha fazla borç finansmanı sağlayarak verginin avantajından faydalanması gerektiğini vurgulayan değiş tokuş teorisine uygun şekilde, işletmenin daha fazla kâr elde etmesini sağlar. Ahmad ve Azhar (2015) bunun borcunda temerrüde düşüren işletmelere, iflastan kaçınmak için bu maddi varlığı kullanmaları için bir seçenek oluturduğunu eklediler. Naki e Alacak Topla Ora Önceki çalışmaların çoğu, işletmelerin kısa vadeli finansal yükümlülüğünü yerine getirme kabiliyetini ölçmek için likidite oranını kullanmıştır. Thabet ve Hanefah (2014) da çalışmalarında likiditenin işletmelerin kurumsal performansı üzerinde etkili olan faktörlerden biri olduğunu bulmuşlardır. xxi Bu oran, işletmenin aşırı nakit veya nakit eksikliğinden kaçınmak için, nakit ve alacakları için bir limit belirlemek açısından önemlidir. Buna ek olarak, temsil maliyetini de düşürmektedir. Bildiğimiz kadarıyla bu çalışmamızda, nakit ve alacaklar toplamı, toplam varlıklar içindeki yerinin (CashAR) kurumsal performansa etkisini inceleyen ilk çalışmadır. Bu değişken, ŞUŞ için İslami endekste listelenmesi için yerine getirmesi gereken bir ölçüt olduğu için, bu çalışmada bağımsız bir değişken olarak seçilmiştir. Farooq ve Alahkam (2016), İslami esaslara dayanan ekonomi nedeniyle, İslami finansal sistemin daha istikrarlı ve dayanıklı olduğunu çalışmalarıyla desteklemişlerdir. Büyüme Ora Bu çalışmada, cari yılki satış eksi geçmiş yılki satışların cari yılki satışlara bölünmesi, işletme büyüme oranının bir göstergesi olarak kullanılmıştır. Çalışmalarında büyüme oranı için aynı ölçümü kullanan önceki çalışmalar (Salim ve Yadav, 2012; Bundala, 2012; Proença ve diğerleri, 2014; Cheema ve diğerleri, 2017) bulunmaktadır. Titman & Wessel'e (1988) ve Rajan & Zingales'e (1995) göre, gelecekteki büyümesi yüksek olan firmaların finansman kararlarında daha az kaldıraç kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Çünkü firma borç finansman yerine özkaynakla finansmanı tercih edecektir. Ayrıca, büyüme firmanın karlılığını etkileyecektir. Bu çalışma Güneydoğu Asya'dan Malezya, Endonezya, Vietnam, Singapur ve Tayland gibi seçilmiş ülkelere odaklanacaktır. Örneklem seçimi, Güneydoğu Asya bölgesindeki İslami sermaye piyasasının en ilerici bölgelerini içermektedir (Yakcop, 2002). Bu çalışmanın başlangıcında, Güneydoğu Asya'da sanayi sektörü altındaki Halka Açık Şirketlerden 595 örnek tespit edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte, tamamlanmamış finansal tablolar ve hesap dönemi boyunca muhasebe yılı değişikliği gibi çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı 114 şirket, örneklemden çıkarılmıştır. Bu nedenle, seçilen son örnekler ŞUŞ'lerden 197 ve ŞUOŞ'lerden 284 halka açık şirketten meydana gelmektedir. Tüm örnekler, Thomson Reuter Eikon tarafından yayınlanan DataStream aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Bu çalışma, amacına ulaşmak için bilanço, gelir tablosu ve nakit akım tablosu gibi tüm finansal tabloları bir araya getirmektedir. Bu çalışmada veriler, Python Pandas yazılımı kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Bu, sermaye yapısının xxii finansal kriz sırasında kurumsal performans üzerindeki etkisini analiz etmek için Python Pandas'ın kullanıldığı ilk çalışmadır. Pandas veri işleme ve analiz için Python programlama dili için yazılan yazılım kütüphanesidir. Pandas sayısal tabloları ve zaman serilerini değiştirmek için veri yapıları ve işlemler sunar. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma için gerekli olan kodlama sistemini oluşturmak, verileri analiz etmek için ilk adım olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada amacına ulaşmak için regresyon denklemleri aşağıdaki gibi geliştirilmiştir: 1. Y (Pretax ROA) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7BOYUTit + β8(X) + ε 2. Y (ROE) = β0 + β1D/Eit + β2Tangit + β3STDit + β4LTDit + β5CASH/ARit + β6GRWit + β7BOYUTit + β8(X) + ε Vasıtasıyla: Pre-tax ROA = Vergi oranından önce varlığın getirisi ROE = Özkaynak karlılığı D/E = Borç / Özkaynak oranı STD = Kısa vadeli borç oranı LTD = Uzun vadeli borç oranı TANG = Maddi varlık oranı CASHAR = Nakit artı alacak oranı GRW = Büyüme oranı BOYUT = Boyut oranı ε = Hata terimi X = kukla değişken 0: Şeriat Uyumlu Olmayan Şirketler (ŞUOŞ) 1: Şeriat Uyumlu Şirketler (ŞUŞ) xxiii Analiz, çoklu doğrusallık testi ile başlar ve bu testin amacı, değişkenler arasında çoklu doğrusallık sorunu bulunmadığından emin olmaktır. Sonuçlara göre, tolerans değerlerinin hiçbiri 0,2'den az ve hiçbir Varyans Enflasyon Faktörü (VIF) 10'dan büyük değildir. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma için çoklu bağlantı sorunu yoktur denilebilir. Analizlere, tanımlayıcı istatistik analizleri ile devam edilmiştir. Şeriat uyumlu şirketlerin (ŞUŞ) kurumsal performansının mali kriz sırasında ve her iki bağımlı değişken için de, vergi öncesi varlık karlılığı (vergi öncesi AK) ve özkaynak kârlılığı (ÖKK), finansal krizden sonra şeriat uyumlu olmayan şirketlerde (ŞUOŞ) daha yüksek olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ancak bağımsız değişkenler, borç / özkaynak oranı için kısa vadeli borç oranı, uzun vadeli borç oranı, nakit artı hesap alacakları hesap oranı, SCC'nin finansal öncesi, sırasında ve sonrasındaki tüm dönemler için daha düşük bir orana sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu sonuçlar, niceliksel tarama işlemi sırasında endeks sağlayıcı tarafından belirlenen koşullar nedeniyle beklenen bir durumdur. Ayrıca Şeriat endeksinde yer almak ve Şeriat statüsü kazanmak için bir ŞUŞ'in, her zaman söz konusu koşulların yerine getirildiği takip etmesi gerekir. Bu nedenle, ŞUŞ'lerin ŞUOŞ'lere kıyasla her zaman daha düşük kaldıraç oranına sahip olduğunu gözlemleyebiliriz. Bu oranların düşük olması daha iyidir, çünkü yüksek kaldıraç oranı veya borç finansman oranı, şirketin ödeme gücü ve istikrarsızlık riskini arttırabilir. ŞUŞ için maddi varlık oranı finansal kriz öncesinde, sırasında ve sonrasında ŞUOŞ'lerden daha yüksektir. Bu oran mali kriz döneminden sonra, daha da önem kazanmaktadır. Çünkü, bankalar şirketin yaşama yeteneği için bu oranı dikkate alırlar ve şirketin teminat seviyesinin göstergesidir. Bu nedenle, daha yüksek maddi varlık oranına sahip ŞUŞ'e daha fazla borç verebilir. İflas durumunda daha güvenli hale gelir, şirketler, borçlarını ödemek için maddi duran varlıklarını satabilir. Toplam nakit ve alacak oranı, finansal kriz öncesinde, sırasında ve sonrasında ŞUOŞ'den daha düşüktür. Her ne kadar yüksek likidite ile daha fazla kredi hacmine ulaşmayı ve yöneticilerin yatırım yapmasını kolaylaşsa da, bu durum yüksek bir iflas riskini ve yüksek ödeme yapmama riskini beraberinde getirir. Ek olarak, düşük likidite temsil sorununun artmaması açısından bir avantaj sağlar. xxiv Öncesinde ve mali kriz döneminde ŞUOŞ'lerin ŞUŞ'lerden daha yüksek bir büyüme oranına sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, mali kriz döneminden sonra ŞUŞ'ler, ŞUOŞ'lerden daha yüksek bir büyüme oranına sahiptir. Finansal kriz döneminden sonra ŞUŞ'lerin daha iyi büyüdüğünü göstermektedir. Ayrıca, finansal kriz döneminden sonra ŞUŞ'lerin yatırımcıdan daha fazla ilgi gördüğü kanıtlanmıştır. Kurumsal performans için ilk bağımlı değişken olarak, vergi öncesi AK'na dayalı çoklu regresyon analizinden elde edilen ikinci önemli bulgu, finansal kriz döneminden önceki borç / özkaynak oranı hariç tüm bağımsız değişkenlerin istatistiksel olarak önemli olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Ancak finansal kriz döneminde sadece uzun vadeli borç oranları anlamlı değildir ve finansal kriz döneminden sonra hem kısa vadeli borç hem de uzun vadeli borç değişkenleri istatistiksel olarak önemli değildir. Şeriat uyumlu şirketler ancak finansal kriz döneminden sonra önemli bir seviyeye sahiptir. Sermaye yapısının vergi öncesi AK için ŞUŞ üzerindeki etkisi, finansal kriz döneminden sonra ŞUOŞ'lerden 1,6617 kat daha yüksektir. Kurumsal performansın ikinci bağımlı değişkeni ÖKK'dır. Finansal kriz döneminden önce borç / özsermaye oranı ve nakit artı hesap alacak oranı hariç, finansal kriz dönemi içinde ve sonrasında uzun vadeli borç oranı hariç tüm bağımsız değişkenler ÖKK açısından istatistiksel olarak önemlidir. Finansal krizden önce ÖKK ile ŞUŞ önemli ölçüde artmakta ve sermaye yapısının ÖKK için ŞUŞ üzerindeki etkisinin finansal kriz döneminden önce ŞUOŞ'lerden -2.9264 kat daha düşük olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak, finansal kriz döneminden sonra, sermaye yapısının ÖKK için ŞUŞ üzerindeki etkisi ŞUOŞ'lerden 4.3171 kat daha fazladır. Bu çalışmada elde edilen bulgular, akademisyenler, araştırmacılar, düzenleyici kurumlar ve özellikle ŞUŞ ve ŞUOŞ gibi şirketlerin yönetimi için daha fazla araştırma yapmalarının gerektiğini sonucunu doğurmuştur. Bu çalışma düzenleyici kurumlara ve ilgili devlet kurumlarına, şeriat uyumlu statüye ilişkin yönergeler ve çerçeve çıkarmaları rehber olabilir. Bu nedenle, yeni düzenleme ve kılavuz ilkeler oluşturmak için, bu kurumların daha fazla yatırımcı çekmek için yeni kılavuzlar geliştirmek amacıyla yatırımcıların ihtiyaçlarını ve ŞUŞ'lerin özelliklerini anlamaları gerekmektedir. Malezya'da hükümet beş yıl vergi muafiyeti ile yeni xxv ŞUŞ'lere teşvik vermektedir. Ayrıca, İngiltere ve Fransa'da ŞUŞ'ler de dahil olmak üzere İslami finans sektörü için vergi yapılarını değiştirdiler. Bu çalışmanın yürütülmesinde bazı sınırlamalar bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, finansal piyasadaki farklı düzeylerde gelişme, hükümet politikaları ve o ülkenin dış olaylara duyarlılığı nedeniyle Asya'daki finansal krizin ülke genelinde farklı olduğu göz önünde bulundurulmamıştır. Buna ek olarak, ülkeler arası bu çapraz çalışma nedeniyle, farklı hukuk sistemleri ve düzenlemeleri, bürokrasi, şirketlerin her ülkede karşılaştığı farklı maliyetler ve faydalar nedeniyle farklılıklar beklenmektedir. Bu sınırlamalar gelecekteki araştırmaların yolunu açmaktadır. Dolayısıyla, gelecekte sermaye yapısı alanındaki araştırma boşluğunu doldurmak için bu sınırlamaları dikkate alınmalıdır

This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. ; Cultura y desarrollo; Esfera pública; Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro; Festivales callejeros; Habermas; Rock al Parque ; 1 An Act of Faith: Two Cases Studies Of Street Festivals As Examples Of Development. ANDRÉS GUILLERMO CHAUR1 Course Title: Theories of the Culture Industry: work, creativity and precariousness Course Code: CU71015A Date: 13 January 2014 1 Beneficiario COLFUTURO 2013 2 3 «Culture is the be all and end all of development» L.S. Senghor, poet (Senegal, 1906-2001) Introduction This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. It is important to mention that the starter point of this essay was precisely to give an introductory background of the importance that has have those two case studies in the development of the city. It is not a secret that Colombia has suffered a period of violence and instability since the second part of the XX century so at first glance it is curious to study and research about an almost contradictory topic such as Culture in a "war country". But at the same time, the "beauty" of this study relies precisely in its contradictory nature: How a country with those characteristics can hold two of the most important and respected free theatre festivals and music festivals in all Latin America? This essay will try to explain that culture when it's conceived with some specific characteristics will bring democracy and peace. A series of deep and abstract concepts will be discussed. This essay was thought just as an introduction and approximation to the topic of public and private, public sphere, culture and development just to mention some examples. Same with authors and thinkers used to elaborate the structure of this study. Once again it should be taken as an approximation rather than a full and elaborated research. The aim is to structure a series of ideas and concepts around one thesis: Those festivals have helped to make Bogotá a better city thus that is the main point of the relation between urban spaces and creativity: It fosters a better understanding of a society overall. At the end of the essay, in the appendix section, some photos are presented to visually recreate the two festivals, its dimensions and its importance. Although, like every 4 transcendental event, in order to understand the magnitude of The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival one have to experience in person. Cities as spaces for the public To fully understand the concept of "Public Realm" and "Public Sphere", one has to address the theory of the city and its relation with the concept of public and private. The concept of "city" has had many meanings through time. There are different ways to approach the concept; however, for the nature of this essay an urban sociological perspective will be approached. Mumford (1937) states the city as a space undoubtedly bonded with the development of human potential: "a city is an expression of the human spirits, and they exist to nurture human personality"2. Weber (1921), one of the founders of modern sociology sees a city in terms of connectivity and settlement between commuters, in that way, the concept of a city, according to Weber, is about the networking, the political and economic participation and the organization among communities. Landry (2013) defines the city as "a complex organism and in constant movement with perspectives, opinions and priorities about what is right often clashing"3. Simmel (1950) explained the correlation of man and the scenarios created by the capitalism and modern society called "The Metropolis". There is always a struggle between the man (individual) and his society (public): "The deepest problem of modern life arises out of the attempt by the individual to preserve his autonomy and individuality in the face of the overwhelming social forces of a historical heritage, external culture and technique of life"4. Simmel's concept of a city as a place where modern man struggle to find his individuality within "overwhelming social forces" is key to understand the theory of the city, specifically one attached with the words: Public -Private. Sennett (1996) in his book "The Fall of the 2 Mumford, L., 1937. What is a city?. In: Scoutt, S and Stoutt, F. ed. 2011. The city reader. Taylor and Francis. pp.91-96. 3 Landry,C. 2013. Civic Urbanity: Looking at the city afresh (PDF). Hangzhou International Congress, "Culture: Key to Sustainable Development", 15-17 May 2013, Hangzhou, China. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/images/Charles_Landry_Hangzhou_Congress.pdf (Accessed 12 January 2013). 4 Simmel,G. 1950. The Metropolis and Mental Life. In Miles, M; Hall, T and Borden, I. The City Cultures Reader. Ed. 2000. pp. 12-19. 5 public man" gives an account of the city as the scenario where those 2 concepts are correlated. He starts explaining the meaning of public and private. Although its historical background, coming from the Greeks and the idea of Oikos and Polis as the Private and Public respectively, Sennett comments that "the public" in modern times, started to develop in the eighteen century that is as a direct consequence of the industrial revolution and the liberalism ideas coming from The Enlightenment. "Public came to mean a life passed outside the life of family and close friends. In the public region diverse, complex social groups were to be brought into ineluctable contact the focus of this public life was the city"5 The public life is also the ground to understand modern democracy and public political institution. Sennett, citing Hanna Arendt's book The Human Condition shows how the public life in cities can be a scenario where ideas and opinions are discussed and debated. "Private circumstances have no place in the public realm". 6 Arendt even manifests that cities are "democracy's homes"7 This notion of public started to be more evident when places to meet strangers (people from outside the private sphere) within the city started to grow up. Examples of those "places" are the coffee houses and salons (Habermas will mention those examples to explain his theory of public sphere). Those spaces are called "Public Realm" by Sennett. Public Realm, in other words, are spaces where strangers meet. This encounter is characterized by "anonymity". In "The Conscience of The Eye" Sennett (1992) also says that anonymity is the power of modern cities: "The power of the city lies in its diversity; in the presence of difference people have at least the possibility to step outside themselves (.) The city can give them experiences of otherness"8 The concept of Teatro Mundi is an interesting way to look at the public sphere. According to Sennett, "Teatro Mundi" are spaces full of vitality, differences and disorder. Places where the differences connect and all citizens participate: "Society is a theatre and people are actors". This essay will discuss Teatro Mundi in detail in the chapter related to street festivals. . 5 Sennett, R. 2003. The Fall of Public Man. Penguin, New Edition. 6 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 7 Sennett, R. 2008. The Public Realm. (online) Richard Sennet Website. Available at: http://www.richardsennett.com/site/SENN/Templates/General2.aspx?pageid=16 (Accessed 13 January 2014) 8 Sennett, R. 1992. The Conscience of the Eye: The Design and Social Life of Cities. W.W Norton & Company. 6 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss in-depth different theories about the public realm specially the ideas of Habermas about the public sphere and his theory of action communicative. Habermas and the Public Sphere Even though the previous chapter gave an account of the concepts of private-public, it is important to highlight them according to the theory of Habermas. Recognized as one of the most influential sociologist and philosopher of our times, Habermas theories of the public sphere (phrase from the German Öffentlichkeit), and modern democracy as well as his theory of action communicative have been enormously influential for modern sociology9. Firstly Habermas' thought is marked in the tradition of the Frankfurt School. His first mayor publication "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" argues that instrumental rationality is implicit in the Public Sphere. However, Habermas took distance from the classical notion of the critical theory when argues that participation in the public sphere (he exemplified the coffee shops and the salons in Paris and London in the XVIII century) is free and autonomous in order to shape a common good: "The public sphere consisted in voluntary associations of private citizens united in a common aim, to make use of their own reason in unconstrained discussion between equals"10(Later on, Habermas is going to present how mass media eroded individuality and declined the public sphere). It is important to mention the dichotomy of the words public-private for Habermas. Although different, both are dependents to each other. In that way the private sphere and the public sphere instead of being exclusive are inclusive. Susen (2011) defines the public sphere, taking into account Habermas' theory, as: "The socialized expression of individuals' reciprocally constituted autonomy: individuals are autonomous not in isolation from but in relation to one another, that is, in relation to a public of autonomous beings".11 9Finlayson, J .2005. "Habermas, a very short introduction". Oxford University Press. 10 Habermas,J. 1991. The Structural Transformation Of The Public Sphere. MIT Press. 11 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 7 Several questions came to mind: How this socialization is constructed? What does an autonomous individual mean? And how can individual reach autonomy? For Habermas, the answer relies on a rational communicative action. The aim of the public sphere is to create a consensus through the active participation of all individuals involved. This consensus is created by a rational approach of the language: "The public sphere is a collective realm in which individuals' cognitive ability to take on the role of critical and responsible actors is indicative of society's coordinative capacity to transform itself into an emancipatory project shaped by the normative force of communicative rationality"12. Rationality in terms of Habermas does not consist in knowledge per se but "how speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge"13. This type of rationality is different from the instrumental rationality from the Enlightenment, widely criticized by the Frankfurt School, since it is "practical, epistemological and more important, intersubjective"14. The public sphere, considering the above, not only describes the space where the encounter occurs but moreover, the public sphere has within itself an emancipator and a transformative component. Some critics find Habermas ideas "too utopian and idealistic"15. The next chapter the link between Habermas and Sennett notion of Public Realm in the city will be tracked. The Open City Sennett takes Habermas as a mayor inspiration for constructing his idea of the Public Realm in the city. According to Sennett (2008), Habermas does not tie the public sphere to any particular place, such as a town centre for instance. Even new technological media as the 12 Ibid. 13 Hahn, L. 2000. Perspective On Habermas. Open Court Publishing. 14 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 Ibid. 8 Internet could be seen as an example of public sphere: "In today's cities, an internet cafe would be more likely to excite him than Trafalgar Square" 16 The place where strangers meet, as Sennett defines Public Realm, could be anywhere: An event, a medium, etc. that encourages communication between strangers. Eventually, Sennett argues, cities that promote those types of encounters are called cities with open systems and on the contrary, cities that lack a real public realm or just promote the privatization of spaces are called cities with closed systems. Based on sociologist Jane Jacobs(1961) and her book "The death and life of great American cities"17, Sennett(2006) imagines a city with a closed system with two attributes: Equilibrium and Integration18. Equilibrium is related with balance, with harmony and with a static idea of conceiving a city. Public Spaces as spaces full of differences, dissents and disorders are not part or are reduced in a closed system. By integration, Sennett means that everything is connected and is part of a greater and unique vision. Thus, everything that is not part of that unique vision is expelled and rejected: "The logic of integration is to diminish in value things that don't fit in (.) Closed system cities refuse to evolve and has paralysed urbanism", concludes Sennett. Opposing a closed system, the open system is all about diversity and finding a place for differences, dissents and disorders. It is about complexity, about how a place adapts itself to the always changing community and its processes. Sennett lists three elements of an open city: Passage territories, incomplete form and development narratives. Passages territories means to diffuse boundaries and different territories within the cities; incomplete form is regarding "empty spaces" so the public can interact in it. Development narratives means to allow dissident voices to express and to fully participate. Wirth (1938) summarize the above by saying: "The juxtaposition of divergent personalities and modes of life tends to produce a relativistic perspective and a sense of toleration of differences"19 Taking into consideration the above characteristics of an open city, one can say that an open city is a place for democracy, "not in the legal sense but in the physical experience" says 16 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 17 Jacobs, J .1961. The death and life of great American cities. Random House, New York. 18 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 19 Wirth, L .1938. Urbanism as a Way of Life. (online) Chicago Journals. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768119 (Accessed 13 January 2014). 9 Sennett 20. This thesis is important to understand the importance of public spaces in construction of a fully democratic society and thus is connected to the idea of development and equality. ¿What are examples of an open system? Can one give an account of a public sphere? The next chapter will give an account of the relationship between the street festivals and the public sphere, understanding them as a significance example of public realm. Street Festivals and the Public Sphere To begin with, Street Festivals or Urban Festivals as any other cultural event placed in the public sphere are related of what Durkheim called "collective effervescence". As Durkheim pointed out when a group gathers to perform a "religious ritual" experiences a sense of encounter and unity, "leading participants to a high degree of collective emotional excitement or delirium"21. However as Sassatelli(2011) adds, although Festivals are also part of a collective delirium, taking all participant apart from the everyday life, they are also places where the social encounter is made of "polyvalent performances, rather than unified signifiers of a consensual collective conscience"22 Sassatelli complements that street festivals contrasted with museums: By its living dimension as well as its unrestrained sensory experience. Sennett (1992) also talks about spaces "full of live" as narrative spaces where every dweller constructs a disorder and kaleidoscope meaning of the public. This could lead to the erosion of the boundaries of high and low culture in the sense of the Frankfurt School understood the "cultural industries". namely they turn into instances of communication and instances of production of collective meanings and desires. 20 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 21 Durkheim, E .2008. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford Paperbacks. 22 Sassatelli, M. 2011. Urban Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere: Cosmopolitanism between Ethics and Aesthetics in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 12-19 10 If Habermas, the notion of the "Public Sphere" is related as the area where rational individuals communicate to each other to discuss their social problems; nowadays as McGuian(2011) argues, there are different ways to look at the public sphere, not only inside a rational communicative system as Habermas states, but from other types of communication that also create a sense of public sphere. One of those "public spheres" is the cultural public sphere, namely a sphere within the public where different modes of communications, for instance "affective-aesthetics and emotional are articulated with the public and the private"23 "The public sphere nowadays operates though various channels and circuits of mass popular culture and entertainment facilitated the routinely mediated aesthetic and emotional reflections on how we live and imagine the good life (.) festivals are the aestheticization of politics as the ground for festivals is the democratization of an independent thought by the spectators transformed into active actors". . Although McGuian theorized the cultural public sphere for the mass media and populism culture, undoubtedly street festivals share that conception in an emotional and aesthetic way of "come together as a public" and to transcend the private sphere into a societal integration as Habermas explained. Fabiani (2011) explained as well: 24 Street Festivals are also part of the Sennett's idea of "Teatro Mundi". Spaces operated in an open system, where strangers meet through a "rhetorical way, acting in order to be 23Mc Guian, J. 2011. The Cultural Public Sphere- a critical measure of public culture? in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 79-92. 24 Fabiani, J. 2011. Festivals, local and global: Critical interventions and the cultural public sphere. in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 92-108 Involvement rather than contemplation Instances of communication and community building Erosion of the boundaries between high and low culture Construction of Identity Produce meanings and desires Box 1. Characteristics of Street Festivals according to Sassatelli(2011). 11 credible" 25 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss the implications of street festivals in the sustainable development of a city. Different approaches coming from the research of the UNESCO on the relationship between culture and development as well as the studies of the creative class by Michael Florida and the Creative cities by Michael Landry. . People act as in they were in a "role playing" to create a sense of "equality", even if they do not share their same social class, race, sexual orientation, etc. Street Festivals have this "communicative power" of involve everyone together. Street Festivals as mechanism for sustainable development How could we connect street festivals as examples of the cultural public sphere with the idea of development? In other words, is there any connection between street festivals, understood as a cultural manifestation, and sustainable development? This chapter will introduce the concept of "Culture for Development"26 In the last few decades, UNESCO programs have been focused in how culture should be at the centre of economic development in developed and especially in developing countries. One of the last attempts to foster that was the Hangzou Congress in 2013 in China. The final conclusion was: "Placing Culture at the Heart of Sustainable Development Policies"; a term coined by UNESCO in a variety of its programs wide world specially for developing nations and will give an account of the link between that term and street festivals as examples of a cultural industry. 27 25 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. and described 9 main ideas to do so: Integrate culture within all development policies and Programmes; Mobilize culture and mutual understanding to foster peace and reconciliation; Ensure cultural rights for all to promote inclusive social development; Leverage culture for poverty reduction and inclusive economic development; Build on culture to promote environmental sustainability; Strengthen resilience to disasters and combat climate change through culture value; safeguard and transmit culture to future generations; Harness culture 26 Culture and Development. 2013. UNESCO- Culture. (Online) Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development (Accessed 13 January 2014) 27 UNESCO. 2013. The Hangzhou Declaration. UNESCO- Culture. (Online). Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development/hangzhou-congress/ (Accessed 13 January 2014). 12 as a resource for achieving sustainable urban development and management; Capitalize on culture to foster innovative and sustainable models of cooperation. 28 Landry (2008) also talks about the benefits of cultural industries in a city and how the creativity of those industries will foster economic development and social cohesion: "Culture can also strengthen social cohesion, increase personal confidence and improve life skills, improve people's mental and physical well-being, strengthen people's ability to act as democratic citizens and develop new training and employment routes".29 Florida (2003) shows the relationship between creativeness and development. His theory of human capital, called creative capital theory, shows how by fostering tolerance, high education levels and social adaptation to changes, a social class can help to develop their communities. This creative class and its idea of create "new forms of meanings"30 The bond between the cultural public sphere with democracy and the idea of an Open City, explained before, is also a seminal part of how through cultural manifestations, a society can develop and tackle social problems. are attached to the idea of UNESCO's Culture for development program. Case Studies: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and the "Rock al Parque" Festival This essay will present two cases studies of street festivals and its relation with the city and its sustainable development: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogota (Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá) and The Rock al Parque Festival. Both represent two major fields in the cultural industries in Bogotá such as the performative arts and the music. 28 Ibid 29 Landry, C. 2008. The Creative City: A toolkit for Urban Innovators. Earthscan Editions. 30 Florida, M (2003). Cities and the creative class. (Online). Available at: http://uv.vuchorsens.dk/r/KAZ/Undervisning%202012-2013/GEOLOGI/B%C3%A6redygtighed/Befolkning%20og%20b%C3%A6redygtighed/GetFile.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 13 Firstly the chapter will introduce a context of each festival and then discuss around 5 main axes how the two festivals help to development in specific ways. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá Declared in December 2013 as "cultural heritage of Colombia"31, The Ibero-American Theatre Festival of Bogotá is a biannual cultural event held in Bogotá and organized by the Fundación Teatro Nacional (National Theatre Foundation) an NGO dedicated to theatre with private and public funding. It is considered as one of the most important theatre festival in Latin America and the most significant cultural event in Colombia32 The history of the festival is in every sense "quixotic": Launched in 1988 when the country was immersed in drug-related violence and when the public institutions and the general idea of democracy were at crisis, Ramiro Osorio, a renowned cultural entrepreneur and Fanny Mikey, considered one of the icons of theatre and culture in Colombia, created the theatre Festival as a "Act of Faith" in order to promote culture as an answer to defeat the prevailing violence of those years. . It is important to mention somehow the significant role of the National Theatre Foundation in the conformation and development of the theatre in Colombia. Founded in 1981 by Fanny Mikey, an Argentinean émigré, with the play "El Rehén" nowadays has three major venues with a wide programme throughout the year as well as an art college a social programme for deprived communities and an international tours of their plays33 The first Ibero-American theatre festival, held from 25th march to 3th of April 1988, gathered 59 theatres companies from 21 countries with an estimated of no more than 100.000 spectators. In 2012, 26 years later, the festival had more than 3 million spectators and 200 theatres companies from 32 countries and 5 continents. 34 31El Espectador. 2013. Festival de Teatro de Bogotá, declarado patrimonio cultural de la Nación. El Espectador, (Online) (Last updated 11December 2013). Available at: . http://www.elespectador.com/noticias/bogota/festival-de-teatro-de-bogota-declarado-patrimonio-cultu-articulo-463508. (Accessed: 13 January 2014). 32 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 33 Ibid 34 Ibid 14 The conception of the festival as a "carnival of the city" relies on the stress in the use of the public space: There are plays presented in the streets, plazas and parks from all over the city: From slums to rich areas covering all significance area of the city. In 2012, the festival presents 218 street plays in 4 major parks (Simón Bolívar, Tunal, Nacional y Plaza de Bolívar) 7 public spaces for street plays, 4 community centres, 2 big parades starting from the north of Bogota (Calle 80) until the Bolivar's Square, the biggest plaza in Bogotá. The Festival was in 11 out of the 21 districts of Bogota. In average, around 2, 5 millions of spectators participate in the festival. 35 "Rock al Parque" Festival In March 2012, Bogotá was chosen by the UNESCO as Creative City of Music along with European cities such as Bologna (Italy), Ghent (Belgium), Sevilla (Spain) and Glasgow (Scotland).36 This recognition is part of the strategy of the secretary of culture of Bogotá of positioning the city as a major culture hub in Latin-American especially in the music field. In recent years and after the creation of the central roadmaps namely the "Políticas Culturales Distritales 2004-2016"37 The link between urban public spaces and public festivals as cultural policies is more visible in the "Festivales al Parque" (Park Festivals) which consists in five annual free music festivals held in different times of the year and performed in important free venues and public parks. They are managed and executed by the Institute for arts in Bogotá (A sub division of the Secretary of Culture of Bogotá) "IDARTES". and the "Plan Decenal de Cultura 2011-2021" the music field and their relation with public spaces have being an important core of the cultural policies in Bogotá. There are 5 "festivales al parque" dedicated to the 5 most popular rhythms that conformed the music scene in the city: Hip Hop, Jazz, Colombia (traditional music) and Rock. Created in different years, the "Festivales al Parque" conforms a local identity and a cultural highlight of the city. 35 Ibid 36 Cultura y Entretenimiento. 2012. Bogotá fue declarada capital mundial de la música. EL TIEMPO. (Online). Available at: http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/musica/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-11842506.html (Accessed 13 January 2014) 37 IDARTES. 2004. Políticas Culturales Distritales (Online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/sites/default/files/politicas_culturales_distritales_2004-2016.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 The pioneer and the biggest in terms of audience of the "Festivales al Parque" is "Rock al Parque" a 3 days rock festival created in 1995 and hosted in the biggest public park of the city, Parque Simón Bolivar; it was organized by musicians Mario Duarte and Julio Correal as a strategy to create a bond between citizens of different socio economic background with the public space during the Antanas Mockus' mayor. The XVIII edition of the festival in 2012 congregated more than 70.000 people per day, making the Festival, the biggest public rock festival in Latin America in terms of audience38. Places for sustainable development: conclusions studies. Although each festival has its own characteristics a study conducted by Obgregón (2007) shows 5 main conclusions that "Rock al Parque" festival has brought to the city. In a similar study done for the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival, Cepeda (2010) also concluded that the festival helped the city in similar ways of the five elements of Obregon. Those five elements also share the same roots of the elements of Culture for Development by the UNESCO. This is an interesting discovery that shows how festivals if they are organized inside the language of Open City -Teatro Mundi (Sennett) and in the Cultural Public Sphere all share similar benefits: 38 Obregon, J. 2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Improve the image of the city Create a sense of identity Help to build an audience Visibilization of a minority group Tolerance and social cohesion. Box 2. Five mains benefit of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and Rock al Parque Festival to Bogotá. 16 1. Improve the image of the city Both festivals improve the image of the city, for both its inhabitants and foreigners audiences. Leguizamón, Moreno and Tibazisco(2013) have argued the relation between the festivals and the local economy especially in the touristic field: "Bogotá is a touristic destiny who takes advantage of its public festivals as an important opportunity to retain tourists interested in performing arts because they visit the city only one time. This advantage depends on quality improvements which tourist perceived around touristic products and services offered like: security, hospitality, environmental practices, mobility and connectivity."39 UNESCO (2001) has also states how cultural tourism has increased in recent years: In 2010, international tourism generated 919 billion dollars in export earnings. Emerging and developing countries accounted for 47 per cent of world international tourism arrivals and 36.9 per cent of world international tourism receipts in 2010. Cultural tourism presently accounts for 40 per cent of world tourism revenues. Taking into account the statistics of the monitoring centre for culture of IDARTES conducted in 2011 the percentage of tourist that visited the city exclusively to assist to "Rock al Parque" Festival were 16,16% compared to 6,03% in 199740. 2. Create a sense of identity Wyss (2012) states that for 17 days, "the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival transformed a chaotic metropolis like Bogotá (more than 8 million inhabitants) into a cultural Mecca", The general director of the Festival, Ana Marta de Pizarro also argues than the festival is "the carnival of the city, crime rates are significantly reduced and the general atmosphere of the dwellers is of great joy and party"41 39 Leguizamon, M; Moreno, E and Tobavizco N. 2013. Impacto turístico del Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá. (online) Available: . http://www.pasosonline.org/Publicados/11113/PS0113_06.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014) 40 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 41 Wyss, J. 2010. Bogota theater festival: a bright mask for a once grim city. (Online) Available at: http://carpetbagbrigade.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/miami-herald-dios-callings-english1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 17 Similar to Wyss, Obregon citing Cante(2007), says that the idea of Rock al Parque has brought a sense of "social cohesion through the construction of an identity of tolerance and coexistence. It creates a civil culture in the city"42. 3. Help to build an audience Obregon (2007) and Cepeda (2010) states that one of the most important benefits of Rock al Parque and the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival is that those events have helped to build an audience in music and performative arts respectively. In the case of Rock al Parque, the event helped to massify a genre that wasn't part of the mainstream in Colombia as Rock. According to IDARTES (2011), almost 60% of the audience that assisted to the Festival in 2011 has been to a different free rock concert. Almost 80% has already assisted to more than two versions of Rock Al Parque. Cepeda (2010) concludes that the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival has collaborate to "enrich the theatre market in the city and to put it in one of the top in Latin America". 65% of the public, who assisted to the Festival in 2010, has seen a play regularly outside the Festival, according to the study. 4. Visibilization of a minority group This point is connected to the last conclusion. By building an audience, the festivals helped to make visible an audience. In Rock al Parque an "underground culture" as the rock scene, stigmatized before as "antisocial, started to have a better image in the community. IDARTES (2011) indicates that 60% of the audience of Rock al Parque has been to a Rock Concert without any kind of stigmatization43. 5. Tolerance and social cohesion Another important point about the two festivals is regarding the social cohesion and zero violence culture that promotes. Cepeda (2010) is very emphatic describing the impact of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival with the violence and crime rates in the city: 42 Obregon, J.2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. 43 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 18 "The festival has contributed since its beginning to the peace process in Colombia. This festival dared to make public performatives acts in the streets when the crimes rates were really high. Those events had an amazing and significative success. One could say that in the 17 days of the festival, crimes and violence stops. Police informs that the crime rates during those two weeks are the lowest of the year."44 93,48% of the spectators of the 2011 "Rock al Parque" felt that the event help to promote a non-violence culture. Still, both festivals shares the unique values of the "Teatro Mundi": Every spectator is equal, no matter his race, gender, social class, etc. The rates of zero violent deaths in the history of both festivals are also an example of how those events are truly places for democracy and peace. Conclusion As it has been seen through the different chapters that conform this essay, the benefits of creating public cultural events in urban spaces bring, undoubtedly a notion of democracy and development. Although Habermas did not specifically discuss street festivals and public festivals in urban spaces as examples of his theory of both public sphere and the theory of communicative action, the essay helped to shape a theoretical background to such events according to Habermas's notions. In the end, the link between Cultural Public Spaces and the UNESCO definition of Culture for Development was an interesting discovery that is worthwhile to keep researching. As mentioned in the introduction, the aim of the essay was to create a structure to understand the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival as examples of cultural public sphere and based on that give an account of the relationship between those spaces and the idea of development. Culture and Cultural manifestations are always moving and changing as society itself. Street Festivals are manifestations that definitely have to be fully addressed. All the rich variety of characteristics that those kinds of events possesses as the essay presented, make them a unique type of cultural products. Could culture transform a society? Definitely. Not only culture transformed society but improves it. Bogota is a better city, with more possibilities with events like the ones studied. In the future, and as part of a cultural policies plan, More events such those, should be created. This is the only recommendation of this essay toward the future, taking into account 44 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 19 that the existing legislation "protect" the two festivals, that in the end, are part of the cultural heritage of the city and the nation. 20 Appendix Photos a. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival45 45 All photos: Humar, Z., 2012. En fotos, Bogotá y su fiesta de las mil caras. [electronic print] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/video_fotos/2012/04/120405_fotos_galeria_festival_teatro_bogota_aw.shtml [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 21 22 b. Rock al Parque Festival46 46 All photos: Lopez, J., 2013. Bogotá Rock al Parque. [electronic print] Available at: http://tinyurl.com/oabvlmt [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 23 24 Bibliography • Cepeda, A. 2010. 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