The main aim of the article is to encourage the reader to reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of a public expert monopoly in conducting forensic expertise. In such article the obvious advantages of conducting forensic expertise by public expert institutions are stated in order to get scientifically substantiated and based on modern data of science and technology practice of conducting forensic expertise. The practice includes developed network of public expert institutions in the regions, a wide range of forensic expertise being conducted, research departments of state expert institutions, system of advancement of forensic experts; system of development of new and improvement of existing expert methods; informational records and collections in the DNDEKTS and NDECTS system at the head offices of the NP in the regions and in the city of Kyiv; state financing and provision of technical tools and materials with expert research etc.At the same time, the disadvantages of such a model of the organization of judicial expert justice's support are stated: the lack of competition among court experts; the abuse in the form of giving deliberately false conclusions to cover up someone's misuse or concealing crimes; the limitation of the parties of the court proceedings in the dispositive right to provide evidences at one's one discretion; the artificial limitation of possibilities to discover the circumstances of the proceedings (using of all possibilities to establish the truth in the case).It is concluded that the model of judicial expert support of legal proceedings in Ukraine, that is established by «judicial reform» (Law No. 2147-VIII in the wording that will come into force on March 18, 2018) is a milestone in its historical development, which certainly should be modified depending on its effectiveness and the demand of the society, public, professional and state institutions. So public forensic expert monopoly is not an ideal model of forensic expert support of justice because of corporate and political interests, corruption component, abuse of forensic experts etc. Therefore, it will undergo a review and transformation. ; Целью статьи является побуждение к размышлениям о преимуществах и недостатках государственной монополии на исполнение судебных экспертиз.Констатировано очевидные преимущества выполнения судебных экспертиз в системе государственных экспертных учреждений с точки зрения цели получения научно обоснованного заключения експерта, основывающегося на современных данных науки, техники, ремесла: развитая сеть государственных экспертных учреждений в регионах, широкий круг выполняемых видов судебных экспертиз; научно-исследовательские подразделения государственных экспертных учреждений; система повышения квалификации судебных экспертов; система разработки новых и усовершенствования существующих экспертных методик информационно-справочные учеты и коллекции в системе ГНИЭКЦ и НИЭКЦ при ГУ НП в областях и г. Киеве; государственное финансирование и обеспечение техническим инструментарием и расходными материалами для экспертных исследований и т. п.В то же время названы и недостатки такой модели организации судебно-экспертного обеспечения правосудия: отсутствие конкуренции между судебными экспертами; злоупотребления судебных экспертов в форме дачи заведомо ложных заключений для прикрытия чьих-то злоупотреблений или для сокрытия преступлений; ограничения сторон судебного процесса в диспозитивном праве свободного предоставления доказательств; искусственное ограничение возможностей познания обстоятельств производства (использование всех возможностей для установления истины по делу).Сделан вывод, что закрепленную «судебной реформой» (Законом № 2147-VІІІ – вступит в силу 18.03.2018 г.) модель судебно-экспертного обеспечения судопроизводства в Украине является этапом в историческом его развитии, который, естественно, должен видоизменяться в зависимости от ее эффективности и запроса общества, общественных, профессиональных и государственных институтов. По причинам корпоративных и политических интересов, коррупционной составляющей, злоупотреблений судебных экспертов и т. д. государственная судебно-экспертная монополия не является идеальной моделью судебно-экспертного обеспечения правосудия. Поэтому она будет пересматриваться и трансформироваться. ; Викладено роздуми про переваги й недоліки державної монополії на виконання судових експертиз.Констатовано очевидні переваги виконання судових експертиз у системі державних експертних установ з точки зору мети отримання науково-обґрунтованого висновку експерта, такого, що ґрунтується на сучасних даних науки, техніки, ремесла: розвинена мережа державних експертних установ у регіонах, широке коло виконуваних видів судових експертиз; науково-дослідницькі підрозділи державних експертних установ; система підвищення кваліфікації судових експертів; система розробки нових та удосконалення існуючих експертних методик; інформаційно-довідкові обліки та колекції в системі ДНДЕКЦ та НДЕКЦ при Головних управліннях НП в областях та м. Києві; державне фінансування та забезпечення технічним інструментарієм та видатковими матеріалами для експертних досліджень тощо.Водночас окреслено й недоліки такої моделі організації судово-експертного забезпечення правосуддя: відсутність конкуренції між судовими експертами; зловживання судових експертів у формі давання завідомо неправдивих висновків для прикривання чиїхось зловживань або для приховування злочинів; обмеження сторін судового процесу у диспозитивному праві вільного надання доказів; штучне обмеження можливостей пізнання обставин провадження (використання всіх можливостей для встановлення істини в справі).Зроблено висновок, що закріплена «судовою реформою» (Законом № 2147-VІІІ в редакції, що набуде чинності 18.03.2018 р.) модель судово-експертного забезпечення судочинства в Україні є етапом в історичному його розвитку, який, природно, мав би видозмінюватися залежно від її ефективності та запиту суспільства, громадських, професійних та державних інституцій. З причин корпоративних і політичних інтересів, корупційної складової, зловживань судових експертів тощо державна судово-експертна монополія не є ідеальною моделлю судово-експертного забезпечення правосуддя. Тому вона зазнаватиме перегляду та трансформації.
The fiber optic communications industry has undoubtedly revolutionized the information and telecommunications technology (ICT) offering higher-performance and more reliable telecommunication links with ever decreasing bandwidth cost [1]. Simultaneously with these developments, fiber optic sensor technology has been associated with the optoelectronic and fiber optic communications industry, and many of the components associated with these industries were often developed for fiber optic sensor applications [1]. Fiber optic sensors take advantages of the exceptional characteristics of the optical fiber, which include compactness and small size, fast response, high resolution and sensitivity, good stability and repeatability, multiplexing capabilities, remote sensing, high flexibility, low propagating loss, affordable fabrication costs, simultaneous sensing ability, and resistance to electromagnetic interference [2–5] [1]. As optics and fiber optics component prices have fallen and quality has improved, the competence of fiber optic sensors to displace traditional sensors has increased [1], [6]. Nowadays, sensors rule the world. Sensors play a fundamental role to control and predict different products and systems, from consumer electronics to industrial environments, passing by the weather monitoring and biological and healthcare diagnosis. Those applied to health care monitoring have many benefits: minimize the cost per analysis, easy access to remote places without laboratory facilities such as vulnerable populations, reduce the treatment time and optimize the resources of the government health care system, among others [7–10]. In Colombia, for example, some transmissible diseases most frequently affect the most vulnerable populations. Since the Ministry of Health and Social Protection in Colombia should guarantees free diagnosis and treatment, and many of Colombia's rural areas have no access to adequate health services due to geographical and demographic 26 Optical Fiber Sensors for measurements in Life Sciences characteristics, along with the difficulties caused by the armed conflict, and other situations of violence; the priority must be given to those rural areas. One of the main purposes of the Ministry of Health and Social Protection is to carry out continuous and systematic monitoring of the epidemiological behavior in transmissible diseases. This monitoring should be performed in accordance with processes established that allow the notification, collection, and data analysis. Thus generating valid and reliable timely information to guide prevention and control measures for those diseases [11]. However, achieving this purpose is very complicated if conventional methods used for the detection of the diseases fail to reach the population affected. Therefore, it is essential to adapt and improve the technology used to detect those diseases when it is required to collect information at the remote zones with difficulties in accessing health services. The optical fiber biosensensing technology exhibits a good promising future to solve the issues that the conventional diagnosis methods used present such as: long procedures, expensive equipment and reagents, specialized personnel, lack of portability, low sensitivities, and need of biomarkers. In addition to the sensitivity and selectivity, one of the fundamental characteristics that makes most biosensors so potential is the possibility of performing the analysis of the substance to be determined directly, i.e. without the need for a marker, and in real time. These two characteristics give biosensors the possibility to perform not only a qualitative and quantitative analysis, but also the possibility of evaluating the kinetics of the interaction (affinity constant, association and dissociation, among others) and, therefore, elucidate the fundamental mechanisms of such interaction. In this thesis it is studied a novel biosensing technology applied to immunoassays (detection of an antigen/antibody binding) based on the single-mode-multimode-single mode (SMS) fiber optic structure. This structure consists of optical fiber that relies on a multimode interferometry operating principle. Optical fiber SMS immunosensors here studied present several advantages: Optical Fiber Sensors 27 • The proposed structure has biosensing parameters comparable to those achieved by more complex structures like long period grating and surface plasmon resonances, which places this immunosensing device as a very promising option for biological and medical applications where high sensitivities, high selectivity and compact structures are required. • The sinusoidal spectrum of the SMS sensors proposed allows a sharp peak corresponding to the fundamental frequency to be observed. Consequently, it is possible to obtain a phase sensitive device by tracking the phase of this fundamental frequency as a function of the parameter to detect. FFT analysis technique is shown to have advantages since it could simplify the detection system making unnecessary the use of sophisticated optical interrogators. • The proposed structure and the bioassay performed is a label free assay, which implies that detection molecules are not labelled or modified. This means easier and lower cost procedures. The main results obtained using this concept of biosensors will be presented along this thesis as is described. First, Chapters 1 and 2, include an overview of the optical fiber sensors field, mainly focused on optical fiber biosensors. The sensors developed as a result of this thesis are presented as contributions in Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6. These contributions were submitted to peer-reviewed top scientific journals and conferences. Finally, Chapter 7 presents and discusses a series of conclusions, current work, and future perspectives derived from this thesis. ; Doctorado
Викладено роздуми про переваги й недоліки державної монополії на виконання судових експертиз.Констатовано очевидні переваги виконання судових експертиз у системі державних експертних установ з точки зору мети отримання науково-обґрунтованого висновку експерта, такого, що ґрунтується на сучасних даних науки, техніки, ремесла: розвинена мережа державних експертних установ у регіонах, широке коло виконуваних видів судових експертиз; науково-дослідницькі підрозділи державних експертних установ; система підвищення кваліфікації судових експертів; система розробки нових та удосконалення існуючих експертних методик; інформаційно-довідкові обліки та колекції в системі ДНДЕКЦ та НДЕКЦ при Головних управліннях НП в областях та м. Києві; державне фінансування та забезпечення технічним інструментарієм та видатковими матеріалами для експертних досліджень тощо.Водночас окреслено й недоліки такої моделі організації судово-експертного забезпечення правосуддя: відсутність конкуренції між судовими експертами; зловживання судових експертів у формі давання завідомо неправдивих висновків для прикривання чиїхось зловживань або для приховування злочинів; обмеження сторін судового процесу у диспозитивному праві вільного надання доказів; штучне обмеження можливостей пізнання обставин провадження (використання всіх можливостей для встановлення істини в справі).Зроблено висновок, що закріплена «судовою реформою» (Законом № 2147-VІІІ в редакції, що набуде чинності 18.03.2018 р.) модель судово-експертного забезпечення судочинства в Україні є етапом в історичному його розвитку, який, природно, мав би видозмінюватися залежно від її ефективності та запиту суспільства, громадських, професійних та державних інституцій. З причин корпоративних і політичних інтересів, корупційної складової, зловживань судових експертів тощо державна судово-експертна монополія не є ідеальною моделлю судово-експертного забезпечення правосуддя. Тому вона зазнаватиме перегляду та трансформації. ; The main aim of the article is to encourage the reader to reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of a public expert monopoly in conducting forensic expertise. In such article the obvious advantages of conducting forensic expertise by public expert institutions are stated in order to get scientifically substantiated and based on modern data of science and technology practice of conducting forensic expertise. The practice includes developed network of public expert institutions in the regions, a wide range of forensic expertise being conducted, research departments of state expert institutions, system of advancement of forensic experts; system of development of new and improvement of existing expert methods; informational records and collections in the DNDEKTS and NDECTS system at the head offices of the NP in the regions and in the city of Kyiv; state financing and provision of technical tools and materials with expert research etc.At the same time, the disadvantages of such a model of the organization of judicial expert justice's support are stated: the lack of competition among court experts; the abuse in the form of giving deliberately false conclusions to cover up someone's misuse or concealing crimes; the limitation of the parties of the court proceedings in the dispositive right to provide evidences at one's one discretion; the artificial limitation of possibilities to discover the circumstances of the proceedings (using of all possibilities to establish the truth in the case).It is concluded that the model of judicial expert support of legal proceedings in Ukraine, that is established by «judicial reform» (Law No. 2147-VIII in the wording that will come into force on March 18, 2018) is a milestone in its historical development, which certainly should be modified depending on its effectiveness and the demand of the society, public, professional and state institutions. So public forensic expert monopoly is not an ideal model of forensic expert support of justice because of corporate and political interests, corruption component, abuse of forensic experts etc. Therefore, it will undergo a review and transformation. ; Целью статьи является побуждение к размышлениям о преимуществах и недостатках государственной монополии на исполнение судебных экспертиз.Констатировано очевидные преимущества выполнения судебных экспертиз в системе государственных экспертных учреждений с точки зрения цели получения научно обоснованного заключения експерта, основывающегося на современных данных науки, техники, ремесла: развитая сеть государственных экспертных учреждений в регионах, широкий круг выполняемых видов судебных экспертиз; научно-исследовательские подразделения государственных экспертных учреждений; система повышения квалификации судебных экспертов; система разработки новых и усовершенствования существующих экспертных методик информационно-справочные учеты и коллекции в системе ГНИЭКЦ и НИЭКЦ при ГУ НП в областях и г. Киеве; государственное финансирование и обеспечение техническим инструментарием и расходными материалами для экспертных исследований и т. п.В то же время названы и недостатки такой модели организации судебно-экспертного обеспечения правосудия: отсутствие конкуренции между судебными экспертами; злоупотребления судебных экспертов в форме дачи заведомо ложных заключений для прикрытия чьих-то злоупотреблений или для сокрытия преступлений; ограничения сторон судебного процесса в диспозитивном праве свободного предоставления доказательств; искусственное ограничение возможностей познания обстоятельств производства (использование всех возможностей для установления истины по делу).Сделан вывод, что закрепленную «судебной реформой» (Законом № 2147-VІІІ – вступит в силу 18.03.2018 г.) модель судебно-экспертного обеспечения судопроизводства в Украине является этапом в историческом его развитии, который, естественно, должен видоизменяться в зависимости от ее эффективности и запроса общества, общественных, профессиональных и государственных институтов. По причинам корпоративных и политических интересов, коррупционной составляющей, злоупотреблений судебных экспертов и т. д. государственная судебно-экспертная монополия не является идеальной моделью судебно-экспертного обеспечения правосудия. Поэтому она будет пересматриваться и трансформироваться.
In today's global economy, where the entrepreneurial environment is defined as uncertain and turbulent, companies choses coopétition strategies to have advantage and performance. But, according to the specialized literature, if the advantage and the performance are highlighted to justify the relevance of the strategies of coopetition, the notion of opportunism of the partner is also widely invested and identified by research as a brake on coopetition. It is in this way that we can see in this literature two differentiated theses which goods the analyses on coopetition; a relationship between competitors, a source of exceptional performance and a fragile and unstable relationship at all times, on account of the supposed opportunism of the partner. The opportunism of the partner is particularly problematic in that it would lead to limiting the performance and advantages from expected coopetition. The aim of the research is to establish a link between the performance of coopetition and social capital. Based on the opportunism of the partner, we have posited that the performance of a coopetition depends on two prerequisites: the reduction of opportunism and the increase in the commitment of the actors in relationships. Year empirical study is being carried out on the coopetition of very small mining companies of diamond in kasaï in Democratic Republic of Congo. A qualitative methodology allows the collection of data by semi direct interviews and the operation of the terms of speech using the lexicon metric tool "Iramuteq". The objective is to identify the theoretically determined elements, which reflect either the stakes of coopétition for very small mining companies in a difficult environment or the relevance of social capital in the performance of coopetition. The link between the reduction of opportunism, the increase in commitment and the advantages of coopetition with social capital are the contribution of the research, contribution that concerns the knowledge both in management if coopetition, and relating to the very small mining companies of difficult context. The key variable "opportunism" of the partner is the source of the link between the performance of coopetition and social capital. The logic followed us in response to the questions raised in the literature by different authors about the risk of opportunism that leads to the fragility and instability of coopetition. This allows us to formulate a virtuous model of the performance of coopetition through social capital. At the end of our empirical study, a discussion on managerial implications is conducted; leading to a specific form of coopetition invoicing two levels of network and recommendations are envisaged. ; Dans une économie globalisée actuelle, où l'environnement entrepreneurial est défini comme incertain et turbulent, les entreprises choisissent les stratégies de coopétition pour avoir des avantages et performances. Mais, selon la littérature spécialisée, si les avantages et les performances, sont mis en avant pour justifier la pertinence des stratégies de coopétition, la notion d'opportunisme du partenaire est elle aussi largement investie et identifiée par des recherches comme un frein à la coopétition. C'est de cette façon, qu'on peut constater dans cette littérature, deux thèses différenciées qui caractérisent les analyses sur la coopétition ; une relation entre concurrents, source de performances hors normes et une relation fragile et instable à tout instant, à raison de l'opportunisme présumé du partenaire. L'opportunisme du partenaire s'avère particulièrement problématique en ce qu'il conduirait à limiter les performances et avantages attendus de la coopétition. L'objectif de cette recherche est d'établir un lien entre la performance de la coopétition et le capital social. Partant de l'opportunisme du partenaire, nous avons posé que la performance d'une coopétition est fonction de deux préalables : la réduction de l'opportunisme et l'augmentation de l'engagement des acteurs en relation. Une étude empirique est menée auprès des coopétitions des TPE minières exploitant le diamant au Kasaï, en République Démocratique du Congo. Une méthodologie qualitative permet le recueil des données par entretiens semi-directs, puis l'exploitation des termes des discours en se servant de l'outil lexicometrique, « Iramuteq ». L'objectif est de repérer les éléments déterminés de manière théorique, et qui traduisent soit les enjeux de la coopétition pour les TPE d'un environnement difficile, soit la pertinence du capital social dans la performance de la coopétition. Des liens établis entre la réduction de l'opportunisme, l'augmentation de l'engagement et les avantages tirés de la coopétition avec le capital social, constituent l'apport de cette recherche. Apport qui concerne les connaissances tant en management de la coopétition, que relatives aux TPE de contexte difficile. La variable-clé, « opportunisme » du partenaire, est la source du lien constaté entre la performance de la coopétition et le capital social. La logique suivie se décline en réponse aux interrogations formulées dans la littérature par différents auteurs au sujet de l'opportunsme qui conduit à la fragilité et à l'instabilité de la coopétition. Ce qui nous autorise de formuler un modèle vertueux de la performance de la coopétition par le capital social. A l'issu de notre étude empirique, une discussion sur des implications managériales est menée, aboutissant à une forme spécifique de coopétition mobilisant deux niveaux de réseau et des préconisations sont envisagées.
Increasing imports of dairy products, milk powder price volatility, as well as a significant gap between the growth of supply and demand are all drivers that contribute to a renewed interest in local milk production in Senegal. This trend reinforces claims for an intensification of livestock production systems. Far from being neutral, the concept of intensification has a long and controversial history in the Sahel. Combining an ethnographical fieldwork of twelve months in Senegal with a historical study of pastoral development interventions in African and Senegalese semi-arid environments, this thesis critically analyses the centrality of the notion of intensification in pastoral development policy in Africa. This work provides an ethnography of the encounter between, on one side, the techno-scientific culture underlying this development model and, on the other side, herders' rationalities and actions, observed in three major dairy development interventions implemented in Senegal.The data analysis shows that by conceiving dairy development as a technical issue, the policy framework hides several key dimensions such as local production and commercialization constraints, unfair competition from subsided imported powdered milk and the lack of a sector policy for the production and processing of local milk. Research results also suggest that the technical development models at work contribute to legitimize and depoliticize the subtraction of pastoral resources induced by land use policies. In a context of irrigated agriculture expansion, the substitution of natural pastures by costly agricultural residues and industrial livestock feeds is often proposed without taking into account its economic sustainability. The study of livestock production systems, analysed through the prism of three socio-technical objects – cattle breeds, animal feed and milk – provides insights to renew the policy framework for pastoral and dairy development in Senegal as well as in other Sahelian countries. The central role of local cattle breeds, including herders' cross-breeding strategies, appeals to reconsider the public management of bovine genetics, by including herders' views, knowledge and practices. The close relationship between animal feed practices and natural resources management calls on national and international development institutions to set up policies that enhance complementarities between agricultural and pastoral activities in ecologically diverse areas.In conclusion, the commercial value of local milk is important and dynamic but non-exclusive. The plurality of milk uses and values reflects the multifunctionality of livestock production systems and contributes to their social and economic reproduction. Moreover, my results suggest that this multifunctional dimension is likely to improve the herders' participation to the milk collection process. This contradicts the prescriptions of political models that consider productive specialization as a prerequisite to any development of dairy production. ; Au Sénégal, la progression du déficit commercial creusé par les importations de produits laitiers, la volatilité des prix de la poudre de lait, ainsi qu'un décalage important entre croissance de l'offre et de la demande sont autant de facteurs à l'origine d'un regain d'intérêt pour une production locale de lait. Ce renouvellement des enjeux du développement laitier se traduit par une série d'injonctions à l'intensification des systèmes d'élevage ; or, loin d'être neutre, le concept d'intensification a une histoire longue et controversée au Sahel. Cette thèse, fondée sur un travail ethnographique de douze mois au Sénégal et sur l'étude historique des interventions de développement pastoral en milieu semi-aride africain et sénégalais, questionne la place centrale qu'y occupe le paradigme d'intensification. Ce travail propose une ethnographie de la rencontre entre la culture technoscientifique qui légitime l'équation classique entre intensification et développement, et les logiques, les pratiques et les modes d'action de certains éleveurs, à partir de trois interventions emblématiques du développement de la production laitière au Sénégal.L'analyse montre qu'en concevant l'intensification laitière comme un enjeu et une construction techniques, le cadre d'action publique occulte les contraintes locales de production et commercialisation, la concurrence de la poudre de lait importée et détaxée, et l'absence de politique sectorielle de production et de transformation du lait local. D'autre part, les résultats suggèrent que la centralité des modèles techniques conduit à légitimer et dépolitiser la soustraction de ressources pastorales induite par les modèles d'aménagement de l'espace à l'œuvre, alors même que de nouvelles dynamiques d'aménagement agricole se profilent. Dans ce contexte, la substitution d'intrants payants aux ressources naturelles est souvent proposée sans aucune considération quant à sa viabilité économique. La mise en perspective des enquêtes sur les systèmes d'élevage, par le biais de trois objets socio-techniques – les races bovines, les aliments du bétail et le lait – dessine des pistes de renouveau de l'action publique de développement de l'élevage et de la production laitière. Le rôle irremplaçable des races locales, y compris dans les croisements entrepris localement, invite à reconsidérer la gestion publique de la génétique bovine, en intégrant les visions, les savoirs, les pratiques des éleveurs. Les liens étroits entre pratiques d'alimentation du bétail et politiques d'aménagement de l'espace appellent à la mise en place de politiques territoriales favorisant la préservation ou la construction de complémentarités entre les activités agricoles et pastorales dans des zones écologiquement diversifiées. La dimension marchande du lait local est importante et évolutive mais non exclusive. La pluralité des usages du lait reflète le caractère multifonctionnel des élevages, et participe à la reproduction des systèmes. Les résultats suggèrent que la multifonctionnalité des élevages peut contribuer à la durabilité d'un bassin laitier, contrairement à ce qui est préconisé par des modèles politiques identifiant la spécialisation productive comme préalable à tout développement laitier.
The article analyzes the quantitative study of Ukrainian culture values given cluster collectivist individualpriorities. On this basis, concluded that the inability to establish the level of dominance in modern Ukrainian culture ofindividualism and/or collectivism that indirectly value-mental and socio-political factors of transformation.The research we have grouped (as far as possible) by chronology: a study Colamborative International Study ofManagerial Stress (CISMS) (P. Spectrum, K. Cooper, K. Sparks (1996)), a survey D. Maitri and T. Bradley (1997), tostudy business School dean of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, Mr. Sheremet (1999), data on students with Ukrainian citiesreceived by Russian researchers Latov N. and J. Latov (2006 ), the research staff of the Department of Nature andPsychology research Institute of ethnicity, S. and A. Novosad Cheshkova who interviewed 15- 17-year-old Ukrainian teenon basic psycho signs (spring 2006), S. Novosad independent research conducted by in two phases (2006 and 2009),which involved interviewing young Ukraine aged 18 to 30 years and adults-aged 31 to 45 years of research within thethird wave of the international project "European Social Survey" (EUROPEAN SOCIAL SURVEY (ESS) by the method ofS. Schwartz (December 2006 – January 2007), a survey initiated by N. Litvinenko and G. Pylypenko conducted basedtechniques G. Hofstede, 2008 (2012), to study L. Pochebut and I. Meyzhys, the author studies within the project mentprofessor of Warsaw University of Levitsky, reflected in Article VI Semkiva Ukrainian researchers. Unfortunately the timeof the last study we were unable to install.Also in the scientific literature can be found information on research, which is mentioned in the works of Lime"World economy: structural foundations of civilization" (Kharkov, 2007). It individualism level in Ukraine is set at 18 points(rather low figure). A distance of power – is very high (92 points). Russian researchers Latov N. and J. Latov emphasizethe impossibility to establish the representativeness of the sample, since there is no way to verify it. However, it was herthey used in their research, in particular to check the level of Westernization mentality of students who modernized.In our opinion, the more important operating time can be considered a thesis B. Linden, the conclusions whichthe author notes the ambivalence of socially-oriented value system of our country.Overall analysis available for our review and our review of the proposed eleven quantitative research allows tostate the following.As a culture, dominated by collectivist Ukrainian determine priorities: 1) B. Lipov (individualism – low powerdistance – high ) 2) Mr. Sheremet (collectivism – high power distance – large), 3) J. Latov, H. Latov (individualism –rather low power distance – low), 4) A. Cheshkov, S. Novosad (collectivism – high), 5) N. Litvinenko and G. Pylypenko(individualism – low power distance – low ), 6) I. Semkiv, M. Levitsky (collectivism – high), 7) European Social Survey(collectivism-high).Among the studies , as evidenced by the dominance of individualistic priorities , we can identify the following:1) The range of K. Cooper, K. Sparks (individualism – high power distance – low), 2) T. Bradley, D. Maitri (individualismrather high power distance – low), 3) Pochebut L., I. Meyzhys (high individualism), 4) S. Novosad collectivism andindividualism take almost flat position).Here, we believe that you should pay attention to some inconsistencies.First, most studies Ukraine demonstrates a fairly high rate of power distance, which according to the theory ofG. Hofstede, which is supported by most of his followers, should indicate a predominance of individualistic tendencies.Second, as is clear from the analysis within the studies conducted by western experts, the Ukrainian cultureshows not only an individualistic orientation. Even indicators that are working authors somewhat in their methods (although are quantified in the same dimensions as in our research) as a result get different conclusions. You may workin favor of individualism in fact belong to the authors project individualistic cultures and testing techniques mainly withinthe western individualistic cultures, which warned D. Matsumoto.Thirdly, we should also note that research results are still somewhat indirect. Settings for safety and conformity,for example, in our opinion, can only indicate a situational socio-economic and political problems that appear in individualwell-being and accordingly affect the internal psychological priorities, but do not demonstrate the benefits collectivistmentality nature and value Ukrainian culture.In addition, theoretical analysis indicates collections by the inability to determine what type of Ukrainian culturecan be attributed, at least today. Therefore, at present we can only say with certainty unless the ambivalence ofUkrainian culture, although this claim is partly mediated by objective factors forming Ukraine as a country going throughand going through hard times. ; В статье проанализированы количественные исследования ценностей украинской культуры с учетом кластера индивидуально-коллективистских приоритетов. На их основе сделан вывод о невозможности установить уровень превалирования в современной украинской культуре индивидуализма или/и коллективизма, что опосредовано ценностно-ментальными та социально-политическими факторами ее трансформаций. ; У статті проаналізовано кількісні дослідження цінностей української культури з урахуванням кластера індивідуалістсько-колективістських пріоритетів. На їх основі зроблено висновок про неможливість встановити рівень переважання в сучасній українській культурі індивідуалізму та/чи колективізму, що опосередковано ціннісно-ментальними та соціально-політичними чинниками її трансформацій.
Актуальность и цели. Политические, экономические и культурные изменения в системе взаимоотношений России и Азербайджана обуславливают необходимость пересмотреть и переосмыслить и вековые межлитературные отношения и культурно-нравственные ценности этих народов. Актуальным представляется исследовать и важные аспекты проблемы «М. Ю. Лермонтов и Азербайджан»: пребывание поэта в этой стране, его знакомство с культурой и языком, представителями азербайджанского народа, история переложения им азербайджанской народной сказки «Ашик-Кериб». Цель работы собрать и осветить разбросанные по различным источникам образы, детали, замечания, намеки под единым углом зрения и воссоздать общую и целостную картину азербайджанских страниц творчества М. Ю. Лермонтова. Материалы и методы. Особое внимание уделено вопросу об азербайджанских впечатлениях Лермонтова, как они преломились и отразились в его произведениях. К анализу привлечены письмо М. Ю. Лермонтова к С. А. Раевскому, переложенная поэтом на русский язык сказка «Ашик-Кериб» и такие его произведения, как «Я в Тифлисе», «Свидание», «На бурке под тенью чинары», «Спор», «Валерик», «Спеша на север издалека», «Кинжал», «Демон», «Кавказец», «Герой нашего времени». Методологический потенциал включает историко-филологический метод, применение которого позволяет раскрыть существенные аспекты затрагиваемой проблемы на основе обширных материалов лермонтоведения и проследить эволюцию разрешения проблемных вопросов темы. Результаты. Азербайджанские мотивы в лермонтовских произведениях рассмотрены с точки зрения их художественно-идейных функций, влияния на поэтику, образную структуру произведений М. Ю. Лермонтова, обогащения его изобразительной палитры. Доказывается, что восточные лексические и языковые средства, почерпнутые из азербайджанского языка или посредством азербайджанского языка, выполняют в творениях поэта разнообразные идейно-художественные функции при создании картин жизни народов Кавказа, в том числе азербайджанской действительности. Проанализированы и поэтические образцы азербайджанских поэтов, посвященные М. Ю. Лермонтову и воссоздающие светлый образ поэта. Выводы. Изучение проблемы позволяет сделать вывод о том, что М. Ю. Лермонтов, изображая быт, нравы, обычаи азербайджанского народа, вносил важный вклад в ознакомление русского читателя с этой страной, способствовал пробуждению интереса к ней. Азербайджанская тема в творчестве М. Ю. Лермонтова ввела в русскую литературу новые образы и идеи, внесла в нее новую живительную струю, обогатила лексику и язык произведений поэта многочисленными лексическими пластами азербайджанского присхождения. Утверждается, что выдвинутые многими учеными гипотезы о знакомстве М. Ю. Лермонтова с М. Ф. Ахундовым, А. Бакихановым, И. Куткашенским, о личности, оказавшей помощь русскому поэту в переложении сказки «Ашик-Кериб», и о том, кто такие Али и Ахмет, указанные в незаконченной лермонтовской записи «Я в Тифлисе», остаются до сих пор предположениями без окончательных решений. ; Background. Political, economical and cultural changes in the system of interrelations between Russia and Azerbaijan condition the necessity of reconsidering and reviewing the centuries-long interliterary and intercultural relationships and moral-cltural values of these nations. Quite topical in terms of research seem to be the important aspects of the problem "M.Y. Lermontov and Azerbaijan": the poet's stay in this country, his introduction to the culture and language, to Azerbaijani people, the history of his transposition of the Azerbaijani folk fable "Ashug-Garib". The study is aimed at collection and description of images, details, observations, hints, scattered in various sources, and at construction of an integral and general picture of the Azerbaijani pages of M. Y. Lermontov's works. Materials and methods. Special attention is paid to the problem of Lermontov's impressions in Azerbaijan, how were they interpreted and reflected in his works. The analysis included M. Y. Lermontov's letters to S. A. Raevsky, the fable "Ashug-Garib" later transposed into Russian, and his works, such as «Ya v Tiflise (Me in Tiflis)», «Svidanie (The date)», «Na burke pod tenyu chinary (On a cloak in the plane tree shade)», «Spor (The argument)», «Valerik (Valery) », «Spesha na sever izdaleka (Hastening to the North from afar)», «Kinzhal (the Dagger)», «Demon (The demon)», «Kavkazets (The Caucasian) », «Geroy nashego vremeni (A hero of our time)». The methodological potential includes the historical-philological method allowing to reveal the existing aspects of the problem under consideration on the basis of extensive data of studies about Lermontov and to trace the evolution of topical problems solution. Results. The Azerbaijani motifs in Lermontov's works were considered from the point of view of artistic and idea functions, influence on poetry, image structure of M. Y. Lermontov's works, enrichment of his figurative palette. It is proved that the eastern lexical and linguistic means taken from the Azerbaijani language perform various artistic-idea functions in the poet's works creating the picture of life of Caucasian peoples including the Azerbaijani reality. The author also analyzed poetic pieces by the Azerbaijani poets devoted to M. Y. Lermontov recalling the insipiring image of the poet. Conclusions. The study of the problem allows to conclude that M. Y. Lermontov, describing the everyday life, temper and customs of the Azerbaijani people, significantly contributed to introduction of the Russian readers to this country, promoted the interest in it. The Azerbaijan theme in works by M. Y. Lermontov introduced new images and ideas into the Russian literature, brought the new vivifying stream in it, enriched the vocabulary and language of the poet's works by multiple lexical strata of Azerbaijani origin. It is stated that the hypotheses, put forward by many scientists, about M. Y. Lermontov being acquainted with M. F. Akhundov, A. Bakikhanov, I. Kutkashensky, an individual who helped him transpose the "Ashug-Garib" fable, and about the identities of Ali and Akhmet, represented in the unfinished work "Me in Tiflis", still remain to be assumptions without final decisions.
In den letzten Jahren hat die Diskussion um den Erhalt und die Nutzung von kulturellem Erbe aufgrund des Potenzials für Tourismus, Planung und Bildung sowie der Bedeutung für die Entwicklung in der Informationsgesellschaft verstärkt politisches und gesellschaftliches Interesse auf sich gezogen. Die rasanten informationstechnologischen Entwicklungen im Kulturerbe-Sektor führen zu einer Neubewertung der gesellschaftlichen Rolle von öffentlichen Einrichtungen. Die Beteiligten stellen erhöhte Anforderungen an das Management von Sammlungen, die wissenschaftliche Forschung über die Erhaltung von Materialien sowie die Verfügbarkeit und den innovativen, umfassenden und dynamischen Zugang zu kulturellen Beständen durch Wissenschaftler, Fachkräfte und interessierte Bürger. Mit dem Einsatz der Internettechnologie sowie neueren Entwicklungen der Datenbanktechnologie in Standard-Computeranwendungen oder Spezialsystemen können Informationen zum kulturellen Erbe einer großen Anzahl von Nutzern verfügbar gemacht werden. Seit Anfang der 90er Jahre werden Geoinformationssysteme (GIS) zunehmend auch in Disziplinen außerhalb der Geodäsie und Geografie eingesetzt. Unter anderem beschäftigen sich aktuell die Archäologie, die Geologie und die Denkmalpflege mit der digitalen Datenverarbeitung von kulturell und historisch interessanten Objekten in GIS. Insbesondere zur Bearbeitung von raumbezogenen Problemstellungen stehen in allen gängigen GIS zahlreiche Methoden zur Erfassung, Speicherung, Analyse und Visualisierung zur Verfügung. Der zeitlichen Komponente dagegen, die gerade für historische Entwicklungen oder dynamische Prozesse eine große Rolle spielt, wurde sehr viel weniger Bedeutung beigemessen. Sie wird aber neben der nach wie vor sehr wichtigen dritten Dimension in Anwendungen für das kulturelle Erbe zunehmend geschätzt. Objektorientierte Sprachen und Methoden sind als Softwareentwicklungs-Technologie in der Geoinformatik und ihren Anwendungsgebieten unverzichtbar geworden. Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist es daher, durch die Nutzung der Vorteile der Objektorientierung bzw. eines objektrelationalen Datenbanksystems einen durchgängigen objektorientierten Ansatz zur Erfassung und Verwaltung von Geoobjekten in einem temporalen GIS (TGIS) für kulturelles Erbes aufzuzeigen. Die Vorgehensweise beinhaltet die objektorientierte konzeptionelle Modellierung eines temporalen Datenmodells für kulturelles Erbe unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von temporalen Anforderungen der Anwendung mittels der Bildung von Objekten mit räumlichen, zeitlichen und thematischen Eigenschaften sowie der Implementierung in eine objektorientierte Software-Umgebung. Es wird auf punktuelle Aspekte des temporalen Umfelds in GIS für kulturelles Erbe eingegangen und diese werden anhand von Anwendungsbeispielen beschrieben. Bei der Modellierung des Informationssystems wurde ein UML-Klassendiagramm eingesetzt und dieses in ein objektrelationales Datenbanksystem abgebildet. Die Grundlage der vorliegenden Arbeit bildete eine Zusammenarbeit der Technischen Universität München mit Gemeinden des Achentals und Verwaltungen in Lehrveranstaltungen und Projekten in Bereichen der Erfassung, Dokumentation und Analyse von kulturellem Erbe in einem GIS. Der eigentliche Wert von kulturellem Erbe, so wurde von den Beteiligten in einem Workshop im Jahr 2001 festgestellt, liegt für die ländlichen Gemeinden nicht in rein kommerzieller Natur, sondern besteht in der Förderung intellektueller Aktivitäten und der Bewusstmachung, dass kulturelles und historisches Wissen die Wurzel regionaler und lokaler Identität bildet. Durch die Kombination neuer Medien, GIS und Internet können neue Anwendergruppen für eine nachhaltige Nutzung, beispielsweise im Heimat- oder Geschichtsunterricht, hinzu gewonnen werden. Zusätzliche oder neue Einnahmequellen entstehen dann in anderen, mit dem Kultursektor verbundenen wirtschaftlichen Sektoren, wie z. B. der regionalen Entwicklung, dem Tourismus oder der Medienindustrie. ; In recent years, there has been a growing social and political debate about the preservation and use of cultural heritage resources. Attention was drawn to the potential of cultural heritage for tourism, planning and education as well as to its significance for the formation of the information society in general. The rapid development of information technologies in the field of cultural heritage leads to a revaluation of the social role of public facilities. The parties hereto make great demands on the management of collections, scientific research on the preservation of materials as well as the availability and innovative, comprehensive and dynamic access to cultural assets through scientists, specialists and interested citizens. By employing Internet technologies and recent developments in database technologies in standard computer applications or expert systems, information about cultural heritage can be made accessible to a large group of users. From the early nineties, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have increasingly been used outside disciplines such as geodesy and geography. Amongst others, archaeologists, geologists and people concerned with the preservation of monuments and historic buildings work with digital representations of cultural and historical objects in GIS. Particularly with regard to the processing of spatial problems, state-of-the-art GIS provide numerous methods for acquisition, storage, analysis and visualisation. In contrast, the temporal component that plays an important role for historical developments and dynamic processes has received far less attention. However, in addition to the still very important third dimension, the temporal dimension is increasingly being valued in cultural heritage applications. Object-oriented languages and methods have become indispensable software development technologies in geoinformatics and its fields of applications. It is therefore a goal of this work to present an integrated object-oriented approach for the acquisition and management of geo-objects in a temporal GIS (TGIS) for cultural heritage. This is achieved through utilising the advantages provided by object-oriented concepts and object-oriented database management systems respectively. The approach comprises the object-oriented conceptual modelling of a temporal data model for cultural heritage. Special consideration is given to the temporal requirements of applications by modelling objects with spatial, temporal and thematic properties as well as by implementing the solution within an object-oriented software environment. Selected aspects of the temporal environment for cultural heritage in GIS are addressed and further explained on the basis of use case scenarios. An UML class diagram is used for the modelling process which is transformed into an object-relational database management system. The basis of the present work is a co-operation between the Technical University of Munich, local authorities of the "Achental" valley and regional authority in university courses and projects concerned with the acquisition, documentation and analysis of cultural heritage in a GIS. According to the results of a workshop held in 2001, the real value of cultural heritage for rural communities is not merely financial in nature, but lies in an encouragement of intellectual activities and in increasing the awareness that cultural and historical knowledge forms the roots for regional and local identity. Combining new media, GIS and Internet, new user groups for a sustainable utilisation, for example, in social and history lessons, can be found and inspired. Additional or new sources of revenue will then emerge from other economic sectors that are connected to the cultural sector. Examples here are regional development, tourism or the media industry.
Ante la alarmante situación de niveles de epidemia generalizada de VIH en Guinea Ecuatorial, y ante la urgente necesidad de llevar a cabo políticas eficaces, eficientes y efectivas en la prevención y en el tratamiento de la epidemia en el país, en el marco del convenio de cooperación al desarrollo entre España y Guinea Ecuatorial, se plantea la pertinencia de realizar el estudio de caso ESEVIGUE2. De modo que, en el año 2010 se inicia la investigación que, a continuación se expone, con la finalidad de proporcionar y generar evidencia científica para apoyar el diseño de planes estratégicos nacionales, así como orientar la toma de decisiones respecto a cómo implementar determinadas recomendaciones internacionales, y en concreto la extensión del diagnóstico precoz de VIH a toda la población guineana (OMS, 2002). El punto de partida de la investigación ha sido indagar, desde una perspectiva macrosociológica, la relación que se establece entre la globalización, con sus diferentes dimensiones, y la epidemia del VIH, para posteriormente descender a un nivel microsocial, a través de un trabajo de campo etnográfico realizado en Bata, y comprender desde una «perspectiva fenomenológica» (Schütz, 1962), cómo percibe y cómo vive la población el fenómeno de la epidemia. Las estrategias de investigación empleadas en el desarrollo de l «estudio de caso» (Stake, 2005) han sido fundamentalmente cualitativas. A través del desarrollo de diversas técnicas, como la observación no participante, la entrevista individual y el grupo de discusión, se recaba información para su posterior análisis, aplicando la teoría fundamentada como método. No obstante, en la descripción y comprensión del contexto social del objeto de estudio también se han empleado fuentes secundarias cuantitativas. En cuanto a los resultados más relevantes obtenidos en la investigación, en primer lugar se señala la pertinencia del modelo conceptual de «determinantes sociales de la salud» (OMS, 2008) para explicar la prevalencia del VIH en Guinea Ecuatorial. En este sentido, factores estructurales como las políticas públicas, el contexto político y económico, así como la cultura y los valores tienen una clara incidencia en los niveles de prevalencia en el país. Asimismo, el género, la etnia y el nivel educativo como ejes de desigualdad, también son factores que determinan una mayor vulnerabilidad por grupos sociales. La epidemia constituye, por tanto, un claro exponente de «desigualdad global en salud» (Ritzer, 2007). Ahora bien, estos factores determinantes y ejes de desigualdad, ayudan también a comprender y explicar por qué en el espacio de la cotidianidad, determinados grupos sociales no adoptan algunas prácticas preventivas para protegerse de la amenaza del VIH. Tal es el caso del empleo del preservativo masculino en la población femenina. Y, por último, con base al modelo conceptual de determinantes sociales de la salud, los resultados también nos advierten de la existencia de determinantes intermedios, como la cobertura y la accesibilidad de los servicios sanitarios guineanos de la medicina moderna, como condicionantes para el cuidado de la salud y protección ante el virus. En este sentido, algunas de las barreras de accesibilidad que se producen en la utilización de los servicios de diagnóstico y tratamiento del VIH en los servicios sanitarios modernos constituyen causas de abandono y no adherencia. Ahora bien, en relación a los motivos de abandono de los servicios sanitarios y la no adherencia al tratamiento, los resultados ponen de manifiesto que la medicina tradicional, a diferencia de otros países africanos donde sí tiene una mayor influencia (Asgary, Antony, Grigoryan, Aronson & 2014; Merten et al., 2010), no constituye la principal barrera para el diagnóstico precoz del VIH, ni tampoco la principal causa de abandono de los servicios de diagnóstico y tratamiento. Otros muchos aspectos, que desde una perspectiva fenomenológica configuran el «mundo intersubjetivo» (Schütz, 1962), tienen una mayor influencia para comprender el sentido y el significado de los comportamientos y acciones frente al VIH. A este respecto, se evidencia la coexistencia de diferentes significados sobre el virus, donde el contexto cultural local juega un papel clave en la configuración de dichas estructuras significativas. Tal es el caso de la percepción unánime que existe del virus como "enfermedad de hospital", en oposición a las enfermedades tradicionales. No obstante, un elemento transversal y común a todos los significados o percepciones que el virus adquiere, se halla en la identificación que se produce entre el VIH y la enfermedad del sida. De modo que, el VIH es finalmente percibido como la "enfermedad del sida", atribuyéndosele en última instancia significado de mortalidad, y configurándose en el imaginario colectivo como una "enfermedad mortal". Algunas de estas estructuras significativas, tales como "enfermedad de abuso sexual" y "enfermedad mortal", terminan reificándose en el «lebenswelt» (Berger & Luckmann, 1967). Y con base a estas estructuras se deriva la construcción de una «representación social» (Moscovici, 1979) del VIH poco positiva y desfavorable. Cabe resaltar la gran contribución de este resultado, por su fuerte valor explicativo en la comprensión de las formas de pensar, actuar y sentir de la población ante el virus. Ahora bien, debido a la representación social del VIH poco favorable, tener el virus adquiere la categoría social de «desviación secundaria» (Lemert, 1951), modificándose por tanto el «rol social» (Parsons, 1951); la «identidad social» (Tajfel & Turner, 1979); y, en última instancia, redefiniendo y reorganizando el «autoconcepto» (Mead, 1934) de la persona que lo padece. De modo que, y en consecuencia a esta consideración de desviación secundaria, se desencadenan determinados mecanismos de control social, tales como el congosá, el rumor, las risas, el estigma, el prejuicio que cristalizan finalmente en formas de rechazo social y discriminación en torno a las personas seropositivas. Por tanto, una primera conclusión que se deriva de los resultados obtenidos en la investigación, es la influencia que tienen los determinantes sociales de la salud para explicar la prevalencia de la epidemia en Guinea Ecuatorial así como su distribución por grupos sociales. Una segunda conclusión, es el fuerte valor explicativo que tienen los distintos constructos sociales creados en torno al VIH para comprender las formas de pensar, actuar y vivir el fenómeno y, por tanto, en la adquisición o no de prácticas preventivas. ; Given the alarming situation of the generalised HIV epidemic levels in Equatorial Guinea, and given the urgent need to implement effective and efficient policies for the prevention and treatment of the epidemic in the country, the relevance of conducting the ESEVIGUE case study arises, within the framework of the development cooperation agreement between Spain and Equatorial Guinea. So, in 2010 the research began with the purpose of providing and generating scientific evidence to support the development of national strategic plans and guiding decision-making about how to implement certain international recommendations, and in particular the expansion of early diagnosis of HIV across the Equatorial Guinean population (WHO, 2002). The starting point of the research has been to investigate what relationship exists between globalisation and the HIV epidemic from a macro-sociological perspective, then to subsequently descend to a micro-social level, through ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Bata, with the objective of understanding how the Equatorial Guinean population perceives and lives with the phenomenon of the epidemic from a «phenomenological perspective» (Schütz, 1962). The research strategies employed in the development of the «case study» (Stake, 2005) have been fundamentally qualitative. However, in the description and understanding of the social context of the object of study, quantitative secondary sources have also been used. Specifically, the data collection techniques applied have been non-participant observation, individual interviews and discussion group. As for the most relevant results obtained in the investigation, firstly it is noted that the HIV epidemic in Equatorial Guinean society responds to the «social determinants of health» (WHO, 2005) conceptual model. It therefore constitutes a clear exponent of «global health inequality» (Ritzer, 2007). In this sense, structural factors such as public policy, political and economic context and culture and values have an impact on prevalence levels in the country. Also, gender, ethnicity and education level as axes of inequality, are also factors that determine greater vulnerability for social groups to the virus. These determinants and inequality axes also help to understand and explain why in the space of everyday life; certain social groups do not adopt some preventive measures to protect themselves from the threat of HIV. Such is the case of male condom use amongst women. And finally, as for the conceptual model of social determinants of health, it is noted that the intermediate determinants, such as the coverage and accessibility of modern Equatorial Guinean health services, also represent a determining factor for health care and protection from HIV. In this sense, the existing accessibility barriers are causes of abandonment and non-adherence to HIV diagnostic services and treatment. In relation to the grounds of abandonment of the services and non-adherence to the treatment, the results show that traditional medicine, unlike other African countries where it has a greater influence (Asgary et al., 2014; Merten et al., 2010), it is not the main barrier to early diagnosis of HIV nor the main cause of abandoning health and diagnostic services. Many other aspects, which from a phenomenological perspective constitute significant structures, i.e. the «intersubjective world" in the terms of Schütz (1962), have a greater influence on the understanding of the meaning and the significance of the behaviours and actions against HIV. So the coexistence of different meanings regarding HIV is evident, where the local cultural context is key in shaping said significant structures. For example, such is the case of the existing unanimous perception of a «hospital disease» , as opposed to traditional diseases. However, a transversal and common element to all the meanings or perceptions that the virus acquires is in the identification that occurs between HIV and the AIDS disease, ultimately being perceived as the "AIDS disease" and therefore the meaning of "deadly disease» ultimately being connotated. Some of these significant structures, such as "a disease of sexual abuse" and "a deadly disease", making it real in the «lebenswelt» (Berger & Luckmann, 1967), ultimately result in the construction of a «social representation» (Moscovici, 1979) of HIV as negative and unfavourable. The major contribution of this result is emphasised given that it has a strong explanatory value in the ways in which people think, act and feel regarding HIV. However, because HIV has acquired an unfavourable social representation, having the virus acquires the social category «secondary deviation» (Lemert, 1951), thus modifying the «social role» (Parsons, 1951); «social identity» (Tajfel & Turner, 1979); and, ultimately, redefining and reorganising the «self-concept» (Mead, 1934) of the person who has it. Therefore the consideration of secondary deviation, triggers certain mechanisms of social control, such as local gossip, rumours, laughter, stigma and prejudice that ultimately crystallise into forms of social rejection and discrimination around HIV-positive people. This consideration of HIV as secondary deviation also affects the social perception of risk, as long as it is mediated, in part, by «exogroup discrimination» (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Therefore, in view of the results obtained, one of the main conclusions obtained from the research is the influence of social determinants of health on an increased vulnerability before the HIV epidemic. As well as the explanatory value that different social constructs have, created around the virus in the acquisition of preventive practices and in the ways of thinking about, acting on and living with the phenomenon of the epidemic in the country.
The notion of phraseology is now used across a wide range of linguistic disciplines: Phraseology (proper), Corpus Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Pragmatics, Cognitive Linguistics, Computational Linguistics. It is, however, conspicuously absent from most studies in the area of Translation Studies (e.g. Delisle 2003, Baker & Saldanha 2011). The paradox is that many practical difficulties encountered by translators and interpreters are directly related to phraseology in the broad sense (Colson 2008, 2013), and this can most clearly be seen in the failure of SMT-models (statistical machine translation) to deal efficiently with the translation of set phrases (used here as a generic term for all categories of phraseological constructions, from collocations to proverbs). Although corpus-based and computational phraseology still need to be clearly delineated from other concurrent disciplines, a possible way of narrowing the gap between phraseology and translation studies is proposed here: the recourse to experiments involving on the one hand set phrases and, on the other, evidence from parallel translation corpora or SMT-machines such as Google Translate. We will argue that both phraseology and translation studies have much to gain from this cross fertilisation, because both disciplines are regularly criticised for their lack of coherent terminological description and for the insufficient number of reproducible experiments they involve. The aim of this paper is not to draw up an exhaustive list of the possible experiments showing the interweaving of phraseology and translation studies, but to propose directions for future research involving a number of key issues that are posed by phraseology and are illustrated by translation practice. A first series of experiments relating to this subject matter concerns the problems posed by phraseology to human translation. Decoding phraseology in the source text is far from easy for translators and interpreters, all the more so as they are usually not native speakers of the source language. Also, finding a natural formulation in the target language and avoiding translationese requires an excellent mastery of the phraseology of the target language. I will argue that experiments with translation corpora may precisely shed some light on some crucial notions of phraseology and of translation studies. Experiments have shown that translation errors due to phraseology are legion in many translation corpora, even in the official translations of the European Union. A contribution of corpus-based phraseology would therefore consist in making human translators aware of the pitfalls of phraseology in the source text. Even experienced professionals sometimes fail to detect the fixed or semi-fixed character of a source text construction. Experiments along these lines should therefore also include the creation of large, multilingual phraseological databases, which brings us back to two serious shortcomings of computational phraseology: 1. There is no universally accepted algorithm for the automatic extraction of phraseology, especially not for ngrams larger than bigrams. 2. There is no consensus as to the proportion of set phrases in relation with the rest of the vocabulary: according to Jackendoff (1995), there are about as many fixed expressions as there are single words in the dictionary, but others (such as Mel'čuk 1995) hold the view that fixed expressions far outnumber single words. I will argue in that respect that algorithms derived from text mining and information retrieval techniques (Baeza-Yates, R. & B. Ribeiro-Neto 1999) can be efficient and (computationally) cost-effective in order to build up unfiltered collections of recurrent fixed or semi-fixed phrases, from which translators could gain information about the number of set phrases in the source text. Such an algorithm has been proposed in Colson (2014), and a provisional database of about 700,000 English set phrases (tokens) has been assembled, which seems to confirm that Jackendoff's view about the total number of fixed expressions was not correct. A second series of experiments that would turn out to be profitable to a better theoretical understanding of both phraseology and translation studies, has to do with the specific problems posed by phraseology to automatic translation. Phraseology has only recently been identified as one of the main sources of errors in automatic translation systems, including the most recent SMT-systems (Monti, Mitkov, Corpas Pastor & Seretan 2013). I will however point out that the theoretical underpinnings of phraseology are at stake in order to provide a coherent explanation for the serious shortcomings in the automatic translation of sentences containing phraseology. The crux of the matter seems to be the complex interplay between association and frequency in fixed expressions. Recent evidence shows that, contrary to what is assumed by most statistical scores, there should be no relationship between the statistical association of the grams constituting a set phrase, and its frequency in a huge corpus. The countless examples of wrong translations of phraseologically rich sentences by Google Translate, for instance, all point to the fundamentally wrong way in which ngrams were traced down, namely by giving the highest priority to frequency. Further experimentation should also shed some light on the overall statistical distribution of set phrases in large corpora. The well-know zipfian distribution of words in a corpus poses theoretical problems as far as phraseology is concerned. Corpus-based studies (Baroni 2008) indicate that the distribution of ngrams themselves may display a Zipf-Mandelbrot curve. This is an important theoretical challenge to the theory of phraseology and also to semantics, having therefore consequences on the way meaning may be expressed in different languages and be adequately translated from one language into another. I will point out that a general theory of phraseology, as outlined by Mejri (2006), may offer a new insight into the statistical underpinnings of both morpheme associations (in words) and of word association (in set phrases). References Baeza-Yates, R. & B. Ribeiro-Neto (1999). Modern Information Retrieval. New York: ACM Press, Addison Wesley. Baker, M. & G. Saldanha (eds.) (2011). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. Baroni, M. (2008). Distributions in text. In: A. Lüdeling & M. Kytö, (eds.), Corpus linguistics. An international handbook. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, p. 803-821. Baroni, M., Bernardini, S., Ferraresi, A. & E. Zanchetta. (2009). The WaCky Wide Web: A collection of very large linguistically processed Web-crawled corpora. Journal of Language Resources and Evaluation, 43, p. 209-226. Colson, J.-P. (2008). Cross-linguistic phraseological studies: An overview. In: Granger, S. & F. Meunier (eds.), Phraseology. An interdisciplinary perspective. John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, p. 191-206. Colson, J.-P. (2010a). The Contribution of Web-based Corpus Linguistics to a Global Theory of Phraseology. In: Ptashnyk, S., Hallsteindóttir, E. & N. Bubenhofer (eds.), Corpora, Web and Databases. Computer-Based Methods in Modern Phraselogy and Lexicography. Hohengehren, Schneider Verlag, p. 23-35. Colson, J.-P. (2010b). Automatic extraction of collocations: a new Web-based method. In: S. Bolasco, S., Chiari, I. & L. Giuliano, Proceedings of JADT 2010,Statistical Analysis of Textual Data, Sapienza University of Rome, 9-11 June 2010. Milan, LED Edizioni, p. 397-408. Colson, J.-P. (2013). Pratique traduisante et idiomaticité : l'importance des structures semi-figées. In : Mogorrón Huerta, P., Gallego Hernández, D., Masseau, P. & Tolosa Igualada, M. (eds.), Fraseología, Opacidad y Traduccíon. Studien zur romanischen Sprachwissenschaft und interkulturellen Kommunikation (Herausgegeben von Gerd Wotjak). Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang, p. 207-218. Colson, J.-P. (2014). Set phrases around globalization : an experiment in corpus-based computational phraseology. Paper presented at CILC 2014, 6th International Conference on Corpus Linguistics. University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 22-24 May 2014. Corpas Pastor, G. (2013). Detección, descripción y contraste de las unidades fraseológicas mediante tecnologías lingüísticas. In Olza, I. & R. Elvira Manero (eds.) Fraseopragmática. Berlin: Frank & Timme, p. 335-373. Delisle, J. (2003). La traduction raisonnée. Ottawa: Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa. Jackendoff, R. (1995). The boundaries of the lexicon. In M. Everaert, E.-J. van der Linden, A. Schenk & R. Schroeder (eds.), Idioms: Structural and psychological perspectives. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 133-165. Mejri, S. (2006). Polylexicalité, monolexicalité et double articulation. Cahiers de Lexicologie, 2 :209-221. Mel'čuk, I. 1995. Phrasemes in language and phraseology in linguistics. In M. Everaert, E.-J. van der Linden, A. Schenk & R. Schroeder (eds.), Idioms: Structural and psychological perspectives. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 167-232. Monti, J., Mitkov, R., Corpas Pastor, G. & V. Seretan (eds) (2013). Workshop Proceedings: Multi-word units in machine translation and translation technologies, Nice 14th Machine Translation Summit.
The notion of phraseology is now used across a wide range of linguistic disciplines: Phraseology (proper), Corpus Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Pragmatics, Cognitive Linguistics, Computational Linguistics. It is, however, conspicuously absent from most studies in the area of Translation Studies (e.g. Delisle 2003, Baker & Saldanha 2011). The paradox is that many practical difficulties encountered by translators and interpreters are directly related to phraseology in the broad sense (Colson 2008, 2013), and this can most clearly be seen in the failure of SMT-models (statistical machine translation) to deal efficiently with the translation of set phrases (used here as a generic term for all categories of phraseological constructions, from collocations to proverbs). Although corpus-based and computational phraseology still need to be clearly delineated from other concurrent disciplines, a possible way of narrowing the gap between phraseology and translation studies is proposed here: the recourse to experiments involving on the one hand set phrases and, on the other, evidence from parallel translation corpora or SMT-machines such as Google Translate. We will argue that both phraseology and translation studies have much to gain from this cross fertilisation, because both disciplines are regularly criticised for their lack of coherent terminological description and for the insufficient number of reproducible experiments they involve. The aim of this paper is not to draw up an exhaustive list of the possible experiments showing the interweaving of phraseology and translation studies, but to propose directions for future research involving a number of key issues that are posed by phraseology and are illustrated by translation practice. A first series of experiments relating to this subject matter concerns the problems posed by phraseology to human translation. Decoding phraseology in the source text is far from easy for translators and interpreters, all the more so as they are usually not native speakers of the source language. Also, finding a natural formulation in the target language and avoiding translationese requires an excellent mastery of the phraseology of the target language. I will argue that experiments with translation corpora may precisely shed some light on some crucial notions of phraseology and of translation studies. Experiments have shown that translation errors due to phraseology are legion in many translation corpora, even in the official translations of the European Union. A contribution of corpus-based phraseology would therefore consist in making human translators aware of the pitfalls of phraseology in the source text. Even experienced professionals sometimes fail to detect the fixed or semi-fixed character of a source text construction. Experiments along these lines should therefore also include the creation of large, multilingual phraseological databases, which brings us back to two serious shortcomings of computational phraseology: 1. There is no universally accepted algorithm for the automatic extraction of phraseology, especially not for ngrams larger than bigrams. 2. There is no consensus as to the proportion of set phrases in relation with the rest of the vocabulary: according to Jackendoff (1995), there are about as many fixed expressions as there are single words in the dictionary, but others (such as Mel'čuk 1995) hold the view that fixed expressions far outnumber single words. I will argue in that respect that algorithms derived from text mining and information retrieval techniques (Baeza-Yates, R. & B. Ribeiro-Neto 1999) can be efficient and (computationally) cost-effective in order to build up unfiltered collections of recurrent fixed or semi-fixed phrases, from which translators could gain information about the number of set phrases in the source text. Such an algorithm has been proposed in Colson (2014), and a provisional database of about 700,000 English set phrases (tokens) has been assembled, which seems to confirm that Jackendoff's view about the total number of fixed expressions was not correct. A second series of experiments that would turn out to be profitable to a better theoretical understanding of both phraseology and translation studies, has to do with the specific problems posed by phraseology to automatic translation. Phraseology has only recently been identified as one of the main sources of errors in automatic translation systems, including the most recent SMT-systems (Monti, Mitkov, Corpas Pastor & Seretan 2013). I will however point out that the theoretical underpinnings of phraseology are at stake in order to provide a coherent explanation for the serious shortcomings in the automatic translation of sentences containing phraseology. The crux of the matter seems to be the complex interplay between association and frequency in fixed expressions. Recent evidence shows that, contrary to what is assumed by most statistical scores, there should be no relationship between the statistical association of the grams constituting a set phrase, and its frequency in a huge corpus. The countless examples of wrong translations of phraseologically rich sentences by Google Translate, for instance, all point to the fundamentally wrong way in which ngrams were traced down, namely by giving the highest priority to frequency. Further experimentation should also shed some light on the overall statistical distribution of set phrases in large corpora. The well-know zipfian distribution of words in a corpus poses theoretical problems as far as phraseology is concerned. Corpus-based studies (Baroni 2008) indicate that the distribution of ngrams themselves may display a Zipf-Mandelbrot curve. This is an important theoretical challenge to the theory of phraseology and also to semantics, having therefore consequences on the way meaning may be expressed in different languages and be adequately translated from one language into another. I will point out that a general theory of phraseology, as outlined by Mejri (2006), may offer a new insight into the statistical underpinnings of both morpheme associations (in words) and of word association (in set phrases). References Baeza-Yates, R. & B. Ribeiro-Neto (1999). Modern Information Retrieval. New York: ACM Press, Addison Wesley. Baker, M. & G. Saldanha (eds.) (2011). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. Baroni, M. (2008). Distributions in text. In: A. Lüdeling & M. Kytö, (eds.), Corpus linguistics. An international handbook. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, p. 803-821. Baroni, M., Bernardini, S., Ferraresi, A. & E. Zanchetta. (2009). The WaCky Wide Web: A collection of very large linguistically processed Web-crawled corpora. Journal of Language Resources and Evaluation, 43, p. 209-226. Colson, J.-P. (2008). Cross-linguistic phraseological studies: An overview. In: Granger, S. & F. Meunier (eds.), Phraseology. An interdisciplinary perspective. John Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, p. 191-206. Colson, J.-P. (2010a). The Contribution of Web-based Corpus Linguistics to a Global Theory of Phraseology. In: Ptashnyk, S., Hallsteindóttir, E. & N. Bubenhofer (eds.), Corpora, Web and Databases. Computer-Based Methods in Modern Phraselogy and Lexicography. Hohengehren, Schneider Verlag, p. 23-35. Colson, J.-P. (2010b). Automatic extraction of collocations: a new Web-based method. In: S. Bolasco, S., Chiari, I. & L. Giuliano, Proceedings of JADT 2010,Statistical Analysis of Textual Data, Sapienza University of Rome, 9-11 June 2010. Milan, LED Edizioni, p. 397-408. Colson, J.-P. (2013). Pratique traduisante et idiomaticité : l'importance des structures semi-figées. In : Mogorrón Huerta, P., Gallego Hernández, D., Masseau, P. & Tolosa Igualada, M. (eds.), Fraseología, Opacidad y Traduccíon. Studien zur romanischen Sprachwissenschaft und interkulturellen Kommunikation (Herausgegeben von Gerd Wotjak). Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang, p. 207-218. Colson, J.-P. (2014). Set phrases around globalization : an experiment in corpus-based computational phraseology. Paper presented at CILC 2014, 6th International Conference on Corpus Linguistics. University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 22-24 May 2014. Corpas Pastor, G. (2013). Detección, descripción y contraste de las unidades fraseológicas mediante tecnologías lingüísticas. In Olza, I. & R. Elvira Manero (eds.) Fraseopragmática. Berlin: Frank & Timme, p. 335-373. Delisle, J. (2003). La traduction raisonnée. Ottawa: Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa. Jackendoff, R. (1995). The boundaries of the lexicon. In M. Everaert, E.-J. van der Linden, A. Schenk & R. Schroeder (eds.), Idioms: Structural and psychological perspectives. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 133-165. Mejri, S. (2006). Polylexicalité, monolexicalité et double articulation. Cahiers de Lexicologie, 2 :209-221. Mel'čuk, I. 1995. Phrasemes in language and phraseology in linguistics. In M. Everaert, E.-J. van der Linden, A. Schenk & R. Schroeder (eds.), Idioms: Structural and psychological perspectives. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 167-232. Monti, J., Mitkov, R., Corpas Pastor, G. & V. Seretan (eds) (2013). Workshop Proceedings: Multi-word units in machine translation and translation technologies, Nice 14th Machine Translation Summit.
Publisher's version (útgefin grein). ; Quantifying the genetic correlation between cancers can provide important insights into the mechanisms driving cancer etiology. Using genome-wide association study summary statistics across six cancer types based on a total of 296,215 cases and 301,319 controls of European ancestry, here we estimate the pair-wise genetic correlations between breast, colorectal, head/neck, lung, ovary and prostate cancer, and between cancers and 38 other diseases. We observed statistically significant genetic correlations between lung and head/neck cancer (rg = 0.57, p = 4.6 × 10−8), breast and ovarian cancer (rg = 0.24, p = 7 × 10−5), breast and lung cancer (rg = 0.18, p =1.5 × 10−6) and breast and colorectal cancer (rg = 0.15, p = 1.1 × 10−4). We also found that multiple cancers are genetically correlated with non-cancer traits including smoking, psychiatric diseases and metabolic characteristics. Functional enrichment analysis revealed a significant excess contribution of conserved and regulatory regions to cancer heritability. Our comprehensive analysis of cross-cancer heritability suggests that solid tumors arising across tissues share in part a common germline genetic basis. ; The authors in this manuscript were working on behalf of BCAC, CCFR, CIMBA, CORECT, GECCO, OCAC, PRACTICAL, CRUK, BPC3, CAPS, PEGASUS, TRICL-ILCCO, ABCTB, APCB, BCFR, CONSIT TEAM, EMBRACE, GC-HBOC, GEMO, HEBON, kConFab/AOCS Mod SQuaD, and SWE-BRCA. The breast cancer genome-wide association analyses: BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST, respectively), and by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministère de l'Économie, Science et Innovation du Québec through Genome Québec and the PSR-SIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. Funding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978), and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065, and 1U19 CA148112—the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, and Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The DRIVE Consortium was funded by U19 CA148065. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia), and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) is generously supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The ACP study is funded by the Breast Cancer Research Trust, UK. The AHS study is supported by the intramural research program of the National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute (grant number Z01-CP010119), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant number Z01-ES049030). The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia and acknowledges funding from the National Breast Cancer Foundation (JS). For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, and BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. For BIGGS, ES is supported by NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London, United Kingdom. IT is supported by the Oxford Biomedical Research Centre. BOCS is supported by funds from Cancer Research UK (C8620/A8372/A15106) and the Institute of Cancer Research (UK). BOCS acknowledges NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/Institute of Cancer Research NIHR Specialist Cancer Biomedical Research Centre. The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Consellería de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigación Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica de la Consellería de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigación Clínica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The CAMA study was funded by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) (SALUD-2002-C01-7462). Sample collection and processing was funded in part by grants from the National Cancer Institute (NCI R01CA120120 and K24CA169004). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Cáncer and grants from the Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer and the Fondo de Investigación Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). COLBCCC is supported by the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany. D.T. was in part supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. The American Cancer Society funds the creation, maintenance, and updating of the CPS-II cohort. The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. H.A.C eceives support from the Lon V Smith Foundation (LVS39420). The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). FHRISK is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, and 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0, and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GEPARSIXTO study was conducted by the German Breast Group GmbH. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). GLACIER was supported by Breast Cancer Now, CRUK and Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London. The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf-Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HERPACC was supported by MEXT Kakenhi (No. 170150181 and 26253041) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, Culture and Technology of Japan, by a Grant-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from Ministry Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan, by Health and Labour Sciences Research Grants for Research on Applying Health Technology from Ministry Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan, by National Cancer Center Research and Development Fund, and "Practical Research for Innovative Cancer Control (15ck0106177h0001)" from Japan Agency for Medical Research and development, AMED, and Cancer Bio Bank Aichi. The HMBCS was supported by a grant from the Friends of Hannover Medical School and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014, and 17-44-020498. ICICLE was supported by Breast Cancer Now, CRUK, and Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (A.L.F.) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (E.V.O.) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [DAMD17-01-1-0729], Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). G.C.-T. and P.W. are supported by the NHMRC. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. The KOHBRA study was partially supported by a grant from the Korea Health Technology R&D Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), and the National R&D Program for Cancer Control, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI16C1127; 1020350; 1420190). LAABC is supported by grants (1RB-0287, 3PB-0102, 5PB-0018, 10PB-0098) from the California Breast Cancer Research Program. Incident breast cancer cases were collected by the USC Cancer Surveillance Program (CSP) which is supported under subcontract by the California Department of Health. The CSP is also part of the National Cancer Institute's Division of Cancer Prevention and Control Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, under contract number N01CN25403. L.M.B.C. is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. D.L. is supported by the FWO. The MABCS study is funded by the Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology "Georgi D. Efremov" and supported by the German Academic Exchange Program, DAAD. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects "5 × 1000"). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057 and 396414, and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839, and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286, and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. MYBRCA is funded by research grants from the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Malaysia. MYMAMMO is supported by research grants from Yayasan Sime Darby LPGA Tournament and Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (RP046B-15HTM). The NBCS has been supported by the Research Council of Norway grant 193387/V50 (to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen) and grant 193387/H10 (to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen), South Eastern Norway Health Authority (grant 39346 to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and 27208 to V.N. Kristensen) and the Norwegian Cancer Society (to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and 419616 - 71248 - PR-2006-0282 to V.N. Kristensen). It has received funding from the K.G. Jebsen Centre for Breast Cancer Research (2012-2015). The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, and U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NGOBCS was supported by Grants-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive Ten-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan, and for Scientific Research on Priority Areas, 17015049 and for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas, 221S0001, from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The OBCS was supported by research grants from the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Academy of Finland (grant number 250083, 122715 and Center of Excellence grant number 251314), the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, the University of Oulu, the University of Oulu Support Foundation, and the special Governmental EVO funds for Oulu University Hospital-based research activities. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956, and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). The SASBAC study was supported by funding from the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR), the US National Institute of Health (NIH) and the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. The SBCGS was supported primarily by NIH grants R01CA64277, R01CA148667, UMCA182910, and R37CA70867. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The scientific development and funding of this project were, in part, supported by the Genetic Associations and Mechanisms in Oncology (GAME-ON) Network U19 CA148065. The SBCS was supported by Sheffield Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre and Breast Cancer Now Tissue Bank. The SCCS is supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA092447). Data on SCCS cancer cases used in this publication were provided by the Alabama Statewide Cancer Registry; Kentucky Cancer Registry, Lexington, KY; Tennessee Department of Health, Office of Cancer Surveillance; Florida Cancer Data System; North Carolina Central Cancer Registry, North Carolina Division of Public Health; Georgia Comprehensive Cancer Registry; Louisiana Tumor Registry; Mississippi Cancer Registry; South Carolina Central Cancer Registry; Virginia Department of Health, Virginia Cancer Registry; Arkansas Department of Health, Cancer Registry, 4815 W. Markham, Little Rock, AR 72205. The Arkansas Central Cancer Registry is fully funded by a grant from National Program of Cancer Registries, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data on SCCS cancer cases from Mississippi were collected by the Mississippi Cancer Registry which participates in the National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The contents of this publication are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the CDC or the Mississippi Cancer Registry. SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. SEBCS was supported by the BRL (Basic Research Laboratory) program through the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2012-0000347). SGBCC is funded by the NUS start-up Grant, National University Cancer Institute Singapore (NCIS) Centre Grant and the NMRC Clinician Scientist Award. Additional controls were recruited by the Singapore Consortium of Cohort Studies-Multi-ethnic cohort (SCCS-MEC), which was funded by the Biomedical Research Council, grant number: 05/1/21/19/425. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation. The SZBCS was supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004. The TBCS was funded by The National Cancer Institute, Thailand. The TNBCC was supported by a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The TWBCS is supported by the Taiwan Biobank project of the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taiwan. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. The US3SS study was supported by Massachusetts (K.M.E., R01CA47305), Wisconsin (P.A.N., R01 CA47147) and New Hampshire (L.T.-E., R01CA69664) centers, and Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. The USRT Study was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. The WAABCS study was supported by grants from the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA89085 and P50 CA125183 and the D43 TW009112 grant), Susan G. Komen (SAC110026), the Dr. Ralph and Marian Falk Medical Research Trust, and the Avon Foundation for Women. The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the US National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHSN268201100046C, HHSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, and HHSN271201100004C). This work was also funded by NCI U19 CA148065-01. D.G.E. is supported by the all Manchester NIHR Biomedical research center Manchester (IS-BRC-1215-20007). HUNBOCS, Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study was supported by Hungarian Research Grant KTIA-OTKA CK-80745, NKFI_OTKA K-112228. C.I. received support from the Nontherapeutic Subject Registry Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI P30-CA-51008) and the Jess and Mildred Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research. K.M. is supported by CRUK C18281/A19169. City of Hope Clinical Cancer Community Research Network and the Hereditary Cancer Research Registry, supported in part by Award Number RC4CA153828 (PI: J Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the office of the Directory, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The colorectal cancer genome-wide association analyses: Colorectal Transdisciplinary Study (CORECT): The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the CORECT Consortium, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the CORECT Consortium. We are incredibly grateful for the contributions of Dr. Brian Henderson and Dr. Roger Green over the course of this study and acknowledge them in memoriam. We are also grateful for support from Daniel and Maryann Fong. ColoCare: we thank the many investigators and staff who made this research possible in ColoCare Seattle and ColoCare Heidelberg. ColoCare was initiated and developed at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center by Drs. Ulrich and Grady. CCFR: the Colon CFR graciously thanks the generous contributions of their study participants, dedication of study staff, and financial support from the U.S. National Cancer Institute, without which this important registry would not exist. Galeon: GALEON wishes to thank the Department of Surgery of University Hospital of Santiago (CHUS), Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen M Redondo, and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of CHUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago (IDIS), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Galicia Sur (IISGS), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain, and Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, CHUVI Vigo Hospital, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain. MCCS: this study was made possible by the contribution of many people, including the original investigators and the diligent team who recruited participants and continue to work on follow-up. We would also like to express our gratitude to the many thousands of Melbourne residents who took part in the study and provided blood samples. SEARCH: We acknowledge the contributions of Mitul Shah, Val Rhenius, Sue Irvine, Craig Luccarini, Patricia Harrington, Don Conroy, Rebecca Mayes, and Caroline Baynes. The Swedish low-risk colorectal cancer study: we thank Berith Wejderot and the Swedish low-risk colorectal cancer study group. Genetics & Epidemiology of Colorectal Cancer Consortium (GECCO): we thank all those at the GECCO Coordinating Center for helping bring together the data and people that made this project possible. ASTERISK: we are very grateful to Dr. Bruno Buecher without whom this project would not have existed. We also thank all those who agreed to participate in this study, including the patients and the healthy control persons, as well as all the physicians, technicians and students. DACHS: we thank all participants and cooperating clinicians, and Ute Handte-Daub, Renate Hettler-Jensen, Utz Benscheid, Muhabbet Celik, and Ursula Eilber for excellent technical assistance. HPFS, NHS and PHS: we acknowledge Patrice Soule and Hardeep Ranu of the Dana-Farber Harvard Cancer Center High-Throughput Polymorphism Core who assisted in the genotyping for NHS, HPFS, and PHS under the supervision of Dr. Immaculata Devivo and Dr. David Hunter, Qin (Carolyn) Guo, and Lixue Zhu who assisted in programming for NHS and HPFS and Haiyan Zhang who assisted in programming for the PHS. We thank the participants and staff of the Nurses' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study, for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: A.L., A.Z., A.R., C.A., C.O., C.T., D.E., F.L., G.A., I.D., I.L., I.N., I.A., K.Y., L.A., M.E., M.D., M.A., M.I., N.E., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., N.D., O.H., O.K., O.R., P.A., R.I., S.C., T.N., T.X., V.A., W.A., W.Y. In addition, this study was approved by the Connecticut Department of Public Health (DPH) Human Investigations Committee. Certain data used in this publication were obtained from the DPH. We assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. PLCO: we thank Drs. Christine Berg and Philip Prorok, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, the Screening Center investigators and staff or the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial, Mr. Tom Riley and staff, Information Management Services Inc., Ms. Barbara O'Brien and staff, Westat Inc. and Drs. Bill Kopp, Wen Shao and staff, SAIC-Frederick. Most importantly, we acknowledge the study participants for their contributions for making this study possible. The statements contained herein are solely those of the authors and do not represent or imply concurrence or endorsement by NCI. PMH: we thank the study participants and staff of the Hormones and Colon Cancer study. WHI: we thank the WHI investigators and staff for their dedication, and the study participants for making the program possible. A full listing of WHI investigators can be found at https://cleo.whi.org/researchers/Documents%20%20Write%20a%20Paper/WHI%20Investigator%20Short20List.pdf. CORECT: The CORECT Study was supported by the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health (NCI/NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (grant numbers U19 CA148107, R01 CA81488, P30 CA014089, R01 CA197350; P01 CA196569; and R01 CA201407) and National Institutes of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health (grant number T32 ES013678). The ATBC Study was supported by the US Public Health Service contracts (N01-CN-45165, N01-RC-45035, N01-RC-37004, and HHSN261201000006C) from the National Cancer Institute. The Cancer Prevention Study-II Nutrition Cohort is funded by the American Cancer Society. ColoCare: This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant numbers R01 CA189184, U01 CA206110, 2P30CA015704-40 (Gilliland)), the Matthias Lackas-Foundation, the German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research, and the EU TRANSCAN initiative. Genetics and Epidemiology of Colorectal Cancer Consortium (GECCO): funding for GECCO was provided by the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (grant numbers U01 CA137088, R01 CA059045, and U01 CA164930). This research was funded in part through the NIH/NCI Cancer Center Support Grant P30 CA015704. The Colon Cancer Family Registry (CFR) Illumina GWAS was supported by funding from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health (grant numbers U01 CA122839, R01 CA143247). The Colon CFR/CORECT Affymetrix Axiom GWAS and OncoArray GWAS were supported by funding from National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health (grant number U19 CA148107 to S.G.). The Colon CFR participant recruitment and collection of data and biospecimens used in this study were supported by the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health (grant number UM1 CA167551) and through cooperative agreements with the following Colon CFR centers: Australasian Colorectal Cancer Family Registry (NCI/NIH grant numbers U01 CA074778 and U01/U24 CA097735), USC Consortium Colorectal Cancer Family Registry (NCI/NIH grant numbers U01/U24 CA074799), Mayo Clinic Cooperative Family Registry for Colon Cancer Studies (NCI/NIH grant number U01/U24 CA074800), Ontario Familial Colorectal Cancer Registry (NCI/NIH grant number U01/U24 CA074783), Seattle Colorectal Cancer Family Registry (NCI/NIH grant number U01/U24 CA074794), and University of Hawaii Colorectal Cancer Family Registry (NCI/NIH grant number U01/U24 CA074806), Additional support for case ascertainment was provided from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program of the National Cancer Institute to Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (Control Nos. N01-CN-67009 and N01-PC-35142, and Contract No. HHSN2612013000121), the Hawai'i Department of Health (Control Nos. N01-PC-67001 and N01-PC-35137, and Contract No. HHSN26120100037C, and the California Department of Public Health (contracts HHSN261201000035C awarded to the University of Southern California, and the following state cancer registries: A.Z., C.O., M.N., N.C., N.H., and by the Victoria Cancer Registry and Ontario Cancer Registry. ESTHER/VERDI was supported by grants from the Baden–Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts and the German Cancer Aid. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. GALEON: FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136). The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 509348, 209057, 251553, and 504711 and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. MSKCC: the work at Sloan Kettering in New York was supported by the Robert and Kate Niehaus Center for Inherited Cancer Genomics and the Romeo Milio Foundation. Moffitt: This work was supported by funding from the National Institutes of Health (grant numbers R01 CA189184, P30 CA076292), Florida Department of Health Bankhead-Coley Grant 09BN-13, and the University of South Florida Oehler Foundation. Moffitt contributions were supported in part by the Total Cancer Care Initiative, Collaborative Data Services Core, and Tissue Core at the H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, a National Cancer Institute-designated Comprehensive Cancer Center (grant number P30 CA076292). SEARCH: Cancer Research UK (C490/A16561). The Spanish study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, co-funded by FEDER funds –a way to build Europe– (grants PI14-613 and PI09-1286), Catalan Government DURSI (grant 2014SGR647), and Junta de Castilla y León (grant LE22A10-2). The Swedish Low-risk Colorectal Cancer Study: the study was supported by grants from the Swedish research council; K2015-55 × -22674-01-4, K2008-55 × -20157-03-3, K2006-72 × -20157-01-2 and the Stockholm County Council (ALF project). CIDR genotyping for the Oncoarray was conducted under contract 268201200008I (to K.D.), through grant 101HG007491-01 (to C.I.A.). The Norris Cotton Cancer Center - P30CA023108, The Quantitative Biology Research Institute - P20GM103534, and the Coordinating Center for Screen Detected Lesions - U01CA196386 also supported efforts of C.I.A. This work was also supported by the National Cancer Institute (grant numbers U01 CA1817700, R01 CA144040). ASTERISK: a Hospital Clinical Research Program (PHRC) and supported by the Regional Council of Pays de la Loire, the Groupement des Entreprises Françaises dans la Lutte contre le Cancer (GEFLUC), the Association Anne de Bretagne Génétique and the Ligue Régionale Contre le Cancer (LRCC). COLO2&3: National Institutes of Health (grant number R01 CA060987). DACHS: This work was supported by the German Research Council (BR 1704/6-1, BR 1704/6-3, BR 1704/6-4, CH 117/1-1, HO 5117/2-1, HE 5998/2-1, KL 2354/3-1, RO 2270/8-1, and BR 1704/17-1), the Interdisciplinary Research Program of the National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), Germany, and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (01KH0404, 01ER0814, 01ER0815, 01ER1505A, and 01ER1505B). DALS: National Institutes of Health (grant number R01 CA048998 to M.L.S). HPFS is supported by National Institutes of Health (grant numbers P01 CA055075, UM1 CA167552, R01 137178, and P50 CA127003), NHS by the National Institutes of Health (grant numbers UM1 CA186107, R01 CA137178, P01 CA087969, and P50 CA127003), NHSII by the National Institutes of Health (grant numbers R01 050385CA and UM1 CA176726), and PHS by the National Institutes of Health (grant number R01 CA042182). MEC: National Institutes of Health (grant numbers R37 CA054281, P01 CA033619, and R01 CA063464). OFCCR: National Institutes of Health, through funding allocated to the Ontario Registry for Studies of Familial Colorectal Cancer (grant number U01 CA074783); see Colon CFR section above. As subset of ARCTIC, OFCCR is supported by a GL2 grant from the Ontario Research Fund, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and the Cancer Risk Evaluation (CaRE) Program grant from the Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute. T.J.H. and B.W.Z. are recipients of Senior Investigator Awards from the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, through generous support from the Ontario Ministry of Research and Innovation. PLCO: Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, NIH, DHHS. Additionally, a subset of control samples was genotyped as part of the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) Prostate Cancer GWAS, Colon CGEMS pancreatic cancer scan (PanScan), and the Lung Cancer and Smoking study. The prostate and PanScan study datasets were accessed with appropriate approval through the dbGaP online resource (http://cgems.cancer.gov/data/) accession numbers phs000207.v1.p1 and phs000206.v3.p2, respectively, and the lung datasets were accessed from the dbGaP website (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gap) through accession number phs000093.v2.p2. Funding for the Lung Cancer and Smoking study was provided by National Institutes of Health (NIH), Genes, Environment and Health Initiative (GEI) Z01 CP 010200, NIH U01 HG004446, and NIH GEI U01 HG 004438. For the lung study, the GENEVA Coordinating Center provided assistance with genotype cleaning and general study coordination, 23 and the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research conducted genotyping. PMH: National Institutes of Health (grant number R01 CA076366). VITAL: National Institutes of Health (grant number K05-CA154337). WHI: The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through contracts HHSN268201600018C, HHSN268201600001C, HHSN268201600002C, HHSN268201600003C, and HHSN268201600004C. The head and neck cancer genome-wide association analyses: The study was supported by NIH/NCI: P50 CA097190, and P30 CA047904, Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute (no. 020214) and Cancer Care Ontario Research Chair to R.H. The Princess Margaret Hospital Head and Neck Cancer Translational Research Program is funded by the Wharton family, Joe's Team, Gordon Tozer, Bruce Galloway and the Elia family. Geoffrey Liu was supported by the Posluns Family Fund and the Lusi Wong Family Fund at the Princess Margaret Foundation, and the Alan B. Brown Chair in Molecular Genomics. This publication presents data from Head and Neck 5000 (H&N5000). H&N5000 was a component of independent research funded by the UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) under its Programme Grants for Applied Research scheme (RP-PG-0707-10034). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. Human papillomavirus (HPV) in H&N5000 serology was supported by a Cancer Research UK Programme Grant, the Integrative Cancer Epidemiology Programme (grant number: C18281/A19169). National Cancer Institute (R01-CA90731); National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES10126). The authors thank all the members of the GENCAPO team/The Head and Neck Genome Project (GENCAPO) was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (Grant numbers 04/12054-9 and 10/51168-0). CPS-II recruitment and maintenance is supported with intramural research funding from the American Cancer Society. Genotyping performed at the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR) was funded through the U.S. National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) grant 1 × 01HG007780-0. The University of Pittsburgh head and neck cancer case-control study is supported by National Institutes of Health grants P50 CA097190 and P30 CA047904. The Carolina Head and Neck Cancer Study (CHANCE) was supported by the National Cancer Institute (R01-CA90731). The Head and Neck Genome Project (GENCAPO) was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (Grant numbers 04/12054-9 and 10/51168-0). The authors thank all the members of the GENCAPO team. The HN5000 study was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) under its Programme Grants for Applied Research scheme (RP-PG-0707-10034), the views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. The Toronto study was funded by the Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute (020214) and the National Cancer Institute (U19-CA148127) and the Cancer Care Ontario Research Chair. The alcohol-related cancers and genetic susceptibility study in Europe (ARCAGE) was funded by the European Commission's 5th Framework Program (QLK1-2001-00182), the Italian Association for Cancer Research, Compagnia di San Paolo/FIRMS, Region Piemonte, and Padova University (CPDA057222). The Rome Study was supported by the Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC) IG 2011 10491 and IG2013 14220 to S.B., and Fondazione Veronesi to S.B. The IARC Latin American study was funded by the European Commission INCO-DC programme (IC18-CT97-0222), with additional funding from Fondo para la Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (Argentina) and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (01/01768-2). We thank Leticia Fernandez, Instituto Nacional de Oncologia y Radiobiologia, La Habana, Cuba and Sergio and Rosalina Koifman, for their efforts with the IARC Latin America study São Paulo center. The IARC Central Europe study was supported by European Commission's INCO-COPERNICUS Program (IC15- CT98-0332), NIH/National Cancer Institute grant CA92039, and the World Cancer Research Foundation grant WCRF 99A28. The IARC Oral Cancer Multicenter study was funded by grant S06 96 202489 05F02 from Europe against Cancer; grants FIS 97/0024, FIS 97/0662, and BAE 01/5013 from Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias, Spain; the UICC Yamagiwa-Yoshida Memorial International Cancer Study; the National Cancer Institute of Canada; Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro; and the Pan-American Health Organization. Coordination of the EPIC study is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The lung cancer genome-wide association analyses: Transdisciplinary Research for Cancer in Lung (TRICL) of the International Lung Cancer Consortium (ILCCO) was supported by (U19-CA148127, CA148127S1, U19CA203654, and Cancer Prevention Research Institute of Texas RR170048). The ILCCO data harmonization is supported by Cancer Care Ontario Research Chair of Population Studies to R. H. and Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System. The TRICL-ILCCO OncoArray was supported by in-kind genotyping by the Centre for Inherited Disease Research (26820120008i-0-26800068-1). The CAPUA study was supported by FIS-FEDER/Spain grant numbers FIS-01/310, FIS-PI03-0365, and FIS-07-BI060604, FICYT/Asturias grant numbers FICYT PB02-67 and FICYT IB09-133, and the University Institute of Oncology (IUOPA), of the University of Oviedo and the Ciber de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública. CIBERESP, SPAIN. The work performed in the CARET study was supported by the National Institute of Health/National Cancer Institute: UM1 CA167462 (PI: Goodman), National Institute of Health UO1-CA6367307 (PIs Omen, Goodman); National Institute of Health R01 CA111703 (PI Chen), National Institute of Health 5R01 CA151989-01A1(PI Doherty). The Liverpool Lung project is supported by the Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation. The Harvard Lung Cancer Study was supported by the NIH (National Cancer Institute) grants CA092824, CA090578, CA074386. The Multi-ethnic Cohort Study was partially supported by NIH Grants CA164973, CA033619, CA63464, and CA148127. The work performed in MSH-PMH study was supported by The Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute (020214), Ontario Institute of Cancer and Cancer Care Ontario Chair Award to R.J.H. and G.L. and the Alan Brown Chair and Lusi Wong Programs at the Princess Margaret Hospital Foundation. NJLCS was funded by the State Key Program of National Natural Science of China (81230067), the National Key Basic Research Program Grant (2011CB503805), the Major Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81390543). The Norway study was supported by Norwegian Cancer Society, Norwegian Research Council. The Shanghai Cohort Study (SCS) was supported by National Institutes of Health R01 CA144034 (PI: Yuan) and UM1 CA182876 (PI: Yuan). The Singapore Chinese Health Study (SCHS) was supported by National Institutes of Health R01 CA144034 (PI: Yuan) and UM1 CA182876 (PI: Yuan). The work in TLC study has been supported in part the James & Esther King Biomedical Research Program (09KN-15), National Institutes of Health Specialized Programs of Research Excellence (SPORE) Grant (P50 CA119997), and by a Cancer Center Support Grant (CCSG) at the H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, an NCI designated Comprehensive Cancer Center (grant number P30-CA76292). The Vanderbilt Lung Cancer Study—BioVU dataset used for the analyses described was obtained from Vanderbilt University Medical Center's BioVU, which is supported by institutional funding, the 1S10RR025141-01 instrumentation award, and by the Vanderbilt CTSA grant UL1TR000445 from NCATS/NIH. Dr. Aldrich was supported by NIH/National Cancer Institute K07CA172294 (PI: Aldrich) and Dr. Bush was supported by NHGRI/NIH U01HG004798 (PI: Crawford). The Copenhagen General Population Study (CGPS) was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council and Herlev Hospital. The NELCS study: Grant Number P20RR018787 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The Kentucky Lung Cancer Research Initiative was supported by the Department of Defense [Congressionally Directed Medical Research Program, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command Program] under award number: 10153006 (W81XWH-11-1-0781). Views and opinions of, and endorsements by the author(s) do not reflect those of the US Army or the Department of Defense. This research was also supported by unrestricted infrastructure funds from the UK Center for Clinical and Translational Science, NIH grant UL1TR000117 and Markey Cancer Center NCI Cancer Center Support Grant (P30 CA177558) Shared Resource Facilities: Cancer Research Informatics, Biospecimen and Tissue Procurement, and Biostatistics and Bioinformatics. The M.D. Anderson Cancer Center study was supported in part by grants from the NIH (P50 CA070907, R01 CA176568) (to X.W.), Cancer Prevention & Research Institute of Texas (RP130502) (to X.W.), and The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center institutional support for the Center for Translational and Public Health Genomics. The deCODE study of smoking and nicotine dependence was funded in part by a grant from NIDA (R01- DA017932). The study in Lodz center was partially funded by Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, under task NIOM 10.13: Predictors of mortality from non-small cell lung cancer—field study. Genetic sharing analysis was funded by NIH grant CA194393. The research undertaken by M.D.T., L.V.W., and M.S.A. was partly funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. M.D.T. holds a Medical Research Council Senior Clinical Fellowship (G0902313). The work to assemble the FTND GWAS meta-analysis was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) grant number R01 DA035825 (Principal Investigator [PI]: DBH). The study populations included COGEND (dbGaP phs000092.v1.p1 and phs000404.v1.p1), COPDGene (dbGaP phs000179.v3.p2), deCODE Genetics, EAGLE (dbGaP phs000093.vs.p2), and SAGE. dbGaP phs000092.v1.p1). See Hancock et al. Transl Psychiatry 2015 (PMCID: PMC4930126) for the full listing of funding sources and other acknowledgments. The Resource for the Study of Lung Cancer Epidemiology in North Trent (ReSoLuCENT)study was funded by the Sheffield Hospitals Charity, Sheffield Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre and Weston Park Hospital Cancer Charity. The ovarian cancer genome-wide association analysis: The Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium (OCAC) is supported by a grant from the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund thanks to donations by the family and friends of Kathryn Sladek Smith (PPD/RPCI.07). The scientific development and funding for this project were in part supported by the US National Cancer Institute GAME-ON Post-GWAS Initiative (U19-CA148112). This study made use of data generated by the Wellcome Trust Case Control consortium that was funded by the Wellcome Trust under award 076113. The results published here are in part based upon data generated by The Cancer Genome Atlas Pilot Project established by the National Cancer Institute and National Human Genome Research Institute (dbGap accession number phs000178.v8.p7). The OCAC OncoArray genotyping project was funded through grants from the U.S. National Institutes of Health (CA1X01HG007491-01 (C.I.A.), U19-CA148112 (T.A.S.), R01-CA149429 (C.M.P.), and R01-CA058598 (M.T.G.); Canadian Institutes of Health Research (MOP-86727 (L.E.K.) and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund (A.B.). The COGS project was funded through a European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme grant (agreement number 223175 - HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) and through a grant from the U.S. National Institutes of Health (R01-CA122443 (E.L.G)). Funding for individual studies: AAS: National Institutes of Health (RO1-CA142081); AOV: The Canadian Institutes for Health Research (MOP-86727); AUS: The Australian Ovarian Cancer Study Group was supported by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (DAMD17-01-1-0729), National Health & Medical Research Council of Australia (199600, 400413 and 400281), Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania and Cancer Foundation of Western Australia (Multi-State Applications 191, 211, and 182). The Australian Ovarian Cancer Study gratefully acknowledges additional support from Ovarian Cancer Australia and the Peter MacCallum Foundation; BAV: ELAN Funds of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg; BEL: National Kankerplan; BGS: Breast Cancer Now, Institute of Cancer Research; BVU: Vanderbilt CTSA grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH)/National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) (ULTR000445); CAM: National Institutes of Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre and Cancer Research UK Cambridge Cancer Centre; CHA: Innovative Research Team in University (PCSIRT) in China (IRT1076); CNI: Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI12/01319); Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (SAF2012); COE: Department of Defense (W81XWH-11-2-0131); CON: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA063678, R01-CA074850; and R01-CA080742); DKE: Ovarian Cancer Research Fund; DOV: National Institutes of Health R01-CA112523 and R01-CA87538; EMC: Dutch Cancer Society (EMC 2014-6699); EPC: The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by Danish Cancer Society (Denmark); Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); ERC-2009-AdG 232997 and Nordforsk, Nordic Centre of Excellence programme on Food, Nutrition and Health (Norway); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council and County Councils of Skåne and Västerbotten (Sweden); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom); GER: German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Programme of Clinical Biomedical Research (01 GB 9401) and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ); GRC: This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund—ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program "Education and Lifelong Learning" of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF)—Research Funding Program of the General Secretariat for Research & Technology: SYN11_10_19 NBCA. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund; GRR: Roswell Park Cancer Institute Alliance Foundation, P30 CA016056; HAW: U.S. National Institutes of Health (R01-CA58598, N01-CN-55424, and N01-PC-67001); HJO: Intramural funding; Rudolf-Bartling Foundation; HMO: Intramural funding; Rudolf-Bartling Foundation; HOC: Helsinki University Research Fund; HOP: Department of Defense (DAMD17-02-1-0669) and NCI (K07-CA080668, R01-CA95023, P50-CA159981 MO1-RR000056 R01-CA126841); HUO: Intramural funding; Rudolf-Bartling Foundation; JGO: JSPS KAKENHI grant; JPN: Grant-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare; KRA: This study (Ko-EVE) was supported by a grant from the Korea Health Technology R&D Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), and the National R&D Program for Cancer Control, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI16C1127; 0920010); LAX: American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124; LUN: ERC-2011-AdG 294576-risk factors cancer, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Beta Kamprad Foundation; MAC: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA122443, P30-CA15083, P50-CA136393); Mayo Foundation; Minnesota Ovarian Cancer Alliance; Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation; Fraternal Order of Eagles; MAL: Funding for this study was provided by research grant R01- CA61107 from the National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, research grant 94 222 52 from the Danish Cancer Society, Copenhagen, Denmark; and the Mermaid I project; MAS: Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation; MAY: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA122443, P30-CA15083, and P50-CA136393); Mayo Foundation; Minnesota Ovarian Cancer Alliance; Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation; MCC: Cancer Council Victoria, National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC) grants number 209057, 251533, 396414, and 504715; MDA: DOD Ovarian Cancer Research Program (W81XWH-07-0449); MEC: NIH (CA54281, CA164973, CA63464); MOF: Moffitt Cancer Center, Merck Pharmaceuticals, the state of Florida, Hillsborough County, and the city of Tampa; NCO: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA76016) and the Department of Defense (DAMD17-02-1-0666); NEC: National Institutes of Health R01-CA54419 and P50-CA105009 and Department of Defense W81XWH-10-1-02802; NHS: UM1 CA186107, P01 CA87969, R01 CA49449, R01-CA67262, UM1 CA176726; NJO: National Cancer Institute (NIH-K07 CA095666, R01-CA83918, NIH-K22-CA138563, and P30-CA072720) and the Cancer Institute of New Jersey; If Sara Olson and/or Irene Orlow is a co-author, please add NCI CCSG award (P30-CA008748) to the funding sources; NOR: Helse Vest, The Norwegian Cancer Society, The Research Council of Norway; NTH: Radboud University Medical Centre; OPL: National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia (APP1025142) and Brisbane Women's Club; ORE: OHSU Foundation; OVA: This work was supported by Canadian Institutes of Health Research grant (MOP-86727) and by NIH/NCI 1 R01CA160669-01A1; PLC: Intramural Research Program of the National Cancer Institute; POC: Pomeranian Medical University; POL: Intramural Research Program of the National Cancer Institute; PVD: Canadian Cancer Society and Cancer Research Society GRePEC Program; RBH: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia; RMH: Cancer Research UK, Royal Marsden Hospital; RPC: National Institute of Health (P50-CA159981, R01-CA126841); SEA: Cancer Research UK (C490/A10119 C490/A10124); UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centres at the University of Cambridge; SIS: NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033; SMC: The bbSwedish Research Council-SIMPLER infrastructure; the Swedish Cancer Foundation; SON: National Health Research and Development Program, Health Canada, grant 6613-1415-53; SRO: Cancer Research UK (C536/A13086, C536/A6689) and Imperial Experimental Cancer Research Centre (C1312/A15589); STA: NIH grants U01 CA71966 and U01 CA69417; SWE: Swedish Cancer foundation, WeCanCureCancer and VårKampMotCancer foundation; SWH: NIH (NCI) grant R37-CA070867; TBO: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA106414-A2), American Cancer Society (CRTG-00-196-01-CCE), Department of Defense (DAMD17-98-1-8659), Celma Mastery Ovarian Cancer Foundation; TOR: NIH grants R01-CA063678 and R01 CA063682; UCI: NIH R01-CA058860 and the Lon V Smith Foundation grant LVS39420; UHN: Princess Margaret Cancer Centre Foundation-Bridge for the Cure; UKO: The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre; UKR: Cancer Research UK (C490/A6187), UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centres at the University of Cambridge; USC: P01CA17054, P30CA14089, R01CA61132, N01PC67010, R03CA113148, R03CA115195, N01CN025403, and California Cancer Research Program (00-01389V-20170, 2II0200); VAN: BC Cancer Foundation, VGH & UBC Hospital Foundation; VTL: NIH K05-CA154337; WMH: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, Enabling Grants ID 310670 & ID 628903. Cancer Institute NSW Grants 12/RIG/1-17 & 15/RIG/1-16; WOC: National Science Centren (N N301 5645 40). The Maria Sklodowska-Curie Memorial Cancer Center and Institute of Oncology, Warsaw, Poland. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academia Reserve. The prostate cancer genome-wide association analyses: we pay tribute to Brian Henderson, who was a driving force behind the OncoArray project, for his vision and leadership, and who sadly passed away before seeing its fruition. We also thank the individuals who participated in these studies enabling this work. The ELLIPSE/PRACTICAL (http//:practical.icr.ac.uk) prostate cancer consortium and his collaborating partners were supported by multiple funding mechanisms enabling this current work. ELLIPSE/PRACTICAL Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) (U19 CA148537 for ELucidating Loci Involved in Prostate Cancer SuscEptibility (ELLIPSE) project and X01HG007492 to the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR) under contract number HHSN268201200008I). Additional analytical support was provided by NIH NCI U01 CA188392 (F.R.S.). Funding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, and C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065, and 1U19 CA148112; the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defense (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175), Cancer Research UK Grants C5047/A7357, C1287/A10118, C1287/A16563, C5047/A3354, C5047/A10692, C16913/A6135, C5047/A21332 and The National Institute of Health (NIH) Cancer Post-Cancer GWAS initiative grant: No. 1 U19 CA148537-01 (the GAME-ON initiative). We also thank the following for funding support: The Institute of Cancer Research and The Everyman Campaign, The Prostate Cancer Research Foundation, Prostate Research Campaign UK (now Prostate Action), The Orchid Cancer Appeal, The National Cancer Research Network UK, and The National Cancer Research Institute (NCRI) UK. We are grateful for support of NIHR funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. The Prostate Cancer Program of Cancer Council Victoria also acknowledge grant support from The National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia (126402, 209057, 251533, 396414, 450104, 504700, 504702, 504715, 623204, 940394, and 614296), VicHealth, Cancer Council Victoria, The Prostate Cancer Foundation of Australia, The Whitten Foundation, PricewaterhouseCoopers, and Tattersall's. E.A.O., D.M.K., and E.M.K. acknowledge the Intramural Program of the National Human Genome Research Institute for their support. The BPC3 was supported by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (cooperative agreements U01-CA98233 to D.J.H., U01-CA98710 to S.M.G., U01-CA98216 to E.R., and U01-CA98758 to B.E.H., and Intramural Research Program of NIH/National Cancer Institute, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics). CAPS GWAS study was supported by the Swedish Cancer Foundation (grant no 09-0677, 11-484, 12-823), the Cancer Risk Prediction Center (CRisP; www.crispcenter.org), a Linneus Centre (Contract ID 70867902) financed by the Swedish Research Council, Swedish Research Council (grant no K2010-70 × -20430-04-3, 2014-2269). The Hannover Prostate Cancer Study was supported by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society. PEGASUS was supported by the Intramural Research Program, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. RAPPER was supported by the NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Center, Cancer Research UK (C147/A25254, C1094/A18504) and the EU's 7th Framework Programme Grant/Agreement no 60186. Overall: this research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource (application number 16549). NHS is supported by UM1 CA186107 (NHS cohort infrastructure grant), P01 CA87969, and R01 CA49449. NHSII is supported by UM1 CA176726 (NHSII cohort infrastructure grant), and R01-CA67262. A.L.K. is supported by R01 MH107649. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the NHS and NHSII for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, WY. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. ; Peer Reviewed
Author's introductionIssues surrounding what has variously been defined as 'global', 'international' or 'transnational' forms of 'organized crime' are a frequent staple of globalization crisis talk and are frequently used to justify the emergence and elaboration of transnational policing capacities. How well does this functional explanation account for these related sets of phenomena? What are the particular organizational and institutional characteristics of transnational policing institutions? What counts as transnational organised crime? How does the apparent dialectic between transnational organised crime and transnational policing relate to broader issues of global governance? How do the practices of transnational policing relate to the structure of global society more generally? Sociological questions about global crime and policing turn out to be fundamental questions about the nature of the world system.Author recommendsSheptycki, J. (ed.) 2000. Issues in Transnational Policing. London: Routledge, ISBN 0‐415‐19260‐9.This pioneering book opened up the sociology of transnational policing. The book contains chapters by leading scholars in the sociology of policing and is the first to consider the consequences of globalization specific to the institutions of policing. Chapters consider a number of important emerging issues in relation to transnational policing. The introduction attends to the definitions of the book's central terms: 'policing' and 'transnational'. It also provides a typology relating to the field of policing that has had major implications for the understanding of policing accountability under transnational conditions. The first chapter, by Les Johnston, considers the emergence of transnational private security, by mapping the global security market. Chapter two, by Jean‐Paul Brodeur, provides empirical insights into the workings of legal due process in complex transnational criminal enquiries raising questions about the accountability structures in the coming 'age of transnational high policing'. Chapter three, by Didier Bigo, traces the emergence of liaison officer networks across the European policing field. Frank Gregory charts the historical rise of private criminality as a matter of international concern in chapter four, while James Sheptycki undertakes a descriptive analysis of the global system for policing money in chapter five. In chapter six, Peter Manning considers various aspects of policing and technology under conditions of transnationalisation, paying some considerable attention to the policing of 'new social spaces'– that is the rise of so‐called 'cyberspace'. Chapter seven, by James Sheptycki, is a concluding chapter which considers the historical case of the 'international war on drugs' held to be the 'paradigm example of transnational policing'.Sheptycki, J. and A. Wardak (eds) 2004. Transnational and Comparative Criminology. London: Routledge, ISBN 978‐1‐904385‐05‐9.This book advocates that contemporary criminology be both transnational and comparative. The introduction describes the field of criminology by placing it in a global context. One key question is how academic criminologists can cope with the difficulties of cultural relativism in fostering a comparative and transnational view of the field. The book is broken into four sections. In the first, a variety of comparative studies are considered. Difficulties in measuring trends in comparative crime statistics across national jurisdictions, techniques for doing so and the interpretation of such data are all considered. The use of qualitative data in comparative studies is also considered. The authors advocate the combination of different types of data in a 'second best' approach to the interpretation of transnational and other types of crime. In the second section, a variety of 'area studies' are considered. These are: West Africa, Southern Africa, Singapore, China and Saudi Arabia. These chapters each offer extended transnational and comparative treatment of issues of crime, crime definition and crime control in their respective regions. Section 3 deals with specific transnational crime control issues that have been identified. Four separate chapters consider transnational organized crime, transnational white collar crime, transnational corruption in the EU and international sex‐trafficking in the EU. The final section considers transnational control responses to transnational crime and the book concludes with a chapter on reflexivity in the academic study of crime, crime definition and crime control.Goldsmith, A. and J. Sheptycki (eds) 2007. Crafting Transnational Policing. Oxford: Hart Publishing, ISBN‐10: 1841137766.The notion that police around the world share a distinctive outlook has been established, as has the assumption that police must co‐operate internationally if they are to respond effectively to the crime and insecurity associated with the transnational condition. Yet the possibility of developing a genuinely transnational policecraft seems negligible. It is possible to discuss in ideal terms such notions as transnational ethics, global social justice and the like but what, practically speaking, could be meant by a transnational constabulary ethic? Arguably, the situated nature of policing means that there is no such thing as a common transnational policecraft and hence no possibility of an overarching ethic for the constabulary. Liberal democratic theories of policing are also ill‐adapted to the global conditions that are the consequence of prevailing neo‐liberal governmental logics. This book presents a collection of essays that are the results of a workshop at the Onati Institute for the Sociology of Law entitled: Transnational Policing and the Constabulary Ethic. It provides descriptive accounts of transnational policing in a variety of regional settings around the world but grounds the analysis in debates about what would constitute good policing under transnational conditions.Sheptycki, J. 2008. 'Transnationalism, Orientalism and Crime.'Asian Journal of Criminology, 3: 13–35. DOI: 10.1007/s11417-008-9049-0The article asks the question: how applicable are European and North American criminological theories to the situation in Asia? It takes a transnational and comparative perspective in relating contemporary and historical trends in crime, crime definition and crime control in a variety of Asian countries that comprise the so‐called Confucian sphere. It provides a criminological critique of the 'Asian values debate' and, through an analysis of trends in crime, crime definition and crime control in China and Japan, of organised crime across the region, as well as selected examples of state‐organised crime, seeks to provide a perspective on the developing criminological discourses of 'the Orient'. The paper argues that, although cultural aspects are important and interesting in understanding the crime situation in the region, ultimately it is changes in politics and governance, economy and society that are most efficacious in explaining current criminological trends and developments.Sheptycki, J. 2007. 'High Policing in the Security Control Society.'Policing 1(1): 70–9, Oxford University Press.This article considers the nature and practice of high policing in the security control society. It looks at the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing–intelligence and argues that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security intelligence processes in high policing deeply problematic. The article also looks at the changing context of policing and argues that the circuits of the security–intelligence apparatus are woven into, and help to compose, the panic scenes of the security control society. Seen this way, the habits of high policing are not the governance of crisis, but rather governance through crisis. An alternative paradigm is suggested, viz. the human security paradigm, and the paper concludes that, unless senior ranking policing officers – the police intelligentsia'– adopt new ways of thinking, the already existing organizational pathologies of the security–intelligence system are likely to continue undermining efforts at fostering security.Sheptycki, J. 2007. 'Criminology and the Transnational Condition: A Contribution to International Political Sociology.'International Political Sociology 1: 391–405.This article contributes to international political sociology and the further enhancement of the interdisciplinary study of the global system by introducing the vocabulary of critical criminology into the discourse. It suggests that the contemporary global system is ripe with existential anxieties that are symptoms of momentous historical change and it argues that, for good or for ill, issues of crime definition and control have become central to the transnational condition. As a consequence, criminological theories should be introduced into theoretical discussions about the nature of the contemporary global scene. Such conceptual thinking is vital, given the centrality of the language of criminal threats in the language of global governance and the language of governance globally.Online materialsThe Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces http://www.dcaf.ch/ Small Arms Survey http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/ One World Trust http://www.oneworldtrust.org/ Open Society Institute http://www.soros.org/ The Jack and Mae Nathanson Centre on transnational human rights, crime and security http://nathanson.osgoode.yorku.ca/ The drug policy alliance network http://www.drugpolicy.org/homepage.cfm The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index190EN.html The Environmental Investigation Agency http://www.eia‐international.org/ Corporate Watch http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/ SyllabusTopics for lecture and discussion I Introduction and overview Definitions, problems and issues: What is policing? What is crime? What do the terms internationalisation, globalisation and transnationalisation refer to? What consequences follow from a world‐system without world policing?Outside reading:Castells, M. The Rise of the Network Society, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell (1996).Held, D., A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt and J. Perraon 1999. The Global Transformations Reader. Cambridge: Polity Press.Held, D. 2003. Cosmopolitanism, a Defence. Cambridge: Polity.Sklair, L. 2001. The Transnational Capitalist Class. Oxford: Blackwell. II Issues in comparative criminology What is crime and how to academic criminologists study in comparative perspective? The use and abuse of statistics in understanding crime cross‐nationally, cross‐culturally and cross‐jurisdictionally. The uses of qualitative data in interpreting problems in comparative criminology. The comparative study of crime and the emerging world system.Outside reading:Hofstede, Geert 2001. Culture's Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Beverly Hills: Sage.Reichel, P. 2007. Comparative Criminal Justice Systems, a Topic Approach. Harlow: Pearson Education. III Issues in transnational criminology What is transnational about transnational crime? How are transnational crime problems defined and prioritized? How are transnational crime problems measured and evaluated? What do we know about the various types of transnational crime?Outside reading:Beare, M. 2004. Critical Reflections on Transnational Organized Crime, Money Laundering and Corruption. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Edwards, A. and P. Gill 2004. Transnational Organised Crime; Perspectives on Global Security. London: Routledge.Reichel, P. 2005. Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice. London: Sage. IV Issues in transnational policing Who are the transnational police? What is Interpol? What do transnational police agents do? How are transnational policing priorities set? Under conditions of transnationalisation, what is the relationship between law and policing?Outside reading:Anderson, M. et al. 1995. Policing the European Union. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Andreas, P. and T. Snyder. Wall Around the West. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Andreas, P. and E. Nadelmann 2006. Policing the Globe; Criminalization and Crime Control in International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Ratcliffe, J. 2004. Strategic Thinking in Criminal Intelligence. NSW: Federation Press.Focus questions
What challenges do researchers interested in comparative criminology face and why? What are comparative and transnational criminology and how are they different? With reference to the contemporary period, can you think of practical elements, themes or questions that are common to both? What is transnational policing and how can it be made accountable to the global commonwealth? What are the practices that feature most prominently in transnational discourses about contemporary policing and how are these understood from a human rights, civil liberties or human security point of view? What does the study of transnational crime and policing reveal about the nature and character of the world system?
Project ideasBased on knowledge acquired from this course, choose a topic in transnational or comparative criminology and create a briefing portfolio. The portfolio will consist of four items: (i) three page statement of purpose; (ii) annotated bibliography; (iii) poster and presentation; and (iv) written essay. As part of the project, students should prepare a poster presentation (approx. 18″× 24″) detailing the chosen topic through the display of quantitative and qualitative types of data together with key concepts, case‐study vignettes, maps and pictures. Students will give an oral presentation based on their poster and create an annotated bibliography and write a short essay on their chosen topic based on the feedback they receive. Some suggested topics: comparative study of gun‐homicide in two or more countries/cultures; comparative study of rape and sexual assault in two or more countries/cultures; comparative student of family violence in two or more countries/cultures; environmental organized crime; policing the global money system; policing and the global drug prohibition regime; controlling piracy on the high seas – then and now; transnational crimes of the powerful and the powerless; policing, tourism and crime; corporate crime and state crime – spot the difference.
I sistemi bibliotecari delle università in Italia sono stati considerati a lungo inefficienti e dispersivi, con costi alti e risultati bassi. A partire dagli anni Settanta prima nel mondo professionale, poi sempre di più anche nelle autorità accademiche e negli studenti, è cresciuta l'insoddisfazione e quindi il tentativo di miglioramento e della razionalizzazione, anche in conseguenza della introduzione dei sistemi computerizzati nelle biblioteche.Il quadro dei servizi bibliotecari dell'Università di Pisa non si discosta molto dalla media italiana: il sistema delle biblioteche di ateneo si presenta con un grande patrimonio bibliografico, disperso su molte sedi e con servizi discontinui. Rispetto ad altri sistemi universitari le varianti più importanti riguardano la presenza, in pochi chilometri, di altre importanti biblioteche legate all'università e alla ricerca.Da alcuni anni sono state intraprese alcune trasformazioni dei servizi bibliotecari, dal punto di vista istituzionale, organizzativo, informatico. Nel 1987 fu attivata una Commissione di ateneo per le biblioteche, dai cui lavori uscirono alcune proposte di riorganizzazione, basate su un moderato accentramento e sull'introduzione di servizi di base più ampi e servizi innovativi, anche di tipo informatico, più qualificati. Con questa spinta fu varato un nuovo regolamento per le biblioteche e fu istituito un Servizio centrale per le biblioteche, assieme alla costituzione di otto biblioteche centri di servizi, finanziate anche dall'amministrazione centrale.All'inizio del 1999 l'Ateneo, rafforzando le linee di politica bibliotecaria seguite nel corso di dieci anni, ha deliberato un'ulteriore formalizzazione del sistema, basata su:a) modifica dello Statuto, che riconosce come parte del sistema bibliotecario solo le biblioteche organizzate come centri di servizi bibliotecari;b) delineazione delle aggregazioni per arrivare, entro il 1º settembre 2000, alla formazione di 15 biblioteche costituite come centri di servizi bibliotecari coordinate attraverso il Servizio per il sistema bibliotecario di ateneo;c) indicazione di linee guida con gli standard per i servizi bibliotecari e degli obiettivi di massima del sistema.L'indirizzo politico del sistema è dato dagli organi accademici, tramite la Commissione di ateneo per le biblioteche, formata da rappresentanti del Senato accademico e del Consiglio di amministrazione, e integrata da esperti.Il coordinamento tecnico è compito del Servizio per il sistema bibliotecario: il Servizio si occupa direttamente di cataloghi comuni, di proposte di formazione e seminari professionali, di standard, di statistiche e raccolta dati d'insieme, di informatizzazione e basi dati di ateneo, di progetti e obiettivi comuni al sistema, e fornisce il suo supporto alle biblioteche per tutti gli altri aspetti organizzativi e gestionali. Le singole biblioteche, che amministrativamente sono centri di spesa autonomi, hanno un consiglio direttivo, un presidente e un direttore operativo. Sul piano delle risorse umane è stata avviata una risistemazione della pianta organica delle biblioteche previste dal piano; alla base della pianta organica sono stati posti parametri indicativi del bacino di utenza e del carico di lavoro, cioè quattro dei sei utilizzati per l'assegnazione di fondi di ateneo.Sul piano delle risorse finanziarie alle biblioteche riconosciute come centri, oltre ai finanziamenti provenienti dalle facoltà e dai dipartimenti interessati, viene assegnata una quota stabilita sulla base di sei parametri indicativi del bacino di utenza (docenti, studenti), della spesa pro capite, cioè della spesa dei dipartimenti e facoltà in rapporto al loro bacino di utenza, del servizio erogato (ore settimanali di apertura), del carico di lavoro (abbonamenti in corso e nuove acquisizioni).L'ateneo ha stabilito una serie di obiettivi, privilegiando i servizi al pubblico; contestualmente sono state date le indicazioni di massima (linee guida per i servizi bibliotecari) sui compiti del sistema, sui criteri fondamentali, sugli standard dei servizi principali.Parallelamente è stata avviata una attività di formazione del personale, nel quadro della formazione di ateneo del personale tecnico-amministrativo. Nel 1998 si è svolta la prima serie di corsi finalizzati:a) al coinvolgimento di tutto il personale nella prospettiva "di sistema bibliotecario";b) all'orientamento del sistema verso i servizi e gli utenti, con l'obiettivo della qualità:c) al recupero di lacune da una parte e all'accrescimento di competenze professionali dall'altra.Tutti i corsi si sono conclusi con un test, che ha dato luogo a valutazione differenziata del risultato, e con la compilazione da parte dei formati di una scheda di valutazione sui contenuti e sulla qualità del corso seguitoSul versante informatico la situazione attuale è caratterizzata dalla compresenza di vari sistemi distribuiti su più data base, unificati come uscita Web in un metaopac con circa 300.000 registrazioni bibliografiche, che rappresentano il 25% del patrimonio bibliografico dell'ateneo, con punte dal 50% al 90% nelle biblioteche con informatizzazione più consolidata, nelle quali vengono utilizzate più ampiamente procedure informatiche diverse dalla catalogazione, come il prestito, la gestione dei periodici, la gestione degli ordini. A questa situazione si prevede di sostituire entro 12-18 mesi un sistema unico di ateneo, con architettura client/server, database relazionale e interfaccia grafica.Per quanto riguarda il database networking, è stato attivato un server ERL per alcune banche dati di carattere generale. In questo settore è stata attivata una interessante cooperazione con la Scuola normale superiore, la Scuola superiore S.Anna e l'area di ricerca del CNR. Con la Scuola normale e la Biblioteca universitaria è allo studio l'ipotesi di condividere banche dati gestite attraverso Ultranet. La crescita dei nuovi servizi di document delivery ha portato all'attivazione di Ariel nei centri di servizi bibliotecari.Il modello organizzativo che emerge è basato sull'accentramento di indirizzi, criteri, standard, valutazioni, statistiche, gestione informatica e gestione delle banche dati di ateneo, formazione, e sul decentramento nelle 15 biblioteche della gestione dei servizi e del personale.Il fulcro del sistema è rappresentato dalla misurazione dei risultati e dei servizi. È un modello non sacrifica astrattamente il funzionamento dei servizi e le specificità disciplinari, ma si radica nell'esperienza concreta e nella storia delle realtà bibliotecarie dell'ateneo, con l'obiettivo di riorganizzarle secondo la prospettiva del miglioramento della qualità e dell'orientamento all'utente-cliente. ; Italy's university library system has long been considered both inefficient and wasteful, with high costs and poor results. Since the 1970's there has been a growing dissatisfaction with the situation, firstly within the professional world and later increasingly within academic and student circles. As a result, many universities have attempted to both improve and rationalise library systems, thanks also in part to the introduction of computerised systems in libraries. The University of Pisa's library services differ little from those of the average Italian university. The university library system has considerable bibliographic resources, scattered among many centres, with uneven service levels. Compared with other university systems, the most important variable is the presence, within just a few kilometres, of other important libraries linked to the university and to research.The University of Pisa has modified the management and computerisation of its libraries to achieve a comprehensive network of services.Although the process of change, itself a result of a convergence of new policies and management, and professional culture, is still only in progress, it is, however, producing a promising series of results and prospects for the future.The university Committee for libraries, which was set up in 1987, has produced a number of proposals for reorganisation, based on a certain amount of centralisation and on the introduction of more widely based, and also more innovative and advanced computerised services. New rules for libraries, together with a centralised library service, were thus introduced.In early 1999, the university, building on the library policy which pursued in the preceding decade, considered a further development of the system based on:a) modification of the University Statute to recognise only those libraries organised in the central library service as part of the library system;b) a centralisation process to achieve, by September 2000, the establishment of 15 central library services for large subject areas, co-ordinated by the university's library system service;c) a set of guidelines with standards for the library services and the main objectives of the system.The system's policy direction is given by the academic bodies through the university Committee for libraries, which consists of representatives of the academic senate and of the administrative council, with additional input from specialists. Technical co-ordination is the task of the university library system service, which is directly responsible for shared cataloguing, proposals for professional training and seminars, standards and statistics and collection of data as a whole, and computerisation and university databases. It also assists the libraries on all other aspects of management and organisation. The individual libraries, which are financially independent, have a board, a president and a managing director. As regards human resources, a reorganisation of library staff has taken place following the planning of duties.As regards financial resources, all the libraries recognised as centres are financed by the interested faculty and departments, and receive additional University funding on the basis of 6 parameters: number of potential users (teaching staff; students); department/faculty funding per potential user; weekly opening hours; workload (current serials subscriptions; new acquisitions).The University has established a series of objectives considering firstly the public services, then the guidelines for library services, the system's tasks, the essential criteria and the standards for the principal services.Similarly, staff training has initiated courses that aim to involve all the staff in the library system's perspectives, to place the emphasis on services and users to attain the best quality, and to increase professional skills.As regards automation, there are at present various systems and many databases, merged in a Web metaOPAC of some 300.000 bibliographic records representing 25% of the University's collection. In the main libraries the coverage of online catalogues ranges from 50% to 90% and automated systems are in use also for loans, serials control and acquisitions. The University has planned a migration, within 12-18 months, to a single automated system, with client/server architecture and a graphic interface.As regards database networking, we have activated an ERL server with some general databases and also initiated an interesting co-operation programme with the Scuola Normale Superiore, the Scuola Superiore S. Anna and the National Research Council.As regards document delivery, the growth of demand led to the choice of the Ariel system for the central library services.The management model is based on:1) the centralisation of policies, standards, statistics and evaluation, system and database management and staff training;2) the devolution of the management of staff and services to the 15 libraries.Feedback comes from the evaluation of services and results. We can say that this model arises from the concrete experience and the past evolution of university libraries. The objective is to reorganise libraries, improving their quality and user orientation.
Lo scenario internazionale si sta muovendo rapidamente verso la promozione di una scuola inclusiva. In Italia, questa realtà è affrontata da molti anni, ma le trasformazioni e il confronto internazionale hanno sollevato nuove domande e riflessioni critiche. In particolare l'attenzione oggi è posta su quello che, come affermato nel corso della Conferenza internazionale dell'UNESCO (2013), è considerato il fattore chiave dei processi di integrazione e di inclusione: la formazione degli insegnanti. L'attenzione della ricerca pedagogica viene posta sui fattori chiave dei processi di inclusione: la formazione degli insegnanti, lo sviluppo ed il monitoraggio dei contesti educativi nonché la produzione e l'incremento di pratiche didattiche inclusive. L'acceso dibattito aperto ormai da diversi anni sulle tematiche legate al processo inclusivo a livello nazionale, rappresenta lo sfondo dal quale parte e si sviluppa l'idea della ricerca presentata in questo lavoro. I problemi di fondo a cui la ricerca ha cercato di rispondere sono sostanzialmente due: 1. se attraverso l'analisi delle pratiche inclusive è possibile costruire un Repository di "buone pratiche" che permetta ai docenti in servizio e ai futuri docenti in formazione di sviluppare capacità di analisi sul proprio agire inclusivo per capire cosa funziona in educazione ed un ampliamento nell'utilizzo delle stesse; 2. come attraverso la costruzione di un Profilo del Docente Inclusivo sia possibile portare docenti e futuri docenti a riflettere sui valori che determinano un agire educativo realmente inclusivo al fine di realizzare nella scuola una comunità inclusiva che permetta a ciascuno di sentirsi accolto. La ricerca si propone di: − indagare l'evoluzione storica, pedagogica e legislativa del concetto e dell'educazione inclusiva attraverso un'analisi conoscitiva del quadro dell'esistente; − rilevare (attraverso questionari appositamente costruiti) la qualità inclusiva della scuola attraverso dati quantitativi e qualitativi; − creare un Repository delle pratiche inclusive attraverso la raccolta e l'analisi delle pratiche educative realizzate dagli insegnanti delle scuole siciliane, che siano valide esemplificazioni di personalizzazione educativa in funzione dei bisogni educativi degli alunni; − costruire il Profilo del Docente Inclusivo (come già realizzato in altri Paesi europei) al fine di mettere in luce i valori che deve possedere un docente inclusivo. Sollecitati dal dibattito sul tema sviluppatosi nel contesto internazionale, soprattutto nei Paesi anglofoni, negli ultimi vent'anni anni, e nel territorio italiano dove la discussione, iniziata quarant'anni fa, è ancora oggetto di studio e di dibattimento, abbiamo voluto progettare uno studio con lo scopo di dare agli operatori della scuola, attuali e futuri, strumenti volti alla misurazione e alla progettazione di prospettive inclusive, per implementare la loro riflessività in azione. Partendo dal presupposto secondo cui esiste un diritto al rispetto delle differenze personali nell'apprendimento e nel comportamento scolastico che chiede di essere coniugato con l'uguaglianza delle opportunità per tutti, si è voluto vedere come ciò sia possibile nella pratica educativa che volge all'inclusione. L'orientamento della ricerca è quello proprio dell'Evidence Based Education, un orientamento di ricerca basato sull'interrogativo "Cosa funziona in educazione?", fondato sul presupposto che nella ricerca educativa sia necessario esplicitare l'accettazione di alcuni asserti valoriali o scientifici, di metodologie e criteri specifici, così da potersi presentare come visibile, condivisibile e comparabile. L'analisi delle evidenze è una questione molto discussa in ambito educativo, per fare ciò si è avviata una ricerca di tipo esplorativo con un approccio fenomenologico basato sull'evidenza; per l'analisi delle scuole in esame ci si è avvalsi inoltre di un case study. Gli strumenti utilizzati sono costituiti da questionari e schede di osservazione delle pratiche, elaborati sulla base di strumenti rilevati e studiati nella letteratura nazionale e internazionale, che hanno individuato indicatori di struttura e di processo relativi al processo di inclusione, ritenuti utili ai fini del nostro lavoro. Il campione selezionato è non probabilistico ad elementi rappresentativi: questa scelta ha permesso di selezionare scuole eterogenee per storia e conformazione favorendo, peraltro, la riflessione sulla verticalizzazione scolastica. La ricerca è stata pensata per dar modo ai docenti di riflettere sul proprio operato per monitorarlo attraverso strumenti strutturati e per migliorarlo attraverso materiali guida. Le tecniche di rilevazione hanno avuto un carattere quantitativo e qualitativo. L'orientamento quantitativo è stato utilizzato per la misurazione della qualità inclusiva della scuola; ci si è avvalsi dell'approccio qualitativo per individuare all'interno dei materiali raccolti, le unità di senso sia nelle progettazioni delle pratiche didattiche che nelle schede per la costruzione del Profilo del docente inclusivo. Per la procedura di analisi qualitativa dei dati raccolti ci si è avvalsi del software Atlas.ti; mentre per il trattamento dei dati quantitativi è stato utilizzato il software SPSS. Anche se i risultati di questa ricerca non sono generalizzabili, tuttavia, si crede che essi rappresentino, sia un utile punto di partenza e di analisi specifica sullo stato dell'inclusione nelle scuole poste sotto osservazione, sia un valore euristico per un'eventuale successiva verifica o per l'applicazione in altri contesti. Con la metodologia formativa impiegata e gli strumenti proposti gli insegnanti in formazione e in servizio sono stati aiutati a soffermarsi e a ragionare sulla personalizzazione del processo di inclusione, attivando e promuovendo processi di autovalutazione e riflessione che li hanno coinvolti efficacemente. Gli insegnanti in formazione e in servizio hanno da una parte imparato ad applicare concretamente le conoscenze teoriche delle ricerche nazionali ed internazionali sul tema; dall'altro, hanno manifestato un atteggiamento analitico e aperto verso il loro lavoro, mostrando di essere in grado di trarre conclusioni dalle proprie esperienze e osservazioni. Da un'analisi generale degli esiti della ricerca risulta possibile confermare le ipotesi formulate nella fase iniziale. Si è potuto osservare che quanto più un insegnante riflette sull'inclusività e sul proprio modo di agire in relazione ad essa, tanto più la qualità inclusiva della comunità scolastica in cui opera migliora. ; The international backdrop is moving quickly towards the promotion of an inclusive school. In Italy, this reality was faced for many years, but transformations and the international debate caused new questions and critical reflections. Specifically, today the attention is focused on what is considered the key factor of the procedures about integration and inclusion: the teachers' training, like the International Conference of UNESCO (2013) confirmed. The attention of the education research is on the key factors of the inclusive procedures: the teachers' training, the development and the supervision of educational contexts, as well as the production and the increasing of inclusive didactic practices. This debate, already opened for many years, on the topics linked to the inclusive process represents the background from which the idea of this work starts and develops. The principal questions that this research wants to answer are essentially two: 1. if towards the analysis of the inclusive procedures it's possible to build a Repository of "good practices" that allows to the teachers and the future ones to develops analysis ability about their inclusive acting to understand what works in education and an upgrade using that. 2. how towards the building of an Inclusive Teacher Profile it's possible to make teachers and the future ones think about the values that define an educational acting really inclusive to create into the school an inclusive community that makes each one feel welcomed. This research intends to: - examining the historic, educational and legislative development of the concept of the inclusive education towards an analysis of the current scenery; - measuring (towards particular assessment questionnaire) the inclusive quality in the school using quantitative and qualitative data; - building a Repository of inclusive practices towards the gathering and analysis of educational practices realized by teachers from Sicilian schools, valid exemplifications of educational personalization linked to the students' educational needs; - building an Inclusive Teacher Profile (like other European Countries did) to highlight the values that an inclusive teacher must have. Encouraged by the debate about this topic developed in the international context, above all in the anglo-saxon countries, in the last twenty years, and in the Italian scenery where the discussion, begun forty years ago, is still studied and debated, this work wanted to plan a research with the aim to give to school professionals, current and future, tools to measure and design inclusive perspectives, to implement their job. Beginning from the premise that there is a right to respect for personal differences in learning and scholastic behavior that asks to be linked with equality of the opportunities for everyone, this work wanted to see how it's possible in the inclusive educational practice. The orientation of this research is the proper one of Evidence Based Education, based on the question "What works in education?", that affirms it's important to make explicit its values and scientific ideas, its methodologies and specific criteria, to represent itself visible, sharable and comparable. The analysis of evidences is a question much discussed in the educational field, for this reason we started a kind of explorative research with a phenomenological approach based on the evidence; for the analysis of the examined school we also used the case study. The tools we used are the questionnaires and the observation form for the practices, developed on tools identified in national and international literature, that identified indexes of structure and process related to the inclusive process, really useful for this work. The selected sample is non-probability with representative elements: this choice permitted to select heterogeneous schools, facilitating the reflection on the scholastic verticalization. This research has the aim to make teachers reflect on their own job to supervise it towards organized tools and to improve it with guide elements. The collection of data techniques had a quantitative and qualitative character. The quantitative orientation was used for measuring of inclusive quality of school; the research used a qualitative approach to identify all the elements useful to create the Inclusive Teacher Profile. For the qualitative analysis of gathered data, it was used the Atlas.ti software; while for the treatment of the quantitative data it was used the SPSS software. Even though the results of this research aren't generalizable, however, we think that they represent an useful start point and way of analysis for condition of inclusion in schools under observation, as well as an heuristic value for a potential following assessment or for the application in other contexts. Teachers in training and in service were helped to rest and to think over the personalization of the inclusion process, promoting the self-assessment and the reflection that interested them efficiently. Teachers in training and in service learnt to apply actually the theoretical knowing of the national and international researches about this topic; as well as they showed an analytic and opened attitude to their job, showing to be able to draw conclusions from personal experiences and observations. From a general analysis of the results of this research, it's possible to confirm the initial hypothesis. We can observe that if a teacher reflects on inclusion and their way of acting in relation with that, the inclusive quality of scholastic community will improve.