Many economists have long held that market failures create a gap between social and private returns to Research and Development (R&D), thereby limiting private incentives to invest in R&D. However, this common belief that firms significantly underinvest in R&D is increasingly being challenged, leading the rationale behind public support for private R&D to be questioned. In this paper, we attempt to clarify the perspectives of two sources : the theoretical literature on endogenous growth, and its recent developments in integrating a geographical dimension, and the empirical literature that measures the social returns to R&D in relation to the private returns. Ultimately, we are able to clearly distinguish among different types of market failures and compare their relative impact on the gap between the private and social returns to R&D. Two main conclusions are reached. First, systematic firm underinvestment in R&D is not demonstrated. Second, even though instances of underinvestment do occur, they are mainly explained by surplus appropriability problems rather than by knowledge externalities. This suggests the need for a new policy mix that employs more demand-oriented instruments and is more concentrated on identifying efficient allocations among activities rather than merely increasing global private R&D investment.
Many economists have long held that market failures create a gap between social and private returns to Research and Development (R&D), thereby limiting private incentives to invest in R&D. However, this common belief that firms significantly underinvest in R&D is increasingly being challenged, leading the rationale behind public support for private R&D to be questioned. In this paper, we attempt to clarify the perspectives of two sources : the theoretical literature on endogenous growth, and its recent developments in integrating a geographical dimension, and the empirical literature that measures the social returns to R&D in relation to the private returns. Ultimately, we are able to clearly distinguish among different types of market failures and compare their relative impact on the gap between the private and social returns to R&D. Two main conclusions are reached. First, systematic firm underinvestment in R&D is not demonstrated. Second, even though instances of underinvestment do occur, they are mainly explained by surplus appropriability problems rather than by knowledge externalities. This suggests the need for a new policy mix that employs more demand-oriented instruments and is more concentrated on identifying efficient allocations among activities rather than merely increasing global private R&D investment.
Many economists have long held that market failures create a gap between social and private returns to Research and Development (R&D), thereby limiting private incentives to invest in R&D. However, this common belief that firms significantly underinvest in R&D is increasingly being challenged, leading the rationale behind public support for private R&D to be questioned. In this paper, we attempt to clarify the perspectives of two sources : the theoretical literature on endogenous growth, and its recent developments in integrating a geographical dimension, and the empirical literature that measures the social returns to R&D in relation to the private returns. Ultimately, we are able to clearly distinguish among different types of market failures and compare their relative impact on the gap between the private and social returns to R&D. Two main conclusions are reached. First, systematic firm underinvestment in R&D is not demonstrated. Second, even though instances of underinvestment do occur, they are mainly explained by surplus appropriability problems rather than by knowledge externalities. This suggests the need for a new policy mix that employs more demand-oriented instruments and is more concentrated on identifying efficient allocations among activities rather than merely increasing global private R&D investment.
Many economists have long held that market failures create a gap between social and private returns to Research and Development (R&D), thereby limiting private incentives to invest in R&D. However, this common belief that firms significantly underinvest in R&D is increasingly being challenged, leading the rationale behind public support for private R&D to be questioned. In this paper, we attempt to clarify the perspectives of two sources : the theoretical literature on endogenous growth, and its recent developments in integrating a geographical dimension, and the empirical literature that measures the social returns to R&D in relation to the private returns. Ultimately, we are able to clearly distinguish among different types of market failures and compare their relative impact on the gap between the private and social returns to R&D. Two main conclusions are reached. First, systematic firm underinvestment in R&D is not demonstrated. Second, even though instances of underinvestment do occur, they are mainly explained by surplus appropriability problems rather than by knowledge externalities. This suggests the need for a new policy mix that employs more demand-oriented instruments and is more concentrated on identifying efficient allocations among activities rather than merely increasing global private R&D investment.
Aunque, en el largo plazo, el crecimiento del empleo moderno urbano se ha desacelerado, durante esta década, al menos hasta el 2007, su desempeño fue bastante aceptable. Sin embargo, ha estado sesgado a favor del más educado y contra el menos educado, en contraste con la dotación educativa de la fuerza de trabajo. De ahí la elevadísima rotación de personal asalariado simple (su reemplazo permanente por personal calificado); de ahí el auge del empleo informal, que subió para no bajar con la crisis de finales de los ochenta y que ha aumentado más con la crisis reciente; de ahí la existencia e intensificación del ciclo de vida laboral que, con la edad, lleva a los menos educados de los empleos asalariados a los informales. La discriminación contra el trabajo poco educado ?una tendencia internacional- se ha agravado por la evolución del salario mínimo, que no ayuda a los más pobres y en cambio perjudica la generación de empleo no calificado, y puede acentuarse más hacia el futuro por la forma en que se están dando los incentivos a la inversión de capital. El crecimiento económico es condición necesaria para corregir estos problemas estructurales de nuestro mercado laboral; pero como no es condición suficiente se requieren estrategias complementarias. Se sugiere -siguiendo el ejemplo Chileno- conformar una Misión, compuesta por académicos extranjeros y nacionales de todas las tendencias y que se reúna con las principales fuerzas sociales, encargada de examinar el tema y presentar recomendaciones en un plazo breve. Debería considerar una combinación de estrategias: de demanda (una política para el salario mínimo, qué hacer con los parafiscales y los estímulos tributarios a la inversión); estrategias de oferta (calificación de la fuerza laboral y acceso a la educación superior de la masa de bachilleres pobres), reformas a la seguridad social (pensiones para los informales; financiación de la salud con impactos sobre el empleo; seguro de desempleo) y programas, tipo Empleo en Acción que generen empleo moderno para los más pobres, urbanos y rurales. ; Although in the long run, modern urban employment growth has decelerated, during last decade, and at least until 2007, its performance was satisfactory. Nonetheless, modern employment has been biased towards the more educated and against the less educated
Conventional theories of capitalism are mired in a deep crisis: after centuries of debate, they are still unable to tell us what capital is. Liberals and Marxists both think of capital as an 'economic' entity that they count in universal units of 'utils' or 'abstract labour', respectively. But these units are totally fictitious. Nobody has ever been able to observe or measure them, and for a good reason: they don't exist. Since liberalism and Marxism depend on these non-existing units, their theories hang in suspension. They cannot explain the process that matters most – the accumulation of capital. This book offers a radical alternative. According to the authors, capital is not a narrow economic entity, but a symbolic quantification of power. It has little to do with utility or abstract labour, and it extends far beyond machines and production lines. Capital, the authors claim, represents the organized power of dominant capital groups to reshape – or creorder – their society. Written in simple language, accessible to lay readers and experts alike, the book develops a novel political economy. It takes the reader through the history, assumptions and limitations of mainstream economics and its associated theories of politics. It examines the evolution of Marxist thinking on accumulation and the state. And it articulates an innovative theory of 'capital as power' and a new history of the 'capitalist mode of power'.
"Die Welt befindet sich in einer Phase des strukturellen Wandels. Durch das Zusammenwachsen der Wirtschaftsräume erhöht sich der Wettbewerbsdruck auf die deutschen Unternehmen. Die deutschen Arbeitsbeziehungen - und damit auch das Mitbestimmungssystem - werden dabei in Konkurrenz zu den Systemen anderer Länder gesehen. Bedenken über die internationale Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der deutschen Arbeitsbeziehungen sind allgegenwärtig in der öffentlichen Diskussion. Die Analyse der betrieblichen und überbetrieblichen Mitbestimmung in Deutschland steht im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit. Dabei soll zum einen untersucht werden, wie Betriebsräte und Tarifverträge die betriebliche Produktivität, die Prozessinnovationen und die Eigenkündigungen beeinflussen. Zum anderen soll aufgezeigt werden, wie sich der Einfluss beider Mitbestimmungsinstitutionen in den letzten Jahren durch den institutionellen Wandel verändert hat. Herausgehobene Bedeutung kommt in diesem Kontext der Novellierung des Betriebsverfassungsgesetzes im Jahr 2001 zu. Wenn Kritik an dem deutschen Mitbestimmungssystem geäußert wird, wird häufig auf das britische Mitbestimmungssystem als positives Gegenbeispiel verwiesen. In diesem Kontext wird regelmäßig die britische Reformpolitik hervorgehoben, die das britische Mitbestimmungssystem - insbesondere das Gewerkschaftssystem - in den 80er und 90er Jahren grundlegend verändert hat. Eine eventuelle Vorteilhaftigkeit des britischen Systems im Allgemeinen sowie eine mögliche Übertragbarkeit der britischen Reformpolitik auf die deutschen Gegebenheiten im Speziellen ist ebenfalls Gegenstand dieser Arbeit." (Autorenreferat)
Little empirical research has been done on monitoring and enforcement issues in environmental economics, especially to analyze the impact of monitoring and enforcement on polluters' environmental performance. No studies have been done in developing economies. The authors explore the impact of inspections, and the potential impact of pollution charges and citizens' complaints, on the environmental performance of polluters in China. Their analysis of plant-level data from the city of Zhenjiang shows that: 1) Inspections have a statistically significant impact on firms environmental performance. 2) Pollution charges do not have a statistically significant effect on firms performance - although the lack of variation in pollution charges in Zhenjiang precludes effectively capturing their impact. 3) Complaints have a significant impact on inspections and therefore on pollution control. Currently available data do not allow analysis of whether the cost of additional inspections is justified, but it is reasonable to speculate that additional inspections would improve social welfare in Zhenjiang, and that information and education campaigns are probably a good way to encourage citizen complaints.
En el presente trabajo se plasman los resultados del análisis del estrés laboral en servidores públicos. Tomando en cuenta las variables sociolaborales presentes en el período de pandemia ocasionado por la Covid-19. Se expone el modelo demanda-control-apoyo social para determinar el estrés laboral en este contexto en dos gobiernos locales de la ciudad de Arequipa- Perú. Para este trabajo se consideró la participación de 286 colaboradores, y se utilizó un instrumento de recolección de información con 29 ítems que permitieron medir el estrés laboral. Los resultados muestran que existe un nivel medio de estrés en el trabajo, considerando que se trata de un trabajador activo y que en su trayecto al trabajo y durante las jornadas laborales, está expuesto a situaciones de riesgo. El estudio permitió concluir que las situaciones de salud actual son un condicionante del estrés en los servidores públicos. Palabras Clave: Estrés laboral, Covid-19, situaciones de riesgo, situaciones de salud. Referencias [1]L. Martínez, «Riesgos psicosociales y estrés laboral en tiempos de COVID-19: instrumentos para su evaluación,» Revista de Comunicación y Salud, vol. 10, nº 2, pp. 301-323, 2020. [2]L. Ortiz, «Estrés laboral en tiempos de pandemia,» UNA COMUNICA, 27 Mayo 2020. [En línea]. Available:https://www.unacomunica.una.ac.cr/index.php/mayo-2020/2970-estres-laboral-en-tiempos-de-pandemia. [Último acceso: 14 Enero 2021]. [3]P. Gil-Monte, «Algunas razones para considerar los riesgos psicosociales en el trabajo y sus consecuencias en la salud pública,» Revista Española de Salud Pública, vol. 83, nº 2, pp. 169-173, 2019. [4]G. I. Monzón Alvarez, M. Á. Pacheco Quico, A. R. Miaury Vilca, H. L. Pinto Pomareda y S. F. Torres Aza, «Riesgos laborales en personal de limpieza pública durante el Covid-19,»Universidad Ciencia Y Tecnología, vol. 25, nº 108, pp. 66-72, 2021. [5]J. Calizaya, F. Zapata, G. Monzón, Y. Alemán, R. Bellido y F. Ceballos, La investigación cuantitativa en las ciencias sociales y algunas aplicaciones de interés científico, Quito: Editorial Autanabooks, 2021. [6]J. Osorio y L. Cárdenas, «Estrés laboral: estudio de revisión,» Perspectivas Psicológicas, vol. 13, nº 1, pp. 81-90, 2017. [7]F. Suárez, L. Rosales y O. Flor, La ingeniería de las emociones humanas, Quito: AutanaBooks, 2020. [8]M. M. Chiang, G. R. Riquelme y P. A. Rivas, «Relación entre Satisfacción Laboral, Estrés Laboral y sus Resultados en Trabajadores de una Institución de Beneficencia de la Provincia de Concepción.,» Ciencia & rabajo, vol. 20, nº 63, pp. 178-186, 2018. [9]F. Suárez, L. Rosales y A. Lezama, La computación inteligente y los estados emocionales, Quito: AutanaBooks, 2019. [10]C. Mejia, J. Chacon, O. Enamorado, L. R. Garnica, S. Chacón y Y. García, «Factores asociados al estrés laboral en trabajadores de seis países de Latinoamérica,» Revista de la Asociación Española de Especialistas en Medicina del Trabajo, vol. 28, nº 3, pp. 204-211, 2019. [11]F. Suárez, L. Ortiz y L. Rosales, «La psicología del estrés y su análisis desde la inteligencia artificial,» Espacios, vol. 45, nº 41, p. 14, 2020. [12]L. A. Álvarez-Silva y C. E. Espininoza-Samaniego, «Estrés laboral en trabajadores formales de la bahía de Guayaquil,» Espirales, vol. 3, nº 24, pp. 77-88, 2019. [13]R. Karasek, «Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign,» Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 285-309, 1979. [14]J. M. Fernández-Arata y G. Calderón-De la Cruz, «Modelo Demandas-Control-Apoyo social en el estudio del estrés laboral en el Perú,» Revista Medica Herediana, vol. 28, pp. 281-282, 2017. [15]O. Bada, R. M. Salas, E. F. Castillo, E. M. Arroyo y C. E. Carbonell, «Estrés laboral y clima organizacional en docentes peruanos,» MediSur, vol. 18, nº 6, pp. 1138-1144, 2020. [16]A. Lozano-Vargas, «Impacto de la epidemia del Coronavirus (COVID-19) en la salud mental del personal de salud y en la población general de China,» Revista de Neuro-Psiquiatría, vol. 83, nº 1, pp. 51-56, 2020. [17]R. Karasek, Healthy work: stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working, New York: Basic Books, 1990. [18]D. Frías, Apuntes de consistencia interna de las puntuaciones de un instrumento de medida, Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2019. [19]J.L. Ventura, «Tamaño del efecto para la U de Mann-Whitney: aportes al artículo de Valdivia-Peralta et al.,» Revista chilena de neuro-psiquiatría, vol. 54, nº 4, pp. 353-354, 2016. [20]R. J. Grissom, «Probability of the superior outcome of one treatment over another.,» Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 79, nº 2, pp. 314-316, 1994. [21]M. Tomczak y E. Tomczak, «The need to report effect size estimates revisited. An overview of some recommended measures of effect size,» Trends Sport Sciences, vol. 1, nº 21, pp. 19-25, 2014. [22]S. Domínguez, «Magnitud del efecto, una guía rápida,» Educación Médica, vol. 19, nº 4, pp. 251-254, 2018. ; In the present work, the results of the analysis of work stress in public servants are reflected. Taking into account the socio-labor variables present in the pandemic period caused by Covid-19. The demand-control-social support model is exposed to determine work stress in this context in two local governments of the city of Arequipa-Peru. For this work, the participation of 286 collaborators was considered, and an information collection instrument with 29 items was used that allowed the measurement of work stress. The results show that there is an average level of stress at work, considering that it is an active worker and that on its way to work and during working hours, it is exposed to risky situations. The study allowed to conclude that current health situations are a conditioner of stress in public servants. Keywords: Work stress, Covid-19, risk situations, health situations. References [1]L. Martínez, «Riesgos psicosociales y estrés laboral en tiempos de COVID-19: instrumentos para su evaluación,» Revista de Comunicación y Salud, vol. 10, nº 2, pp. 301-323, 2020. [2]L. Ortiz, «Estrés laboral en tiempos de pandemia,» UNA COMUNICA, 27 Mayo 2020. [Online]. Available:https://www.unacomunica.una.ac.cr/index.php/mayo-2020/2970-estres-laboral-en-tiempos-de-pandemia. [Last access: 14 Jan 2021]. [3]P. Gil-Monte, «Algunas razones para considerar los riesgos psicosociales en el trabajo y sus consecuencias en la salud pública,» Revista Española de Salud Pública, vol. 83, nº 2, pp. 169-173, 2019. [4]G. I. Monzón Alvarez, M. Á. Pacheco Quico, A. R. Miaury Vilca, H. L. Pinto Pomareda y S. F. Torres Aza, «Riesgos laborales en personal de limpieza pública durante el Covid-19,»Universidad Ciencia Y Tecnología, vol. 25, nº 108, pp. 66-72, 2021. [5]J. Calizaya, F. Zapata, G. Monzón, Y. Alemán, R. Bellido y F. Ceballos, La investigación cuantitativa en las ciencias sociales y algunas aplicaciones de interés científico, Quito: Editorial Autanabooks, 2021. [6]J. Osorio y L. Cárdenas, «Estrés laboral: estudio de revisión,» Perspectivas Psicológicas, vol. 13, nº 1, pp. 81-90, 2017. [7]F. Suárez, L. Rosales y O. Flor, La ingeniería de las emociones humanas, Quito: AutanaBooks, 2020. [8]M. M. Chiang, G. R. Riquelme y P. A. Rivas, «Relación entre Satisfacción Laboral, Estrés Laboral y sus Resultados en Trabajadores de una Institución de Beneficencia de la Provincia de Concepción.,» Ciencia & rabajo, vol. 20, nº 63, pp. 178-186, 2018. [9]F. Suárez, L. Rosales y A. Lezama, La computación inteligente y los estados emocionales, Quito: AutanaBooks, 2019. [10]C. Mejia, J. Chacon, O. Enamorado, L. R. Garnica, S. Chacón y Y. García, «Factores asociados al estrés laboral en trabajadores de seis países de Latinoamérica,» Revista de la Asociación Española de Especialistas en Medicina del Trabajo, vol. 28, nº 3, pp. 204-211, 2019. [11]F. Suárez, L. Ortiz y L. Rosales, «La psicología del estrés y su análisis desde la inteligencia artificial,» Espacios, vol. 45, nº 41, p. 14, 2020. [12]L. A. Álvarez-Silva y C. E. Espininoza-Samaniego, «Estrés laboral en trabajadores formales de la bahía de Guayaquil,» Espirales, vol. 3, nº 24, pp. 77-88, 2019. [13]R. Karasek, «Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign,» Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 285-309, 1979. [14]J. M. Fernández-Arata y G. Calderón-De la Cruz, «Modelo Demandas-Control-Apoyo social en el estudio del estrés laboral en el Perú,» Revista Medica Herediana, vol. 28, pp. 281-282, 2017. [15]O. Bada, R. M. Salas, E. F. Castillo, E. M. Arroyo y C. E. Carbonell, «Estrés laboral y clima organizacional en docentes peruanos,» MediSur, vol. 18, nº 6, pp. 1138-1144, 2020. [16]A. Lozano-Vargas, «Impacto de la epidemia del Coronavirus (COVID-19) en la salud mental del personal de salud y en la población general de China,» Revista de Neuro-Psiquiatría, vol. 83, nº 1, pp. 51-56, 2020. [17]R. Karasek, Healthy work: stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working, New York: Basic Books, 1990. [18]D. Frías, Apuntes de consistencia interna de las puntuaciones de un instrumento de medida, Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2019. [19]J.L. Ventura, «Tamaño del efecto para la U de Mann-Whitney: aportes al artículo de Valdivia-Peralta et al.,» Revista chilena de neuro-psiquiatría, vol. 54, nº 4, pp. 353-354, 2016. [20]R. J. Grissom, «Probability of the superior outcome of one treatment over another.,» Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 79, nº 2, pp. 314-316, 1994. [21]M. Tomczak y E. Tomczak, «The need to report effect size estimates revisited. An overview of some recommended measures of effect size,» Trends Sport Sciences, vol. 1, nº 21, pp. 19-25, 2014. [22]S. Domínguez, «Magnitud del efecto, una guía rápida,» Educación Médica, vol. 19, nº 4, pp. 251-254, 2018.
En esta primera sección del evento Economía de la Informalidad Conferencia 2020, se dio inauguración y se presentaron los siguientes aportes: Inaugural (0:00:00 - 0:16:09) a Cargo de José Alejandro Cheyne (Rector de la Universidad del Rosario) ; Juan José Echavarría (Gerente general, Banco de la República) ; Carlos Eduardo Sepúlveda Rico (Decano Facultad de Economía, Universidad del Rosario) - Keynote Speaker: Informalidad, antes, durante y más allá de COVID-19 (0:16:39 - 1:46:29) Ponencia a cargo de Mariano Bosch (Especialista Líder en la Unidad de Mercados Laborales y Seguridad, BID), Modera Carlos Alberto Medina Durango (Gerente Banco de la republica cede Medellín) - Lanzamiento del Laboratorio de Economía Experimental - REBEL por sus siglas en inglés. (1:46:48 - 1:52:50 ) a cargo de José Alejandro Cheyne (Rector de la Universidad del Rosario) y Sergio Pulgarín (Vicerrector de la Universidad del Rosario). - Esta fue una de las conclusiones de la primera jornada de la Conferencia Economía de la Informalidad, que realiza la Facultad de Economía de la Universidad del Rosario. Según el BID, por la pandemia de la COVID-19 se han perdido 26,59 millones de empleos en once países de América Latina. El trabajo informal se considera una de las problemáticas mundiales que afectan a la sociedad. Actualmente, se busca avanzar en una economía más incluyente, dando visibilidad a los problemas que aquejan el país, por ejemplo, que el porcentaje de trabajadores informales oscila en el 50%, con una mayor incidencia en mujeres y personas de menores ingresos. Así lo indicó Juan José Echavarría, gerente general del Banco de la República, quien aseguró que la situación de la informalidad implica que los trabajadores están excluidos de las leyes laborales y de los esquemas de seguridad social. Además, la contingencia actual del coronavirus genera unos riesgos específicos que agravan su situación. Al intervenir en la Conferencia Economía de la Informalidad, que organiza la Facultad de Economía de la Universidad del Rosario, Echavarría dijo que los trabajadores informales son particularmente más vulnerables a las crisis económicas y sanitarias, debido al cierre por las cuarentenas que ha aquejado, no solo a Colombia, sino a diferentes países del mundo. "Hacer frente al desafío de la informalidad durante la recuperación de la crisis sanitaria requerirá políticas integrales que tengan en cuenta las condiciones específicas de territorio, sus poblaciones y sus condiciones de vida", anotó el gerente del Emisor. La paradoja del talento humano Para José Alejandro Cheyne, rector de la Universidad del Rosario, la informalidad tiene graves problemas respecto al desafío de la COVID-19, ya que es fruto de lo que se conoce en América Latina como la paradoja del talento humano, en donde se supera la mano de obra, pero existe un déficit en talento, ya que los empresarios y las organizaciones manifiestan que las personas que necesitan no las encuentran en el mercado de las principales ciudades. La informalidad, según Cheyne, es el resultado de la desigualdad que existe en el país en diferentes variables como la educación, el uso y la apropiación de la tecnología y las oportunidades laborales. Para comprender la informalidad, Carlos Eduardo Sepúlveda, decano de la Facultad de Economía de la Universidad del Rosario, explicó que esta conferencia se enmarca en un espacio científico que nace de la idea de crear un programa a gran escala sobre la informalidad económica en el país. Este programa cuenta con la alianza de 18 instituciones nacionales e internacionales de índole educativo público y privado, gremios productivos y fundaciones. Financiados con recursos del programa Colombia Científica y coordinado por el Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología de Colombia, se creó un ecosistema científico para estudiar el problema de la informalidad económica. De acuerdo con Sepúlveda, este proyecto busca impactar de manera directa la política pública nacional y transformar realidades de poblaciones y comunidades estudiadas. Empleos perdidos por la pandemia Para Mariano Bosch, jefe (e) de la Unidad de Mercados Laborales y Seguridad Social del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), las empresas y los gobiernos deben buscar alternativas e incentivos para que la economía informal pueda disminuir. Del desarrollo y productividad de los países se generan nuevas alternativas de empleos formales que contribuirían a disminuir las tasas de informalidad en el país. Por la pandemia del coronavirus, 26,59 millones de empleos se han perdido en once países de América Latina desde el 21 de febrero hasta octubre, de acuerdo con el BID. Por esta razón, se deben repensar los elementos que giran en torno a la protección social. Por ejemplo, disminuir los costos de entrada de los cotizantes, asegurar desde las empresas el cumplimiento de los derechos laborales y generar más empleos formales con alternativas de costos respecto a impuestos que las mismas deben pagar, dijo el experto. Según Bosch, Colombia a diferencia de México obliga a los trabajadores a cotizar por cuenta propia. Sin embargo, si Colombia aumenta los incentivos de costos, tanto para empresas como para los trabajadores cotizantes, la formalidad iría en aumento. La creación de políticas de productividad, el incentivo educativo para estudios de este fenómeno de la informalidad económica, la creación de proyectos específicos, puede contribuir en el desarrollo de la economía formal y el descenso de las tasas de la informalidad, comentó. ; In this first section of the Economy of Informality Conference 2020 event, the following contributions were inaugurated and presented: Inaugural (0:00:00 - 0:16:09) by José Alejandro Cheyne (Rector of the Universidad del Rosario ); Juan José Echavarría (General Manager, Banco de la República); Carlos Eduardo Sepúlveda Rico (Dean of the School of Economics, Universidad del Rosario) - Keynote Speaker: Informality, before, during and beyond COVID-19 (0:16:39 - 1:46:29) Presentation by Mariano Bosch ( Lead Specialist in the Labor Markets and Safety Unit, IDB), Moderator Carlos Medina - Launch of the Laboratory of Experimental Economics - REBEL for its acronym in English. (1:46:48 - 1:52:50) by José Alejandro Cheyne (Rector of the Universidad del Rosario) and Sergio Pulgarín (Vice-Rector of the Universidad del Rosario). - This was one of the conclusions of the first day of the Informal Economy Conference, held by the Faculty of Economics of the Universidad del Rosario. According to the IDB, 26.59 million jobs have been lost in eleven Latin American countries due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Informal work is considered one of the global problems that affect society. Currently, it seeks to advance in a more inclusive economy, giving visibility to the problems that afflict the country, for example, that the percentage of informal workers oscillates at 50%, with a higher incidence in women and people with lower incomes. This was indicated by Juan José Echavarría, general manager of the Banco de la República, who assured that the situation of informality implies that workers are excluded from labor laws and social security schemes. In addition, the current contingency of the coronavirus generates specific risks that aggravate their situation. Speaking at the Informal Economy Conference, organized by the Faculty of Economics of the Universidad del Rosario, Echavarría said that informal workers are particularly vulnerable to economic and health crises, due to the closure due to the quarantines they have suffered, not only to Colombia, but to different countries in the world. "Facing the challenge of informality during the recovery from the health crisis will require comprehensive policies that take into account the specific conditions of the territory, its populations and their living conditions," noted the Issuer's manager. The paradox of human talent For José Alejandro Cheyne, rector of the Universidad del Rosario, informality has serious problems regarding the challenge of COVID-19, since it is the result of what is known in Latin America as the paradox of human talent, where labor is surpassed, But there is a deficit in talent, since entrepreneurs and organizations say that the people who need them cannot find them in the market of the main cities. Informality, according to Cheyne, is the result of the inequality that exists in the country in different variables such as education, use and appropriation of technology and job opportunities. To understand informality, Carlos Eduardo Sepúlveda, dean of the Faculty of Economics at the Universidad del Rosario, explained that this conference is part of a scientific space that was born from the idea of creating a large-scale program on economic informality in the country . This program has the alliance of 18 national and international institutions of a public and private educational nature, productive unions and foundations. Financed with resources from the Colombia Científica program and coordinated by the Colombian Ministry of Science and Technology, a scientific ecosystem was created to study the problem of economic informality. According to Sepúlveda, this project seeks to directly impact national public policy and transform the realities of the populations and communities studied. Jobs lost due to the pandemic For Mariano Bosch, head of the Labor Markets and Social Security Unit of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), companies and governments must look for alternatives and incentives so that the informal economy can decrease. From the development and productivity of the countries, new alternatives of formal employment are generated that would help to reduce the informality rates in the country. Due to the coronavirus pandemic, 26.59 million jobs have been lost in eleven Latin American countries from February 21 to October, according to the IDB. For this reason, the elements that revolve around social protection must be rethought. For example, reduce the entry costs of contributors, ensure that companies comply with labor rights and generate more formal jobs with cost alternatives with respect to taxes that they must pay, said the expert. According to Bosch, Colombia, unlike Mexico, forces workers to contribute on their own account. However, if Colombia increases cost incentives, both for companies and contributing workers, formality would increase. The creation of productivity policies, the educational incentive for studies of this phenomenon of economic informality, the creation of specific projects, can contribute to the development of the formal economy and the decrease in informality rates, he commented.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Adavalli-5 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 585 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 8 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 200mm/m) in available water capacity. About 90 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 7 per cent nearly level (0- 1%) lands. About 89 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) and 8 per cent slightly eroded (e1) lands. An area of about 35 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 62 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available sulphur is low (10 ppm). Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 69 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in 28 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 324(55) 115 (20) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 417 (71) Groundnut - 23 (4) Musambi 324(55) 92 (16) Sunflower 324 (55) 92(16) Lime 324(55) 92 (16) Chili - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 324(55) 115 (20) Drumstick - 416 (71) Amla - 439 (75) Mulberry - 439 (75) Tamarind - 417 (71) Pomegranate - 416 (71) Marigold - 439 (75) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 439 (75) Mango - 5 (<1) Jasmine - 23 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Adavalli-5 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk, Koppal district) is located in between 15018' – 15019' North latitudes and 75057' – 75059' East longitudes, covering an area of about 585.39 ha, bounded by Kavalura, Alavandi Villages and Yelburga Taluk. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 46 to 56 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age groups of population is around 52 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 75.8 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 57 per cent. Around 71 % of farmers have taken yeshaswini health cards. Majority of farm households (57 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 71 per cent Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 43 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 6.1 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 14 per cent of farm households. Women participation is decision making around 50 per cent. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 2.98 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 31 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 54 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 31398 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets values are around Rs 1283 per household. Sprayer and weeder are main farm assets. The highest livestock population of bullocks are 14.3 per cent. The average milk produced in sample households for 840 litter/annum and 1215 kg/ha average fodder availability for crop season. The average per capita food consumption is around 677 grams (1856 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 86 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 38532 per household. About 43 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 926 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 5345 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 3019287 per year for the total area of 585.39 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 7069/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 5070/ha) followed by sunflower (Rs 4866/ha) and sorghum (Rs. 2588/ha). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 1567/ ha/year of sorghum. The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 51173) followed by sorghum (Rs 37733) and Sunflower (Rs 19603). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is sunflower (54 %) followed by sorghum (29 %) and Bengal gram (16 %). In Adavalli-5 micro watershed, major soils are Handral (HDL) and Gatareddihalla series are having deep soil depth cover for 43 % and 14 % of area, respectively. On this soil farmers are presently growing Bengal gram (67 %), Sorghum (33 %) and sunflower. Belgatti (BGT) soil series are having very shallow soil depth cover around 20 per cent of area, major crops grown are 3 sorghum. Kadagathur (KDT) and Bardur (BDR) soil series are having Very deep soil depth cover of 5.58 % and 7.2 % of area, crops sunflower and Muttal (MTL) soil series having deep soil depth cover of 2.3 % of area, major crop is sorghum. The total cost of cultivation in study area for Sunflower ranges between Rs. 16122/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.34) and Rs. 13516/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.46), In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 18137/ha in HDL soil (with of 0.82) and Rs. 10223/ha in BGT soil (with BCR of 1.23). In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in HDL soil is Rs. 23324/ha (with BCR of 1.14). Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (16.7%), sorghum (16.5 to 49.7%) and sunflower (42.8 to 55.6%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
