Suchergebnisse

Mountains frame the landscape of the city of Rio de Janeiro and serve as support for the Atlantic forest and the urban fabric on its borders that gradually advances on it. This article analyzes the process of urban settlement on the slopes of the city of Rio de Janeiro, from a comparative analysis of landscape morphology. It focuses on the Tijuca Massif, whose slopes experience constant urban pressure from real-estate interests and territorial disputes around the edges of the Atlantic forest. This article describes occupation patterns found on the slopes of the city and specifically in the Tijuca Massif and points out the effects of local urban planning legislation on the landscape, linking them to the territorial appropriation processes and resulting environmental conflicts. The border between the Atlantic forest and the urban fabric on the slopes of Rio de Janeiro is an heterogeneous, unstable, and dynamic transition zone with different levels of occupation (strips), whose internal structural logic affect the configuration of the others, causing impacts, tension, and conflicts. These strips form a gradient of occupation, where the inner strips (mixed bands) are the ones that suffer the most dynamic changes, affecting and impacting the outer ones. Within these mixed bands, high income strata neighborhoods and favelas (slums) establish contiguous and complementary relationships among themselves. This picture demonstrates that urban planning, management, and the logic of urban occupation on the slopes of Rio de Janeiro need to evolve through a process of adjustment toward a regenerative urbanism, in which open spaces exert a structuring role to connect, articulate, and guarantee landscape resilience against geological hazards and mitigate the antithesis between the forest, formal settlements and the slums. ; As montanhas estruturam a paisagem da cidade do Rio de Janeiro e servem de suporte para a floresta Atlântica e para a mancha urbana ao seu redor, que avança gradativamente sobre ela. O presente artigo analisa o processo de ocupação urbana nas encostas da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, a partir de uma leitura comparativa da morfologia da paisagem, com foco no Maciço da Tijuca, cujas encostas vivenciam uma constante pressão urbana decorrente da valorização imobiliária e das disputas territoriais nas bordas da floresta Atlântica. Este artigo tem como objetivo caracterizar os padrões de ocupação encontrados nas encostas da cidade, e do Maciço da Tijuca, em particular e apontar os efeitos da legislação urbanística local sobre a paisagem, relacionando-os aos processos de apropriação territorial. A zona de fronteira entre a floresta Atlântica e a malha urbana nas encostas do Rio de Janeiro caracteriza-se como uma zona de transição, heterogênea, instável e dinâmica, onde é possível discernir diferentes faixas de ocupação, cujas lógicas internas de estruturação afetam a configuração das demais. Essas faixas conformam um gradiente de ocupação, onde as faixas internas (faixas de mescla) são as que sofrem transformações mais dinâmicas, afetando e impactando as externas. Nestas faixas de mescla se localiza uma constelação de núcleos de ocupação habitados por diferentes extratos sociais, com características formais e informais, isto é, regulares e irregulares do ponto de vista urbanístico e fundiário, que estabelecem entre si uma relação imbricada de contiguidade e complementaridade. Este quadro demonstra que o planejamento urbano, a gestão e a lógica da ocupação urbana nas encostas cariocas necessitam passar por um processo de ajuste, em direção a um urbanismo regenerador, no qual os espaços livres exerçam um papel estruturador na conexão, articulação e na resiliência da paisagem frente aos riscos geológicos e na mitigação da antítese entre a floresta, os territórios formalmente ocupados e as favelas. ; Las montañas estructuran el paisaje de la ciudad de Rio de Janeiro y actúan como soporte del bosque Atlántico y de la mancha urbana alrededor, que avanza gradualmente sobre éste. El presente artículo analiza el proceso de ocupación urbana en las zonas de ladera de la ciudad de Rio de Janeiro, a partir de una lectura comparativa de la morfología del paisaje, enfocada en el Macizo de Tijuca, cuyas laderas experimentan una constante presión urbana debido a la valorización inmobiliaria y a las disputas territoriales en las áreas fronterizas del bosque Atlántico. Este artículo tiene como objetivo caracterizar los patrones de ocupación que se encontraron en las zonas de ladera de la ciudad y del Macizo de Tijuca en particular, y apuntar a los efectos de la legislación urbanística local sobre el paisaje, relacionándolo a los procesos de apropiación territorial. El área fronteriza entre el bosque Atlántico y la malla urbana en las laderas de Rio de Janeiro se caracteriza como una zona de transición, heterogénea, inestable y dinámica, donde es posible diferenciar diferentes fajas de ocupación, cuyas lógicas internas de estructuración afectan la configuración de las demás. Estas fajas conforman un gradiente de ocupación, donde las franja internas (fajas de mezcla) son las que sufren transformaciones más dinámicas, afectando e impactando las externas. En estas fajas de mezcla se localiza una constelación de núcleos de ocupación habitados por diferentes estratos sociales, con características formales e informales, es decir, regulares e irregulares desde el punto de vista urbanístico y de propiedad de la tierra, que establecen entre sí una relación imbricada de contigüidad y complementariedad. Se argumenta que la planificación urbanística, la gestión y la lógica da ocupación urbana en las laderas cariocas necesitan pasar por un proceso de ajuste, en dirección a un urbanismo regenerador, en el cual los espacios libres ejerzan un papel estructurador en la conexión, articulación y en la resiliencia del paisaje frente a los riesgos geológicos y en la mitigación de la antítesis entre el bosque, los territorios formalmente ocupados y las favelas.

The present research analyzes the role that the private sector can play in reducing poverty and marginality in Ethiopia by providing improved agricultural inputs to marginalized poor farmers. Two important insights motivate the present research: one is the rise of various innovative business approaches in the last years that aim at reducing poverty or contributing to the solution to other societal problems. The other insight motivating this research is that the very poorest have long not benefitted from poverty reduction efforts. In that context, marginality has been identified as a root cause of poverty and its persistence. Against this background, the concept of marginality is presented and applied to the context of Ethiopia. Using Geographic Information System (GIS) software, a marginality map of Ethiopia is created by overlaying seven indicators capturing different aspects of marginality. Results show that marginality is a severe and widespread problem in Ethiopia with more than 40 million people being severely marginalized. Marginality hotspots are found in Amhara and SNNP. Interestingly, marginality hotspots are not correlated with agro-ecological zones and are ethnically more homogeneous than non-hotspot areas. Furthermore, areas posing specific business opportunities and challenges are identified based on information on population density, quality of road and mobile phone connection and farming systems. This area classification reveals that companies catering to the marginalized poor need to go the 'last mile' within areas exhibiting special business challenges and opportunities rather than investing in separated areas. After having identified and located the marginalized poor in Ethiopia, survey data that is representative for the most marginalized in the country is analyzed concerning purchasing behavior and needs expressed by the marginalized poor. Using descriptive statistics it can be shown that the amount of cash the marginalized poor have at hand varies considerably across regions but not very much within regions. The marginalized poor have in common that they spend a high percentage of their expenditures on food (around 70%), followed by commodities such as kerosene and clothes. The three most bought products are salt, kerosene and soap. This translates into considerable market sizes of these products. That people mention agricultural inputs as one of their most urgent unsatisfied needs can be explained by the fact that productivity of smallholder farmers is very low in Ethiopia and improved agricultural inputs are in short supply. Thus, an institutional analysis of the seed, fertilizer and agro-chemical markets is carried out to understand the frictions on these markets and to assess possibilities for the private sector to contribute to the reduction of poverty and marginality through adequate investments. Analyzing more than 60 expert interviews carried out in Ethiopia, it turns out that the market for seeds of major crops is highly regulated by the government, with institutions favoring public companies. One implication of this system is that all seed is distributed via one channel, which leads to a lack of traceability of the seed and, thus, lacking accountability for seed producers. Moreover, it causes a lack of agro-dealers as seed distribution is exclusively carried out by cooperatives and cooperative unions on behalf of the government. The only exceptions from the strict government control are international seed companies that produce their own varieties. Fertilizer importation and distribution is completely under government control, with no private companies being active on this market. The markets for fruit and vegetable seeds and agro-chemicals, however, are less regulated. A multitude of small private firms engages in import and distribution. Nevertheless, there is a shortage also for these products that is mainly caused by a lack of access to finance. Due to the absence of an agro-dealer network in the country, the availability of fruit and vegetable seeds and agro-chemicals is very limited outside urban centers as small traders do not have the capacity to invest in marketing infrastructure. To motivate private companies to invest in agricultural markets and to cater to the marginalized poor, several institutional changes are necessary. For seed companies, access to breeder seed, the assignment of more land and the availability of plant breeders are crucial elements. For fertilizer companies, a fair tendering process and the abolishment of import quantity prescriptions are of major importance. Such well-designed market liberalization efforts are likely to result in the creation of an agro-dealer network as a positive externality that would also benefit traders of fruit and vegetable seeds and agro-chemicals. For all companies, access to finance at reasonable cost, especially with lower collateral requirements, is essential to expand operations. While companies can be expected to push for changes, the current system and the self-conception of the Ethiopian government require the government to be in the lead in the efforts for changes. Successful role models, support by other stakeholders and successes with investment incentive schemes in other sectors in Ethiopia could encourage the government to gradually liberalize the market. If institutional changes are enacted to partly liberalize the market, it needs to be ensured that the marginalized poor, who currently benefit from the government's equity approach, are included in the value chains even if companies do not operate with innovative business approaches. However, as the poor constitute a very large share of the market, Ethiopia may even be a leading example for companies in how to apply business models catering to the poor as companies are forced to adjust to this target group if they want to develop the largest part of the market.

Venezuela era, hacia 1870, un país desarticulado física, política y económicamente sin llegar a constituir una verdadera nación. Este artículo tiene como objetivo realizar una reconstrucción histórica del proceso iniciado entonces, que devino no solo en la cohesión geográfica de la incipiente nación, sino además, en la construcción de un corpus culinario nacional. Durante la larga gestión presidencial de Antonio Guzmán Blanco (1870-1888) se produjo el primer intento sistemático de modernización nacional. Para ello se adelantaron medidas para organizar la administración pública, crear una red vial para conectar las distintas regiones, reforzar el poder central y disminuir el poder de los caudillos regionales, con el propósito de articular al país al sistema capitalista mundial. Había –además– en ese proyecto político, que fundar un nuevo mito nacional, sobre la base de los símbolos patrios que alimentan el imaginario colectivo republicano. En correspondencia con ese empeño, de manera casi paralela en el tiempo se hizo presente –en el ámbito de la gastronomía–, la construcción de un corpus culinario nacional, distinto al de las regiones del país. El mismo incluía algunas preparaciones culinarias, entre las cuales destacaba el pabellón caraqueño, más tarde llamado pabellón criollo; pero también a la hallaca, un plato tradicional, de compleja elaboración y particular connotación festiva. Ambos se han convertido en los más representativos de la cocina popular venezolana, para así reforzar el sentimiento de pertenencia nacional y servir de base de identidad cultural de sus pobladores. ; By 1870, Venezuela could not be yet considered like a true nation. This article aims to make a historicalreconstruction of the process initiated by then, which produced not only the geographical cohesion of theincipient nation, but also build a national culinary corpus. During the long presidential term of AntonioGuzman Blanco (1870-1888 period), the first systematic attempt at national modernization was achievedexecuted. Thus, a set of measures related to the organization of the public administration, tothe developmentof a wide road network to connect the various regions, and to strengthening the political power at thecentral level were carried out in order to articulate the country to the world capitalist system. In this politicalproject there it was also necessary to found a new national myth, based on national symbols, which fed theRepublican collective imagination. Thus, a kind of national culinary corpus in the field of gastronomy wasbuilt, quite different to the observed in different regions of the country. It included and highlighted theCaracas' pavilion (pabellón caraqueño), later called creole native pavilion (pabellón criollo), as well as theHallaca –a traditional, particularly complex and festive dish. Both plates have become the most popularrepresentatives of Venezuelan cuisine, and therefore, they became key element for strengthening the senseof national belonging, and also the cultural identity of Venezuela's inhabitants. ; Vers 1870, le Venezuela était un pays démantelé physiquement, politiquement et économiquement, sans être arrivéà construire une véritable nation. Cet article vise à faire une reconstitution historique du processus engagé, qui apermis non seulement la cohésion géographique de la nation, mais aussi la construction d'une identitéculinaire nationale. Pendant la longue durée du mandat présidentiel de Monsieur Antonio Guzman Blanco(1870-1888) il s'est produit une première tentative systématique de modernisation nationale. Pour ce faire,plusieurs mesures seront prises pour organiser et moderniser l'administration publique, création d'unréseau routier pour relier les différentes régions du pays, renforcement du pouvoir central et réduction dupouvoir des gouverneurs régionaux, afin d'introduire le pays dans le système capitaliste mondial. En plus dece projet politique, il a été nécessaire de fonder un nouveau mythe national, sur la base des symboles quinourrissent l'imaginaire collectif républicain. En correspondance avec cet effort et au même temps, étaitprésent dans le domaine de la gastronomie, la construction d'une identité culinaire nationale dans lesdifférentes régions du pays. Cette identité comprenait certaines préparations culinaires, parmi lesquels le «pabellón » de Caracas, appelé plus tard « pabellón » créole; mais aussi la « Hallaca », un plat traditionnel, detraitement particulièrement complexe qui est préparé avec une connotation festive particulière. Les deuxsont devenus les plats les plus représentatifs de la cuisine populaire vénézuélienne, et contribuent à renforcerle sentiment d'appartenance nationale et la base de l'identité culturelle de ses habitants. ; Em 1870, a Venezuela era um país fisicamente, politicamente e economicamente desmontado; isto é, nãopode ser considerado ainda como uma verdadeira nação. Este artigo tem como objetivo fazer umareconstrução histórica de um processo iniciado desde então, que se tornou não só a coesão geográfica dajovem nação, mas também a chave na construção de um corpo culinária nacional. Durante o longo mandatopresidencial liderado por Antonio Guzman Blanco (período 1870-1888), foi executada a primeira tentativasistemática de modernização nacional. Assim, um conjunto de medidas relacionadas com a organização daadministração pública, para criar uma grande rede de estradas para ligar as diversas regiões, e para fortalecero poder político a nível central, foi realizado com o objetivo de articular o país com o sistema capitalistamundial. Neste projeto político era também necessário criar um novo mito nacional, com base em símbolosnacionais, que alimentam o imaginário coletivo republicano. Em consonância com este esforço -e quase aomesmo tempo, por uma espécie de corpo culinário nacional no campo da gastronomia foi construído, bemdiferente da observada em diferentes regiões do país. Ele incluiu algumas receitas culinárias, entre os quaisdestacou-se o Pavilhão de Caracas (caraqueño pabellón), mais tarde chamado de Pavilhão crioulo (pabellóncriollo), bem como o hallaca –um prato tradicional, particularmente complexo e próprio para festividades.Ambos as pratos tornaram-se os representantes mais populares de cozinha venezuelana e exerceram umpapel chave para reforçar o sentimento de nacionalismo e construção da base de identidade cultural doshabitantes da Venezuela. ; 145-152 ; cartay@ula.ve ; Semestral

Refugees and asylum seekers arrive in Australia seeking protection from the countries they have left. There is a distinction between these two types of arrivals, for example, refugees are defined by the Convention Regarding Refugees 1951, Article 1 A (2), adopted by Australia. Asylum seekers in contrast, seek refuge for other humanitarian or compassionate reasons. The Australian system does not identify the two categories as separate. Instead, all applications are assessed by DIMIA officials, against the Convention, which asylum seekers often do not meet. If found to meet the definition, they are granted temporary protection however, if not they have access to appeal or are returned to their country of origin. Under treaties, such as the JCCPR, CROC, and CAT, asylum seekers who have an unforeseen reason to remain in Australia, are entitled to protection of the State. Other countries such as Canada, the UK and New Zealand allow for asylum seekers to use a separate and direct process. Australia should follow these examples. Previously the Act did separate the two types of applicants under s6A (1) (e), allowing applicants to apply for Permanent Residence. However, the 1989 reforms revoked this section and did not replace it. Therefore, a separate humanitarian visa class for onshore arrivals needs to be created, in order to allow for asylum seekers to apply for protection under a separate process, to refugees. This would reduce the need for intervention on these grounds by the Minister. Under the Migration Act 1958, Australia acknowledges its duties to both categories of arrivals. Section 417 grants the Minister discretion to substitute a more favourable decision if it is in the public interest to do so. The purpose of s417 is for the Minister to take unforeseen factors (such as humanitarian and compassionate grounds) into account and be able to intervene to fulfil international treaty obligations. It is a flexible system meant to prevent the refoulement (return) of asylum seekers to countries in which they face persecution, allowing for the Minister to step out of strict legislation to ensure that people with exceptional circumstance are not refouled. Due to the increase in the number of appeals from both refugees and asylum seekers, the section is forced to function as a safety net in order to prevent refoulement. However, this safety net is not hole proof. The Minister publishes Guidelines, which instruct the public of the criteria needing to be met in order to receive intervention. DIMIA argues there is transparency through these Guidelines. This is refuted in practice where clients meet the criteria, and have nevertheless been declined a visa. The Guidelines are merely instructive, not legally binding and consequently there is no punishment for deterrence from them. Discretion under s417 cannot be exercised until a decision by the RRT is made. Earlier in the process DIMIA officials assess cases, referring to the Minister those which should be brought to his or her attention. Therefore, the Minister may be aware of cases requiring intervention, but is prevented from acting until the RRT reaches a decision. There should be the ability to intervene without an RRT decision. This nevertheless should not disadvantage an applicant if a DIMIA official does not refer a case. The system lacks transparency and accountability. Denied applicants are not given explanations and therefore, do not understand why they are not permitted to remain, believing it was due to bias or favouritism. By placing the ability to intervene in the Minister, the Government furnishes this area oflaw with a political nature and consequently, the public responds in a political manner. This is seen through seeking support from people perceived to have ' the ear' of the Minister or who are in a position to influence the Minister in their favour. This is a legal area because treaties need to be interpreted and implemented into domestic law. Therefore, it needs to be treated separately from politics. The Labor Party has indicted the previous Minister for making exceptions for people following donations. Whether or not donations were accepted in return for visas nevertheless highlights the lack of transparency in the system. The one category, which receives the most intervention from the Minister, is family or those with Australian connections. In contrast, humanitarian reasons have been noted to rarely be the cause of a visa to be granted, despite this being the original intention for the section. Rather than being a power upholding Australia's duties to meet international obligations it is described as being one, which is to be exercised in the public interest. The only check on this discretion is the duty to table reasons in Parliament for substituting a decision, s417 (4). There is no requirement to table reasons for a denial of a visa. Further, personal information is not revealed in order to protect the person's identity. As a result, these tabled documents are an inappropriate check on s417. Parliament is a political environment, not independent of Government policies or political agendas. Therefore, an independent Committee or panel of experts should be formed to review the Minister's use of s417. This Committee or panel needs to be independent from politics and have the necessary expertise to assess the Minister's reasons for intervention and non-intervention. The immigration system in Australia needs to be reformed, taking into account the recommendations made above. At present this system does not uphold international standards, not obligations under treaty as whole heartedly as it should.

This report examines the topic of tobacco control through the use of plain packaging. Predominantly it focuses on its implementation within Australia and as such deals exclusively with Australian law and legislation, international examples are touched upon in areas of economics and history. The idea of plain packaging began with a Canadian doctor in the late 1980s and has since been considered by several countries (Canada , New Zealand and the United Kingdom) but never successfully legislated. It is recommended as part of the World Health Organisation 's Framework for the Convention of Tobacco Control which is the leading guideline to the curbing of the international tobacco epidemic. In Australia there already exist certain guidelines which specify the design of cigarette packets such as packets must contain graphic health warnings which cover 30% of the front and 90% of the back of cigarette packs (Australian National Preventative Health Agency 2008). In addition to the this Australian law also prohibits terms such as 'light' and 'mild ' being used to describe cigarettes (Cancer Council 2005) after it was found by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) that around 55% of Australian smokers (falsely) believed that light cigarettes (meaning in this instance both those advertised as such as well as low in tar) were in some way healthier than regular cigarettes (Bo rland 2004). Advertising restrictions known as 'Out of Sight' legislation now prohibits tobacco products being displayed at the point of sale in several Australian states and whilst some contend that this eliminates the need for plain packaging , significant evidence exists to suggest that tobacco packaging continues to act as an advertisement long after the initial purchase. Irrefutable scientific evidence has shown us to know that smokers face significantly increased risks of "death and or illness from numerous cancers, heart disease, stroke, atherosclerosis, abdominal aortic aneurysm, emphysema and other respiratory diseases. Smoking also causes blindness, dental problems, erectile dysfunction, reduced fertility in women, sudden infant death syndrome, contributes to osteoporosis and increases the risks of pregnancy complications including premature birth , low birth weight, still birth and infant mortality (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2004)". Half of all lifetime smokers will die from tobacco related illnesses, which in global terms amounts to approximately 650 million people (Eriksen & Mackay 2002). Smoking presents health concerns not just to smokers but also those around them, exposure to second-hand smoke (known as passive smoking) also causes disease and death. Recent studies have suggested that the danger of smoking also lingers after the visible tobacco smoke is gone, this danger which is present in the form of carcinogens created by the residue of nicotine interacting with air sticks to surfaces such as carpet and clothing. At particular risk are infants and toddlers. Several groups are more vulnerable than other members of the general public to the dangers of cigarettes and these include pregnant women and people from a low socio-economic background. This entirely preventable health risk (especially to those who have not made the active choice to smoke) is the primary motivator for Government action against tobacco. One of the more unfortunate side effects of tobacco control (specifically increased taxation) is that it creates an incentive for a black market to arise. It is estimated that around 12% of all tobacco consumed within Australia is illicit (that is no tax has been paid on the product) . One of the more troubling forms illegal tobacco takes is "chopchop" bulk, amateurishly grown/processed tobacco which is often cut with vegetable matter to increase its net weight. Incorrectly cured tobacco contains all the health risks of regular tobacco as well as several others due to various moulds, fungi and pesticides . This "Chop-Chop" usage is something that needs to be addressed within Australia for reasons of both health and finance. Given the lack of precedence, several legal issues surround the introduction of plain packaging; some of these such as Constitutional law are unique to Australia and others such as the TRIPS agreement and WIPO are more internationally applicable. The legal opinions collected by this report suggest that there are no legal barriers to the implementation of plain packaging legislation however this is highly contested not just by Tobacco companies and their various lobby groups , but also by professionals within the legal field . Numerous countries, industries and organisations are looking to Australia to determine the validity of this particular kind of tobacco control. The economics surrounding tobacco consumption are complex and difficult to measure and whilst initially it may appear that tobacco through its high level of taxation is beneficial to a community, its true cost (including the burden on health care, loss of productivity, years of ill health etc) can be very difficult to calculate. The findings of this report suggest that although the tobacco industry contributes substantial amount of revenue to the Australian Government the overall cost (both tangible and intangible) to Australia is significantly higher. The long term nature of tobacco related illness means that even after a reduction in tobacco smoking the cost to the Government of their health treatment is ongoing. Furthermore there is significant intelligence both from Australia and internationally that suggests organised crime and terrorism may be funded from the sale of illicit tobacco. Due to the large profit margins, low risk of detection and comparatively minor sentences for those caught, the illicit tobacco trade which annually costs the globe around $40 billion US dollars is a growing and troubling industry. Given the wide scope of this report several recommendations are made which can be viewed on page 56 (entitled Recommendations).

The rise of China and India is one of the most talked about events in recent times. Both facilitate the world's largest populations and have stimulated extraordinary economic growth levels to the extent that they now have a commanding place in the global economy. Accompanying their economic development is a new found sense of political confidence that is manifest in the Asian region and beyond. Both states now enjoy greater involvement in regional and global affairs, taking on more substantial roles within multilateral institutions and participating in humanitarian and security programs. The simultaneous rise of these two giants is unique in global history. This will have significant effects for the region and will impact Australia's foreign policy choices. As Chinese and Indian influence expands, the power balance gradually shifts away from traditional centres of dominance to multiple poles of power which include China and India. This evolving development creates tensions as it remains unclear the type of regional architecture that will emerge and what this will mean for the future of the region. Further, the rise of China and India is challenging strategically and economically. Both states are low cost competitive options for foreign investment and also they now require access to significant amounts of energy resources. This factor is not only confronting because of the effect on global energy prices, but also because it has encouraged both states to engage in diplomacy with 'rogue states', thus undermining a global push to realize certain political and economic standards. In understanding these unique developments, it is important to reflect on the motivations that drive China and India's foreign policies. This requires first becoming acquainted with the dominant theoretical paradigms that underpin decision making in both states. Both India and China are influenced by ideas drawn from neo-realism and neo-liberal internationalism, which are evidenced in policies that both states undertake in regards to economic development, strategic partnerships and their involvement with global and regional organizations. Primarily, they underpin both China and India's fundamental goal, which is continued economic development aimed at building great power status. However, these policies are tempered by factors such as nationalism, traditions and culture, concepts which are given greater explanatory power under a constructivist analysis. The combination of these factors accounts largely for the nature of foreign policy making in China and India. This becomes important when examining the bilateral Sino-Indian relationship, as it allows a greater understanding of how these states interplay with one another. The China-India relationship has a long and complex history that dates back many thousands of years. In more contemporary times, the relationship has oscillated between intense closeness, witnessed in the idealistic brotherhood days of the fifties, and antagonism, such as was experienced during the 1962 border war. In the present day, the relationship strikes a balance between cooperation and competition. In order to achieve their domestic aims and consistent with global norms, both states have sought to expand cooperative engagement. This has been most evident in their trade relationship, which has increased significantly in recent times. Symbolically, there have also been nascent attempts to extend cooperation to potentially antagonistic areas, such as energy and defense. However, at present, these sectors are still defined largely by competitive interactions. Contentious issues remain which complicate the relationship. The disputes over sovereignty along China and India's common border are yet to be resolved. This generates an air of mistrust and suspicion, particularly given the 1962 border war and is compounded by the increased need for strategic integrity as both states assert their influence more obviously. Similarly, the ambiguity surrounding Tibet and Sikkim compounds the border tensions. The standards set by the Chinese on the issue of Tibet are not actually met by the Chinese themselves in relation to Sikkim, which not only frustrate the Indians, but raises doubt as to China's intentions for a fair and equal relationship. The potential for competition is most evident through China and India's interactions with other states. There are three types of relationships in particular that affect the China-India bilateral relationship: China's special relationship with Pakistan, India's budding friendship with United States and the interactions with South and Southeast Asia. Important also is the fact that these states themselves influence the bilateral relationship, manipulating China and India for their own ends, which further complicates this relationship. It is most likely that neither extreme optimism nor pessimism is necessary in evaluating the future potential of China-India relations. Both states are fundamentally driven by realist style policies, which tend to increase the likelihood of competition. Nationalist pressures and the mistrust developed over the course of several decades has increased mutual antipathy and makes cooperation difficult. However, there are positive signs that both states are able to put these issues to one side to pursue a fruitful economic relationship. This is helping to increase levels of trust and facilitate expanded cooperative ties. In sum, the future of the relationship will likely be characterized by 'quiet competition', whereby both China and India will compete for attention and resources, however this does not have to damage ongoing developments in the relationship. So, what does this mean for Australia? The unprecedented rise of China and India will likely change the architecture of our region and this will require change in Australia's foreign policy. Our central goals will remain much the same, as security and economic prosperity retain central importance, however Canberra will have to reconsider its methods for achieving these aims as its key allies in the region experience shifts in their power and influence. Australia should make proactive choices during this transition process to ensure we are able to maintain our interests during the coming 'Chindia' era.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported licence.-- et al. ; The standard model of particle physics describes the fundamental particles and their interactions via the strong, electromagnetic and weak forces. It provides precise predictions for measurable quantities that can be tested experimentally. The probabilities, or branching fractions, of the strange B meson (B-s(0)) and the B-0 meson decaying into two oppositely charged muons (mu(+) and mu(-)) are especially interesting because of their sensitivity to theories that extend the standard model. The standard model predicts that the B-s(0)->mu(+)mu(-) and B-0 ->mu(+)mu(-) decays are very rare, with about four of the former occurring for every billion B-s(0) mesons produced, and one of the latter occurring for every ten billion B-0 mesons(1). A difference in the observed branching fractions with respect to the predictions of the standard model would provide a direction in which the standard model should be extended. Before the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN2 started operating, no evidence for either decay mode had been found. Upper limits on the branching fractions were an order of magnitude above the standard model predictions. The CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid) and LHCb(Large Hadron Collider beauty) collaborations have performed a joint analysis of the data from proton-proton collisions that they collected in 2011 at a centre-of-mass energy of seven teraelectronvolts and in 2012 at eight teraelectronvolts. Here we report the first observation of the B-s(0)->mu(+)mu(-) decay, with a statistical significance exceeding six standard deviations, and the best measurement so far of its branching fraction. Furthermore, we obtained evidence for the B-0 ->mu(+)mu(-) decay with a statistical significance of three standard deviations. Both measurements are statistically compatible with standard model predictions and allow stringent constraints to be placed on theories beyond the standard model. The LHC experiments will resume taking data in 2015, recording proton-proton collisions at a centre-of-mass energy of 13 teraelectronvolts, which will approximately double the production rates of B-s(0) and B-0 mesons and lead to further improvements in the precision of these crucial tests of the standard model. ; We express our gratitude to colleagues in the CERN accelerator departments for the excellent performance of the LHC. We thank the technical and administrative staff at CERN, at the CMS institutes and at the LHCb institutes. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the computing centres and personnel of the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid for delivering so effectively the computing infrastructure essential to our analyses. Finally, we acknowledge the enduring support for the construction and operation of the LHC, the CMS and the LHCb detectors provided by CERN and by many funding agencies. The following agencies provide support for both CMS and LHCb: CAPES, CNPq, FAPERJ and FINEP (Brazil); NSFC (China); CNRS/IN2P3 (France); BMBF, DFG and HGF (Germany); SFI (Ireland); INFN (Italy); NASU (Ukraine); STFC (UK); and NSF (USA). Agencies that provide support for CMS only are BMWFW and FWF (Austria); FNRS and FWO (Belgium); FAPESP (Brazil); MES (Bulgaria); CAS and MoST (China); COLCIENCIAS (Colombia); MSES and CSF (Croatia); RPF (Cyprus); MoER, ERC IUT and ERDF (Estonia); Academy of Finland, MEC, and HIP (Finland); CEA (France); GSRT (Greece); OTKA and NIH (Hungary); DAE and DST (India); IPM (Iran); NRF and WCU (Republic of Korea); LAS (Lithuania); MOE and UM (Malaysia); CINVESTAV, CONACYT, SEP, and UASLP-FAI (Mexico); MBIE (New Zealand); PAEC (Pakistan); MSHE and NSC (Poland); FCT (Portugal); JINR (Dubna); MON, RosAtom, RAS and RFBR (Russia); MESTD (Serbia); SEIDI and CPAN (Spain); Swiss Funding Agencies (Switzerland); MST (Taipei); ThEPCenter, IPST, STAR and NSTDA (Thailand); TUBITAK and TAEK (Turkey); SFFR (Ukraine); and DOE (USA). Agencies that provide support for only LHCb are: FINEP (Brazil); MPG (Germany); FOM and NWO (The Netherlands); MNiSW and NCN (Poland); MEN/IFA (Romania); MinES and FANO (Russia); MinECo (Spain); SNSF and SER (Switzerland). Individuals from the CMS collaboration have received support from the Marie-Curie programme and the European Research Council and EPLANET (European Union); the Leventis Foundation; the A. P. Sloan Foundation; the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office; the Fonds pour la Formation a la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (FRIABelgium); the Agentschap voor Innovatie door Wetenschap en Technologie (IWT-Belgium); the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) of the Czech Republic; the Council of Science and Industrial Research, India; the HOMING PLUS programme of Foundation for Polish Science, cofinanced from European Union, Regional Development Fund; the Compagnia di San Paolo (Torino); the Consorzio per la Fisica (Trieste); MIUR project 20108T4XTM (Italy); the Thalis and Aristeia programmes cofinanced by EU-ESF and the Greek NSRF; and the National Priorities Research Program by Qatar National Research Fund. Individual groups or members of the LHCb collaboration have received support from EPLANET, Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions and ERC (European Union), Conseil general de Haute-Savoie, Labex ENIGMASS and OCEVU, Region Auvergne (France), RFBR (Russia), XuntaGal and GENCAT (Spain), Royal Society and Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 (UK). LHCb is also thankful for the computing resources and the access to software R&D tools provided by Yandex LLC (Russia). The CMS and LHCb collaborations are indebted to the communities behind the multiple open source software packages on which they depend. ; Peer reviewed

Energy, materials, and by-products, can be exchanged between companies, having positive effects in the form of improved resource efficiency, environmental benefits, and economic gains. One such energy stream that can be exchanged is excess heat, that is, heat generated as a by-product during, for example, industrial production. Excess heat will continue to play an important role in efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improve energy efficiency. Using excess heat is therefore currently emphasized in EU policy as a way to reach EU climate targets. This thesis examines the opportunities of manufacturing industries to use industrial excess heat, and how doing so can positively affect industry, society, and the climate. Since different parts of the energy system are entangled, there is an inherent complexity in studying these systems and introducing excess heat in one part of the energy system may influence other parts of the system. This analysis has accordingly been conducted by combining studies from various perspectives, by applying both quantitative and qualitative methods and covering a broad range of aspects, such as technical possibilities as well as climate, policy, economics, and resource aspects. The results identify several opportunities and benefits accruing from excess heat use. Although excess heat is currently partly used as a thermal resource in district heating in Sweden, this thesis demonstrates that significant untapped excess heat is still available. The mapping conducted in the appended studies identifies excess heat in different energy carriers, mainly low-temperature water. Analysis of excess heat use in different recovery options demonstrated greater output when using excess heat in district heating than electricity production. Optimizing the trade-offs in excess heat used in a district heating network, heat-driven cooling, and electricity production under different energy market conditions while minimizing the system cost, however, indicated that the attractiveness of excess heat in district heating depends on the type of heat production in the system. Viewing excess heat as a low-cost energy source also makes it economically interesting, and creates opportunities to invest in excess heat-recovery solutions. Excess heat is often viewed as CO2 neutral since unused excess heat may be regarded as wasted energy. The GHG mitigation potential of using excess heat, however, was found to be ambiguous. The appended studies demonstrate that using excess heat for electricity production or for applications that reduce the use of electricity reduces GHG emissions. The effects of using excess heat in district heating, on the other hand, depend on the energy market development, for example, the marginal electricity production and marginal use of biomass, and on the type of district heating system replaced. The interviews performed reveal that energy policy does influence excess heat use, being demonstrated both to promote and discourage excess heat use. Beyond national energy policies, internal goals and core values were identified as important for improved energy efficiency and increased excess heat use. ; Energi, material och biprodukter kan utbytas mellan företag och därmed leda till positiva effekter i form av förbättrad resurseffektivitet, miljövinster och ekonomiska vinster. Ett sådant energiflöde som kan nyttjas är överskottsvärme, det vill säga, värme som genereras som en biprodukt vid till exempel industriell produktion. Överskottsvärme kommer att fortsätta att spela en viktig roll i arbetet med att minska utsläppen av växthusgaser och öka energieffektiviteten och lyfts därför fram i EU policy som ett sätt att nå klimatmålen. Denna avhandling undersöker möjligheterna för den tillverkande industrin att använda industriell överskottsvärme och hur detta kan medföra positiva bidrag till industrin, samhället och klimatet. Eftersom olika delar av energisystemet påverkar varandra så finns en inneboende komplexitet i att studera dessa system. Användningen av överskottsvärme i en del av energisystemet kan alltså påverka andra delar av systemet. Denna analys har därför gjorts genom att kombinera studier från olika perspektiv, genom användning av både kvantitativa och kvalitativa metoder och genom att täcka in ett brett spektrum av aspekter såsom tekniska möjligheter, och klimat-, policy-, ekonomiska- och resursaspekter. Resultaten visar flera möjligheter med, och fördelar som kommer från, användning av överskottsvärme. Även om överskottsvärme redan idag delvis används som värmekälla i fjärrvärme så visar denna avhandling att tillgången på outnyttjad överskottsvärme fortfarande är betydande. Kartläggningen som genomfördes identifierar överskottsvärme i olika energibärare, i huvudsak i vatten med låg temperatur. Användningen av överskottsvärme analyserades för olika användningsalternativ och visade på en större output vid användning i fjärrvärmesystemet än när den användes för elproduktion. När fördelningen av användning av överskottsvärme mellan utnyttjande i fjärrvärmesystemet, för produktion av kyla eller el optimerades under olika energimarknadsvillkor, med syfte att minimera systemkostnaden, visade det sig dock att effekterna från användning av överskottsvärme i fjärrvärme beror på typen av befintlig värmeproduktion i systemet. Om man ser på överskottsvärme som en billig energikälla skapas en ekonomisk möjlighet att investera i olika lösningar för överskottsvärmeanvändning. Överskottsvärme ses ofta som CO2 neutral eftersom outnyttjad överskottsvärme kan ses som bortkastad energi. Möjligheten för minskning av växthusgaser vid användning av överskottsvärme visade sig dock vara tvetydig. Avhandlingens studier visar att användning av överskottsvärme för elproduktion och för tillämpningar som minskar elanvändningen minskar utsläppen av växthusgaser. Effekterna från överskottsvärme i fjärrvärme beror däremot på energimarknadens utveckling, såsom framtida elproduktion och alternativanvändning av biomassa, och på vilken typ av fjärrvärmeproduktion som ersätts. Intervjuerna som utförts visar att styrmedel påverkar överskottsvärmeanvändningen. Styrmedel visade sig både främja och missgynna användningen av överskottsvärme. Utöver nationella styrmedel så lyftes även interna företagsmål och kärnvärden fram som viktiga för ökad energieffektivitet och ökad användning av överskottsvärme.

Forest resources provide a means of livelihoods in rural communities in most developing countries. Growing threats of disappearance of these resources as a result of human and natural activities led Cameroon in 1994 to institute new forest policy reforms which amongst others aimed to formalize and strengthen the involvement of local communities in forest management. Although much has been written on the importance and methods of participation of the local people in sustainable forest management, little has been done to assess the involvement of especially women in forest management activities. This study aims to contribute to an understanding of the roles of indigenous men and women in forest management activities, how they are shaped by management regimes and the influence on their livelihoods. Results are based on empirical findings from two case studies-the Korup National Park Area (KNPA) and Bechati Forest Area (BFA). The analysis focuses on the different roles of men and women in forest activities, exploring how policies have influenced their participation. It further uses the concepts provided by gender analysis and SLF to check the potentials for improved participation of men and women in forest management and sustainable rural livelihoods. Results show that men and women in the research communities are solely dependent on forest resources for their livelihoods. They perform different roles with different interests and needs regarding the forest and its resources. Men and women have different responsibilities in protecting and maintaining homestead, common and forest lands. The results show that men are interested in cash crop production and usually own large plots and a greater proportion of women are involved in food crop production mostly for subsistence. The analysis of the management practices in both research areas show that formal and traditional ways of managing the forest are practiced. The traditional method is supplementary to the formal as the inability of traditional council to solve some forest problems are forwarded to the court of law where sanctions are taken. Considering that they are few guards to patrol the forest or visit the communities regularly would mean increase illegal activities in the forest. With some recognition, cooperation and mutual understanding between the local people, government and conservation staff, the management of the forest would be improved. The analysis further reveals clashing traditional, governmental and participatory management strategies leading to tensions, conflicts and lack of trust among actors. Results on gender analysis in research communities portray power relations in forest issues. Rights and access to natural resources like land, trees and animals is gendered. Land tenure rights BFA are hereditary and entitled to the male successor of the family. In KNPA, it is based on demarcation and occupation. However, though land acquisition is open to both men and women in the KNPA, women were found to acquire less land due to numerous responsibilities and lack of strength. The amount of land acquired determines the degree of authority a family or an individual possesses. The analysis also shows that there is some form of change in gender roles although women are not highly represented and even fewer women take part in decision-making processes. Gender issues are integrated in most policy commitments in Cameroon but if steps are not taken to translate them into practice, the increase participation of women in forest management will remain limited. True change can be achieved if decision-makers ensure an inclusive implementation of gender issues at all levels of project planning. A change in traditional attitudes on the roles of men and women should be adopted and a rethinking on policies (e.g. land tenure and property rights) is necessary to pave the way for greater female participation. ; Wälder stellen, in vielen ländlichen Gemeinden in Entwicklungsländern, Ressourcen für die Lebensgrundlage der lokalen Bevölkerung zur Verfügung. Aufgrund von natürlichen und vom Menschen beeinflussten Veränderungen sind diese Ressourcen gefährdet. Um den Problemen abnehmender Waldressourcen zu begegnen wurde die Waldpolitik in Kamerun 1994 reformiert. Ziel der Reformen war die Formalisierung und Stärkung der Beteiligung der lokalen Bevölkerung im Waldmanagement. Obwohl es zahlreiche Veröffentlichungen zu Wichtigkeit und Methoden der Partizipation lokaler Bevölkerung im nachhaltigem Waldmanagement in Kamerun gibt, wird vor allem die Einbindung von Frauen in entsprechende Managementaktivitäten selten betrachtet. Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zum Rollenverständnis von einheimischen Männern und Frauen im Waldmanagement, vor allen Dingen hinsichtlich der Gestaltung vom Managementstrategien und dem Einfluss auf die Lebensgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse basieren auf empirischen Ergebnissen aus zwei Fallstudien in der Korup National Park Area (KNPA) und der Bechati Forest Area (BFA). Die Analysen fokussieren auf verschiedene Rollen von Männern und Frauen im Waldmanagement und untersuchen den Einfluss verschiedener Politiken auf Beteiligungsprozesse. Des Weiteren werden Konzepte der Genderforschung und des Sustainable Livelihoods Frameworks genutzt um Verbesserungspotentiale für die Beteiligung von Männern und Frauen aufzudecken. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Männer und Frauen in den Fallstudiengebieten ihren Lebensunterhalt ausschließlich von Ressourcen bestreiten, die von den Wäldern zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Dabei gibt es eine Rollenverteilung mit unterschiedlichen Interessen und Bedürfnissen im Bezug auf Wälder und Ressourcen. So haben Männer und Frauen unterschiedliche Verantwortlichkeiten hinsichtlich Schutz und Erhalt von Höfen, Allmenden und Wäldern. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Interessen der Männer im Bereich der Produktion von Cash-Crops liegen und sie dafür oft auch große Flächen besitzen. Frauen hingegen sind überwiegend in den Anbau von Nahrungsmitteln für die Selbstversorgung involviert. Die Analysen der Managementpraktiken in beiden Fallstudiengebieten zeigen, dass verschiedene formelle und traditionelle Waldmanagementstrategien praktiziert werden. Die traditionellen Strategien gelten als komplementär zu den Formellen. So werden Probleme im Bezug auf Wald, die nicht durch traditionelle Gemeinderäte gelöst werden können an Gerichte weitergeleitet. Hier können Sanktionen beschlossen werden. Die Analysen zeigen aber auch, dass traditionelle, formelle und partizipative Managementstrategien nicht immer zusammenpassen. Daraus entstehen Spannungen, Konflikte und ein Mangel an Vertrauen. Größere Beachtung, Kooperation und gegenseitiges Verständnis zwischen der lokalen Bevölkerung, Regierung und Naturschützern würde zu einer Verbesserung im Waldmanagement führen. Genderanalysen in den Gemeinden der Fallstudiengebiete zeigen die Machtverhältnisse im Bezug auf Wald sowie unterschiedliche Rechte und Zugänge zu natürlichen Ressourcen wie Land, Bäume und Tiere. In BFA wird der Landbesitz an den männlichen Nachkommen vererbt. In KNPA basiert der Landbesitz auf Demarkation und Beruf. Während also in KNPA Landerwerb für beide Geschlechter möglich ist, wird von Frauen weniger Land erworben. Gründe dafür sind die viele Verpflichtungen und ein Mangel und körperlicher Kraft. Die Größe des Flächenbesitzes bestimmt den Grad der Autorität innerhalb und außerhalb der Familie. Die Analysen zeigen, dass ein Wandel in den Geschlechtsrollen stattfindet. Trotzdem Frauen nicht gut repräsentiert sind und noch weniger an Entscheidungsprozessen beteiligt. Geschlechterfragen werden mittlerweile in den meisten politischen Zusagen in Kamerun berücksichtigt. Werden jedoch keine Schritte zur Umsetzung unternommen, wird die Beteiligung von Frauen im Waldmanagement weiterhin begrenzt bleiben. Tatsächlicher Wandel könnte erreicht werden, wenn Entscheidungsträger eine inklusive Umsetzung von Genderaspekten auf allen Projektebenen sicherstellen. Ein Wandel in den traditionellen Verhaltensweisen im Bezug auf Rollen von Männern und Frauen sollte umgesetzt werden. Außerdem ist ein Umdenken hinsichtlich Politiken (z.B. Landbesitz und Eigentumsrecht) notwendig um den Weg für eine Verbesserung in der Partizipation von Frauen zu ebnen.

Creating a standardised version of Afrikaans – the first 50 years With Steyn's 2014 publication We are going to make a language (Ons gaan 'n taal maak) as stimulus, the beginning of organised writing of Standard Afrikaans since 1875 is discussed, as well as its consequences for the continued creation of Afrikaans. In particular, in this paper comments are made on some of the points that Steyn made. Plans for an Afrikaans Bible translation were initially unsuccessful because Afrikaans was not yet serving a written function at the time. The written language subsequently established by the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners ("GRA") (Association of Real Afrikaners) was able to fill this gap, as illustrated by the many publications that appeared under the banner of the GRA. Steyn points out that many people were enthusiastically involved in the creation of Afrikaans, then indicates what many of them had done, and continues to mention the expectations some of them had of Afrikaans. The way in which this publication shows how people were involved in the creation of Afrikaans makes it an exceptional document on the development of Afrikaans. The fact that people create standard languages, of which Standard Afrikaans is an example, is highlighted. People often start this process by developing written forms of spoken languages. The title of Steyn's work refers to this human endeavour. In the history of Afrikaans as a written language, a start was made as early as the nineteenth century with the development of a written form of some varieties of Afrikaans. A written tradition where Muslim Afrikaans was written in religious scriptures, in Arabic script, has possibly been in existence since 1830. This movement had a large readership and was based on the Cape variety of Afrikaans. At Genadendal Afrikaans was possibly written from 1859, and in Paarl from 1875. All these ways in which Afrikaans was written were close to the spoken variety. Patriot Afrikaans, as the GRA's written Afrikaans in the Paarl was also known, was based on the farmers' dialect of the area. It did not enjoy a high status, and developed speakers did not want to associate themselves with it. This Afrikaans was nevertheless made known by means of a large number of publications, which were read across the country. Up to 1895 no fewer than 81 000 copies were printed under the GRA banner. Afrikaans was also written from time to time by newspapers, but not uniformly, with Afrikaans being written the way it was spoken by the various speech communities whom these newspapers wished to reach. The Afrikaans written in this newspaper tradition made the dialectal Afrikaans of their target group a little more dignified by adding some Dutch to it. The farmers' variety on which GRA Afrikaans was based, was closely interwoven with the Khoi Afrikaans of the Khoi-Khoi people, the learner's Afrikaans that to a large extent had displaced their Khoi-Khoi mother tongue by the end of the seventeenth century. Besides the Afrikaans of the farmers, Khoi Afrikaans was one of the two main languages spoken for approximately a hundred years in the Interior Region, located more or less between the Hottentots Holland mountains and Graaff-Reinet. The two dialects had a mutual influence on one another, as is illustrated by the general use of the word ons (in the subject position) in current Afrikaans, which was earlier stigmatised as Khoi Afrikaans. This area of the interior is currently regarded as the origin of many of today's Afrikaans dialects. At the beginning of the twentieth century, language creators made serious efforts to Dutchify GRA Afrikaans, and the "write as we speak" principle of the GRA was changed in such a way as to link Afrikaans more closely to Dutch; the writing somewhat resembled the way Afrikaans was written in the newspaper tradition. In this way, a shortcut was taken to elevate the status of Afrikaans and expand its corpus. This Dutchification process had a number of implications for later Standard Afrikaans. Dutchified Afrikaans created some distance between this Afrikaans and the Afrikaans of its dialects, with the result that this rich source of Afrikaans became marginalised. The spelling of many words from GRA Afrikaans was adapted to the Dutch model, and earlier well-known rural constructions and dialectal forms were lost (such as agint, speul and worre, for agent, speel and word). Currently there is an increase in literary works written in varietal Afrikaans. The Afrikaans used in these works differs in various respects from Standard Afrikaans because it still contains some remnants of the language spoken in the period before Dutchification took place. But Dutchified Afrikaans remained a separate language. Quite a bit of material from the farmers' language, as written by the GRA, was preserved. The same applies as regards created constructs. The argument put forward here is that the Afrikaans double negative, for which a source cannot be found in the history of the Afrikaans language, was created by the GRA. By linking Afrikaans to Dutch during early legislation, an interesting move was made to support Afrikaans: In this, the argument was that Dutch included Afrikaans, something that is not borne out by the history of Afrikaans. After the Dutchification phase, "Dutch" continued to be linked to the language name "Afrikaans", for example in compounds such as "Afrikaans-Dutch". Steyn's outstanding book does not just deal with the origins of Afrikaans. Ons gaan 'n taal maak shares with its readers, through many of the approximately 200 photographs that have been used, the highlights of the Afrikaans language creation period, and takes them through the later period of its history, sometimes with quite some nostalgia. Reading Steyn's book brings one to a better understanding of the creation of Afrikaans, and it is simultaneously also quite thought-provoking.

RESUMEN: La presente investigación parte de la pregunta sobre cómo tienen lugar los procesos de construcción de ciudadanía por el acceso a medicamentos en asociaciones de pacientes en la ciudad de Medellín en el periodo 2011-2014, en el marco del Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud (SGSSS). Para dar respuesta a la misma, a nivel teórico se optó por una revisión de los enfoques clásicos de la ciudadanía que la conciben como estatus de derechos asignados por el Estado al igual que por una revisión de enfoques teóricos que conciben la ciudadanía fundamentalmente como proceso social y que asignan por tanto un papel significativo a los actores en su construcción. A nivel metodológico éste es un estudio cualitativo tipo "estudio colectivo de casos", desarrollado con el concurso de catorce (14) asociaciones de pacientes de la ciudad de Medellín y utilizando como técnicas de recolección de información un censo de asociaciones de pacientes, entrevistas a expertos, entrevistas semi-estructuradas con integrantes de las asociaciones, grupos focales, observación participante, análisis de información documental perteneciente a las asociaciones, y análisis de información secundaria como prensa. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que elementos del contexto nacional como las reformas de mercado en salud iniciadas en 1993 así como una política farmacéutica favorecedora de los intereses de las multinacionales farmacéuticas, han configurado un escenario de contienda social y política en el que las asociaciones de pacientes han emergido como actores colectivos destacados. Igualmente, con base en diferentes categorías de análisis se encontró que las asociaciones participantes construyen ciudadanías con diferentes niveles cualificación o desarrollo, pasando así por asociaciones con ciudadanías incipientes o de menor desarrollo, ciudadanías intermedias y ciudadanías de mayor desarrollo. De otra parte, se documentó el desarrollo en las asociaciones de prácticas de ciudadanía como el trabajo por la calidad de vida, la lucha por el reconocimiento, la defensa del derecho a la salud, y la participación en políticas públicas, siendo las dos últimas objeto de controversia por parte de otros actores en salud que han llamado la atención sobre los vínculos establecidos entre asociaciones de pacientes e industria farmacéutica, pues los mismos ponen en entredicho tales prácticas de las asociaciones. Finalmente, los resultados investigativos dan cuenta de la construcción de subjetividades políticas en las asociaciones participantes, en muchos casos, a partir de la enfermedad. Como producto de dichos procesos de subjetivación, los integrantes de las asociaciones han construido también estrategias de relación y negociación con otros actores, estrategias para el afrontamiento de la enfermedad y una visión sobre logros, dificultades y expectativas colectivas e individuales. Se propone, así como conclusión general que las asociaciones de pacientes participantes construyen una ciudadanía por el acceso a medicamentos centralizada principalmente en el uso de recursos legales como la acción de tutela y en ocasiones desde la participación en políticas públicas. Dicha construcción se hace además desde diferentes niveles de autonomía, cooptación, criticidad y politización. ; ABSTRACT: This research asks how citizenship construction processes take places for Access to medicines in patient associations in the city of Medellín in the period 2011-2014, this within the framework of the General System of Social Security in Health. To respond to it, on the theoretical level opted for a review of the classic approaches of citizenship where is defined as the status of rights assigned by the State as well as a review of other approaches that conceive citizenship principally as a process social, and therefore assign a significant role to the social actors in its construction. At the methodological level this is a qualitative study "collective case study", developed with the participation of fourteen (14) patient associations in the city of Medellin. Were used information collection techniques as a census of patient associations, interviews with experts , semi-structured interviews with members of associations, focus groups, participant observation, analysis of documentary information pertaining to associations, and analysis of secondary information such as press. The results obtained show how elements of the national context such as the health system reform initiated in 1993, as well as a pharmaceutical policy favoring the interests of pharmaceutical multinationals, have set up a scenario of social and political dispute in which patient associations have emerged as outstanding collective actors. Likewise, based on different categories of analysis, it was found that the participating associations build citizenships with different levels of qualification, founding associations with emerging or less developed citizenships, intermediate citizenships and more developed citizenships. Equally, in the associations were documented citizenship practices such as work for quality of life, the struggle for recognition, the defense of the right to health, and participation in public policies, being the last two objects of controversy by part of other health actors that have drawn attention about the links established between patient associations and the pharmaceutical industry, that put into question some of this practices of the associations. Finally, the research results show the construction of political subjectivities in the participating associations, in many cases, based on the disease. As a result of these processes of subjectivation, the members of the associations have also built relationship and negotiation strategies with other actors, strategies for confronting the disease and a vision of collective and individual achievements, challenges and expectations. It is proposed as a general conclusion that the associations of participating patients build a citizenship for access to medicines mainly by mean of the use of legal resources and sometimes from participation in public policies. This construction is also done from different levels of autonomy, cooptation, criticism and politicization.

Entrepreneurship is known to be a main driver of economic growth. Hence, governments have an interest in supporting and promoting entrepreneurial activities. Start-up subsidies, which have been analyzed extensively, only aim at mitigating the lack of financial capital. However, some entrepreneurs also lack in human, social, and managerial capital. One way to address these shortcomings is by subsidizing coaching programs for entrepreneurs. However, theoretical and empirical evidence about business coaching and programs subsidizing coaching is scarce. This dissertation gives an extensive overview of coaching and is the first empirical study for Germany analyzing the effects of coaching programs on its participants. In the theoretical part of the dissertation the process of a business start-up is described and it is discussed how and in which stage of the company's evolvement coaching can influence entrepreneurial success. The concept of coaching is compared to other non-monetary types of support as training, mentoring, consulting, and counseling. Furthermore, national and international support programs are described. Most programs have either no or small positive effects. However, there is little quantitative evidence in the international literature. In the empirical part of the dissertation the effectiveness of coaching is shown by evaluating two German coaching programs, which support entrepreneurs via publicly subsidized coaching sessions. One of the programs aims at entrepreneurs who have been employed before becoming self-employed, whereas the other program is targeted at former unemployed entrepreneurs. The analysis is based on the evaluation of a quantitative and a qualitative dataset. The qualitative data are gathered by intensive one-on-one interviews with coaches and entrepreneurs. These data give a detailed insight about the coaching topics, duration, process, effectiveness, and the thoughts of coaches and entrepreneurs. The quantitative data include information about 2,936 German-based entrepreneurs. Using propensity score matching, the success of participants of the two coaching programs is compared with adequate groups of non-participants. In contrast to many other studies also personality traits are observed and controlled for in the matching process. The results show that only the program for former unemployed entrepreneurs has small positive effects. Participants have a larger survival probability in self-employment and a larger probability to hire employees than matched non-participants. In contrast, the program for former employed individuals has negative effects. Compared to individuals who did not participate in the coaching program, participants have a lower probability to stay in self-employment, lower earned net income, lower number of employees and lower life satisfaction. There are several reasons for these differing results of the two programs. First, former unemployed individuals have more basic coaching needs than former employed individuals. Coaches can satisfy these basic coaching needs, whereas former employed individuals have more complex business problems, which are not very easy to be solved by a coaching intervention. Second, the analysis reveals that former employed individuals are very successful in general. It is easier to increase the success of former unemployed individuals as they have a lower base level of success than former employed individuals. An effect heterogeneity analysis shows that coaching effectiveness differs by region. Coaching for previously unemployed entrepreneurs is especially useful in regions with bad labor market conditions. In summary, in line with previous literature, it is found that coaching has little effects on the success of entrepreneurs. The previous employment status, the characteristics of the entrepreneur and the regional labor market conditions play a crucial role in the effectiveness of coaching. In conclusion, coaching needs to be well tailored to the individual and applied thoroughly. Therefore, governments should design and provide coaching programs only after due consideration. ; Da Unternehmensgründungen für gesamtwirtschaftliches Wachstum wichtig sind, bieten Regierungen verschiedene Fördermöglichkeiten für junge Unternehmen an. Während die Auswirkungen finanzieller Förderprogramme für Gründer schon häufig untersucht wurden, gibt es kaum Studien zu der Wirkungsweise von Coachingprogrammen. Eine Förderung von Coachingmaßnahmen kann sinnvoll sein, da es Gründern meist nicht nur an finanziellen Mitteln, sondern auch an Problemlösungskompetenz mangelt. Diese Dissertation ist die erste Forschungsarbeit, die einen umfassenden Überblick über das Thema Coaching gibt und erste empirische Ergebnisse für Deutschland liefert. Im theoretischen Teil der Arbeit werden die verschiedenen Phasen eines Unternehmens beschrieben und erläutert in welcher dieser Phasen Coaching am sinnvollsten ist. Außerdem wird das Konzept des Coachings mit anderen Methoden wie Training, Mentoring, Consulting und Counseling verglichen. Ein Überblick von nationalen und internationalen Förderprogrammen zeigt, dass die meisten Programme keine oder nur geringe positive Auswirkungen haben. Insgesamt gibt es jedoch nur sehr wenige quantitative Studien in diesem Bereich. Im empirischen Teil werden zwei deutsche Coachingprogramme evaluiert. Eines der Programme ist auf Gründer ausgerichtet, die unmittelbar vor ihrer Gründung einer abhängigen Beschäftigung nachgegangen sind, während das andere Programm vormals arbeitslose Gründer adressiert. Die empirische Analyse verwendet sowohl qualitative als auch quantitative Daten. Die qualitativen Daten wurden durch persönliche Interviews mit Coaches und Gründern erhoben. Anhand dieser Daten wird ein sehr detailliertes Bild der Coachingprozesse gezeichnet. Die quantitativen Daten wurden durch 2.936 Telefoninterviews mit in Deutschland tätigen Gründern generiert. Anhand eines "Propensity Score Matching" Ansatzes wird der Erfolg von Programmteilnehmern und Nichtteilnehmern verglichen. Bei dieser Analyse werden auch Merkmale - insbesondere Persönlichkeitseigenschaften - berücksichtigt, die in vielen anderen Studien nicht beobachtet werden können. Es wird gezeigt, dass lediglich das Programm für vormals arbeitslose Gründer leicht positive Effekte aufweist. Gründer, die an diesem Coachingprogramm teilgenommen haben, haben eine höhere Wahrscheinlichkeit selbstständig zu bleiben und Mitarbeiter einzustellen als Gründer, die nicht an dem Coachingprogramm teilgenommen haben. Das Programm für vormals abhängig beschäftigte Gründer hingegen hat negative Effekte. Verglichen mit Gründern, die nicht an dem Programm teilgenommen haben, haben Coachingteilnehmer eine geringere Wahrscheinlichkeit selbstständig zu bleiben, ein geringeres Nettoerwerbseinkommen, weniger Mitarbeiter und sind nicht so zufrieden mit ihrem Leben. Für diese sehr unterschiedlichen Ergebnisse der beiden Programme gibt es mehrere Gründe. Grundsätzlich haben vormals arbeitslose Gründer einfachere Coachingbedarfe als vormals beschäftigte Gründer. Diese einfacheren Probleme in der Anfangsphase der Unternehmung sind durch ein Coaching zu lösen, wohingegen die ohnehin recht erfolgreichen Entrepreneure, die vorher nicht arbeitslos waren, komplexere Coachingbedarfe haben. Angesichts dieser schwieriger zu lösenden unternehmerischen Probleme von vormals beschäftigten Programmteilnehmern und des höheren ursprünglichen Erfolgslevels hat das Programm für vormals arbeitslose Gründer bessere Auswirkungen als das Programm für vormals beschäftigte Gründer. Nur vormals arbeitslose Gründer können ihre – noch geringer ausgeprägten – unternehmerischen Fähigkeiten durch die Teilnahme am Coaching verbessern, so dass hier leicht positive Programmeffekte entstehen. Die ausführliche Effektheterogenitätsanalyse zeigt, dass Coaching für vormals arbeitslose Gründer insbesondere in Regionen mit schlechter Arbeitsmarktlage sinnvoll ist. Zusammenfassend zeigt die Dissertation, dass Coaching nur geringe Auswirkungen auf den Erfolg von Gründern hat. Die Wirksamkeit hängt insbesondere von dem vorigen Beschäftigungsstatus, den persönlichen Eigenschaften des Gründers und der regionalen Arbeitsmarktlage ab. Die Dissertation zeigt somit, dass Coaching zur Unterstützung Selbstständiger nur seine Wirkung entfaltet, wenn es sehr gezielt eingesetzt wird. Staatliche Programme in diesem Bereich sollten deshalb vor Einführung ausführlich diskutiert werden, so dass ein Programmdesign entsteht, welches seine Wirkung nicht verfehlt.

Land-use intensification and urbanisation processes are degrading ecosystem services in the Guapiaçu-Macacu watershed in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Paying farmers to forgo agricultural production activities in order to restore natural watershed services might be a viable means of securing water resources over the long term for the approximately 2.5 million urban water users in the region. This study quantified the costs of changing current land-use patterns to enhance watershed services. These costs are compared to estimates of the avoided water treatment costs for the public potable water supply as a proxy of willingness-to-pay for watershed services. Farm-household data was used to estimate the opportunity costs of abandoning current land uses in order to allow natural vegetation succession; a process that is very likely to improve water quality in terms of reducing erosion and subsequently water turbidity. Opportunity cost estimates were extrapolated to the watershed scale based on land-use classifications and a vulnerability analysis for identifying priority areas for watershed management interventions. Water quality and treatment cost data from the primary local water treatment plant (principal water user in the study area) were analysed to assess the potential demand for watershed services. The conversion of agricultural land uses for the benefit of watershed service provision was found to entail high opportunity costs in the study area, which is near the city of Rio de Janeiro. Alternative, relatively low-cost practices that support watershed conservation do exist for the livestock production systems. Other options include: implementing soil conservation techniques, permanent protection of areas that are vulnerable to erosion, protecting and restoring riparian and headwater areas, and applying more sustainable agricultural practices. These measures have the potential to directly reduce the amount of sediment and nutrients reaching water bodies and, in turn, decrease the costs of treatment required for providing the potable water supply. Based on treatment costs, the state water utility company's willingness-to-pay for watershed services alone will not be sufficient to compensate farmers for forgoing agricultural production activities in order to improve the provision of additional watershed services. The results suggest that the opportunity costs of land-cover changes at the scale needed to improve water quality will likely exceed the cost of additional investments in water treatment. Monetary incentives conditioned on specific adjustments to existing production systems could offer a complementary role for improving watershed services. The willingness-to-pay analysis, however, only focused on chemical treatment costs and one of a potentially wide range of ecosystem services provided by the natural vegetation in the Guapiaçu-Macacu watershed (water quality maintenance for potable water provision). Other ecosystem services provided by forest cover include carbon sequestration and storage, moderation of extreme weather events, regulation of water flows, landscape aesthetics, and biodiversity protection. Factoring these additional ecosystem services into the willingness-to-pay equation is likely to change the conclusions of the assessment in favour of additional conservation action, either through payments for ecosystem services (PES) or other policy instruments. This effort contributes to the growing body of related scientific literature by offering additional knowledge on how to combine spatially explicit economic and environmental information to provide valuable insights into the feasibility of implementing PES schemes at the scale of entire watersheds. This is relevant to helping inform decision-making processes with respect to the economic scope of incentive-based watershed management in the context of the Guapiaçu-Macacu watershed. Furthermore, the findings of this research can serve long-term watershed conservation initiatives and public policy in other watersheds of the Atlantic Forest biome by facilitating the targeting of conservation incentives for a cost-effective watershed management. ; Die Intensivierung von Landnutzung und Urbanisierungsprozessen sind Ursachen für den Rückgang von Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen im Einzugsgebiet des Guapiaçu-Macacu im Bundesstaat von Rio de Janeiro. Ein sinnvolles Instrument zur langfristigen Wasserversorgung der etwa 2,5 Mio. Wasserverbraucher könnten Kompensationszahlungen für Landwirte dieser Region sein, wenn diese auf ihre landwirtschaftliche Produktion verzichten. So kann die natürliche Vegetation im Fluss-Einzugsgebiet wiederhergestellt und damit die Ökosystem-Dienstleistung "Lieferung von sauberem Trinkwasser" erhalten werden. Diese Studie hat die Kosten für Landnutzungsänderungen kalkuliert, die der Verbesserung von Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen bezüglich der Wasserqualität dienen könnten. Diese Kosten wurden verglichen mit der geschätzten Kostenvermeidung aus der Wasseraufbereitung für die öffentliche Trinkwasserversorgung, welche ein Indikator für die Zahlungsbereitschaft für hydrologische Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen (Wasserqualität) darstellt. Opportunitätskosten, die beim Wandel der Landnutzung zugunsten verbesserter Wasserqualität entstehen, sind anhand von Haushaltsdaten landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe kalkuliert worden. Dieser Wandel ist ein Prozess, der mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit zur Verbesserung der Wasserqualität (gemessen als Reduktion der Trübung) durch Verringerung der Erosion beiträgt. Die geschätzten Opportunitätskosten wurden auf das Einzugsgebiet übertragen, basierend auf Landnutzungsklassifizierungen und einer Vulnerabilitätsanalyse der Wasserressourcen, um prioritäre Zonen für Maßnahmen im Bereich Wasserressourcenmanagement zu identifizieren. Um die potentielle Nachfrage nach hydrologischen Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen zu ermitteln, wurden Daten der örtlichen Wasseraufbereitungsanlage (Hauptverbraucher von Wasser) sowohl zur Wasserqualität als auch bezüglich der Aufbereitungskosten analysiert. Es wurde gezeigt, dass eine Reduktion der ackerbaulichen Landnutzung zum Erhalt von Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen hohe Opportunitätskosten im Untersuchungsgebiet, nahe der Stadt Rio de Janeiro, mit sich bringt. Im Gegensatz dazu bestehen im Bereich der Viehzucht einige kostengünstige Optionen zur Erhaltung von hydrologischen Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen. Andere Optionen beinhalten die Implementierung von Bodenkonservierungstechniken; permanenter und effizienter Schutz erosionsanfälliger Gebiete; Schutz und Wiederherstellung der Galeriewälder sowie die Erhaltung von Vegetation an den Wasserquellen und die Umsetzung noch nachhaltigerer landwirtschaftlicher Praktiken. Solche Maßnahmen haben das Potential, die Sediment- und Nährstoffeinträge in den Wasserkörper direkt zu reduzieren und damit gleichzeitig die Kosten der Trinkwasseraufbereitung zu verringern. Davon ausgehend, dass die Zahlungsbereitschaft des staatlichen Wasserbetriebes der Höhe der Wasseraufbereitungskosten entspricht, reichen die Ausgleichszahlungen für den Erhalt von Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen nicht aus, um die landwirtschaftlichen Opportunitätskosten zu decken. Finanzielle Anreize können jedoch weiterhin eine ergänzende Rolle bei der Verbesserung solcher Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen spielen, wenn sie mit spezifischen Regulierungen existierender Produktionssysteme verknüpft werden. Die Analyse der Zahlungsbereitschaft in dieser Arbeit basiert lediglich auf den Aufbereitungskosten von Chemikalien für die Verbesserung der Wasserqualität. Weitere positive Effekte durch die Wiederherstellung des natürlichen Ökosystems wurden nicht explizit untersucht. Diese Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen umfassen die Kohlenstoffsequestrierung durch die Vegetation, die Abflussregulierung durch eine erhöhte Wasserspeicherkapazität der Böden, die Erhaltung der Biodiversität und den Erholungswert der Natur. Diese zusätzlichen Dienstleistungen der Ökosysteme in dem Zahlungsbereitschaftsausgleich zu erfassen, könnten das Verhältnis von Kosten und Nutzen zugunsten zusätzlicher Schutzaktionen verändern. Dies kann durch die Zahlung für Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen oder anderer politischer Maßnahmen erfolgen. Diese Studie leistet einen Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen Diskussion, wie die Kombination aus räumlich expliziten ökonomischen und ökologischen Informationen verwendet werden können. Ziel ist es, einen nutzbaren Einblick in die Durchführbarkeit von PES-Projekten auf der Skala von Fluss-Einzugsgebieten zu erhalten. Dies ist wichtig, um sachkundige Entscheidungsfindungsprozesse zu unterstützen, unter Berücksichtigung der ökonomischen Spielräume des Wasserressourcenmanagements im Guapiaçu-Macacu Gebiet oder ähnlichen Regionen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie dienen zur Unterstützung von Initiativen zur nachhaltigen Nutzung von Wasserressourcen. Weiterhin helfen die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit der Politik bei der Setzung von gezielten Anreizen zur Bewahrung von Ökosystem-Dienstleistungen in anderen Einzugsgebieten des atlantischen Regenwaldes durch ein kosteneffektives und integriertes Management von Wasserressourcen.

This thesis has two overarching aims. The first is to generate further knowledge about Swedish independent schools, specifically regarding the organisation and provision of special support and how these relate to special educational traditions and inclusive education. This is conducted through four empirical studies, utilising data gathered in two total population survey studies. The first survey was a total population study of Swedish independent compulsory schools (N = 686, response rate = 79%), and results from this study are presented in articles I, II and IV. Article III presents results derived from a total population survey of special pedagogues (SENCOs) and special education teachers in Sweden educated according to the degree ordinances of 2001, 2007 and 2008 (N = 4252, response rate = 75%). Article I contains a general description of special education issues in the total population of independent schools. Article II continues with comparisons of these issues in different groups of independent compulsory schools. Article III studies differences in organisational prioritisations regarding special support and special educators in municipal and independent schools. Finally, article IV presents qualitative content analysis of over 400 responses regarding special support at independent schools. The second overarching aim of the thesis is to further develop the discussions initiated in the articles about how special education and inclusive education can be understood in light of the education reforms that introduced the independent schools. A critical theoretical analysis and contextualization of the empirical results from the articles is conducted to explain and describe the consequences of the new (market) education paradigm. Results show that, generally, the independent schools have not challenged special educational traditions to a significant degree. Rather, traditional conceptions, explanations and organisational measures are reproduced, and in some cases enhanced, by market mechanisms. However, there are great differences between the different types of schools with regard to both their perspectives on special education and their organisational approaches. There are also indications that the principle of choice is limited for this pupil group as compared to some other groups. Additionally, the increasing clustering of pupils in need of special support at certain schools replicates a system with special schools. In this case, market mechanisms are contributing to a system that is in contradiction to the idea of an inclusive school system. The theoretical interpretation of the results suggests that Skrtic's theory can largely explain the empirical patterns found. However, his theory gives rise to different predictions or potential scenarios depending on what parts of his theory are underscored. Moreover, his theory must be complemented with additional perspectives to more fully account for diversity within the results, particularly as the results indicate that discourses/paradigms of special education and inclusive education often occur simultaneously and can thus be seen as expressions of practices taking place in a complex social and political environment. Keywords: Special education; inclusion; school choice; education reform; independent schools; compulso-ry schools; pupils in need of special support, SENCOs; special education teachers; critical pragmatism; Thomas M. Skrtic ; Denna avhandling har två övergripande syften. Först, att generera kunskaper om fristående grundskolor i Sverige, specifikt vad gäller organisation och tillhandahållande av särskilt stöd, samt hur det kan förstås i ljuset av specialpedagogiska traditioner och inkludering. Fyra empiriska studier presenteras med data från två stora forskningsprojekt. Det ena var en totalpopulations undersökning av fristående grundskolor (N=686, respons=79 %), resultat från den presenteras i artikel I, II och IV. Artikel III presenterar resultat från en totalpopulations undersökning av specialpedagoger och speciallärare i Sverige, utbildade enligt examensförordningarna från 2001, 2007 och 2008 (N=4252, respons: 75 %). Artikel I beskriver specialpedagogiska frågor inom hela populationen av fristående skolor i generella termer. Artikel II gör jämförelser mellan olika grupper av fristående skolor, artikel III beskriver skillnader i specialpedagogisk organisation mellan fristående och kommunala skolor i termer av specialpedagogers och speciallärares anställningssituation och artikel IV presenterar resultat av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys av över 400 svar om särskilt stöd i fristående skolor. Det andra övergripande syftet är att utveckla den teoretiska diskussionen som initierades i artiklarna, om hur specialpedagogik och inkludering kan förstås i ljuset av de utbildningsreformer som presenterade skolval och fristående skolor i Sverige. En kritisk teoretisk analys och kontextualisering av de empiriska resultaten från artiklarna genomförs för att förklara och beskriva konsekvenserna av de nya (marknads) paradigmet inom svensk utbildning. Resultaten visar att de fristående skolorna inte har utmanat specialpedagogiska traditioner i någon högre grad generellt. Traditionella synsätt, förklaringar och organisatoriska lösningar reproduceras, till och med förstärks, av marknadsmekanismer. Däremot så är det stora skillnader mellan olika skolor, både vad gäller specialpedagogiska perspektiv och organisatoriska lösningar. Det finns också tecken på att skolvalet kan vara begränsat när det gäller elever i behov av särskilt stöd. Dessutom riskerar en samling av elever i behov av särskilt stöd på vissa skolor att reproducera ett system med specialskolor, något som inte är i linje med ambitioner för ett inkluderande skolsystem. De teoretiska tolkningarna av resultaten visar att Skrtic's teoretiska verktyg kan till en hög grad förklara de empiriska resultaten. Däremot kan olika scenarier skapas beroende på vilka delar av hans teorier som betonas. Dessutom behöver hans teorier kompletteras med tilläggsperspektiv för att förklara variationen i resultaten. Nyckelord: Specialpedagogik; inkludering; skolval; utbildningsreformer; fristående skolor; grundskolan; elever i behov av särskilt stöd, specialpedagoger; speciallärare; kritisk pragmatism, Thomas M. Skrtic ; Fristående skolors arbete med elever i behov av särskilt stöd ; Speciella yrken? – om speciallärares och specialpedagogers arbete och utbildning

This PhD thesis is essentially a collection of six sequential articles on dynamics of accountability in the reformed employment and welfare administration in different countries. The first article examines how recent changes in the governance of employment services in three European countries (Denmark, Germany and Norway) have influenced accountability relationships from a very wide-ranging perspective. It starts from the overall assumption in the literature that accountability relationships are becoming more numerous and complex, and that these changes may lead to multiple accountability disorder. The article explores these assumptions by analyzing the different actors involved and the information requested in the new governance arrangements in all three countries. It concludes that the considerable changes in organizational arrangements and more managerial information demanded and provided have led to more shared forms of accountability. Nevertheless, a clear development towards less political or administrative accountability could not be observed. The second article analyzes how the structure and development of reform processes affect accountability relationships and via what mechanisms. It is distinguished between an instrumental perspective and an institutional perspective and each of these perspectives takes a different view on the link between reforms and concrete action and results. By taking the welfare reforms in Norway and Germany as an example, it is shown that the reform outcomes in both countries are the result of a complex process of powering, puzzling and institutional constraints where different situational interpretations of problems, interests and administrative legacies had to be balanced. Accountability thus results not from a single process of environmental necessity or strategic choice, but from a dynamic interplay between different actors and institutional spheres. The third article then covers a specific instrument of public sector reforms, i.e. the increasing use of performance management. The article discusses the challenges and ambiguities between performance management and different forms of accountability based on the cases of the reformed welfare administration in Norway and Germany. The findings are that the introduction of performance management creates new accountability structures which influence service delivery, but not necessarily in the direction expected by reform agents. Observed unintended consequences include target fixation, the displacement of political accountability and the predominance of control aspects of accountability. The fourth article analyzes the accountability implications of the increasingly marketized models of welfare governance. It has often been argued that relocating powers and discretion to private contractors involve a trade-off between democratic accountability and efficiency. However, there is limited empirical evidence of how contracting out shapes accountability or is shaped by alternative democratic or administrative forms of accountability. Along these lines the article examines employment service accountability in the era of contracting out in Germany, Denmark and Great Britain. It is found that market accountability instruments are complementary instruments, not substitutes. The findings highlight the importance of administrative and political instruments in legitimizing marketized service provision and shed light on the processes that lead to the development of a hybrid accountability model. The fifth and sixth articles focus on the diagonal accountability relationships between public agencies, supreme audit institutions (SAI) and parental ministry or parliament. The fifth article examines the evolving role of SAIs in Denmark, Germany and Norway focusing particularly on their contribution to public accountability and their ambivalent relationship with some aspects of public sector reform in the welfare sector. The article analyzes how SAIs assess New Public Management inspired reforms in the welfare sector in the three countries. The analysis shows that all three SAIs have taken on an evaluative role when judging New Public Management instruments. At the same time their emphasis on legality and compliance can be at odds with some of the operating principles introduced by New Public Management reforms. The sixth article focuses on the auditing activities of the German SAI in the field of labor market administration as a single in-depth case study. The purpose is to analyze how SAIs gain impact in diagonal accountability settings. The results show that the direct relationship between auditor and auditee based on cooperation and trust is of outstanding importance for SAIs to give effect to their recommendations. However, if an SAI has to rely on actors of diagonal accountability, it is in a vulnerable position as it might lose control over the interpretation of its results. ; Die öffentliche Verwaltung sieht sich einem immer stärker werdenden Legitimationsdruck ausgesetzt, da Verwaltungshandeln nicht mehr nur innerhalb hierarchisch strukturierter Behörden erfolgt, sondern eine Vielzahl von Akteuren (öffentlich und privat) – mit für den Bürger teilweise unklaren Zuständigkeiten – beteiligt sind. Die Beziehungen zwischen den Akteuren innerhalb dieser Netzwerke folgen nicht länger einer klaren Hierarchie, sondern es entwickeln sich unübersichtliche Strukturen, innerhalb derer es schwierig ist, konkrete Instanzen zur Verantwortung zu ziehen. Die Pluralisierung und Dynamisierung von Governance-Strukturen verändert somit die Legitimationsgrundlage staatlichen Handelns. Kritische Stimmen sprechen in diesem Zusammenhang gar von einem Legitimationsdefizit. Zentral innerhalb dieser Diskussion ist das Konzept der Accountability, definiert als Beziehung, in deren Rahmen ein Akteur einem anderen Akteur gegenüber eine Verpflichtung zur Rechenschaft eingeht und von diesem Gegenüber für diese Rechenschaft im Gegenzug legitimiert wird oder auch sanktioniert werden kann. Ganz im Gegensatz zu der gestiegenen Aufmerksamkeit für Accountability fehlt es derzeit an einer systematischen Diskussion über den Bedeutungs- und Formenwandel von Accountability. Accountability-Phänomene werden weiterhin mit den Maßstäben tradierter und vergleichsweise statischer Accountability-Konzepte behandelt. Die vorliegende Arbeit setzt hier an, indem Accountability als soziale Beziehung konzeptualisiert und analysiert wird. Accountability-Beziehungen sind somit als dynamische Arrangements zu verstehen, die Prozesse des Wandels, der Reform, Veränderung, Hybridisierung oder Transformation durchlaufen können. Dieses konzeptionelle Verständnis von Accountability-Dynamiken wird in der Folge auf die jüngsten Reformen im Wohlfahrtsstaat, insbesondere in der Arbeitsmarktpolitik, angewendet. Wohlfahrtsstattliche Systeme stehen seit geraumer Zeit unter Reform- und Anpassungsdruck, gängige Kritikpunkte sind mangelnde Effizienz und Nachhaltigkeit sowie sinkende öffentliche Unterstützung. Politische Legitimität und Verantwortlichkeit ist dabei eine der Grundvoraussetzungen für das Fortbestehen des Wohlfahrtsstaates kontinentaleuropäischer Prägung. Daher untersucht die Arbeit, in welcher Form die jüngsten Wohlfahrtsstaatreformen die Accountability-Strukturen beeinflusst haben. Dabei haben die jüngsten Modernisierungsansätze im Zuge der internationalen Reformbewegung des "New Public Management" auch im Bereich der Arbeitsmarktverwaltung das Verhältnis zwischen demokratischer, politischer Accountability auf der einen Seite und organisatorischer Autonomie der administrativen Einheiten zur Erbringung von arbeitsmarktpolitischen Dienstleistungen auf der anderen Seite, verändert. Somit gerät das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen Legitimation und Effizienz in den Blickpunkt. Wie können die unterschiedlichen Verantwortlichkeiten (Ergebnis- und Leistungsverantwortung der dezentralen Ebenen und politische Verantwortung der gewählten Körperschaften) verknüpft werden? Wie verändert sich die Rechenschaftspflicht nachgeordneter Organisationen im Bereich der Arbeitsmarktpolitik durch zunehmende autonome Kompetenzen? Der Analysefokus richtet sich somit primär auf Organisationsreformen und deren Einfluss auf die Veränderung der Verantwortlichkeitsstrukturen in der Arbeitsmarktverwaltung in unterschiedlichen Ländern (Norwegen, Dänemark, Großbritannien und Deutschland).